Part of a series on the

History of India
Chronology of Indian history
Ancient India
Prehistoric India and Vedic India
Religions, Society, Mahajanapadas
Mauryan Period
Economy, Spread of Buddhism,
Chanakya, Satavahana Empire
The Golden Age
Discoveries, Aryabhata,
Ramayana, Mahabharata
Medieval India
The Classical Age
Gurjara-Pratihara
Pala Empire
Rashtrakuta Empire
Art, Philosophy, Literature
Islam in India
Delhi Sultanate, Vijayanagara Empire,
Music, Guru Nanak
Mughal India
Architecture,
Maratha Confederacy
Modern India
Company Rule
Zamindari system, Warren Hastings,
Mangal Pandey, 1857
History of India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The history of India begins with evidence of human activity
of Homo sapiens as long as 75,000 years ago, or with earlier
hominids including Homo erectus from about 500,000 years
ago.
[1]
The Indus Valley Civilization, which spread and
flourished in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent
from c. 3300 to 1300 BCE in present-day Pakistan and
northwest India, was the first major civilization in South Asia.
[2]
A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture
developed in the Mature Harappan period, from 2600 to 1900
BCE.
[3]
This Bronze Age civilization collapsed before the end
of the second millennium BCE and was followed by the Iron
Age Vedic Civilization, which extended over much of the Indo
-Gangetic plain and which witnessed the rise of major polities
known as the Mahajanapadas. In one of these kingdoms,
Magadha, Mahavira and Gautama Buddha were born in the 6th
or 5th century BCE and propagated their ramanic
philosophies.
Most of the subcontinent was conquered by the Maurya
Empire during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. It became
fragmented, with various parts ruled by numerous Middle
kingdoms for the next 1,500 years. This is known as the
classical period of Indian history, during which time India has
sometimes been estimated to have had the largest economy of
the ancient and medieval world, with its huge population
generating between one fourth and one third of the world's
income up to the 18th century. Much of northern and central
India was united in the 4th century CE, and remained so for
two centuries, under the Gupta Empire. This period,
witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is
known among its admirers as the "Golden Age of India". From
this time, and for several centuries afterwards, southern India,
under the rule of the Chalukyas, Cholas, Pallavas, and
Pandyas, experienced its own golden age. During this period,
aspects of Indian civilization, administration, culture, and
religion (Hinduism and Buddhism) spread to much of Asia.
Kingdoms in southern India had maritime business links with
the Roman Empire from around 77 CE. Muslim rule in the
subcontinent began in 8th century CE when the Arab general
Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh and Multan in
southern Punjab in modern day Pakistan,
[4]
setting the stage for
British Indian Empire
Hindu reforms, Bengal Renaissance,
Independence struggle, Mahatma Gandhi
several successive invasions from Central Asia between the
10th and 15th centuries CE, leading to the formation of
Muslim empires in the Indian subcontinent such as the Delhi
Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. Mughal rule came from
Central Asia to cover most of the northern parts of the
subcontinent. Mughal rulers introduced Central Asian art and architecture to India. In addition to the
Mughals and various Rajput kingdoms, several independent Hindu states, such as the Vijayanagara
Empire, the Maratha Empire, Eastern Ganga Empire and the Ahom Kingdom, flourished
contemporaneously in southern, western, eastern and northeastern India respectively. The Mughal
Empire suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, which provided opportunities for the
Afghans, Balochis, Sikhs, and Marathas to exercise control over large areas in the northwest of the
subcontinent until the British East India Company gained ascendancy over South Asia.
[5]
Beginning in the mid-18th century and over the next century, large areas of India were annexed by the
British East India Company. Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857,
after which the British provinces of India were directly administered by the British Crown and witnessed
a period of both rapid development of infrastructure and economic decline. During the first half of the
20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress and
later joined by the Muslim League. The subcontinent gained independence from the United Kingdom in
1947, after the British provinces were partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan and the
princely states all acceded to one of the new states.
Contents
1 Prehistoric era
1.1 Stone Age
1.2 Bronze Age
2 Early historic period
2.1 Vedic period
2.2 Mahajanapadas
2.3 Persian and Greek conquests
2.4 Maurya Empire
3 Early Middle Kingdoms The Golden Age
3.1 Northwestern hybrid cultures
3.2 Kushan Empire
3.3 Roman trade with India
3.4 Gupta rule
4 Late Middle Kingdoms The Classical Age
5 The Islamic Sultanates
5.1 Delhi Sultanate
6 Early modern period
6.1 Mughal Empire
6.2 Post-Mughal period
6.2.1 Maratha Empire
6.2.2 Sikh Empire (North-west)
6.2.3 Other kingdoms

Bhimbetka rock painting, Madhya
Pradesh, India (c. 30,000 years
old)

Stone age (5000 BC) writings of
Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India.
7 Colonial era
7.1 Company rule in India
7.2 The rebellion of 1857 and its consequences
8 British Raj
8.1 Reforms
8.2 Famines
8.3 The Indian independence movement
9 Independence and partition
10 Historiography
11 See also
12 References
13 Further reading
13.1 Historiography
14 Online sources
15 External links
Prehistoric era
Stone Age
Main article: South Asian Stone Age
Further information: Mehrgarh, Bhimbetka rock shelters, and Edakkal Caves
Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hathnora in the Narmada
Valley in central India indicate that India might have been inhabited
since at least the Middle Pleistocene era, somewhere between
500,000 and 200,000 years ago.
[6][7]
Tools crafted by proto-humans
that have been dated back two million years have been discovered in
the northwestern part of the subcontinent.
[8][9]
The ancient history of
the region includes some of South Asia's oldest settlements
[10]
and
some of its major civilizations.
[11][12]
The earliest archaeological site
in the subcontinent is the palaeolithic hominid site in the Soan River
valley.
[13]
Soanian sites are found in the Sivalik region across what
are now India, Pakistan, and Nepal.
[14]
The Mesolithic period in the Indian subcontinent was followed by
the Neolithic period, when more extensive settlement of the
subcontinent occurred after the end of the last Ice Age
approximately 12,000 years ago. The first confirmed semipermanent
settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the Bhimbetka rock shelters
in modern Madhya Pradesh, India. Early Neolithic culture in South
Asia is represented by the Bhirrana findings (7500 BCE)in
Haryana,India & Mehrgarh findings (7000 BCE onwards)
inBalochistan, Pakistan.
[15]

[16]
Traces of a Neolithic culture have
been alleged to be submerged in the Gulf of Khambat in India,

The docks of ancient Lothal as they appear today.

