Volcanoes

Introduction
A volcano is an opening, or rupture, in the surface or crust of the Earth or a planetary mass object, which
allows hot lava, volcanic ash and gases to escape from the magma chamber below the surface.
On Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging. A mid-
oceanic ridge, for example the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has examples of volcanoes caused by divergent
tectonic plates pulling apart; the Pacific Ring of Fire has examples of volcanoes caused by convergent
tectonic plates coming together. By contrast, volcanoes are not usually created where two tectonic plates
slide past one another. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the Earth's
crust in the interiors of plates, e.g., in the East African Rift, the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and
the Rio Grande Rift in North America. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of "Plate
hypothesis" volcanism.
[1]
Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle
plumes. These so-called "hotspots", for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from
upwelling diapirs with magma from the coremantle boundary, 3,000 km deep in the Earth.

Volcanoes are awesome manifestations of the fiery power contained deep within the Earth. These formations are
essentially vents on the Earth's surface where molten rock, debris, and gases from the planet's interior are emitted.
When thick magma and large amounts of gas build up under the surface, eruptions can be explosive, expelling lava,
rocks and ash into the air. Less gas and more viscous magma usually mean a less dramatic eruption, often causing
streams of lava to ooze from the vent.
The mountain-like mounds that we associate with volcanoes are what remain after the material spewed during
eruptions has collected and hardened around the vent. This can happen over a period of weeks or many millions of
years.
A large eruption can be extremely dangerous for people living near a volcano. Flows of searing lava, which can reach
2,000 degrees Fahrenheit (1,250 degrees Celsius) or more, can be released, burning everything in its path, including
whole towns. Boulders of hardening lava can rain down on villages. Mud flows from rapidly melting snow can strip
mountains and valleys bare and bury towns. Ash and toxic gases can cause lung damage and other problems,
particularly for infants and the elderly. Scientists estimate that more than 260,000 people have died in the past 300
years from volcanic eruptions and their aftermath.
Volcanoes tend to exist along the edges between tectonic plates, massive rock slabs that make up Earth's surface.
About 90 percent of all volcanoes exist within the Ring of Fire along the edges of the Pacific Ocean.
About 1,900 volcanoes on Earth are considered active, meaning they show some level of activity and are likely to
explode again. Many other volcanoes are dormant, showing no current signs of exploding but likely to become active
at some point in the future. Others are considered extinct.

Volcanic features
cinder cone







A cinder cone is a steep conical hill formed above a vent. Cinder cones are among the most
common volcanic landforms found in the world. They aren't famous as their eruptions usually don't








cause any loss of life. Cinder cones are chiefly formed by Strombolian eruptions. The cones
usually grow up in groups and they often occur on the flanks of strato volcanoes and shield
volcanoes.
Cinder cones are built from lava fragments called cinders. The lavafragments are ejected from
a single vent and accumulate around the ventwhen they fall back to earth.
Cinder cones grow rapidly and soon approach their maximum size. They rarely exceed 250m in
height and 500m in diameter.

(Fig.2.7) Cinder Cone.
The shape of a cinder cone can be modified during its (short) life. When the position of
the vent alters, aligned, twin or secant cones develop. Nested,buried or breached cones are formed
when the power of the eruption varies.
A great example of a cinder cone is Paricutn in Mexico. It was born in February 20, 1943 in a
corn field and grew to 300 feet in 5 days.


(Fig. 2.4) Composite Volcano.
Composite volcanoes, also called strato volcanoes, are formed by alternating
layers of lava and rock fragments. This is the reason they are called composite.
Strato-volcanoes often form impressive, snow-capped peaks which are often
exceeding 2500m in height, 1000sq.km in surface, and 400km3 in volume.
Between eruptions they are often so quiet they seem extinct. To witness the start
of a great eruption requires luck or very careful surveillance.
Composite volcanoes usually erupt in an explosive way. This is usually
caused by viscous magma. When very viscous magma rises to the surface, it usually
clogs the craterpipe, and gas in the craterpipe gets locked up. Therefore, the pressure
will increase resulting in an explosiveeruption.
Although strato-volcanoes are usually large and conical, we can distinguish
different shapes of them: concave (like Agua), pyramidal (likeStromboli), convex-
concave (like Vesuvius), helmet-shaped (like Mount Rainier),
collapse caldera (like Graciosa), nested (like El Piton in Teide), multiple summits
(like Shasta), elongated along a fissure (like Hekla).



