T ERM PAPER

OF
ELECTRICAL
SCIENCE-2

TOPIC:- Electrical and electronics measuring

instruments and cathode ray oscilloscope.

SUBMITTED BY
SUBMITTED TO
NAME- BITTU KUMAR LECT. NITIKA
WADHWA

SECTION-E2801 (DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRICAL SCIENCE)

ROLL NO. – 46

REGISTRATION NO. -10808479

 A
As usual a la
CONTENTS
CHAPTER-1.ELECTRONICS AND ELECTRICAL
MEASURING INSTRUMENT.
1.1.INTRODUCTION

1.2.INDICATING INSTRUMENTS
1.2.1 ESSENTIAL OF INDICATING INSTRUMENT

1.3 TYPE OF INDICATING INSTRUMENT

1.3.1 PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL INSTRUMRNT

1.3.2 ELECTRODYANOMETER TYPE WATTMETER

1.3.3 INDUCTION TYPE ENERGY METER

1.4 MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE

1.4.1 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

CHAPTER-2. CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.2 CRO OPERATION

2.3 CRO CONTROLS

REFERENCES
CHAPTER1. ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONICS MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
1.1. INTRODUCTION
The instrument which are used to measure the electrical
quantities like current voltage, power, energy , etc. are known
as electrical measuring instrument can be divided broadly as
absolute and secondary instruments. Absolute instrument are
those which give the value of the quantity to be measured in
term of the deflection and instrument constant. The tangent
galvanometer and Rayleigh’s current balance are few example
of absolute instrument. These instrument are used in the
laboratories and institution as standardizing instrument.

Secondary instrument are those, in which the value of the

quantity to be measured in determine form from the deflection
of the pointer, as the scale is calibrated in the term of the unit
quantity. These instruments are commonly used in the
laboratory, institution, industries, and the power station. They
are further classifying into three group, that is indicating
instruments, recording instrument, and integrating instruments.

Indicating instrument are those which indicate and the

magnitude of the measure quantity at a time. Instrument like
ammeter, voltmeter, etc. are the some example of the
indicating instruments. recording instruments are those which
give the continuous record of the variation of the measuring
quantity over a specified period of the time.

Integrating instrument are those which measure the total

amount of the electrical quantity supplied over a period of time.
Energy meter and ampere hour meter are few example of the
integrating instrument.

Indicating instrument, their essential devices and the types of

the indicating instrument are discussed. Permanent magnet
moving coil and moving iron instrument are explained in detail.
Electrodynamometer wattmeter induction type meter, meggar
and multimeter are discussed, so that students get conversant
with all the instrument to be used in the laboratory for
experimentation.

1.2 INDICATING INSTRUMENTS

An indicating instrument indicates the magnitude of a quantity
being measured on a graduate scale. The moving system of
such an instrument is fitted with a pointer that moves over the
calibrated scale indicate the reading.

The weight and the inertia of the pointer is kept low in order to
reduce the load on the bearing and necessary damping torque.
The swing of the pointer on the scale is limited buffer or stop to
a little more than range og the scale. To avoid bending of the
pointer, when it strikes the stop sharply on sudden overloads or
reversal current, the stop are constructed as very light springs.
The scale of these instruments is normally printed on the
enamelled surface of the metal plate. Measuring instrument of
indicating type should not alter the circuit condition, when
these are connected in a particular circuit for measuring a
certain quantity. They should draw minimum possible power for
their operation. The moving system of the instrument should be
light which is possible by using aluminium. The frictional forces
of these instrument are reduces to minimum by using a
spindle, mounted between jewel bearing and also by balancing
the system properly.
1.2.1 ESSENTIAL OF INDICATING
INSTRUMENT
Indicating instrument must process the following three
essential devices for their satisfactory operation

1. A deflecting device producing a mechanical forces by

electric current, voltage or power to move the pointer
from its zero position

2. A controlling devices to produce a mechanical force equal

and opposies to the deflecting force.

3. A damping device prevents oscillation of the moving

system and enable it to its equilibrium position rapidly.

A). DEFLECTING DEVICE

A deflecting device produce the deflecting force for moving the
pointer from its zero position. The deflecting force can be
produced by any one of the following effects.

1. magnetic effect – generally for ammeter and voltmeter

2. Heating effect - for ammeter and voltmeter

3.Electrodynamic effect – for ammeter voltmeter, and

wattmeter

4.Electromagnetic effect – for dc ampere hours

5.Electrostatic effect – for voltmeter only

The deflecting devices measuring instrument converts the

quanity to be measured (electric current or potential) into a
mechanical force generally known as deflecting force which is
responsible for the deflecting of the pointer.