"Priest King" of
Indus Valley
Civilization
radiocarbon dated to 7500 BCE.
[17]
However, the one dredged piece of wood in question was found in
an area of strong ocean currents. Neolithic agriculture cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region
around 5000 BCE, in the lower Gangetic valley around 3000 BCE, and in later South India, spreading
southwards and also northwards into Malwa around 1800 BCE. The first urban civilization of the region
began with the Indus Valley Civilization.
[18]
Bronze Age
Main article: Indus Valley Civilization
See also: Economic history of India and Timeline of the economy of India
The Bronze Age in the Indian
subcontinent began around
3300 BCE with the early Indus
Valley Civilization. It was
centered on the Indus River and
its tributaries which extended
into the Ghaggar-Hakra River
valley,
[11]
the Ganges-Yamuna
Doab,
[19]
Gujarat,
[20]
and
southeastern Afghanistan.
[21]
The civilization is primarily
located in modern-day India (Gujarat, Haryana,
Punjab and Rajasthan provinces) and Pakistan (Sindh, Punjab, and Balochistan provinces). Historically
part of Ancient India, it is one of the world's earliest urban civilizations, along with Mesopotamia and
Ancient Egypt.
[22]
Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new
techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving), and produced copper, bronze,
lead, and tin.
The Mature Indus civilization flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban
civilization on the subcontinent. The civilization included urban centers such as Dholavira, Kalibangan,
Rupar, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal in modern-day India, and Harappa, Ganeriwala, and Mohenjo-daro in
modern-day Pakistan. The civilization is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage system, and
multistoried houses.
Early historic period
Vedic period
Main article: Vedic Civilization
See also: Vedas and Indo-Aryans

Map of North India in the late Vedic
period.

The swastika is a major
element of Hindu
iconography.
The Vedic period is characterized by Indo-Aryan culture
associated with the texts of Vedas, sacred to Hindus, which
were orally composed in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are
some of the oldest extant texts in India
[23]
and next to some
writings in Egypt and Mesopotamia are the oldest in the
world. The Vedic period lasted from about 1500 to 500
BCE,
[24]
laying the foundations of Hinduism and other
cultural aspects of early Indian society. In terms of culture,
many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the
Chalcolithic to the Iron Age in this period.
[25]
Historians
have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the
Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain.
[25]
Most
historians also consider this period to have encompassed
several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent
from the north-west.
[26][27]
Vedic people believed in the transmigration of the soul, and the peepul tree
and cow were sanctified by the time of the Atharva Veda.
[28]
Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy
espoused later like Dharma, Karma etc. trace their root to the Vedas.
[29]
Early Vedic society consisted of largely pastoral groups, with late Harappan
urbanization having been abandoned.
[30]
After the time of the Rigveda,
Aryan society became increasingly agricultural and was socially organized
around the four varnas, or social classes. In addition to the Vedas, the
principal texts of Hinduism, the core themes of the Sanskrit epics
Ramayana and Mahabharata are said to have their ultimate origins during
this period.
[31]
The Mahabharata remains, today, the longest single poem in
the world.
[32]
The events described in the Ramayana are from a later period
of history than the events of the Mahabharata.
[33]
The early Indo-Aryan
presence probably corresponds, in part, to the Ochre Coloured Pottery
culture in archaeological contexts.
[34]
The Kuru kingdom
[35]
corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Painted
Grey Ware cultures and to the beginning of the Iron Age in northwestern India, around 1000 BCE, as
well as with the composition of the Atharvaveda, the first Indian text to mention iron, as yma ayas,
literally "black metal." The Painted Grey Ware culture spanned much of northern India from about 1100
to 600 BCE.
[34]
The Vedic Period also established republics such as Vaishali, which existed as early as
the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE. The later part of this period
corresponds with an increasing movement away from the previous tribal system towards the
establishment of kingdoms, called mahajanapadas.
Mahajanapadas
Main articles: Mahajanapadas and Magadha Empire
Main articles: History of Hinduism, History of Buddhism, and History of Jainism
See also: Adi Shankara, Gautama Buddha, and Mahavira

Gautama Buddha undertaking
extreme ascetic practices before
his enlightenment on the bank of
river Phalgu in Bodh Gaya, Bihar.

Detail of a leaf with, The Birth of
Mahavira (the 24th Tirthankara of
Jainism), from the Kalpa Sutra,
c.1375-1400.

The Mahajanapadas were the
sixteen most powerful kingdoms
and republics of the era, located
mainly across the fertile Indo-
Gangetic plains, however there
were a number of smaller
kingdoms stretching the length
and breadth of Ancient India.

Nalanda is considered one of the
first great universities in recorded
history. It was the center of
Buddhist learning and research in
the world from 450 to 1193 CE.
Further information:
Upanishads, Indian
Religions, Indian
philosophy, and Ancient
universities of India
In the later Vedic Age, a
number of small kingdoms or
city states had covered the
subcontinent, many mentioned
in Vedic, early Buddhist and
Jaina literature as far back as
1000 BCE. By 500 BCE,
sixteen monarchies and
"republics" known as the
MahajanapadasKasi, Kosala,
Anga, Magadha, Vajji (or
Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (or
Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala,
Matsya (or Machcha),
Surasena, Assaka, Avanti,
Gandhara, and Kamboja
stretched across the Indo-
Gangetic Plain from modern-
day Afghanistan to Bengal and
Maharastra. This period saw the
second major rise of urbanism
in India after the Indus Valley
Civilization. Many smaller
clans mentioned within early
literature seem to have been
present across the rest of the
subcontinent. Some of these kings were hereditary; other states
elected their rulers. The educated speech at that time was Sanskrit,
while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to as Prakrits. Many of the
sixteen kingdoms had coalesced to four major ones by 500/400 BCE, by the time of Gautama Buddha.
These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha.
[36]
The 9th and 8th centuries BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads.
[37]:183
Upanishads
form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas).
[38]