(Fig. 2.5) Different Shapes of Composite Volcanoes.
Strato-volcanoes are constructed along subduction zones. Examples
of composite volcanoes include Mount Hood, Mount Rainier, Mount


(Fig.2.6) Shield Volcano.
Shield volcanoes are huge in size. They are built by many layers of
runny lava flows. Lava spills out of a central vent or group of vents. Abroad
shaped, gently sloping cone is formed. This is caused by the very
fluid, basaltic lava which can't be piled up into steep mounds.

Shield volcanoes may be produced by hot spots which lay far away from the
edges of tectonic plates. Shields also occur along the mid-oceanic ridge, where sea-
floor spreading is in progress and alongsubduction related volcanic arcs.
The eruptions of shield volcanoes are characterized by low-explosivity lava-
fountaining that forms cinder cones and spatter cones at the vent. Famous shield
volcanoes can be found for example in Hawaii (e.g.
DISTRIBUTION OF ACTIVE VOLCANOES
The earth is a dynamic planet. Its rigid outer surface layer is broken into several tectonic plates
which are in constant motion relative to one another. As demonstrated in the world map below, most
of the ~550 active volcanoes on earth are located along the margins of adjacent plates.

World map showing plate boundaries (blue lines), the distribution of
recent earthquakes (yellow dots) and active volcanoes (red
triangles). Courtesy of NASA.

PLATE MOTION, MANTLE CONVECTION, AND MAGMA
GENERATION
Tectonic plates are composed of lithosphere, the rigid outer portion of the earth. With a thickness
of about 100 km, the lithosphere is composed of an upper layer of crust (~7 km thick under the
oceans, and ~35 km thick under the continents) and a lower, denser layer of the earth's upper
mantle. The lithosphere is underlain by the asthenosphere, a hot, mobile layer of partially molten
rock lying within the earth's upper mantle. (For detailed information, click the Earth's Interior.)

The rigid lithospheric plates are
driven by convection within
the mobile asthenosphere. Hot
mantle rises beneath mid-
oceanic ridges, and cold,
denser mantle descends
atoceanic trenches. Lateral
motion of the lithospheric plates above these
circular convection cells is analogous to rigid
blocks riding above a rotating conveyor
belt.Images modified from USGS.

Volcanic eruptions above these lithospheric plates are driven by the ascent of magma (molten rock)
from deep beneath the surface. The various magma types are described inPhysicochemical
Controls on Eruption Style. They vary from mafic, intermediate, to felsic as their silica (SiO2)
content increases. Mafic (basaltic) magmas are generated directly from the mantle, either within the
asthenosphere or within the overlying mantle lithosphere. Many mafic-to-intermediate (basaltic-to-
andesitic) magmas appear to be derived from the melting of hydrated lithospheric mantle. More
differentiated, intermediate-to-felsic magmas, on the other hand, are partly derived from the melting
of continental crust by hot, mafic magmas that either pond at the crust-mantle boundary, or intrude
into the overlying continents where they reside in magma chambers located at various crustal
levels.
Volcanism is typically widespread along plate boundaries. Although volcanism in the interior of
plates is less common, these intraplate regions can also generate voluminous eruptive products.
The regional volcano-tectonic processes associated with plate-boundary environments and
intraplate environments are described in more detail below.

VOLCANISM AT PLATE TECTONIC BOUNDARIES
Plate boundaries mark the sites where two plates are either moving away from one another, moving
toward one another, or sliding past one another. Adjacent plates are delineated by three types of
boundaries defined by this relative motion:
Divergent plate boundaries -- Plates diverge from one another at the site of thermally
buoyant mid-oceanic ridges. Oceanic crust is created at divergent plate boundaries.
Convergent plate boundaries -- Plates converge on one another at the site of deep
oceanic trenches. Oceanic crust is destroyed at convergent plate boundaries.
Transform plate boundaries -- Plates slide past one another.
Although volcanism is abundant at divergent and convergent plate boundaries, there is a distinct
lack of significant volcanism associated with transform plate boundaries. Spreading center
volcanism occurs at divergent plate margins, and subduction zone volcanism occurs at convergent
plate margins. Intraplate volcanism describes volcanic eruptions within tectonic plates. Each of
these three volcano-tectonic environments is depicted in the following diagram:

PHYSICOCHEMICAL CONTROLS ON ERUPTION STYLE

There is a great range in the explosivity of volcanic eruptions. Many eruptions are relatively
quiescent and are characterized by the calm, nonviolent extrusion of lava flows on the earth's
surface. Other eruptions, however, are highly explosive and are characterized by the violent ejection
of fragmented volcanic debris, called tephra, which can extend tens of kilometers into the
atmosphere above the volcano.

Nonexplosive eruption
with effusive lava flows
Explosive eruption with
voluminous plume of tephra
Whether or not an eruption falls into one of these end-member types depends on a variety of
factors, which are ultimately linked to the composition of the magma (molten rock) underlying the
volcano. Magma composition is discussed below, followed by a description of the controlling factors
on explosivity -- viscosity, temperature, and the amount of dissolved gases in the magma.

MAGMA COMPOSITION AND ROCK TYPES
Only ten elements make up the bulk of most magmas: oxygen (O), silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), iron
(Fe), magnesium (Mg), titanium (Ti) calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K), and phosphorous
(P). Because oxygen and silicon are by far the two most abundant elements in magma, it is
convenient to describe the different magma types in terms of their silica content (SiO2). The magma
types vary from mafic magmas, which have relatively low silica and high Fe and Mg contents,
to felsic magmas, which have relatively high silica and low Fe and Mg contents. Mafic magma will
cool and crystallize to produce the volcanic rock basalt, whereas felsic magma will crystallize to
produce dacite and rhyolite. Intermediate-composition magmas will crystallize to produce the
rock andesite. Because the mafic rocks are enriched in Fe and Mg, they tend to be darker colored
than the felsic rock types.
SiO2 CONTENT MAGMA TYPE VOLCANIC ROCK
~50% Mafic Basalt
~60% Intermediate Andesite
~65% Felsic (low Si) Dacite
~70% Felsic (high Si) Rhyolite
There also exists more unusual magmas that erupt less commonly on the Earth's surface
as ultramafic, carbonatite, and strongly alkaline lavas.


VESICULATION
As dissolved gases are released from the magma, bubbles will begin to form. Bubbles frozen in a
porous or frothy volcanic rock are called vesicles, and the process of bubble formation is
called vesiculation or gas exsolution. The dissolved gases can escape only when the vapor
pressure of the magma is greater than the confining pressure of the surrounding rocks. The vapor
pressure is largely dependent on the amount of dissolved gases and the temperature of the magma.

Gas escape through
vertical vesicle cylinders
Vesicle-rich flow top
Explosive eruptions are initiated by vesiculation, which in turn, can be promoted in two ways: (1)
by decompression, which lowers the confining pressure, and (2) by crystallization, which increases
the vapor pressure. In the first case, magma rise can lead to decompression and the formation of
bubbles, much like the decompression of soda and the formation of CO2bubbles when the cap is
removed. This is sometimes referred to as the first boiling. Alternatively, as magma cools and
anhydrous minerals begin to crystallize out of the magma, the residual liquid will become
increasingly enriched in gas. In this case, the increased vapor pressure in the residual liquid can
also lead to gas exsolution. This is sometimes referred to assecond (or retrograde) boiling. Both
mechanisms can trigger an explosive volcanic eruption.

CONTROLS ON EXPLOSIVITY
The amount of dissolved gas in the magma provides the driving force for explosive eruptions. The
viscosity of the magma, however, is also an important factor in determining whether an eruption will
be explosive or nonexplosive. A low-viscosity magma, like basalt, will allow the escaping gases to
migrate rapidly through the magma and escape to the surface. However, if the magma is viscous,
like rhyolite, its high polymerization will impede the upward mobility of the gas bubbles. As gas
continues to exsolve from the viscous melt, the bubbles will be prevented from rapid escape, thus
increasing the overall pressure on the magma column until the gas ejects explosively from the
volcano. As a general rule, therefore, nonexplosive eruptions are typical of basaltic-to-
andesitic magmas which have low viscosities and low gas contents, whereas explosive
eruptions are typical of andesitic-to-rhyolitic magmas which have high viscosities and high gas
contents.
SiO2
MAGMA
TYPE
TEMPERATURE
(centigrade)
VISCOSITY
GAS
CONTENT
ERUPTION
STYLE
~50% mafic ~1100 low low nonexplosive
~60% intermediate ~1000 intermediate intermediate intermediate
~70% felsic ~800 high high explosive
There are, however, two exceptions to this general rule. Andesitic-to-rhyolitic lavas that have been
degassed often erupt at the surface nonexplosively as viscous lava domes or obsidian
flows. Similarly, many of the so-called hydrovolcanic eruptions involve basaltic-to-andesitic magmas
that erupt explosively in the presence of groundwater or surface water. For more information on the
variability of explosivity, see the Volcano Explosivity Index.

FREQUENCY AND SIZE
There are about 550 volanoes on earth that have erupted in historic times. Such volcanoes are
considered to be geologically active (see: What is an "active" volcano?). In addition, there are an
equivalent number of dormant volcanoes that have not erupted in historic time, but have erupted in
the past 10,000 years. Both dormat and "active" volcanoes have the potential to erupt again. On any
given day, there are about ten volcanoes that are actively erupting.
Eruptions are highly variable in size and explosiveness. As the table below demonstrates, small
eruptions are more frequent than larger eruptions. It takes a greater amount of time to build up the
necessary gas pressures needed for the larger eruptions. The global frequency of small eruptions,
producing 0.001 to .01 cubic kilometers of volcanic material, is once every few months, whereas the
frequency of very large eruptions, producing thousands of cubic kilometers of ash, is about once
every 100,000 years. The last truly giant eruption on earth occurred at the Toba volcano on Sumatra
74,000 years ago. It produced ~2,800 cubic kilometers of ash, more than 2000 times the amount
generated by the 1980 eruption of Mt. St. Helens!
SIZE (cubic km) EXAMPLE FREQUENCY (every . .)
.001-.01 Kilauea, Unzen several months
.01-.1 Etna 5 years
.1-1.0 St. Helens (1980) 10 years
1-10 Pinatubo 100 years
10-100
Krakatau (1883), Katmai
(1912)
1000 years
100-1000 Tambora (1815) 10,000 years
>1000 Yellowstone, Toba 100,000 years





The Tvashtar volcano erupts a plume 330 km (205 mi) above the surface ofJupiter's moon Io.


Olympus Mons (Latin, "Mount Olympus") is the tallest known mountain in our solar system, located on the planet Mars.
Main articles: Geology of the Moon, Volcanology of Mars, Volcanism on Io, and Volcanism on Venus
The Earth's Moon has no large volcanoes and no current volcanic activity, although recent evidence
suggests it may still possess a partially molten core.
[24]
However, the Moon does have many volcanic
features such as maria (the darker patches seen on the moon), rilles and domes.
The planet Venus has a surface that is 90% basalt, indicating that volcanism played a major role in
shaping its surface. The planet may have had a major global resurfacing event about 500 million years
ago,
[25]
from what scientists can tell from the density of impact craters on the surface. Lava flows are
widespread and forms of volcanism not present on Earth occur as well. Changes in the planet's
atmosphere and observations of lightning have been attributed to ongoing volcanic eruptions, although
there is no confirmation of whether or not Venus is still volcanically active. However, radar sounding by
the Magellan probe revealed evidence for comparatively recent volcanic activity at Venus's highest
volcano Maat Mons, in the form of ash flows near the summit and on the northern flank.
There are several extinct volcanoes on Mars, four of which are vast shield volcanoes far bigger than any
on Earth. They include Arsia Mons, Ascraeus Mons, Hecates Tholus, Olympus Mons, and Pavonis Mons.
These volcanoes have been extinct for many millions of years,
[26]
but the European Mars
Express spacecraft has found evidence that volcanic activity may have occurred on Mars in the recent
past as well.
[26]

Jupiter's moon Io is the most volcanically active object in the solar system because of tidal interaction with
Jupiter. It is covered with volcanoes that erupt sulfur,sulfur dioxide and silicate rock, and as a result, Io is
constantly being resurfaced. Its lavas are the hottest known anywhere in the solar system, with
temperatures exceeding 1,800 K (1,500 C). In February 2001, the largest recorded volcanic eruptions in
the solar system occurred on Io.
[27]
Europa, the smallest of Jupiter's Galilean moons, also appears to
have an active volcanic system, except that its volcanic activity is entirely in the form of water, which
freezes into ice on the frigid surface. This process is known as cryovolcanism, and is apparently most
common on the moons of the outer planets of the solar system.
In 1989 the Voyager 2 spacecraft observed cryovolcanoes (ice volcanoes) on Triton, a moon of Neptune,
and in 2005 the CassiniHuygens probe photographedfountains of frozen particles erupting from
Enceladus, a moon of Saturn.
[28]
The ejecta may be composed of water, liquid nitrogen, dust,
or methane compounds. CassiniHuygens also found evidence of a methane-spewing cryovolcano on
the Saturnian moon Titan, which is believed to be a significant source of the methane found in its
atmosphere.
[29]
It is theorized that cryovolcanism may also be present on the Kuiper Belt Object Quaoar.
A 2010 study of the exoplanet COROT-7b, which was detected by transit in 2009, studied that tidal
heating from the host star very close to the planet and neighboring planets could generate intense
volcanic activity similar to Io.
[30]