B). CONTROLLING DEVICES:-

The controlling devices of an indicating instrument serves the
following purposes
 1. Produces a force equal and opposites to the deflecting
forces, so that the pointer deflects to a definite position for
the particular magnitude of current . in the absence of a
controlling devices, deflecting of the moving system would
be indefinite.

2. The bring the moving system back to its zero position, when
the cause is removed. In the absence of the controlling
devices the Pointer of the instruments once deflecting will
not back to its zero position an the removing the current.

Contolling devices can be broadly classify into two parts

1. Spring control (commonly used in the modern instrument).

2. Gravity control (not much used modern instrument).

1.3 TYPE OF INDICATING

INSTRUMENTS:-
1.3.1 PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL
INSTRUMENT
Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) ammeter and voltmeter
are used for measuring current and voltage respectively in dc
system. These instrument are most accurate for dc
measurement.

The compass and conducting wire meter can be considered a

fixed-conductor moving-magnet device since the compass is, in
reality, a magnet that is allowed to move. The basic principle of
this device is the interaction of magnetic fields-the field of the
compass (a permanent magnet) and the field around the
conductor (a simple electromagnet).

A permanent-magnet moving-coil movement is based upon a

fixed permanent magnet and a coil of wire which is able to
move, as in figure . When the switch is closed, causing current
through the coil, the coil will have a magnetic field which will
react to the magnetic field of the permanent magnet. The
bottom portion of the coil in figure will be the north pole of this
electromagnet. Since opposite poles attract, the coil will move
to the position shown in figure.

A permanent-magnet moving-coil movement is based upon a

fixed permanent magnet and a coil of wire which is able to
move, as in figure.

When the switch is closed, causing current through the coil, the
coil will have a magnetic field which will react to the magnetic
field of the permanent magnet. The bottom portion of the coil
in figure will be the north pole of this electromagnet. Since
opposite poles attract, the coil will move to the position shown
in figure.

Figure. 1- A movable coil in a magnetic field (no current).

Fig.1.a movable coil in magnetic field fig 2. coil in moving

magnetic field

The coil of wire is wound on an aluminum frame, or bobbin, and

the bobbin is supported by jeweled bearings which allow it to
move freely. This is shown in figure2.

Figure 3. - A basic coil arrangement.

To use this permanent-magnet moving-coil device as a meter,
two problems must be solved. First, a way must be found to
return the coil to its original position when there is no current
through the coil. Second, a method is needed to indicate the
amount of coil movement.

The first problem is solved by the use of hairsprings attached to

each end of the coil as shown in figure 3. These hairsprings can
also be used to make the electrical connections to the coil.

With the use of hairsprings, the coil will return to its initial
position when there is no current. The springs will also tend to
resist the movement of the coil when there is current through
the coil. When the attraction between the magnetic fields (from
the permanent magnet and the coil) is exactly equal to the
force of the hairsprings, the coil will stop moving toward the
magnet.

Figure 4. - Coil and hairsprings.

As the current through the coil increases, the magnetic field
generated around the coil increases. The stronger the magnetic
field around the coil, the farther the coil will move. This is a
good basis for a meter.

But, how will you know how far the coil moves? If a pointer is
attached to the coil and extended out to a scale, the pointer
will move as the coil moves, and the scale can be marked to
indicate the amount of current through the coil. This is shown in
figure 4.

Figure 5. - A complete coil.

Two other features are used to increase the accuracy and
efficiency of this meter movement. First, an iron core is placed
inside the coil to concentrate the magnetic fields. Second,
curved pole pieces are attached to the magnet to ensure that
the turning force on the coil increases steadily as the current
increases.

The meter movement as it appears when fully assembled is

shown in figure 6.

Figure 6. - Assembled meter movement.

This permanent-magnet moving-coil meter movement is the
basic movement in most measuring instruments. It is
commonly called the d'Arsonval movement because it was first
employed by the Frenchman d'Arsonval in making electrical
measurements. Figure 1-10 is a view of the d'Arsonval meter
movement used in a meter.

Figure 7. - A meter using d'Arsonval movement.

ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF PMMC
INSTRUMENTS
A). ADVANTAGE
The major advantage in using coil instrument for the
measurement of current and voltage are

1.High sensitivity

2. Uniform scale

3. Well sheielded from any stray magnetic field

4. Low power consumption

5. No hystreresis

B). DISADVANTAGE
1.More expensive than the moving coil instrument.

2. Can be used only for dc measurement.

3. Develop error due to ageing of control springs and

permanent magnet.

1.3.2 ELECTRODYANOMETER TYPE

WATTMETER
Electric power is measured by means of a wattmeter. This
instrument is of the electrodynamometer type. As shown in
figure 3-18, it consists of a pair of fixed coils, known as current
coils, and a moving coil, called the voltage (potential) coil. The
fixed current coils are wound with a few turns of a relatively
large conductor. The voltage coil is wound with many turns of
fine wire. It is mounted on a shaft that is supported in jeweled
bearings so that it can turn inside the stationary coils. The
movable coil carries a needle (pointer) that moves over a
suitably graduated scale. Coil springs hold the needle at the
zero position in the absence of a signal.