The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a
divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.
The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice
with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death.
[39]

Asia in 323 BCE, the Nanda Empire and
Gangaridai Empire in relation to Alexander's
Empire and neighbors.
Increasing urbanization of India in 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or shramana
movements which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals.
[40]
Mahavira (c. 549477 BCE), proponent of
Jainism, and Buddha (c. 563-483), founder of Buddhism were the most prominent icons of this
movement. Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara,
and the concept of liberation.
[41]
Buddha found a Middle Way that ameliorated the extreme asceticism
found in the Sramana religions.
[42]
Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Tirthankara in Jainism)
propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism.
[43]
However, Jain orthodoxy believes the
teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and scholars believe Parshva, accorded status as
the 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few
Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the shramana movement.
[44]

Persian and Greek conquests
See also: Achaemenid Empire, Greco-Buddhism, Indo-Greek Kingdom, Alexander the Great, Nanda
Empire, and Gangaridai
In 530 BCE Cyrus, King of the Persian Achaemenid
Empire crossed the Hindu-Kush mountains to seek
tribute from the tribes of Kamboja, Gandhara and
the trans-India region.
[45]
By 520 BCE, during the
reign of Darius I of Persia, much of the northwestern
subcontinent (present-day eastern Afghanistan and
Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian
Achaemenid Empire. The area remained under
Persian control for two centuries.
[46]
During this
time India supplied mercenaries to the Persian army
then fighting in Greece.
[45]
Under Persian rule the
famous city of Takshashila became a center where
both Vedic and Iranian learning were mingled.
[47]

The impact of Persian ideas was felt in many areas
of Indian life. Persian coinage and rock inscriptions were copied by India. However, Persian ascendency
in northern India ended with Alexander the Great's conquest of Persia in 327 BCE.
[48]
By 326 BCE, Alexander the Great had conquered Asia Minor and the Achaemenid Empire and had
reached the northwest frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. There he defeated King Porus in the Battle of
the Hydaspes (near modern-day Jhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of the Punjab.
[49]
Alexander's
march east put him in confrontation with the Nanda Empire of Magadha and the Gangaridai Empire of
Bengal. His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing larger Indian armies at the Ganges
River, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas River) and refused to march further East. Alexander, after
the meeting with his officer, Coenus, and learning about the might of Nanda Empire, was convinced that
it was better to return.
The Persian and Greek invasions had important repercussions on Indian civilization. The political
systems of the Persians were to influence future forms of governance on the subcontinent, including the
administration of the Mauryan dynasty. In addition, the region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern

Maurya Empire under Ashoka the Great

Ashokan pillar at Vaishali, 3rd century
BCE.
Afghanistan and northwest Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian, and Greek
cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture, Greco-Buddhism, which lasted until the 5th century CE and
influenced the artistic development of Mahayana Buddhism.
Maurya Empire
Main article: Maurya Empire
Further information: Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, and Ashoka the Great
The Maurya
Empire (322
185 BCE), ruled
by the Mauryan
dynasty, was a
geographically
extensive and
powerful
political and
military empire
in ancient India.
The empire was
established by
Chandragupta
Maurya in Magadha what is now Bihar.
[50]
The empire flourished under the reign of Ashoka the Great.
[51]
At its greatest extent, it stretched to the north to the natural boundaries of the Himalayas and to the
east into what is now Assam. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, annexing Balochistan and
much of what is now Afghanistan, including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces. The empire was
expanded into India's central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and Bindusara, but it
excluded extensive unexplored tribal and forested regions near Kalinga which were subsequently taken
by Ashoka. Like every state, the Maurya Empire needed to have a unified administrative apparatus.
Ashoka ruled the Maurya Empire for 37 years from 268 BCE until he died in 232 BCE.
[52]
During that
time, Ashoka pursued an active foreign policy aimed at setting up a unified state.
[53]
However, Ashoka
became involved in a war with the state of Kalinga which is located on the western shore of the Bay of
Bengal.
[54]
This war forced Ashoka to abandon his attempt at a foreign policy which would unify the
Maurya Empire.
[55]
During the Mauryan Empire slavery developed rapidly and significant amount of written records on
slavery are found.
[56]
The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society.
However, the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government.
[57]
Although there was no
banking in the Mauryan society, usury was customary with loans made at the recognized interest rate of
15% per annum.
Ashoka's reign propagated Buddhism. In this regard Ashoka established many Buddhist monuments.
Indeed, Ashoka put a strain on the economy and the government by his strong support of Buddhism.
towards the end of his reign he "bled the state coffers white with his generous gifts to promote the
promulation of Buddha's teaching.
[58]
As might be expected, this policy caused considerable opposition
within the government. This opposition rallied around Sampadi, Ashoka's grandson and heir to the
throne.
[59]
Religious opposition to Ashoka also arose among the orthodox Brahmanists and the adherents
of Jainism.
[60]
Chandragupta's minister Chanakya wrote the Arthashastra, one of the greatest treatises on economics,
politics, foreign affairs, administration, military arts, war, and religion produced in Asia.
Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished
Ware (NBPW). The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are primary written records of the Mauryan
times. The Lion Capital of Asoka at Sarnath, is the national emblem of India.
Early Middle Kingdoms The Golden Age
Main article: Middle Kingdoms of India
Ancient India during
the rise of theSunga and
Satavahana empires.
The Kharavela Empire,
now in Orissa.
Kushan Empire and
Western Satraps of
Ancient India in the
north along with
Pandyans and Early
Cholas in southern
India.
Gupta Empire
The middle period was a time of cultural development. The Satavahana dynasty, also known as the
Andhras, ruled in southern and central India after around 230 BCE. Satakarni, the sixth ruler of the
Satvahana dynasty, defeated the Sunga Empire of north India. Afterwards, Kharavela, the warrior king
of Kalinga,
[61]
ruled a vast empire and was responsible for the propagation of Jainism in the Indian
subcontinent.
[61]
The Kharavelan Jain empire included a maritime empire with trading routes linking it
to Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Borneo, Bali, Sumatra, and Java. Colonists from
Kalinga settled in Sri Lanka, Burma, as well as the Maldives and Maritime Southeast Asia. The Kuninda
Kingdom was a small Himalayan state that survived from around the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd
century CE. The Kushanas migrated from Central Asia into northwestern India in the middle of the 1st
century CE and founded an empire that stretched from Tajikistan to the middle Ganges. The Western
Satraps (35-405 CE) were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India. They were the successors
of the Indo-Scythians and contemporaries of the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the Indian
subcontinent and the Satavahana (Andhra) who ruled in central and southern India. Different dynasties