A). ADVANTAGE
1.Accurately measure both ac and dc power.

2. Uniform scale

3. Can be used as standard meter calibration.

B). DISADVANTAGE
The inductance of a moving coil can cause error specially at low
power factors.

1.Effects of stray magnetic fields.

1.3.3 INDUCTION TYPE ENERGY METER

Energy meter is an integrating meter which measure electrical
energy consumed by a load. Induction type energy meter are
very commonly used to measure electrical energy consumed in
domestic, commercial and industrial installation. These energy
measure in KWh.
 The magnetic field produced
by shunt electromagnet is
pulsating in character cuts
through the rotating disc and
induces eddy currents there
in, but normally does not in
itself produce any driving
force. Similarly series
electromagnet induces eddy
currents in the rotating disc,
but does not in itself produce
any driving force. In order to
obtain driving force in a single phase meter, phase
displacement of 900 between the magnetic field set up by
shunt electro-magnet and applied voltage V is achieved by
adjustment of the copper shading band,

also known as power factor compensator or compensating loop.

The reaction between these magnetic fields and eddy currents
set up a driving torque in the disc which would revolve at very
high speed in the absence of any opposing force.

1.4 MEASUREMENT OF
RESISTANCE:-
1.4.1 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE METER
A Wheatstone bridge is a measuring instrument invented by
Samuel Hunter Christie in 1833 and improved and popularized
by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843. It is used to measure an
unknown electrical resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge
circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown component. Its
operation is similar to the original potentiometer except that in
potentiometer circuits the meter used is a sensitive
galvanometer.

Wheatstone's bridge circuit diagram.

In the circuit on the right, Rx is the unknown resistance to be

measured; R1, R2 and R3 are resistors of known resistance and
the resistance of R2 is adjustable. If the ratio of the two
resistances in the known leg (R2 / R1) is equal to the ratio of the
two in the unknown leg (Rx / R3), then the voltage between the
two midpoints (B and D) will be zero and no current will flow
through the galvanometer Vg. R2 is varied until this condition is
reached. The direction of the current indicates whether R2 is too
high or too low.

Detecting zero current can be done to extremely high accuracy

(see galvanometer). Therefore, if R1, R2 and R3 are known to
high precision, then Rx can be measured to high precision. Very
small changes in Rx disrupt the balance and are readily
detected.

At the point of balance, the ratio of R2 / R1 = Rx / R3

Therefore,

Alternatively, if R1, R2, and R3 are known, but R2 is not

adjustable, the voltage difference across or current flow
through the meter can be used to calculate the value of Rx,
using Kirchhoff's circuit laws (also known as Kirchhoff's rules).
This setup is frequently used in strain gauge and resistance
thermometer measurements, as it is usually faster to read a
voltage level off a meter than to adjust a resistance to zero the
voltage.

First, Kirchhoff's first rule is used to find the currents in

junctions B and D:

Then, Kirchhoff's second rule is used for finding the voltage in

the loops ABD and BCD:

The bridge is balanced and Ig = 0, so the second set of

equations can be rewritten as:

Then, the equations are divided and rearranged, giving:

From the first rule, I3 = Ix and I1 = I2. The desired value of Rx is

now known to be given as:

If all four resistor values and the supply voltage (VS) are known,
the voltage across the bridge (VG) can be found by working out
the voltage from each potential divider and subtracting one
from the other. The equation for this is:

This can be simplified to:

SIGNIFICANCE

The Wheatstone bridge illustrates the concept of a difference

measurement, which can be extremely accurate. Variations on
the Wheatstone bridge can be used to measure capacitance,
inductance, impedance and other quantities, such as the
amount of combustible gases in a sample, with an
explosimeter. The Kelvin double bridge was specially adapted
from the Wheatstone bridge for measuring very low
resistances.

CHAPTER#2. CATHODE RAY

OSCILLOSCOPE
2.1 INTRODUCTION:-
The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory
instrument that provides accurate time and aplitude
measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of
frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make
it suitable as a general purpose laboratory instrument. The
heart of the CRO is a cathode-ray tube shown schematically in
Fig. 1.
 The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted
by the heated cathode (negative electrode) and accelerated
toward the fluorescent screen. The assembly of the cathode,
intensity grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode (positive
electrode) is called an electron gun. Its purpose is to generate
the electron beam and control its intensity and focus. Between
the electron gun and the fluorescent screen are two pair of
metal plates - one oriented to provide horizontal deflection of
the beam and one pair oriented ot give vertical deflection to
the beam. These plates are thus referred to as the horizontal
and vertical deflection plates. The combination of these two
deflections allows the beam to reach any portion of the
fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron beam hits the
screen, the phosphor is excited and light is emitted from that
point. This coversion of electron energy into light allows us to
write with points or lines of light on an otherwise darkened
screen.