The founder of the
Indo-Greek
Kingdom,
Demetrius I "the
Invincible" (205
171 BCE).
such as the Pandyans, Cholas, Cheras, Kadambas, Western Gangas, Pallavas, and Chalukyas, dominated
the southern part of the Indian peninsula at different periods of time. Several southern kingdoms formed
overseas empires that stretched into Southeast Asia. The kingdoms warred with each other and the
Deccan states for domination of the south. The Kalabras, a Buddhist dynasty, briefly interrupted the
usual domination of the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas in the south.
Northwestern hybrid cultures
See also: Indo-Greek kingdom, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthian Kingdom, and
Indo-Sassanids
The northwestern hybrid cultures of the subcontinent included the Indo-Greeks,
the Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians, and the Indo-Sassinids. The first of
these, the Indo-Greek Kingdom, was founded when the Greco-Bactrian king
Demetrius invaded the region in 180 BCE, extending his rule over various parts
of present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan. Lasting for almost two centuries, the
kingdom was ruled by a succession of more than 30 Greek kings, who were
often in conflict with each other. The Indo-Scythians were a branch of the Indo-
European Sakas (Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia, first into
Bactria, subsequently into Sogdiana, Kashmir, Arachosia, and Gandhara, and
finally into India. Their kingdom lasted from the middle of the 2nd century BCE
to the 1st century BCE. Yet another kingdom, the Indo-Parthians (also known as
the Pahlavas), came to control most of present-day Afghanistan and northern
Pakistan, after fighting many local rulers such as the Kushan ruler Kujula Kadphises, in the Gandhara
region. The Sassanid empire of Persia, who was contemporaneous with the Gupta Empire, expanded
into the region of present-day Balochistan in Pakistan, where the mingling of Indian culture and the
culture of Iran gave birth to a hybrid culture under the Indo-Sassanids.
Kushan Empire
Main article: Kushan Empire
The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the subcontinent
under the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises, about the middle of the 1st century CE. By
the time of his grandson, Kanishka, (whose era is thought to have begun c. 127 CE), they had conquered
most of northern India, at least as far as Saketa and Pataliputra, in the middle Ganges Valley, and
probably as far as the Bay of Bengal.
[62]
They played an important role in the establishment of
Buddhism in India and its spread to Central Asia and China. By the 3rd century, their empire in India
was disintegrating; their last known great emperor being Vasudeva I (c. 190-225 CE).
Roman trade with India
Main article: Roman trade with India
Roman trade with India started around 1 CE, during the reign of Augustus and following his conquest of
Egypt, which had been India's biggest trade partner in the West.

Coin of the Roman
emperor Augustus
found at the
Pudukottai, South
India.

Queen Kumaradevi and King
Chandragupta I, depicted on a coin
of their son Samudragupta, 335380
CE.
The trade started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE kept increasing, and
according to Strabo (II.5.12.
[63]
), by the time of Augustus, up to 120 ships set
sail every year from Myos Hormos on the Red Sea to India. So much gold was
used for this trade, and apparently recycled by the Kushans for their own
coinage, that Pliny the Elder (NH VI.101) complained about the drain of specie
to India:
"India, China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million
sesterces from our empire per annum at a conservative estimate: that is
what our luxuries and women cost us. For what percentage of these
imports is intended for sacrifices to the gods or the spirits of the dead?"
Pliny, Historia Naturae 12.41.84.
[64]
The maritime (but not the overland) trade routes, harbours, and trade items are
described in detail in the 1st century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
Gupta rule
Main article: Gupta Empire
See also: Chandra Gupta I, Samudragupta, Chandra Gupta II, Kumaragupta I, and Skandagupta
Further information: Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana
Further information:
Meghadta, Abhijnakuntala, Kumrasambhava, Panchatantra, Aryabhatiya, Indian
numerals, and Kama Sutra
The Classical Age refers to the period when much of the Indian
subcontinent was reunited under the Gupta Empire (c. 320550
CE).
[65][66]
This period has been called the Golden Age of India
[67]

and was marked by extensive achievements in science,
technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic,
mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy that crystallized
the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture.
[68]
The
decimal numeral system, including the concept of zero, was
invented in India during this period.
[69]
The peace and prosperity
created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of
scientific and artistic endeavors in India.
[70]
The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent
architecture, sculpture, and painting.
[71]
The Gupta period
produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira,
Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in
many academic fields.
[72]
Science and political administration
reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural
center and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri
Lanka, Maritime Southeast Asia, and Indochina.
Pala Empire under Dharmapala Pala Empire under Devapala

Chola Empire under Rajendra
Chola c. 1030 C.E.

Badami Chalukya Empire
The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to
legitimize their rule, but they also patronized Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to
Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulersChandragupta I (c. 319335),
Samudragupta (c. 335376), and Chandragupta II (c. 376415) brought much of India under their
leadership.
[73]
They successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the Hunas, who
established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century, with their capital at Bamiyan.
[74]
However, much of the Deccan and southern India were largely unaffected by these events in the
north.
[75][76]
Late Middle Kingdoms The Classical Age
Main articles: Middle Kingdoms of India, Badami Chalukyas, Rashtrakuta, Eastern Ganga dynasty,
Western Chalukyas, Rajput kingdoms, and Vijayanagara Empire
The "Classical Age" in India began
with the Gupta Empire and the
resurgence of the north during
Harsha's conquests around the 7th
century CE, and ended with the fall
of the Vijayanagara Empire in the
south in the 13th century, due to
pressure from the invaders to the
north. This period produced some
of India's finest art, considered the
epitome of classical development,
and the development of the main
spiritual and philosophical systems
which continued to be in Hinduism,
Buddhism and Jainism. King
Harsha of Kannauj succeeded in
reuniting northern India during
his reign in the 7th century,
after the collapse of the Gupta
dynasty. His kingdom collapsed
after his death.
Central Asian and North
Western Indian Buddhism
weakened in the 6th century
after the White Hun invasion,
who followed their own
religions such as Tengri, and
Manichaeism. Muhammad bin Qasim's invasion of Sindh in 711 CE
witnessed further decline of Buddhism. The Chach Nama records
many instances of conversion of stupas to mosques such as at Nerun

The Kanauj Triangle was the
focal point of empires - the
Rashtrakutas of Deccan, the
Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, and
the Palas of Bengal.
[77]
In 7th century CE, Kumrila Bhaa formulated hi school of
Mimamsa philosophy and defended the position on Vedic rituals
against Buddhist attacks. Scholars note Bhaa's contribution to the
decline of Buddhism.
[78]
His dialectical success against the
Buddhists is confirmed by Buddhist historian Tathagata, who
reports that Kumrila defeated disciples of Buddhapalkita, Bhavya,
Dharmadasa, Dignaga and others.
[79]
Ronald Inden writes that by
8th century BCE symbols of Hindu gods replaced Buddha "replaced
the Buddha at the imperial centre and pinnacle of the cosmo-
political system, the image or symbol of the Hindu god comes to be
housed in a monumental temple and given increasingly elaborate
imperial-style puja worship".
[80]
Although Buddhism did not
disappear from India for several centuries after the eighth, royal
proclivities for the cults of Vishnu and Shiva weakened Buddhism's
position within the sociopolitical context and helped make possible
its decline.
[81]
From the 7th to the 9th century, three dynasties contested for control
of northern India: the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa,the Eastern
Ganga dynasty of Orissa, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. The Sena dynasty
would later assume control of the Pala Empire, and the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented into various
states. These were the first of the Rajput states, a series of kingdoms which managed to survive in some
form for almost a millennium, until Indian independence from the British. The first recorded Rajput
kingdoms emerged in Rajasthan in the 6th century, and small Rajput dynasties later ruled much of
northern India. One Gurjar
[82][83]
Rajput of the Chauhan clan, Prithvi Raj Chauhan, was known for
bloody conflicts against the advancing Islamic sultanates. The Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern
Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th century.
The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and central India from Badami in Karnataka between 550
and 750, and then again from Kalyani between 970 and 1190. The Pallavas of Kanchipuram were their
contemporaries further to the south. With the decline of the Chalukya empire, their feudatories, the
Hoysalas of Halebidu, Kakatiyas of Warangal, Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, and a southern branch of the
Kalachuri, divided the vast Chalukya empire amongst themselves around the middle of 12th century.
The Chola Empire at its peak covered much of the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Rajaraja
Chola I conquered all of peninsular south India and parts of Sri Lanka. Rajendra Chola I's navies went
even further, occupying coasts from Burma to Vietnam,
[84]
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the
Lakshadweep (Laccadive) islands, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula in Southeast Asia and the Pegu
islands. Later during the middle period, the Pandyan Empire emerged in Tamil Nadu, as well as the
Chera Kingdom in parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. By 1343, last of these dynasties had ceased to exist,
giving rise to the Vijayanagar empire.
The ports of south India were engaged in the Indian Ocean trade, chiefly involving spices, with the
Roman Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the east.
[85][86]
Literature in local vernaculars and
spectacular architecture flourished until about the beginning of the 14th century, when southern

Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, has the
second largest pre-modern dome
in the world after the Byzantine
Hagia Sophia.
expeditions of the sultan of Delhi took their toll on these kingdoms. The Hindu Vijayanagar Empire
came into conflict with the Islamic Bahmani Sultanate, and the clashing of the two systems caused a
mingling of the indigenous and foreign cultures that left lasting cultural influences on each other.
The Islamic Sultanates
Main articles: Muslim conquest of India, Islamic Empires in India, Bahmani Sultanate, and Deccan
Sultanates
See also: Rajput resistance to Muslim invasions and Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval
India
After conquering Persia, Arab Islamic Caliphate incorporated parts
of what is now Pakistan around 720 CE. The Muslim rulers were
keen to invade India,
[87]
which was a rich region,
[88]
with a
flourishing international trade and the only known diamond mines
in the world. In 712 CE an Arab Muslim general called Muhammad
bin Qasim conquered most of the Indus region in modern day
Pakistan, for the Umayyad empire, to be made the "As-Sindh"
province with its capital at Al-Mansurah, 72 km (45 mi) north of
modern Hyderabad in Sindh, Pakistan. After several wars including
the Battle of Rajasthan, where the Hindu Rajput clans defeated the
Umayyad Arabs, their expansion was checked and contained to
Sindh in Pakistan,
[89]
many short-lived Islamic kingdoms
(sultanates) under foreign rulers were established across the north
western subcontinent over a period of a few centuries. Additionally,
Muslim trading communities had flourished throughout coastal south India, particularly on the western
coast, where Muslim traders arrived in small numbers, mainly from the Arabian peninsula. This had
marked the introduction of a third Abrahamic Middle Eastern religion, following Judaism and
Christianity, often in puritanical form. Later, the Bahmani Sultanate and Deccan sultanates founded by
Turkic rulers, flourished in the south.
The Vijayanagara Empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to
ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. The empire dominated all of Southern India
and fought off invasions from the five established Deccan Sultanates.
[90]
The empire reached its peak
during the rule of Krishnadevaraya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious.
[91]
The
empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the
eastern Deccan, including Kalinga, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in
the south.
[92]
It lasted until 1646 although its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the
Deccan sultanates. As a result, much territories of former Vijaynagar Empire were captured by Deccan
Sultanates and the remaining got divided into many states ruled by Hindu rulers.
Delhi Sultanate
Main article: Delhi Sultanate

Qutub Minar is the world's tallest
brick minaret, commenced by
Qutb-ud-din Aybak of the Slave
dynasty.


Taj Mahal, built by the Mughals
In the 12th and 13th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded parts of
northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former
Rajput holdings.
[93]
The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi
managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximately
equal in extent to the ancient Gupta Empire, while the Khilji
dynasty was also able to conquer most of central India, but were
ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent.
The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance.
The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic
monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing.
It is surmised that the language of Urdu (literally meaning "horde"
or "camp" in various Turkic dialects) was born during the Delhi
Sultanate period as a result of the intermingling of the local speakers
of Sanskritic Prakrits with immigrants speaking Persian, Turkic, and
Arabic under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only
Indo-Islamic empire to have enthroned one of the few female rulers
in India, Razia Sultana (12361240).
A Turco-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timur (Tamerlane),
attacked the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq
Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi.
[94]
The Sultan's army was
defeated on December 17, 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in
ruins, after Timur's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city
to be sacked except for the sayyids, scholars, and the other Muslims; 100,000 war prisoners were put to
death in one day.
[95]
Early modern period
Mughal Empire
Main article: Mughal
Empire
In 1526, Babur, a
Timurid descendant of
Timur and Genghis Khan
from Fergana Valley
(modern day Uzbekistan),
swept across the Khyber
Pass and established the
Mughal Empire, covering
modern day Afghanistan,
Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.
[96]
However, his son Humayun
was defeated by the Afghan warrior Sher Shah Suri in the year
1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to Kabul. After Sher
Shah's death, his son Islam Shah Suri and the Hindu king Samrat
Extent of the Mughal Empire in 1700.
Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, who had won 22 battles against
Afghan rebels and forces of Akbar, from Punjab to Bengal and
had established a secular Hindu rule in North India from Delhi
till 1556. Akbar's forces defeated and killed Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat on 6 November 1556.
The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600; it went into a slow decline after
1707. The Mughals suffered sever blow due to invasions from Marathas and Afghans due to which the
Mughal dynasty were reduced to puppet rulers by 1757. The remnants of the Mughal dynasty were
finally defeated during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also called the 1857 War of Independence. This
period marked vast social change in the subcontinent as the Hindu majority were ruled over by the
Mughal emperors, most of whom showed religious tolerance, liberally patronising Hindu culture. The
famous emperor Akbar, who was the grandson of Babar, tried to establish a good relationship with the
Hindus. However, later emperors such as Aurangazeb tried to establish complete Muslim dominance,
and as a result several historical temples were destroyed during this period and taxes imposed on non-
Muslims. During the decline of the Mughal Empire, several smaller states rose to fill the power vacuum
and themselves were contributing factors to the decline. In 1739, Nader Shah, emperor of Iran, defeated
the Mughal army at the huge Battle of Karnal. After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi,
carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne.
[97]
The Mughals were perhaps the richest single dynasty to have ever existed. During the Mughal era, the
dominant political forces consisted of the Mughal Empire and its tributaries and, later on, the rising
successor states - including the Maratha Empire - which fought an increasingly weak Mughal dynasty.
The Mughals, while often employing brutal tactics to subjugate their empire, had a policy of integration
with Indian culture, which is what made them successful where the short-lived Sultanates of Delhi had
failed. Akbar the Great was particularly famed for this. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of
animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the jizya tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal emperors
married local royalty, allied themselves with local maharajas, and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian
culture with ancient Indian styles, creating a unique Indo-Saracenic architecture. It was the erosion of
this tradition coupled with increased brutality and centralization that played a large part in the dynasty's
downfall after Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively non-pluralistic policies on
the general population, which often inflamed the majority Hindu population.
Post-Mughal period
Main articles: Maratha Empire, Kingdom of Mysore, Hyderabad State, Nawab of Bengal, Sikh
Empire, Rajputs, and Durrani Empire
Further information: Shivaji, Tipu Sultan, Nizam, Nawab of Oudh, Ranjit Singh, and Ahmad Shah
Abdali
Maratha Empire
Main article: Maratha Empire
The post-Mughal era was dominated by the rise of the Maratha suzerainty as other small regional states
(mostly late Mughal tributary states) emerged, and also by the increasing activities of European powers
(see colonial era below). There is no doubt that the single most important power to emerge in the long

Political map of Indian
subcontinent in 1758. The
Maratha Empire (orange) was
the last Hindu empire of India.

Harmandir Sahib or The Golden
Temple is culturally the most
significant place of worship for
the Sikhs.
twilight of the Mughal dynasty was the Maratha Empire.
[98]
The
Maratha kingdom was founded and consolidated by Shivaji, a
Maratha aristocrat of the Bhonsle clan who was determined to
establish Hindavi Swarajya (self-rule of Hindu people). By the 18th
century, it had transformed itself into the Maratha Empire under the
rule of the Peshwas (prime ministers). Gordon explains how the
Maratha systematically took control over the Malwa plateau in 1720
-1760. They started with annual raids, collecting ransom from
villages and towns while the declining Mughal Empire retained
nominal control. However in 1737, the Marathas defeated a Mughal
army in their capital, Delhi inteslf, and as a result, the Mughal
emperor ceded Malwa to them. The Marathas continued their
military campaigns against Mughals, Nizam, Nawab of Bengal and
Durrani Empire to further extend their boundaries. They built an
efficient system of public administration known for its attention to
detail. It succeeded in raising revenue in districts that recovered
from years of raids, up to levels previously enjoyed by the Mughals.
The cornerstone of the Maratha rule in Malwa rested on the 60 or so
local tax collectors (kamavisdars) who advanced the Maratha ruler
'(Peshwa)' a portion of their district revenues at interest.
[99]
By 1760, the domain of the Marathas
stretched across practically the entire subcontinent.
[100]
The defeat of Marathas by British in three Anglo
-Maratha Wars brought end to the empire by 1820. The last peshwa, Baji Rao II, was defeated by the
British in the Third Anglo-Maratha War.
Sikh Empire (North-west)
Main article: Sikh Empire
See also: History of Sikhism
The Punjabi kingdom, ruled by members of the Sikh religion, was a
political entity that governed the region of modern-day Punjab. The
empire, based around the Punjab region, existed from 1799 to 1849.
It was forged, on the foundations of the Khalsa, under the leadership
of Maharaja Ranjit Singh (17801839) from an array of autonomous
Punjabi Misls. He consolidated many parts of northern India into a
kingdom. He primarily used his highly disciplined Sikh army that he
trained and equipped to be the equal of a European force. Ranjit
Singh proved himself to be a master strategist and selected well
qualified generals for his army. In stages, he added the central
Punjab, the provinces of Multan and Kashmir, the Peshawar Valley,
and the Derajat to his kingdom. His came in the face of the powerful British East India Company.
[101][102]
At its peak, in the 19th century, the empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west, to
Kashmir in the north, to Sindh in the south, and Tibet in the east. This was among the last areas of the
subcontinent to be conquered by the British. The first and second Anglo-Sikh war marked the downfall
of the Sikh Empire.
Other kingdoms
There were several other kingdoms which ruled over parts of India in the later medieval period prior to
the British occupation. However, most of them were bound to pay regular tribute to the Marathas.
[100]

The rule of Wodeyar dynasty which established the Kingdom of Mysore in southern India in around
1400 CE by was interrupted by Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan in the later half of 18th century.
Under their rule, Mysore fought a series of wars sometimes against the combined forces of the British
and Marathas, but mostly against the British, with Mysore receiving some aid or promise of aid from the
French.
The Nawabs of Bengal had become the de facto rulers of Bengal following the decline of Mughal
Empire. However, their rule was interrupted by Marathas who carried six expeditions in Bengal from
1741 to 1748 as a result of which Bengal became a vassal state of Marathas.
Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule,
Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and declared himself Nizam-al-Mulk of
Hyderabad in 1724. It was ruled by a hereditary Nizam from 1724 until 1948. Both Mysore and
Hyderabad became princely states in British India.
Around the 18th century, the modern state of Nepal was formed by Gurkha rulers.
Colonial era
Main article: Colonial India
In 1498, Vasco da Gama successfully discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the
way for direct Indo-European commerce.
[103]
The Portuguese soon set up trading posts in Goa, Daman,
Diu and Bombay. The next to arrive were the Dutch, the Britishwho set up a trading post in the west
coast port of Surat
[104]
in 1619and the French. The internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave
opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands.
Although these continental European powers controlled various coastal regions of southern and eastern
India during the ensuing century, they eventually lost all their territories in India to the British islanders,
with the exception of the French outposts of Pondicherry and Chandernagore, the Dutch port of
Travancore, and the Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman and Diu.
Company rule in India
Main articles: East India Company and Company rule in India
In 1617 the British East India Company was given permission by Mughal Emperor Jahangir to trade in
India.
[105]
Gradually their increasing influence led the de jure Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar to grant
them dastaks or permits for duty free trade in Bengal in 1717.
[106]
The Nawab of Bengal Siraj Ud
Daulah, the de facto ruler of the Bengal province, opposed British attempts to use these permits.

Map of India in 1857 at the end of
Company rule.
The First Carnatic War extended from 1746 until 1748 and was
the result of colonial competition between France and Britain,
two of the countries involved in the War of Austrian Succession.
Following the capture of a few French ships by the British fleet
in India, French troops attacked and captured the British city of
Madras located on the east coast of India on September 21, 1746.
Among the prisoners captured at Madras was Robert Clive
himself. The war was eventually ended by the Treaty of Aix-la-
Chapelle which ended the War of Austrian Succession in 1748.
In 1749, the Second Carnatic War broke out as the result of a war
between a son, Nasir Jung, and a grandson, Muzaffer Jung, of the
deceased Nizam-ul-Mulk of Hyderabad to take over Nizam's
thone in Hyderabad. The French supported Muzaffer Jung in this
civil war. Consequently, the British supported Nasir Jung in this
conflict.
Meanwhile, however, the conflict in Hyderabad provided
Chanda Sahib with an opportunity to take power as the new
Nawab of the territory of Arcot. In this conflict, the French
supported Chandra Sahib in his attempt to become the new
Nawab of Arcot. The British supported the son of the deposed
incumbent Nawab, Anwaruddin Muhammad Khan, against
Chanda Sahib. In 1751, Robert Clive led a British armed force and captured Arcot to reinstate the
incumbent Nawab. The Second Carnatic War finally came to an end in 1754 with the Treaty of
Pondicherry.
In 1756, the Seven Years War broke out between the great powers of Europe, and India became a theatre
of action, where it was called the Third Carnatic War. Early in this war, armed forces under the French
East India Company captured the British base of Calcutta in north-eastern India. However, armed forces
under Robert Clive later recaptured Calcutta and then pressed on to capture the French settlement of
Chandannagar in 1757. This led to the Battle of Plassey on June 23, 1757, in which the Bengal Army of
the East India Company, led by Robert Clive, defeated the French-supported Nawab's forces. This was
the first real political foothold with territorial implications that the British acquired in India. Clive was
appointed by the company as its first 'Governor of Bengal' in 1757.
[107]
This was combined with British
victories over the French at Madras, Wandiwash and Pondicherry that, along with wider British
successes during the Seven Years War, reduced French influence in India. Thus as a result of the three
Carnatic Wars, the British East India Company gained exclusive control over the entire Carnatic region
of India.
[108]
The British East India Company extended its control over the whole of Bengal. After the
Battle of Buxar in 1764, the company acquired the rights of administration in Bengal from Mughal
Emperor Shah Alam II; this marked the beginning of its formal rule, which within the next century
engulfed most of India and extinguished the Moghul rule and dynasty.
[109]
The East India Company
monopolized the trade of Bengal. They introduced a land taxation system called the Permanent
Settlement which introduced a feudal-like structure in Bengal, often with zamindars set in place. By the

The British Indian Empire at its
greatest extent (in a map of 1909).
The princely states under British
suzerainty are in yellow.
1850s, the East India Company controlled most of the Indian sub-continent, which included present-day
Pakistan and Bangladesh. Their policy was sometimes summed up as Divide and Rule, taking advantage
of the enmity festering between various princely states and social and religious groups.
[110]
The Hindu Ahom Kingdom of North-east India first fell to Burmese invasion and then to British after
Treaty of Yandabo in 1826.
The rebellion of 1857 and its consequences
Main article: Indian rebellion of 1857
The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers employed by the British East India
in northern and central India against the Company's rule. The rebels were disorganized, had differing
goals, and were poorly equipped, led, and trained, and had no outside support or funding. They were
brutally suppressed and the British government took control of the Company and eliminated many of the
grievances that caused it. The government also was determined to keep full control so that no rebellion
of such size would ever happen again. It favoured the princely states (that helped suppress the rebellion),
and tended to favour Muslims (who were less rebellious) against the Hindus who dominated the
rebellion.
[111]
In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown, which
began to administer most of India as a number of provinces; the John Company's lands were controlled
directly, while it had considerable indirect influence over the rest of India, which consisted of the
Princely states ruled by local royal families. There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only
21 had actual state governments, and only three were large (Mysore, Hyderabad and Kashmir). They
were absorbed into the independent nation in 1947-48.
[112]
British Raj
Main article: British Raj
Reforms
When the Lord Curzon (Viceroy 1899-1905) took control of
higher education and then split the large province of Bengal into
a largely Hindu western half and "Eastern Bengal and Assam," a
largely Muslim eastern half. The British goal was efficient
administration but Hindus were outraged at the apparent "divide
and rule" strategy." When the Liberal party in Britain came to
power in 1906 he was removed. The new Viceroy Gilbert Minto
and the new Secretary of State for India John Morley consulted
with Congress leader Gopal Krishna Gokhale. The Morley-Minto
reforms of 1909 provided for Indian membership of the
provincial executive councils as well as the Viceroy's executive
council. The Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged from 25
to 60 members and separate communal representation for

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Bombay,
1944.
Muslims was established in a dramatic step towards representative and responsible government. Bengal
was reunified in 1911.
[113]
Meanwhile the Muslims for the first time began to organize, setting up the All
India Muslim League in 1906. It was not a mass party but was designed to protect the interests of the
aristocratic Muslims, especially in the north west. It was internally divided by conflicting loyalties to
Islam, the British, and India, and by distrust of Hindus.
[114]
Famines
During the British Raj, famines in India, often attributed to failed government policies, were some of the
worst ever recorded, including the Great Famine of 187678 in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people
died
[115]
and the Indian famine of 18991900 in which 1.25 to 10 million people died.
[115]
The Third
Plague Pandemic started in China in the middle of the 19th century, spreading plague to all inhabited
continents and killing 10 million people in India alone.
[116]
Despite persistent diseases and famines, the
population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at about 125 million in 1750, had reached 389
million by 1941.
[117]
The Indian independence movement
Main articles: Indian independence movement and Pakistan Movement
See also: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Indian independence activists
The numbers of British in India were small, yet they were able to
rule two-thirds of the subcontinent directly and exercise
considerable leverage over the princely states that accounted for
the remaining one-third of the area. There were 674 of the these
states in 1900, with a population of 73 million, or one person in
five. In general, the princely states were strong supporters of the
British regime, and the Raj left them alone. They were finally
closed down in 1947-48.
[118]
The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of
councillors to advise the British viceroy, in 1861; the first Indian
was appointed in 1909. Provincial Councils with Indian members
were also set up. The councillors' participation was subsequently
widened into legislative councils. The British built a large British Indian Army, with the senior officers
all British, and many of the troops from small minority groups such as Gurkhas from Nepal and Sikhs.
The civil service was increasingly filled with natives at the lower levels, with the British holding the
more senior positions.
[119]
From 1920 leaders such as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi began highly popular mass movements to
campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods. Some others adopted a militant
approach that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle; revolutionary activities against the
British rule took place throughout the Indian sub-continent. The Gandhi-led independence movement
opposed the British rule using non-violent methods like non-cooperation, civil disobedience and
economic resistance. These movements succeeded in bringing independence to the new dominions of
India and Pakistan in 1947.
Independence and partition
Main articles: Partition of India, History of the Republic of India, History of Pakistan, and History
of Bangladesh
Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been
developing over the years. The Muslims had always been a minority within the subcontinent, and the
prospect of an exclusively Hindu government made them wary of independence; they were as inclined
to mistrust Hindu rule as they were to resist the foreign Raj, although Gandhi called for unity between
the two groups in an astonishing display of leadership. The British, extremely weakened by the Second
World War, promised that they would leave and participated in the formation of an interim government.
The British Indian territories gained independence in 1947, after being partitioned into the Union of
India and Dominion of Pakistan. Following the controversial division of pre-partition Punjab and
Bengal, rioting broke out between Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in these provinces and spread to several
other parts of India, leaving some 500,000 dead.
[120]
Also, this period saw one of the largest mass
migrations ever recorded in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims
moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and
14 August 1947 respectively).
[120]
In 1971, Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan and East Bengal,
seceded from Pakistan.
Historiography
In recent decades there have been four main schools of historiography regarding India: Cambridge,
Nationalist, Marxist, and subaltern. The once common "Orientalist" approach, with its the image of a
sensuous, inscrutable, and wholly spiritual India, has died out in serious scholarship.
[121]
The "Cambridge School," led by Anil Seal,
[122]
Gordon Johnson,
[123]
Richard Gordon, and David A.
Washbrook,
[124]
downplays ideology.
[125]
The Nationalist school has focused on Congress, Gandhi, Nehru and high level politics. It highlighted
the Mutiny of 1857 as a war of liberation, and Gandhi's 'Quit India' begun in 1942, as defining historical
events. More recently, Hindu nationalists have created a version of history for the schools to support
their demands for "Hindutva" ("Hinduness") in Indian society.
[126]
The Marxists have focused on studies of economic development, landownership, and class conflict in
precolonial India and of deindustrialization during the colonial period. The Marxists portrayed Gandhi's
movement as a device for the bourgeois elite to harness popular, potentially revolutionary forces for its
own ends.
[127]
The "subaltern school," was begun in the 1980s by Ranajit Guha and Gyan Prakash.
[128]
It focuses
attention away from the elites and politicians to "history from below," looking at the peasants using
folklore, poetry, riddles, proverbs, songs, oral history and methods inspired by anthropology. It focuses
on the colonial era before 1947 and typically emphasizes caste and downplays class, to the annoyance of
the Marxist school.
[129]