In the most common use of the oscilloscope the signal to

be studied is first amplified and then applied to the vertical
(deflection) plates to deflect the beam vertically and at the
same time a voltage that increases linearly with time is applied
to the horizontal (deflection) plates thus causing the beam to
be deflected horizontally at a uniform (constant> rate. The
signal applied to the verical plates is thus displayed on the
screen as a function of time. The horizontal axis serves as a
uniform time scale.

The linear deflection or sweep of the beam horizontally is

accomplished by use of a sweep generator that is incorporated
in the oscilloscope circuitry. The voltage output of such a
generator is that of a sawtooth wave as shown in Fig. 2.
Application of one cycle of this voltage difference, which
increases linearly with time, to the horizontal plates causes the
beam to be deflected linearly with time across the tube face.
When the voltage suddenly falls to zero, as at points (a) (b) (c),
etc...., the end of each sweep - the beam flies back to its initial
position. The horizontal deflection of the beam is repeated
periodically, the frequency of this periodicity is adjustable by
external controls.

To obtain steady traces on the tube face, an internal

number of cycles of the unknown signal that is applied to the
vertical plates must be associated with each cycle of the sweep
generator. Thus, with such a matching of synchronization of the
two deflections, the pattern on the tube face repeats itself and
hence appears to remain stationary. The persistance of vision
in the human eye and of the glow of the fluorescent screen aids
in producing a stationary pattern. In addition, the electron
beam is cut off (blanked) during flyback so that the retrace
sweep is not observed.

2.2 CRO OPERATION:-

 A simplified block diagram of a typical oscilloscope is shown in
Fig. 3. In general, the instrument is operated in the following
manner. The signal to be displayed is amplified by the vertical
amplifier and applied to the verical deflection plates of the CRT.
A portion of the signal in the vertical amplifier is applied to the
sweep trigger as a triggering signal. The sweep trigger then
generates a pulse coincident with a selected point in the cycle
of the triggering signal. This pulse turns on the sweep
generator, initiating the sawtooth wave form. The sawtooth
wave is amplified by the horizontal amplifier and applied to the
horizontal deflection plates. Usually, additional provisions signal
are made for appliying an external triggering signal or utilizing
the 60 Hz line for triggering. Also the sweep generator may be
bypassed and an external signal applied directly to the
horizontal amplifier.

2.3 CRO CONTROLS

The controls available on most oscilloscopes provide a
wide range of operating conditions and thus make the
instrument especially versatile. Since many of these controls
are common to most oscilloscopes a brief description of them
follows.
A.)CATHODE-RAY TUBE
Power and Scale Illumination: Turns instrument on and controls
illumination of the graticule.

Focus: Focus the spot or trace on the screen.

Intensity: Regulates the brightness of the spot or trace.

B). VERTICAL AMPLIFIER SECTION

Position: Controls vertical positioning of oscilloscope display.

Sensitivity: Selects the sensitivity of the vertical amplifier in

calibrated steps.

Variable Sensitivity: Provides a continuous range of

sensitivities between the calibrated steps. Normally the
sensitivity is calibrated only when the variable knob is in the
fully clockwise position.

AC-DC-GND: Selects desired coupling (ac or dc) for incoming

signal applied to vertical amplifier, or grounds the amplifier
input. Selecting dc couples the input directly to the amplifier;
selecting ac send the signal through a capacitor before going to
the amplifier thus blocking any constant component.

C). HORIZONTAL-SWEEP SECTION

Sweep time/cm: Selects desired sweep rate from calibrated
steps or admits external signal to horizontal amplifier.

Sweep time/cm Variable: Provides continuously variable sweep

rates. Calibrated position is fully clockwise.

Position: Controls horizontal position of trace on screen.

Horizontal Variable: Controls the attenuation (reduction) of

signal applied to horizontal aplifier through Ext. Horiz.
connector.
D).TRIGGER
The trigger selects the timing of the beginning of the horizontal
sweep.

Slope: Selects whether triggering occurs on an increasing (+)

or decreasing (-) portion of trigger signal.

Coupling: Selects whether triggering occurs at a specific dc or

ac level.

Source: Selects the source of the triggering signal.

INT - (internal) - from signal on vertical amplifier

EXT - (external) - from an external signal inserted at the
EXT. TRIG. INPUT.
LINE - 60 cycle triger

Level: Selects the voltage point on the triggering signal at

which sweep is triggered. It also allows automatic (auto)
triggering of allows sweep to run free (free run).

REFERENCES
1. BASIC ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
2. ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS MEASURING INSTRUMENT
3. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS