JUDAISM

Judaism (from the Latin Iudaismus, derived from the Greek Ioudasmos, and ultimately from the
Hebrew , Yehudah, "Judah";
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in Hebrew$ %&' (, Yahedut, the di)tin*tive *hara*teri)ti*) of
the Judean ethnos
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, i) the reli-ion, .hilo)o.hy, and way of life of the Jewi)h .eo.le/
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1
monothei)ti* reli-ion ori-inatin- in the Hebrew 2ible (al)o known a) the 3anakh, and e4.lored
in later te4t) )u*h a) the 3almud, Judai)m i) *on)idered by reli-iou) Jew) to be the e4.re))ion of
the *ovenantal relation)hi. God develo.ed with the 5hildren of 6)rael/
7"
8abbini* Judai)m hold)
that God revealed hi) law) and *ommandment) to 9o)e) on 9ount :inai in the form of both the
;ritten and <ral 3orah/
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3hi) a))ertion wa) hi)tori*ally *hallen-ed by the >araite), a movement
that flouri)hed in the medieval .eriod, whi*h retain) )everal thou)and follower) today and
maintain) that only the ;ritten 3orah wa) revealed/
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6n modern time), liberal movement) )u*h
a) Humani)ti* Judai)m may be nonthei)ti*/
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Judai)m *laim) a hi)tori*al *ontinuity ).annin- more than +,AAA year)/ 6t i) one of the olde)t
monothei)ti* reli-ion),
B"
and the olde)t to )urvive into the .re)ent day/
!A"
3he Hebrew) C
6)raelite) were already referred to a) "Jew)" in later book) of the 3anakh )u*h a) the 2ook of
D)ther, with the term Jew) re.la*in- the title "5hildren of 6)rael"/
!!"
Judai)mE) te4t), tradition)
and value) )tron-ly influen*ed later 1brahami* reli-ion), in*ludin- 5hri)tianity, 6)lam and the
2ahaEi Faith/
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9any a).e*t) of Judai)m have al)o dire*tly or indire*tly influen*ed )e*ular
;e)tern ethi*) and *ivil law/
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Jew) are an ethnoreli-iou) -rou.
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and in*lude tho)e born Jewi)h and *onvert) to Judai)m/ 6n
#A!A, the world Jewi)h .o.ulation wa) e)timated at !+/0 million, or rou-hly A/#G of the total
world .o.ulation/ 1bout 0#G of all Jew) re)ide in 6)rael and about 0#G re)ide in the Hnited
:tate) and 5anada, with mo)t of the remainder livin- in Duro.e/
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3he lar-e)t Jewi)h reli-iou)
movement) are <rthodo4 Judai)m (Hareidi Judai)m and 9odern <rthodo4 Judai)m,,
5on)ervative Judai)m and 8eform Judai)m/ 1 maIor )our*e of differen*e between the)e -rou.)
i) their a..roa*h to Jewi)h law/
!?"
<rthodo4 Judai)m maintain) that the 3orah and Jewi)h law are
divine in ori-in, eternal and unalterable, and that they )hould be )tri*tly followed/ 5on)ervative
and 8eform Judai)m are more liberal, with 5on)ervative Judai)m -enerally .romotin- a more
"traditional" inter.retation of Judai)mE) reJuirement) than 8eform Judai)m/ 1 ty.i*al 8eform
.o)ition i) that Jewi)h law )hould be viewed a) a )et of -eneral -uideline) rather than a) a )et of
re)tri*tion) and obli-ation) who)e ob)ervan*e i) reJuired of all Jew)/
!@"!B"
Hi)tori*ally, ).e*ial
*ourt) enfor*ed Jewi)h law; today, the)e *ourt) )till e4i)t but the .ra*ti*e of Judai)m i) mo)tly
voluntary/
#A"
1uthority on theolo-i*al and le-al matter) i) not ve)ted in any one .er)on or
or-aniKation, but in the )a*red te4t) and rabbi) and )*holar) who inter.ret them/
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Defining character and principles of faith
Defining character
Gla)) .latter in)*ribed with the Hebrew word zakhreinu L remember u)
Hnlike other an*ient Mear Da)tern -od), the Hebrew God i) .ortrayed a) unitary and )olitary;
*on)eJuently, the Hebrew GodE) .rin*i.al relation)hi.) are not with other -od), but with the
world, and more ).e*ifi*ally, with the .eo.le He *reated/
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Judai)m thu) be-in) with an ethi*al
monothei)m$ the belief that God i) one, and *on*erned with the a*tion) of humankind/
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1**ordin- to the Hebrew 2ible, God .romi)ed 1braham to make of hi) off).rin- a -reat nation/
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9any -eneration) later, he *ommanded the nation of 6)rael to love and wor)hi. only one God;
that i), the Jewi)h nation i) to re*i.ro*ate GodE) *on*ern for the world/
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He al)o *ommanded
the Jewi)h .eo.le to love one another; that i), Jew) are to imitate GodE) love for .eo.le/
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3he)e
*ommandment) are but two of a lar-e *or.u) of *ommandment) and law) that *on)titute thi)
*ovenant, whi*h i) the )ub)tan*e of Judai)m/
3hu), althou-h there i) an e)oteri* tradition in Judai)m (>abbalah,, 8abbini* )*holar 9a4
>adu)hin ha) *hara*teriKed normative Judai)m a) "normal my)ti*i)m", be*au)e it involve)
everyLday .er)onal e4.erien*e) of God throu-h way) or mode) that are *ommon to all Jew)/
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3hi) i) .layed out throu-h the ob)ervan*e of the halakhot and -iven verbal e4.re))ion in the
2irkat HaL9iKvot, the )hort ble))in-) that are ).oken every time a .o)itive *ommandment i) to
be fulfilled/
3he ordinary, familiar, everyday thin-) and o**urren*e), we have *on)titute o**a)ion) for
the e4.erien*e of God/ :u*h thin-) a) oneE) daily )u)tenan*e, the very day it)elf, are felt
a) manife)tation) of GodE) lovin-Lkindne)), *allin- for the Berakhot/ Kedushah, holine)),
whi*h i) nothin- el)e than the imitation of God, i) *on*erned with daily *ondu*t, with
bein- -ra*iou) and mer*iful, with kee.in- one)elf from defilement by idolatry, adultery,
and the )heddin- of blood/ 3he Birkat Ha-Mitzwot evoke) the *on)*iou)ne)) of holine))
at a rabbini* rite, but the obIe*t) em.loyed in the maIority of the)e rite) are nonLholy and
of -eneral *hara*ter, while the )everal holy obIe*t) are nonLtheur-i*/ 1nd not only do
ordinary thin-) and o**urren*e) brin- with them the e4.erien*e of God/ Dverythin- that
ha..en) to a man evoke) that e4.erien*e, evil a) well a) -ood, for a Berakah i) )aid al)o
at evil tidin-)/ Hen*e, althou-h the e4.erien*e of God i) like none other, the occasions
for e4.erien*in- Him, for havin- a *on)*iou)ne)) of Him, are manifold, even if we
*on)ider only tho)e that *all for 2erakot/
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;herea) Jewi)h .hilo)o.her) often debate whether God i) immanent or tran)*endent, and
whether .eo.le have free will or their live) are determined, Halakha i) a )y)tem throu-h whi*h
any Jew a*t) to brin- God into the world/
Dthi*al monothei)m i) *entral in all )a*red or normative te4t) of Judai)m/ However, monothei)m
ha) not alway) been followed in .ra*ti*e/ 3he Jewi)h 2ible (3anakh, re*ord) and re.eatedly
*ondemn) the wide).read wor)hi. of other -od) in an*ient 6)rael/
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6n the Gre*oL8oman era,
many different inter.retation) of monothei)m e4i)ted in Judai)m, in*ludin- the inter.retation)
that -ave ri)e to 5hri)tianity/
+A"
9oreover, a) a nonL*reedal reli-ion, )ome have ar-ued that Judai)m doe) not reJuire one to
believe in God/ For )ome, ob)ervan*e of Jewi)h law i) more im.ortant than belief in God per se/
+!"
6n modern time), )ome liberal Jewi)h movement) do not a**e.t the e4i)ten*e of a .er)onified
deity a*tive in hi)tory/
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Core tenets
9ain arti*le$ Jewi)h .rin*i.le) of faith
!+ Nrin*i.le) of Faith$
1. 6 believe with .erfe*t faith that the 5reator, 2le))ed be Hi) Mame, i) the 5reator and Guide of
everythin- that ha) been *reated; He alone ha) made, doe) make, and will make all thin-)/
2. 6 believe with .erfe*t faith that the 5reator, 2le))ed be Hi) Mame, i) <ne, and that there i) no
unity in any manner like Hi), and that He alone i) our God, who wa), and i), and will be/
3. 6 believe with .erfe*t faith that the 5reator, 2le))ed be Hi) Mame, ha) no body, and that He i) free
from all the .ro.ertie) of matter, and that there *an be no (.hy)i*al, *om.ari)on to Him
what)oever/
4. 6 believe with .erfe*t faith that the 5reator, 2le))ed be Hi) Mame, i) the fir)t and the la)t/
5. 6 believe with .erfe*t faith that to the 5reator, 2le))ed be Hi) Mame, and to Him alone, it i) ri-ht
to .ray, and that it i) not ri-ht to .ray to any bein- be)ide) Him/
6. 6 believe with .erfe*t faith that all the word) of the .ro.het) are true/
7. 6 believe with .erfe*t faith that the .ro.he*y of 9o)e) our tea*her, .ea*e be u.on him, wa) true,
and that he wa) the *hief of the .ro.het), both tho)e who .re*eded him and tho)e who followed
him/
8. 6 believe with .erfe*t faith that the entire 3orah that i) now in our .o))e))ion i) the )ame that wa)
-iven to 9o)e) our tea*her, .ea*e be u.on him/
9. 6 believe with .erfe*t faith that thi) 3orah will not be e4*han-ed, and that there will never be any
other 3orah from the 5reator, 2le))ed be Hi) Mame/
10. 6 believe with .erfe*t faith that the 5reator, 2le))ed be Hi) Mame, know) all the deed) of human
bein-) and all their thou-ht), a) it i) written, ";ho fa)hioned the heart) of them all, ;ho
*om.rehend) all their a*tion)" (N)alm) ++$!7,/
11. 6 believe with .erfe*t faith that the 5reator, 2le))ed be Hi) Mame, reward) tho)e who kee. Hi)
*ommandment) and .uni)he) tho)e that tran)-re)) them/
12. 6 believe with .erfe*t faith in the *omin- of the 9e))iah; and even thou-h he may tarry,
nonethele)), 6 wait every day for hi) *omin-/
13. 6 believe with .erfe*t faith that there will be a revival of the dead at the time when it )hall .lea)e
the 5reator, 2le))ed be Hi) name, and Hi) mention )hall be e4alted for ever and ever/
L9aimonide)
:*holar) throu-hout Jewi)h hi)tory have .ro.o)ed numerou) formulation) of Judai)mE) *ore
tenet), all of whi*h have met with *riti*i)m/
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3he mo)t .o.ular formulation i) 9aimonide)E
thirteen .rin*i.le) of faith, develo.ed in the !#th *entury/ 1**ordin- to 9aimonide), any Jew
who reIe*t) even one of the)e .rin*i.le) would be *on)idered an a.o)tate and a hereti*/
+0"+7"

Jewi)h )*holar) have held .oint) of view diver-in- in variou) way) from 9aimonide)E .rin*i.le)/
+="+?"
6n 9aimonide)E time, hi) li)t of tenet) wa) *riti*iKed by Ha)dai 5re)*a) and Jo)e.h 1lbo/ 1lbo
and the 8aavad ar-ued that 9aimonide)E .rin*i.le) *ontained too many item) that, while true,
were not fundamental) of the faith/
1lon- the)e line), the an*ient hi)torian Jo)e.hu) em.ha)iKed .ra*ti*e) and ob)ervan*e) rather
than reli-iou) belief), a))o*iatin- a.o)ta)y with a failure to ob)erve Jewi)h law and maintainin-
that the reJuirement) for *onver)ion to Judai)m in*luded *ir*um*i)ion and adheren*e to
traditional *u)tom)/ 9aimonide)E .rin*i.le) were lar-ely i-nored over the ne4t few *enturie)/
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Later, two .oeti* re)tatement) of the)e .rin*i.le) ("Ani Ma'amin" and "Yigdal", be*ame
inte-rated into many Jewi)h litur-ie),
+B"citation needed"
leadin- to their eventual nearLuniver)al
a**e.tan*e/
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6n modern time), Judai)m la*k) a *entraliKed authority that would di*tate an e4a*t reli-iou)
do-ma/
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2e*au)e of thi), many different variation) on the ba)i* belief) are *on)idered within
the )*o.e of Judai)m/
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Dven )o, all Jewi)h reli-iou) movement) are, to a -reater or le))er
e4tent, ba)ed on the .rin*i.le) of the Hebrew 2ible and variou) *ommentarie) )u*h a) the
3almud and 9idra)h/ Judai)m al)o univer)ally re*o-niKe) the 2ibli*al 5ovenant between God
and the Natriar*h 1braham a) well a) the additional a).e*t) of the 5ovenant revealed to 9o)e),
who i) *on)idered Judai)mE) -reate)t .ro.het/
+="0+"00"07"0="
6n the 9i)hnah, a *ore te4t of 8abbini*
Judai)m, a**e.tan*e of the Oivine ori-in) of thi) *ovenant i) *on)idered an e))ential a).e*t of
Judai)m and tho)e who reIe*t the 5ovenant forfeit their )hare in the ;orld to 5ome/
0?"
Jewish religious texts
3he followin- i) a ba)i*, )tru*tured li)t of the *entral work) of Jewi)h .ra*ti*e and thou-ht/
3anakh
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(Hebrew 2ible, and 8abbini* literature
o 9e)orah
o 3ar-um
o Jewi)h 2ibli*al e4e-e)i) (al)o )ee 9idra)h below,
;ork) of the 3almudi* Dra (*la))i* rabbini* literature,
o 9i)hnah and *ommentarie)
o 3o)efta and the minor tra*tate)
o 3almud$
3he 2abylonian 3almud and *ommentarie)
Jeru)alem 3almud and *ommentarie)
9idra)hi* literature$
o Halakhi* 9idra)h
o 1--adi* 9idra)h
Halakhi* literature
o 9aIor 5ode) of Jewi)h Law and 5u)tom
9i)hneh 3orah and *ommentarie)
3ur and *ommentarie)
:hul*han 1ru*h and *ommentarie)
o 8e).on)a literature
Jewi)h 3hou-ht and Dthi*)
o Jewi)h .hilo)o.hy
o >abbalah
o Ha)idi* work)
o 9u)ar literature and other work) of Jewi)h ethi*)
:iddur and Jewi)h litur-y
Piut (5la))i*al Jewi)h .oetry,
Jewish legal literature
9ain arti*le$ Halakha
3he ba)i) of Jewi)h law and tradition (halakha, i) the 3orah (al)o known a) the Nentateu*h or the
Five 2ook) of 9o)e),/ 1**ordin- to rabbini* tradition there are =!+ *ommandment) in the
3orah/ :ome of the)e law) are dire*ted only to men or to women, )ome only to the an*ient
.rie)tly -rou.), the >ohanim and Leviyim (member) of the tribe of Levi,, )ome only to farmer)
within the Land of 6)rael/ 9any law) were only a..li*able when the 3em.le in Jeru)alem
e4i)ted, and fewer than +AA of the)e *ommandment) are )till a..li*able today/
;hile there have been Jewi)h -rou.) who)e belief) were *laimed to be ba)ed on the written te4t
of the 3orah alone (e/-/, the :addu*ee), and the >araite),, mo)t Jew) believed in what they *all
the oral law/ 3he)e oral tradition) were tran)mitted by the Nhari)ee )e*t of an*ient Judai)m, and
were later re*orded in written form and e4.anded u.on by the rabbi)/
8abbini* Judai)m (whi*h derive) from the Nhari)ee), ha) alway) held that the book) of the 3orah
(*alled the written law, have alway) been tran)mitted in .arallel with an oral tradition/ 3o Iu)tify
thi) view.oint, Jew) .oint to the te4t of the 3orah, where many word) are left undefined, and
many .ro*edure) mentioned without e4.lanation or in)tru*tion); thi), they ar-ue, mean) that the
reader i) a))umed to be familiar with the detail) from other, i/e/, oral, )our*e)/ 3hi) .arallel )et of
material wa) ori-inally tran)mitted orally, and *ame to be known a) "the oral law"/
2y the time of 8abbi Judah haMa)i (#AA 5D,, after the de)tru*tion of Jeru)alem, mu*h of thi)
material wa) edited to-ether into the 9i)hnah/ <ver the ne4t four *enturie) thi) law underwent
di)*u))ion and debate in both of the worldE) maIor Jewi)h *ommunitie) (in 6)rael and 2abylonia,,
and the *ommentarie) on the 9i)hnah from ea*h of the)e *ommunitie) eventually *ame to be
edited to-ether into *om.ilation) known a) the two 3almud)/ 3he)e have been e4.ounded by
*ommentarie) of variou) 3orah )*holar) durin- the a-e)/
Halakha, the rabbini* Jewi)h way of life, then, i) ba)ed on a *ombined readin- of the 3orah, and
the oral tradition L the 9i)hnah, the halakhi* 9idra)h, the 3almud and it) *ommentarie)/ 3he
Halakha ha) develo.ed )lowly, throu-h a .re*edentLba)ed )y)tem/ 3he literature of Jue)tion) to
rabbi), and their *on)idered an)wer), i) referred to a) re).on)a (in Hebrew, !heelot "-#eshu$ot/,
<ver time, a) .ra*ti*e) develo., *ode) of Jewi)h law are written that are ba)ed on the re).on)a;
the mo)t im.ortant *ode, the :hul*han 1ru*h, lar-ely determine) <rthodo4 reli-iou) .ra*ti*e
today/
Jewish philosophy
9ain arti*le$ Jewi)h .hilo)o.hy
Jewi)h .hilo)o.hy refer) to the *onIun*tion between )eriou) )tudy of .hilo)o.hy and Jewi)h
theolo-y/ 9aIor Jewi)h .hilo)o.her) in*lude :olomon ibn Gabirol, :aadia Gaon, Judah Halevi,
9aimonide), and Ger)onide)/ 9aIor *han-e) o**urred in re).on)e to the Dnli-htenment (late
!@th to early !Bth *entury, leadin- to the .o)tLDnli-htenment Jewi)h .hilo)o.her)/ 9odern
Jewi)h .hilo)o.hy *on)i)t) of both <rthodo4 and nonL<rthodo4 oriented .hilo)o.hy/ Motable
amon- <rthodo4 Jewi)h .hilo)o.her) are Dliyahu DlieKer Oe))ler, Jo)e.h 2/ :oloveit*hik, and
PitK*hok Hutner/ ;ellLknown nonL<rthodo4 Jewi)h .hilo)o.her) in*lude 9artin 2uber, FranK
8o)enKwei-, 9orde*ai >a.lan, 1braham Jo)hua He)*hel, ;ill Herber-, and Dmmanuel LQvina)/
Related Topics
3orah databa)e) (ele*troni* ver)ion) of the 3raditional Jewi)h 2ook)helf,
Li)t of Jewi)h .rayer) and ble))in-)
Rainic hermeneutics
!+ Nrin*i.le) of Hermeneuti*)$
1. 1 law that o.erate) under *ertain *ondition) will )urely be o.erative in other )ituation) where the
)ame *ondition) are .re)ent in a more a*ute form
2. 1 law o.eratin- in one )ituation will al)o be o.erative in another )ituation, if the te4t *hara*teriKe)
both )ituation) in identi*al term)/
3. 1 law that *learly e4.re))e) the .ur.o)e it wa) meant to )erve will al)o a..ly to other )ituation)
where the identi*al .ur.o)e may be )erved/
4. ;hen a -eneral rule i) followed by illu)trative .arti*ular), only tho)e .arti*ular) are to be
embra*ed by it/
5. 1 law that be-in) with ).e*ifyin- .arti*ular *a)e), and then .ro*eed) to an allLembra*in-
-eneraliKation, i) to be a..lied to .arti*ular) *a)e) not ).e*ified but lo-i*ally fallin- into the )ame
-eneraliKation/
6. 1 law that be-in) with a -eneraliKation a) to it) intended a..li*ation), then *ontinue) with the
).e*ifi*ation of .arti*ular *a)e), and then *on*lude) with a re)tatement of the -eneraliKation, *an
be a..lied only to the .arti*ular *a)e) ).e*ified/
7. 3he rule) about a -eneraliKation bein- followed or .re*eded by ).e*ifyin- .arti*ular) (rule) 0 and
7, will not a..ly if it i) a..arent that the ).e*ifi*ation of the .arti*ular *a)e) or the )tatement of
the -eneraliKation i) meant .urely for a*hievin- a -reater *larity of lan-ua-e/
8. 1 .arti*ular *a)e already *overed in a -eneraliKation that i) neverthele)) treated )e.arately
)u--e)t) that the )ame .arti*ulariKed treatment be a..lied to all other *a)e) whi*h are *overed in
that -eneraliKation/
9. 1 .enalty ).e*ified for a -eneral *ate-ory of wron-Ldoin- i) not to be automati*ally a..lied to a
.arti*ular *a)e that i) withdrawn from the -eneral rule to be ).e*ifi*ally .rohibited, but without
any mention of the .enalty/
10. 1 -eneral .rohibition followed by a ).e*ified .enalty may be followed by a .arti*ular *a)e,
normally in*luded in the -eneraliKation, with a modifi*ation in .enalty, either toward ea)in- it or
makin- it more )evere/
11. 1 *a)e lo-i*ally fallin- into a -eneral law but treated )e.arately remain) out)ide the .rovi)ion) of
the -eneral law e4*e.t in tho)e in)tan*e) where it i) ).e*ifi*ally in*luded in them/
12. <b)*uritie) in 2ibli*al te4t) may be *leared u. from the immediate *onte4t or from )ub)eJuently
o**urrin- .a))a-e)
13. 5ontradi*tion) in 2ibli*al .a))a-e) may be removed throu-h the mediation of other .a))a-e)/
L8/ 6)hmael
0B"
<rthodo4 and many other Jew) do not believe that the revealed 3orah *on)i)t) )olely of it)
written *ontent), but of it) inter.retation) a) well/ 3he )tudy of 3orah (in it) wide)t )en)e, to
in*lude both .oetry, narrative, and law, and both the Hebrew 2ible and the 3almud, i) in Judai)m
it)elf a )a*red a*t of *entral im.ortan*e/ For the )a-e) of the 9i)hnah and 3almud, and for their
)u**e))or) today, the )tudy of 3orah wa) therefore not merely a mean) to learn the *ontent) of
GodE) revelation, but an end in it)elf/ 1**ordin- to the 3almud,
3he)e are the thin-) for whi*h a .er)on enIoy) the dividend) in thi) world while the
.rin*i.al remain) for the .er)on to enIoy in the world to *ome; they are$ honorin-
.arent), lovin- deed) of kindne)), and makin- .ea*e between one .er)on and another/
2ut the )tudy of the 3orah i) eJual to them all/ (3almud :habbat !#?a,/
6n Judai)m, "the )tudy of 3orah *an be a mean) of e4.erien*in- God"/
7A"
8efle*tin- on the
*ontribution of the 1moraim and 3anaim to *ontem.orary Judai)m, Nrofe))or Ja*ob Meu)ner
ob)erved$
3he rabbiE) lo-i*al and rational inJuiry i) not mere lo-i*L*ho..in-/ 6t i) a mo)t )eriou)
and )ub)tantive effort to lo*ate in trivialitie) the fundamental .rin*i.le) of the revealed
will of God to -uide and )an*tify the mo)t ).e*ifi* and *on*rete a*tion) in the workaday
world //// Here i) the my)tery of 3almudi* Judai)m$ the alien and remote *onvi*tion that
the intelle*t i) an in)trument not of unbelief and de)a*raliKation but of )an*tifi*ation/"
7!"
3o )tudy the ;ritten 3orah and the <ral 3orah in li-ht of ea*h other i) thu) al)o to )tudy how to
)tudy the word of God/
6n the )tudy of 3orah, the )a-e) formulated and followed variou) lo-i*al and hermeneuti*al
.rin*i.le)/ 1**ordin- to Oavid :tern, all 8abbini* hermeneuti*) re)t on two ba)i* a4iom)$
fir)t, the belief in the omni)i-nifi*an*e of :*ri.ture, in the meanin-fulne)) of it) every
word, letter, even (a**ordin- to one famou) re.ort, )*ribal flouri)h; )e*ond, the *laim of
the e))ential unity of :*ri.ture a) the e4.re))ion of the )in-le divine will/
7#"
3he)e two .rin*i.le) make .o))ible a -reat variety of inter.retation)/ 1**ordin- to the 3almud,
1 )in-le ver)e ha) )everal meanin-), but no two ver)e) hold the )ame meanin-/ 6t wa)
tau-ht in the )*hool of 8/ 6)hmael$ E2ehold, 9y word i) like fireRde*lare) the LordR
and like a hammer that )hatter) ro*kE (Jer #+$#B,/ Ju)t a) thi) hammer .rodu*e) many
).ark) (when it )trike) the ro*k,, )o a )in-le ver)e ha) )everal meanin-)/" (3almud
:anhedrin +0a,/
<b)ervant Jew) thu) view the 3orah a) dynami*, be*au)e it *ontain) within it a ho)t of
inter.retation)
7+"
1**ordin- to 8abbini* tradition, all valid inter.retation) of the written 3orah were revealed to
9o)e) at :inai in oral form, and handed down from tea*her to .u.il (3he oral revelation i) in
effe*t *oe4ten)ive with the 3almud it)elf,/ ;hen different rabbi) forwarded *onfli*tin-
inter.retation), they )ometime) a..ealed to hermeneuti* .rin*i.le) to le-itimiKe their ar-ument);
)ome rabbi) *laim that the)e .rin*i.le) were them)elve) revealed by God to 9o)e) at :inai/
70"
3hu), Hillel *alled attention to )even *ommonly u)ed in the inter.retation of law) (baraita at the
be-innin- of :ifra,; 8/ 6)hmael, thirteen (baraita at the be-innin- of :ifra; thi) *olle*tion i)
lar-ely an am.lifi*ation of that of Hillel,/
77"
DlieKer b/ Jo)e haLGelili li)ted +#, lar-ely u)ed for
the e4e-e)i) of narrative element) of 3orah/ 1ll the hermeneuti* rule) )*attered throu-h the
3almudim and 9idra)him have been *olle*ted by 9albim in Aelet ha-!hachar% the
introdu*tion to hi) *ommentary on the :ifra/ Meverthele)), 8/ 6)hmaelE) !+ .rin*i.le) are .erha.)
the one) mo)t widely known; they *on)titute an im.ortant, and one of Judai)mE) earlie)t,
*ontribution) to lo-i*, hermeneuti*), and Iuri).ruden*e/
7="
Judah Hada))i in*or.orated 6)hmaelE)
.rin*i.le) into >araite Judai)m in the !#th *entury/
7?"
3oday 8/ 6)hmaelE) !+ .rin*i.le) are
in*or.orated into the Jewi)h .rayer book to be read by ob)ervant Jew) on a daily ba)i)/
7@"7B"=A"=!"
Jewish identity
!rigin of the term "Judaism"
3he term Judai)m derive) from the Latin Iudaismus, derived from the Greek STUVWXYZ[\
Ioudasmos, and ultimately from the Hebrew , Yehudah, "Judah";
=#"=+"
in Hebrew$ %&' (,
Yahadut/ 6t fir)t a..ear) a) the Helleni)ti* Greek iudaismos in #nd 9a**abee) in the #nd *entury
25D/ 6n the *onte4t of the a-e and .eriod it held the meanin- of )eekin- or formin- .art of a
*ultural entity, that of iudea, the Greek derivative of Ner)ian Pehud, and *an be *om.ared with
hellenismos, meanin- a**e.tan*e of Helleni* *ultural norm) (the *onfli*t between iudaismos and
hellenismos lay behind the 9a**abeean revolt and hen*e the invention of the term iudaismos,/
=0"

3he earlie)t in)tan*e of the term in Dn-li)h, u)ed to mean "the .rofe))ion or .ra*ti*e of the
Jewi)h reli-ion; the reli-iou) )y)tem or .olity of the Jew)", i) 8obert FabyanE) #he newe
croncles o& 'nglande and o& (raunce a )*)+/ 1) an Dn-li)h tran)lation of the Latin, the fir)t
in)tan*e in Dn-li)h i) a !=!! tran)lation of the 1.o*ry.ha(Oeutero*anon in 5atholi* and
<rthodo4 5hri)tianity,, # 9a**/ ii/ #! "3ho)e that behaved them)elue) manfully to their honour
for 6udai)me/"
=7"
Distinction etween Jews as a people and Judaism
1**ordin- to Oaniel 2oyarin, the underlyin- di)tin*tion between reli-ion and ethni*ity i) forei-n
to Judai)m it)elf, and i) one form of the duali)m between ).irit and fle)h that ha) it) ori-in in
Nlatoni* .hilo)o.hy and that .ermeated Helleni)ti* Judai)m/
=="
5on)eJuently, in hi) view,
Judai)m doe) not fit ea)ily into *onventional ;e)tern *ate-orie), )u*h a) reli-ion, ethni*ity, or
*ulture/ 2oyarin )u--e)t) that thi) in .art refle*t) the fa*t that mu*h of Judai)mE) more than
+,AAALyear hi)tory .redate) the ri)e of ;e)tern *ulture and o**urred out)ide the ;e)t (that i),
Duro.e, .arti*ularly medieval and modern Duro.e,/ Ourin- thi) time, Jew) have e4.erien*ed
)lavery, anar*hi* and theo*rati* )elfL-overnment, *onJue)t, o**u.ation, and e4ile; in the
Oia).ora), they have been in *onta*t with and have been influen*ed by an*ient D-y.tian,
2abylonian, Ner)ian, and Helleni* *ulture), a) well a) modern movement) )u*h a) the
Dnli-htenment ()ee Ha)kalah, and the ri)e of nationali)m, whi*h would bear fruit in the form of
a Jewi)h )tate in the Levant/ 3hey al)o )aw an elite *onvert to Judai)m (the >haKar),, only to
di)a..ear a) the *enter) of .ower in the land) on*e o**u.ied by that elite fell to the .eo.le of
8u) and then the 9on-ol)/ 3hu), 2oyarin ha) ar-ued that "Jewi)hne)) di)ru.t) the very
*ate-orie) of identity, be*au)e it i) not national, not -enealo-i*al, not reli-iou), but all of the)e,
in diale*ti*al ten)ion/"
=?"
6n *ontra)t to thi) .oint of view, .ra*ti*e) )u*h a) Humani)ti* Judai)m reIe*t the reli-iou) a).e*t)
of Judai)m, while retainin- *ertain *ultural tradition)/
#ho is a Jew$
9ain arti*le$ ;ho i) a Jew]
1**ordin- to traditional Jewi)h Law, a Jew i) anyone born of a Jewi)h mother or *onverted to
Judai)m in a**ordan*e with Jewi)h Law/ 1meri*an 8eform Judai)m and 2riti)h Liberal Judai)m
a**e.t the *hild of one Jewi)h .arent (father or mother, a) Jewi)h if the .arent) rai)e the *hild
with a Jewi)h identity/ 1ll main)tream form) of Judai)m today are o.en to )in*ere *onvert),
althou-h *onver)ion ha) traditionally been di)*oura-ed )in*e the time of the 3almud/ 3he
*onver)ion .ro*e)) i) evaluated by an authority, and the *onvert i) e4amined on hi) or her
)in*erity and knowled-e/
=@"
5onvert) are -iven the name "ben 1braham" or "bat 1braham", ()on
or dau-hter of 1braham,/
3raditional Judai)m maintain) that a Jew, whether by birth or *onver)ion, i) a Jew forever/ 3hu)
a Jew who *laim) to be an athei)t or *onvert) to another reli-ion i) )till *on)idered by traditional
Judai)m to be Jewi)h/ 1**ordin- to )ome )our*e), the 8eform movement ha) maintained that a
Jew who ha) *onverted to another reli-ion i) no lon-er a Jew,
=B"?A"
and the 6)raeli Government
ha) al)o taken that )tan*e after :u.reme 5ourt *a)e) and )tatute)/
?!"
However, the 8eform
movement ha) indi*ated that thi) i) not )o *ut and dry, and different )ituation) *all for
*on)ideration and differin- a*tion)/ For e4am.le, Jew) who have *onverted under dure)) may be
.ermitted to return to Judai)m "without any a*tion on their .art but their de)ire to reIoin the
Jewi)h *ommunity" and "1 .ro)elyte who ha) be*ome an a.o)tate remain), neverthele)), a Jew"/
(./ !AAL!A=,/
?#"
3he Jue)tion of what determine) Jewi)h identity in the :tate of 6)rael wa) -iven new im.etu)
when, in the !B7A), Oavid 2enLGurion reJue)ted o.inion) on mihu Yehudi ("who i) a Jew", from
Jewi)h reli-iou) authoritie) and intelle*tual) worldwide in order to )ettle *itiKen)hi. Jue)tion)/
3hi) i) )till not )ettled, and o**a)ionally re)urfa*e) in 6)raeli .oliti*)/
Jewish demographics
9ain arti*le$ Jewi)h .o.ulation
3he total number of Jew) worldwide i) diffi*ult to a))e)) be*au)e the definition of "who i) a
Jew" i) .roblemati*; not all Jew) identify them)elve) a) Jewi)h, and )ome who identify a) Jewi)h
are not *on)idered )o by other Jew)/ 1**ordin- to the ,ewish Year Book (!BA!,, the -lobal
Jewi)h .o.ulation in !BAA wa) around !! million/ 3he late)t available data i) from the ;orld
Jewi)h No.ulation :urvey of #AA# and the Jewi)h Pear 5alendar (#AA7,/ 6n #AA#, a**ordin- to
the Jewi)h No.ulation :urvey, there were !+/+ million Jew) around the world/ 3he Jewi)h Pear
5alendar *ite) !0/= million/ Jewi)h .o.ulation -rowth i) *urrently near Kero .er*ent, with A/+G
-rowth from #AAA to #AA!/
Jewish religious mo%ements
9ain arti*le$ Jewi)h reli-iou) movement)
Rainic Judaism
8abbini* Judai)m (or in )ome 5hri)tian tradition), 8abbini)m, (Hebrew$ "Pahadut 8abanit" L
%^_` %, ha) been the main)tream form of Judai)m )in*e the =th *entury 5D, after the
*odifi*ation of the 3almud/ 6t i) *hara*teri)ed by the belief that the ;ritten 3orah (Law, *annot
be *orre*tly inter.reted without referen*e to the <ral 3orah and by the voluminou) literature
).e*ifyin- what behavior i) )an*tioned by the law (*alled halakha, "the way",/
3he Jewi)h Dnli-htenment of the late !@th *entury re)ulted in the divi)ion of 1)hkenaKi
(;e)tern, Jewry into reli-iou) movement) or denomination), e).e*ially in Morth 1meri*a and
1n-lo.hone *ountrie)/ 3he main denomination) today out)ide 6)rael (where the )ituation i)
rather different, are <rthodo4, 5on)ervative, and 8eform/
<rthodo4 Judai)m hold) that both the ;ritten and <ral 3orah were divinely revealed to
9o)e), and that the law) within it are bindin- and un*han-in-/ <rthodo4 Jew) -enerally
*on)ider *ommentarie) on the !hulchan Aruch (a *onden)ed *odifi*ation of halakha that
lar-ely favored :e.hardi* tradition), to be the definitive *odifi*ation of Jewi)h law/
<rthodo4y .la*e) a hi-h im.ortan*e on 9aimonide)E !+ .rin*i.le) a) a definition of
Jewi)h faith/
<rthodo4y i) often divided into 9odern <rthodo4 Judai)m and Haredi Judai)m/
Haredi Judai)m i) le)) a**ommodatin- to modernity and ha) le)) intere)t in nonL
Jewi)h di)*i.line), and it may be di)tin-ui)hed from 9odern <rthodo4 Judai)m in
.ra*ti*e by it) )tyle) of dre)) and more )trin-ent .ra*ti*e)/ :ub)et) of Haredi
Judai)m in*lude$ Ha)idi* Judai)m, whi*h i) rooted in the >abbalah and
di)tin-ui)hed by relian*e on a 8ebbe or reli-iou) tea*her; and :e.hardi* Haredi
Judai)m, whi*h emer-ed amon- :e.hardi* (1)ian and Morth 1fri*an, Jew) in
6)rael/
5on)ervative Judai)m, known a) 9a)orti out)ide the Hnited :tate) and 5anada, i)
*hara*teriKed by a *ommitment to traditional Jewi)h law) and *u)tom), in*ludin-
ob)ervan*e of :habbat and ka)hrut, a deliberately nonLfundamentali)t tea*hin- of Jewi)h
.rin*i.le) of faith, a .o)itive attitude toward modern *ulture, and an a**e.tan*e of both
traditional rabbini* and modern )*holar)hi. when *on)iderin- Jewi)h reli-iou) te4t)/
5on)ervative Judai)m tea*he) that Jewi)h law i) not )tati*, but ha) alway) develo.ed in
re).on)e to *han-in- *ondition)/ 6t hold) that the 3orah i) a divine do*ument written by
.ro.het) in).ired by God and refle*tin- hi) will, but reIe*t) the <rthodo4 .o)ition that it
wa) di*tated by God to 9o)e)/
?+"?0"
5on)ervative Judai)m hold) that the <ral Law i)
divine and normative, but hold) that both the ;ritten and <ral Law may be inter.reted by
the rabbi) to refle*t modern )en)ibilitie) and )uit modern *ondition)/
8eform Judai)m, *alled Liberal or Nro-re))ive Judai)m in many *ountrie), define)
Judai)m a) a reli-ion rather than a) a ra*e or *ulture, reIe*t) mo)t of the ritual and
*eremonial law) of the 3orah while ob)ervin- moral law), and em.ha)iKe) the ethi*al *all
of the Nro.het)/ 8eform Judai)m ha) develo.ed an e-alitarian .rayer )ervi*e in the
verna*ular (alon- with Hebrew in many *a)e), and em.ha)iKe) .er)onal *onne*tion to
Jewi)h tradition/
1 8eform )yna-o-ue with mi4ed )eatin- and eJual .arti*i.ation of men and women
8e*on)tru*tioni)t Judai)m, like 8eform Judai)m, doe) not hold that Jewi)h law, a) )u*h,
reJuire) ob)ervan*e, but unlike 8eform, 8e*on)tru*tioni)t thou-ht em.ha)iKe) the role of
the *ommunity in de*idin- what ob)ervan*e) to follow/
Jewi)h 8enewal i) a re*ent Morth 1meri*an movement whi*h fo*u)e) on ).irituality and
)o*ial Iu)ti*e, but doe) not addre)) i))ue) of Jewi)h law/ 9en and women .arti*i.ate
eJually in .rayer/
Humani)ti* Judai)m i) a )mall nonLthei)ti* movement *entered in Morth 1meri*a and
6)rael that em.ha)iKe) Jewi)h *ulture and hi)tory a) the )our*e) of Jewi)h identity/
Jewish mo%ements in Israel
9ain arti*le$ 8eli-ion in 6)rael
9o)t Jewi)h 6)raeli) *la))ify them)elve) a) ")e*ular" (hiloni,, "traditional" (masorti,, "reli-iou)"
(dati, or Haredi/ 3he term ")e*ular" i) more .o.ular a) a )elfLde)*ri.tion amon- 6)raeli familie)
of we)tern (Duro.ean, ori-in, who)e Jewi)h identity may be a very .owerful for*e in their live),
but who )ee it a) lar-ely inde.endent of traditional reli-iou) belief and .ra*ti*e/ 3hi) .ortion of
the .o.ulation lar-ely i-nore) or-aniKed reli-iou) life, be it of the offi*ial 6)raeli rabbinate
(<rthodo4, or of the liberal movement) *ommon to dia).ora Judai)m (8eform, 5on)ervative,/
3he term "traditional" (masorti, i) mo)t *ommon a) a )elfLde)*ri.tion amon- 6)raeli familie) of
"ea)tern" ori-in (i/e/, the 9iddle Da)t, 5entral 1)ia, and Morth 1fri*a,/ 3hi) term, a) *ommonly
u)ed, ha) nothin- to do with the offi*ial 9a)orti (5on)ervative, movement/ 3here i) a -reat deal
of ambi-uity in the way) ")e*ular" and "traditional" are u)ed in 6)rael$ they often overla., and
they *over an e4tremely wide ran-e in term) of ideolo-y and reli-iou) ob)ervan*e/ 3he term
"<rthodo4" i) not .o.ular in 6)raeli di)*our)e, althou-h the .er*enta-e of Jew) who *ome under
that *ate-ory i) far -reater than in the dia).ora/ ;hat would be *alled "<rthodo4" in the dia).ora
in*lude) what i) *ommonly *alled dati (reli-iou), or haredi (ultraL<rthodo4, in 6)rael/ 3he
former term in*lude) what i) *alled "8eli-iou) aioni)m" or the "Mational 8eli-iou)" *ommunity,
a) well a) what ha) be*ome known over the .a)t de*ade or )o a) haredi-leumi (nationali)t
haredi,, or "Hardal", whi*h *ombine) a lar-ely haredi life)tyle with nationali)t ideolo-y/ (:ome
.eo.le, in Piddi)h, al)o refer to ob)ervant <rthodo4 Jew) a) &rum, a) o..o)ed to &rei (more
liberal Jew),,/
Haredi a..lie) to a .o.ula*e that *an be rou-hly divided into three )e.arate -rou.) alon- both
ethni* and ideolo-i*al line)$ (!, "Lithuanian" (nonLha)idi*, haredim of 1)hkenaKi* ori-in; (#,
Ha)idi* haredim of 1)hkenaKi* ori-in; and (+, :e.hardi* haredim/
Alternati%e Judaism
9ain arti*le$ 1lternative Judai)m
>araite Judai)m define) it)elf a) the remnant) of the nonL8abbini* Jewi)h )e*t) of the :e*ond
3em.le .eriod, )u*h a) the :addu*ee)/ 3he >araite) (":*ri.turali)t)", a**e.t only the Hebrew
2ible and what they view a) the Ne)hat (")im.le" meanin-,; they do not a**e.t nonLbibli*al
writin-) a) authoritative/ :ome Duro.ean >araite) do not )ee them)elve) a) .art of the Jewi)h
*ommunity at all, althou-h mo)t do/ 3he :amaritan), a very )mall *ommunity lo*ated entirely
around 9ount GeriKim in the Mablu)C:he*hem re-ion of the ;e)t 2ank and in Holon, near 3el
1viv in 6)rael, re-ard them)elve) a) the de)*endant) of the 6)raelite) of the 6ron 1-e kin-dom of
6)rael/ 3heir reli-iou) .ra*ti*e) are tho)e of Judai)m, but they re-ard only the written 3orah a)
authoritative )*ri.ture (with a ).e*ial re-ard al)o for the :amaritan 2ook of Jo)hua,/
Jewish oser%ances
Jewish ethics
9ain arti*le$ Jewi)h ethi*)
Jewi)h ethi*) may be -uided by halakhi* tradition), by other moral .rin*i.le), or by *entral
Jewi)h virtue)/ Jewi)h ethi*al .ra*ti*e i) ty.i*ally under)tood to be marked by value) )u*h a)
Iu)ti*e, truth, .ea*e, lovin-Lkindne)) (*he)ed,, *om.a))ion, humility, and )elfLre).e*t/ :.e*ifi*
Jewi)h ethi*al .ra*ti*e) in*lude .ra*ti*e) of *harity (tKedakah, and refrainin- from ne-ative
).ee*h (la)hon hara,/ Nro.er ethi*al .ra*ti*e) re-ardin- )e4uality and many other i))ue) are
)ubIe*t) of di).ute amon- Jew)/
&rayers
9ain arti*le$ Jewi)h )ervi*e)

1 Pemenite Jew at mornin- .rayer), wearin- a ki..ah )kull*a., .rayer )hawl and tefillin
3raditionally, Jew) re*ite .rayer) three time) daily, :ha*harit, 9in*ha, and 9aEariv with a fourth
.rayer, 9u))af added on :habbat and holiday)/ 1t the heart of ea*h )ervi*e i) the Amidah or
!hemoneh 'srei/ 1nother key .rayer in many )ervi*e) i) the de*laration of faith, the !hema
Yisrael (or !hema,/ 3he !hema i) the re*itation of a ver)e from the 3orah (Oeuteronomy =$0,$
!hema Yisrael Adonai 'loheinu Adonai 'chadR"Hear, < 6)raelb 3he Lord i) our Godb 3he Lord
i) <neb"
9o)t of the .rayer) in a traditional Jewi)h )ervi*e *an be re*ited in )olitary .rayer, althou-h
*ommunal .rayer i) .referred/ 5ommunal .rayer reJuire) a Juorum of ten adult Jew), *alled a
minan/ 6n nearly all <rthodo4 and a few 5on)ervative *ir*le), only male Jew) are *ounted
toward a minan; mo)t 5on)ervative Jew) and member) of other Jewi)h denomination) *ount
female Jew) a) well/
6n addition to .rayer )ervi*e), ob)ervant traditional Jew) re*ite .rayer) and benedi*tion)
throu-hout the day when .erformin- variou) a*t)/ Nrayer) are re*ited u.on wakin- u. in the
mornin-, before eatin- or drinkin- different food), after eatin- a meal, and )o on/
3he a..roa*h to .rayer varie) amon- the Jewi)h denomination)/ Oifferen*e) *an in*lude the
te4t) of .rayer), the freJuen*y of .rayer, the number of .rayer) re*ited at variou) reli-iou)
event), the u)e of mu)i*al in)trument) and *horal mu)i*, and whether .rayer) are re*ited in the
traditional litur-i*al lan-ua-e) or the verna*ular/ 6n -eneral, <rthodo4 and 5on)ervative
*on-re-ation) adhere mo)t *lo)ely to tradition, and 8eform and 8e*on)tru*tioni)t )yna-o-ue)
are more likely to in*or.orate tran)lation) and *ontem.orary writin-) in their )ervi*e)/ 1l)o, in
mo)t 5on)ervative )yna-o-ue), and all 8eform and 8e*on)tru*tioni)t *on-re-ation), women
.arti*i.ate in .rayer )ervi*e) on an eJual ba)i) with men, in*ludin- role) traditionally filled only
by men, )u*h a) readin- from the 3orah/ 6n addition, many 8eform tem.le) u)e mu)i*al
a**om.animent )u*h a) or-an) and mi4ed *hoir)/
Religious clothing
Further information$ ki..ah, tKitKit, and tefillin
1 kippah (Hebrew$ c de f, .lural kippot; Piddi)h$ ghij`k, armulke, i) a )li-htly rounded brimle))
)kull*a. worn by many Jew) while .rayin-, eatin-, re*itin- ble))in-), or )tudyin- Jewi)h
reli-iou) te4t), and at all time) by )ome Jewi)h men/ 6n <rthodo4 *ommunitie), only men wear
ki..ot; in nonL<rthodo4 *ommunitie), )ome women al)o wear ki..ot/ Kippot ran-e in )iKe from
a )mall round beanie that *over) only the ba*k of the head, to a lar-e, )nu- *a. that *over) the
whole *rown/
#zitzit (Hebrew$ %ele l, (1)hkenaKi .ronun*iation$ tzitzis, are ).e*ial knotted "frin-e)" or
"ta))el)" found on the four *orner) of the tallit (Hebrew$ %e m( n, (1)hkenaKi .ronun*iation$ tallis,,
or .rayer )hawl/ 3he tallit i) worn by Jewi)h men and )ome Jewi)h women durin- the .rayer
)ervi*e/ 5u)tom) vary re-ardin- when a Jew be-in) wearin- a tallit/ 6n the :e.hardi *ommunity,
boy) wear a tallit from bar mitKvah a-e/ 6n )ome 1)hkenaKi *ommunitie) it i) *u)tomary to wear
one only after marria-e/ 1 tallit katan ()mall tallit, i) a frin-ed -arment worn under the *lothin-
throu-hout the day/ 6n )ome <rthodo4 *ir*le), the frin-e) are allowed to han- freely out)ide the
*lothin-/
3efillin (Hebrew$ oe me pq %,, known in Dn-li)h a) .hyla*terie) (from the Greek word rUsWtuvwxTy,
meanin- sa&eguard or amulet,, are two )Juare leather bo4e) *ontainin- bibli*al ver)e), atta*hed
to the forehead and wound around the left arm by leather )tra.)/ 3hey are worn durin- weekday
mornin- .rayer by ob)ervant Jewi)h men and )ome Jewi)h women/
?7"
1 kittel (Piddi)h$ inh,, a white kneeLlen-th over-arment, i) worn by .rayer leader) and )ome
ob)ervant traditional Jew) on the Hi-h Holiday)/ 6t i) traditional for the head of the hou)ehold to
wear a kittel at the Na))over )eder in )ome *ommunitie), and )ome -room) wear one under the
weddin- *ano.y/ Jewi)h male) are buried in a tallit and )ometime) al)o a kittel whi*h are .art of
the tachrichim (burial -arment),/
Jewish holidays
9ain arti*le$ Jewi)h holiday
Jewi)h holiday) are ).e*ial day) in the Jewi)h *alendar, whi*h *elebrate moment) in Jewi)h
hi)tory, a) well a) *entral theme) in the relation)hi. between God and the world, )u*h a)
*reation, revelation, and redem.tion/
Shaat
9ain arti*le$ :habbat

3wo braided :habbat *hallah) .la*ed under an embroidered *hallah *over at the )tart of the
:habbat meal
!ha--at, the weekly day of re)t la)tin- from )hortly before )undown on Friday ni-ht to ni-htfall
:aturday ni-ht, *ommemorate) GodE) day of re)t after )i4 day) of *reation/
?="
6t .lay) a .ivotal
role in Jewi)h .ra*ti*e and i) -overned by a lar-e *or.u) of reli-iou) law/ 1t )undown on Friday,
the woman of the hou)e wel*ome) the :habbat by li-htin- two or more *andle) and re*itin- a
ble))in-/ 3he evenin- meal be-in) with the >iddu)h, a ble))in- re*ited aloud over a *u. of wine,
and the 9ohtKi, a ble))in- re*ited over the bread/ 6t i) *u)tomary to have *hallah, two braided
loave) of bread, on the table/ Ourin- :habbat Jew) are forbidden to en-a-e in any a*tivity that
fall) under +B *ate-orie) of melakhah, tran)lated literally a) "work"/ 6n fa*t the a*tivitie) banned
on the :abbath are not "work" in the u)ual )en)e$ 3hey in*lude )u*h a*tion) a) li-htin- a fire,
writin-, u)in- money and *arryin- in the .ubli* domain/ 3he .rohibition of li-htin- a fire ha)
been e4tended in the modern era to drivin- a *ar, whi*h involve) burnin- fuel, and u)in-
ele*tri*ity/
Three pilgrimage festi%als
9ain arti*le$ :halo)h re-alim

:ukkah) in Jeru)alem
Jewi)h holy day) (chaggim,, *elebrate landmark event) in Jewi)h hi)tory, )u*h a) the D4odu)
from D-y.t and the -ivin- of the 3orah, and )ometime) mark the *han-e of )ea)on) and
tran)ition) in the a-ri*ultural *y*le/ 3he three maIor fe)tival), :ukkot, Na))over and :havuot, are
*alled "re-alim" (derived from the Hebrew word "re-el", or foot,/ <n the three re-alim, it wa)
*u)tomary for the 6)raelite) to make .il-rima-e) to Jeru)alem to offer )a*rifi*e) in the 3em.le/
Na))over (Pesach, i) a weekLlon- holiday be-innin- on the evenin- of the !0th day of
Mi)an (the fir)t month in the Hebrew *alendar,, that *ommemorate) the D4odu) from
D-y.t/ <ut)ide 6)rael, Na))over i) *elebrated for ei-ht day)/ 6n an*ient time), it *oin*ided
with the barley harve)t/ 6t i) the only holiday that *enter) on homeL)ervi*e, the :eder/
Leavened .rodu*t) (*hametK, are removed from the hou)e .rior to the holiday, and are
not *on)umed throu-hout the week/ Home) are thorou-hly *leaned to en)ure no bread or
bread byL.rodu*t) remain, and a )ymboli* burnin- of the la)t ve)ti-e) of *hametK i)
*ondu*ted on the mornin- of the :eder/ 9atKo i) eaten in)tead of bread/
:havuot ("Nente*o)t" or "Fea)t of ;eek)", *elebrate) the revelation of the 3orah to the
6)raelite) on 9ount :inai/ 1l)o known a) the Fe)tival of 2ikurim, or fir)t fruit), it
*oin*ided in bibli*al time) with the wheat harve)t/ :havuot *u)tom) in*lude allLni-ht
)tudy marathon) known a) 3ikkun Leil :havuot, eatin- dairy food) (*hee)e*ake and
blintKe) are ).e*ial favorite),, readin- the 2ook of 8uth, de*oratin- home) and
)yna-o-ue) with -reenery, and wearin- white *lothin-, )ymboliKin- .urity/
:ukkot ("3aberna*le)" or "3he Fe)tival of 2ooth)", *ommemorate) the 6)raelite)E forty
year) of wanderin- throu-h the de)ert on their way to the Nromi)ed Land/ 6t i) *elebrated
throu-h the *on)tru*tion of tem.orary booth) *alled sukkot ()in-/ sukkah, that re.re)ent
the tem.orary )helter) of the 6)raelite) durin- their wanderin-/ 6t *oin*ide) with the fruit
harve)t, and mark) the end of the a-ri*ultural *y*le/ Jew) around the world eat in sukkot
for )even day) and ni-ht)/ :ukkot *on*lude) with :hemini 1tKeret, where Jew) be-in to
.ray for rain and :im*hat 3orah, "8eIoi*in- of the 3orah", a holiday whi*h mark)
rea*hin- the end of the 3orah readin- *y*le and be-innin- all over a-ain/ 3he o**a)ion i)
*elebrated with )in-in- and dan*in- with the 3orah )*roll)/ :hemini 1tKeret and :im*hat
3orah are te*hni*ally *on)idered to be a )e.arate holiday and not a .art of :ukkot/
'igh 'oly Days
9ain arti*le$ Hi-h Holiday)

Jew) .rayin- in a )yna-o-ue on Pom >i..ur, from an !@?@ .aintin- by 9aury*y Gottlieb
3he Hi-h Holiday) (Yamim .oraim or "Oay) of 1we", revolve around Iud-ment and for-ivene))/
8o)h Ha)hanah, (al)o Yom Ha-/ikkaron or "Oay of 8emembran*e", and Yom #eruah, or
"Oay of the :oundin- of the :hofar",/ 8o)h Ha)hanah i) the Jewi)h Mew Pear (literally,
"head of the year",, althou-h it fall) on the fir)t day of the )eventh month of the Hebrew
*alendar, 3i)hri/ 8o)h Ha)hanah mark) the be-innin- of the !ALday .eriod of atonement
leadin- u. to Pom >i..ur, durin- whi*h Jew) are *ommanded to )ear*h their )oul) and
make amend) for )in) *ommitted, intentionally or not, throu-hout the year/ Holiday
*u)tom) in*lude blowin- the )hofar, or ramE) horn, in the )yna-o-ue, eatin- a..le) and
honey, and )ayin- ble))in-) over a variety of )ymboli* food), )u*h a) .ome-ranate)/
Pom >i..ur, ("Oay of 1tonement", i) the holie)t day of the Jewi)h year/ 6t i) a day of
*ommunal fa)tin- and .rayin- for for-ivene)) for oneE) )in)/ <b)ervant Jew) ).end the
entire day in the )yna-o-ue, )ometime) with a )hort break in the afternoon, re*itin-
.rayer) from a ).e*ial holiday .rayerbook *alled a "9a*hKor"/ 9any nonLreli-iou) Jew)
make a .oint of attendin- )yna-o-ue )ervi*e) and fa)tin- on Pom >i..ur/ <n the eve of
Pom >i..ur, before *andle) are lit, a .refa)t meal, the ")euda maf)eket", i) eaten/
:yna-o-ue )ervi*e) on the eve of Pom >i..ur be-in with the >ol Midre .rayer/ 6t i)
*u)tomary to wear white on Pom >i..ur, e).e*ially for >ol Midre, and leather )hoe) are
not worn/ 3he followin- day, .rayer) are held from mornin- to evenin-/ 3he final .rayer
)ervi*e, *alled "MeEilah", end) with a lon- bla)t of the )hofar/
&urim
9ain arti*le$ Nurim

Nurim )treet )*ene in Jeru)alem
Nurim (Hebrew$

z`p (hel.{info, P0r1m "lot)", i) a Ioyou) Jewi)h holiday that *ommemorate)
the deliveran*e of the Ner)ian Jew) from the .lot of the evil Haman, who )ou-ht to e4terminate
them, a) re*orded in the bibli*al 2ook of D)ther/ 6t i) *hara*teriKed by .ubli* re*itation of the
2ook of D)ther, mutual -ift) of food and drink, *harity to the .oor, and a *elebratory meal
(D)ther B$##,/ <ther *u)tom) in*lude drinkin- wine, eatin- ).e*ial .a)trie) *alled hamanta)hen,
dre))in- u. in ma)k) and *o)tume), and or-aniKin- *arnival) and .artie)/
Nurim i) *elebrated annually on the !0th of the Hebrew month of 1dar, whi*h o**ur) in February
or 9ar*h of the Gre-orian *alendar/
'anu((ah
9ain arti*le$ Hanukkah
Hanukkah (Hebrew$ c f|^' }, "dedi*ation", al)o known a) the Fe)tival of Li-ht), i) an ei-ht day
Jewi)h holiday that )tart) on the #7th day of >i)lev (Hebrew *alendar,/ 3he fe)tival i) ob)erved
in Jewi)h home) by the kindlin- of li-ht) on ea*h of the fe)tivalE) ei-ht ni-ht), one on the fir)t
ni-ht, two on the )e*ond ni-ht and )o on/
3he holiday wa) *alled Hanukkah (meanin- "dedi*ation", be*au)e it mark) the reLdedi*ation of
the 3em.le after it) de)e*ration by 1ntio*hu) 6~ D.i.hane)/ :.iritually, Hanukkah
*ommemorate) the "9ira*le of the <il"/ 1**ordin- to the 3almud, at the reLdedi*ation of the
3em.le in Jeru)alem followin- the vi*tory of the 9a**abee) over the :eleu*id Dm.ire, there wa)
only enou-h *on)e*rated oil to fuel the eternal flame in the 3em.le for one day/ 9ira*ulou)ly, the
oil burned for ei-ht day) L whi*h wa) the len-th of time it took to .re)), .re.are and *on)e*rate
new oil/
Hanukkah i) not mentioned in the 2ible and wa) never *on)idered a maIor holiday in Judai)m,
but it ha) be*ome mu*h more vi)ible and widely *elebrated in modern time), mainly be*au)e it
fall) around the )ame time a) 5hri)tma) and ha) national Jewi)h overtone) that have been
em.ha)iKed )in*e the e)tabli)hment of the :tate of 6)rael/
!ther holidays
9ain arti*le$ 3i)ha 2E1v
9ain arti*le)$ Pom Ha)hoah and Pom HaEatKmaut
3i)ha 2E1v (Hebrew$ __ g% or __ n, "the Minth of 1v", i) a holiday of mournin- and fa)tin-
*ommemoratin- the de)tru*tion of the Fir)t and :e*ond 3em.le) and the e4.ul)ion of the Jew)
from :.ain/
3he modern holiday) of Pom HaL)hoah (Holo*au)t 8emembran*e Oay, and Pom HaEatKmaut
(6)raeli 6nde.enden*e Oay, *ommemorate the horror) of the Holo*au)t and the a*hievement of
6)rael inde.enden*e, re).e*tively/
Torah readings
9ain arti*le$ 3orah readin-
3he *ore of fe)tival and :habbat .rayer )ervi*e) i) the .ubli* readin- of the 3orah, alon- with
*onne*ted readin-) from the other book) of the 3anakh, *alled Haftarah/ <ver the *our)e of a
year, the whole 3orah i) read, with the *y*le )tartin- over in the autumn, on :im*hat 3orah/
Synagogues and religious uildings
9ain arti*le$ :yna-o-ue

6nterior of the D)no-a )yna-o-ue in 1m)terdam
:yna-o-ue) are Jewi)h hou)e) of .rayer and )tudy/ 3hey u)ually *ontain )e.arate room) for
.rayer (the main )an*tuary,, )maller room) for )tudy, and often an area for *ommunity or
edu*ational u)e/ 3here i) no )et blue.rint for )yna-o-ue) and the ar*hite*tural )ha.e) and interior
de)i-n) of )yna-o-ue) vary -reatly/ 3he 8eform movement mo)tly refer to their )yna-o-ue) a)
tem.le)/ :ome traditional feature) of a )yna-o-ue are$
3he ark (*alled aron ha-kodesh by 1)hkenaKim and hekhal by :e.hardim, where the
3orah )*roll) are ke.t (the ark i) often *lo)ed with an ornate *urtain (parochet, out)ide or
in)ide the ark door),;
3he elevated readerE) .latform (*alled -imah by 1)hkenaKim and te-ah by :e.hardim,,
where the 3orah i) read (and )ervi*e) are *ondu*ted in :e.hardi )yna-o-ue),;
3he eternal li-ht (ner tamid,, a *ontinually lit lam. or lantern u)ed a) a reminder of the
*on)tantly lit menorah of the 3em.le in Jeru)alem
3he .ul.it, or amud, a le*tern fa*in- the 1rk where the haKKan or .rayer leader )tand)
while .rayin-/
6n addition to )yna-o-ue), other buildin-) of )i-nifi*an*e in Judai)m in*lude ye)hiva), or
in)titution) of Jewi)h learnin-, and mikvah), whi*h are ritual bath)/
Dietary laws) kashrut
9ain arti*le$ >a)hrut
3he Jewi)h dietary law) are known a) kashrut/ Food .re.ared in a**ordan*e with them i) termed
ko)her, and food that i) not ko)her i) al)o known a) trei&ah or trei&/ Neo.le who ob)erve the)e
law) are *olloJuially )aid to be "kee.in- ko)her"/
??"
9any of the law) a..ly to animalLba)ed food)/ For e4am.le, in order to be *on)idered ko)her,
mammal) mu)t have ).lit hoove) and *hew their *ud/ 3he .i- i) ar-uably the mo)t wellLknown
e4am.le of a nonLko)her animal/
?@"
1lthou-h it ha) ).lit hoove), it doe) not *hew it) *ud/
?B"
For
)eafood to be ko)her, the animal mu)t have fin) and )*ale)/ 5ertain ty.e) of )eafood, )u*h a)
)hellfi)h, *ru)ta*ean), and eel), are therefore *on)idered nonLko)her/ 5on*ernin- bird), a li)t of
nonLko)her ).e*ie) i) -iven in the 3orah/ 3he e4a*t tran)lation) of many of the ).e*ie) have not
)urvived, and )ome nonLko)her bird)E identitie) are no lon-er *ertain/ However, tradition) e4i)t
about the kashrut )tatu) of a few bird)/ For e4am.le, both *hi*ken) and turkey) are .ermitted in
mo)t *ommunitie)/ <ther ty.e) of animal), )u*h a) am.hibian), re.tile), and mo)t in)e*t), are
.rohibited alto-ether/
??"
6n addition to the reJuirement that the ).e*ie) be *on)idered ko)her, meat and .oultry (but not
fi)h, mu)t *ome from a healthy animal )lau-htered in a .ro*e)) known a) shechitah/ ;ithout the
.ro.er )lau-hterin- .ra*ti*e) even an otherwi)e ko)her animal will be rendered trei&/ 3he
)lau-hterin- .ro*e)) i) intended to be Jui*k and relatively .ainle)) to the animal/ Forbidden .art)
of animal) in*lude the blood, )ome fat), and the area in and around the )*iati* nerve/
??"
Jewi)h law al)o forbid) the *on)um.tion of meat and dairy .rodu*t) to-ether/ 3he waitin- .eriod
between eatin- meat and eatin- dairy varie) by the order in whi*h they are *on)umed and by
*ommunity, and *an e4tend for u. to )i4 hour)/ 2a)ed on the 2ibli*al inIun*tion a-ain)t *ookin-
a kid in it) motherE) milk, thi) rule i) mo)tly derived from the <ral 3orah, the 3almud and
8abbini* law/
??"
5hi*ken and other ko)her bird) are *on)idered the )ame a) meat under the law)
of kashrut, but the .rohibition i) 8abbini*, not 2ibli*al/
@A"
3he u)e of di)he), )ervin- uten)il), and oven) may make food trei& that would otherwi)e be
ko)her/ Hten)il) that have been u)ed to .re.are nonLko)her food, or di)he) that have held meat
and are now u)ed for dairy .rodu*t), render the food trei& under *ertain *ondition)/
??"
Furthermore, all <rthodo4 and )ome 5on)ervative authoritie) forbid the *on)um.tion of
.ro*e))ed -ra.e .rodu*t) made by nonLJew), due to an*ient .a-an .ra*ti*e) of u)in- wine in
ritual)/
??"
:ome 5on)ervative authoritie) .ermit wine and -ra.e Iui*e made without rabbini*
)u.ervi)ion/
@!"
3he 3orah doe) not -ive ).e*ifi* rea)on) for mo)t of the law) of kashrut/
??"
However, a number
of e4.lanation) have been offered, in*ludin- maintainin- ritual .urity, tea*hin- im.ul)e *ontrol,
en*oura-in- obedien*e to God, im.rovin- health, redu*in- *ruelty to animal) and .re)ervin- the
di)tin*tne)) of the Jewi)h *ommunity/
@#"
3he variou) *ate-orie) of dietary law) may have
develo.ed for different rea)on), and )ome may e4i)t for multi.le rea)on)/ For e4am.le, .eo.le
are forbidden from *on)umin- the blood of bird) and mammal) be*au)e, a**ordin- to the 3orah,
thi) i) where animal )oul) are *ontained/
@+"
6n *ontra)t, the 3orah forbid) 6)raelite) from eatin-
nonLko)her ).e*ie) be*au)e "they are un*lean"/
@0"
3he >abbalah de)*ribe) ).ark) of holine)) that
are relea)ed by the a*t of eatin- ko)her food), but are too ti-htly bound in nonLko)her food) to be
relea)ed by eatin-/
@7"
:urvival *on*ern) )u.er)ede all the law) of kashrut, a) they do for mo)t halakhot/
@="@?"
*aws of ritual purity
9ain arti*le$ 3umah
3he 3anakh de)*ribe) *ir*um)tan*e) in whi*h a .er)on who i) tahor or ritually .ure may be*ome
tamei or ritually im.ure/ :ome of the)e *ir*um)tan*e) are *onta*t with human *or.)e) or -rave),
)eminal flu4, va-inal flu4, men)truation, and *onta*t with .eo.le who have be*ome im.ure from
any of the)e/
@@"@B"
6n 8abbini* Judai)m, >ohanim, member) of the hereditary *a)te that )erved a)
.rie)t) in the time of the 3em.le, are mo)tly re)tri*ted from enterin- -rave )ite) and tou*hin-
dead bodie)/
BA"
+amily purity
9ain arti*le$ Middah
1n im.ortant )ub*ate-ory of the ritual .urity law) relate) to the )e-re-ation of men)truatin-
women/ 3he)e law) are al)o known a) niddah, literally ")e.aration", or family .urity/ ~ital
a).e*t) of halakha for traditionally ob)ervant Jew), they are not u)ually followed by Jew) in
liberal denomination)/
B!"
D).e*ially in <rthodo4 Judai)m, the 2ibli*al law) are au-mented by 8abbini*al inIun*tion)/ For
e4am.le, the 3orah mandate) that a woman in her normal men)trual .eriod mu)t ab)tain from
)e4ual inter*our)e for )even day)/ 1 woman who)e men)truation i) .rolon-ed mu)t *ontinue to
ab)tain for )even more day) after bleedin- ha) )to..ed/
@@"
3he 8abbi) *onflated ordinary niddah
with thi) e4tended men)trual .eriod, known in the 3orah a) za$ah, and mandated that a woman
may not have )e4ual inter*our)e with her hu)band from the time )he be-in) her men)trual flow
until )even day) after it end)/ 6n addition, 8abbini*al law forbid) the hu)band from tou*hin- or
)harin- a bed with hi) wife durin- thi) .eriod/ 1fterward), .urifi*ation *an o**ur in a ritual bath
*alled a mikveh/
B!"
3raditional Dthio.ian Jew) kee. men)truatin- women in )e.arate hut) and, )imilar to >araite
.ra*ti*e, do not allow men)truatin- women into their tem.le) be*au)e of a tem.leE) ).e*ial
)an*tity/ Dmi-ration to 6)rael and the influen*e of other Jewi)h denomination) have led to
Dthio.ian Jew) ado.tin- more normative Jewi)h .ra*ti*e)/
B#"B+"
*ife,cycle e%ents
LifeL*y*le event), or rite) of .a))a-e, o**ur throu-hout a JewE) life that )erve to )tren-then
Jewi)h identity and bind himCher to the entire *ommunity/
2rit milah L ;el*omin- male babie) into the *ovenant throu-h the rite of *ir*um*i)ion on
their ei-hth day of life/ 3he baby boy i) al)o -iven hi) Hebrew name in the *eremony/ 1
namin- *eremony intended a) a .arallel ritual for -irl), named ze$ed ha-at or brit bat,
enIoy) limited .o.ularity/
2ar mitKvah and 2at mitKvah L 3hi) .a))a-e from *hildhood to adulthood take) .la*e
when a female Jew i) twelve and a male Jew i) thirteen year) old amon- <rthodo4 and
)ome 5on)ervative *on-re-ation)/ 6n the 8eform movement, both -irl) and boy) have
their batCbar mitKvah at a-e thirteen/ 3hi) i) often *ommemorated by havin- the new
adult), male only in the <rthodo4 tradition, lead the *on-re-ation in .rayer and .ubli*ly
read a ".ortion" of the 3orah/
9arria-e L 9arria-e i) an e4tremely im.ortant life*y*le event/ 1 weddin- take) .la*e
under a chupah, or weddin- *ano.y, whi*h )ymboliKe) a ha..y hou)e/ 1t the end of the
*eremony, the -room break) a -la)) with hi) foot, )ymboliKin- the *ontinuou) mournin-
for the de)tru*tion of the 3em.le, and the )*atterin- of the Jewi)h .eo.le/
Oeath and 9ournin- L Judai)m ha) a multiL)ta-ed mournin- .ra*ti*e/ 3he fir)t )ta-e i)
*alled the )hiva (literally ")even", ob)erved for one week, durin- whi*h it i) traditional to
)it at home and be *omforted by friend) and family, the )e*ond i) the shloshim (ob)erved
for one month, and for tho)e who have lo)t one of their .arent), there i) a third )ta-e,
a$elut ud -et chodesh, whi*h i) ob)erved for eleven month)/
Community leadership
Classical priesthood
3he role of the .rie)thood in Judai)m ha) )i-nifi*antly dimini)hed )in*e the de)tru*tion of the
:e*ond 3em.le in ?A 5D, when .rie)t) attended to the 3em.le and )a*rifi*e)/ 3he .rie)thood i)
an inherited .o)ition, and althou-h .rie)t) no lon-er have any but *eremonial dutie), they are )till
honored in many Jewi)h *ommunitie)/ 9any <rthodo4 Jewi)h *ommunitie) believe that they
will be needed a-ain for a future 3hird 3em.le and need to remain in readine)) for future duty/
>ohen (.rie)t, L .atrilineal de)*endant of 1aron, brother of 9o)e)/ 6n the 3em.le, the
kohanim were *har-ed with .erformin- the )a*rifi*e)/ 3oday, a >ohen i) the fir)t one
*alled u. at the readin- of the 3orah, .erform) the Nrie)tly 2le))in-, a) well a) *om.lyin-
with other uniJue law) and *eremonie), in*ludin- the *eremony of redem.tion of the
fir)tLborn/
Levi (Levite, L Natrilineal de)*endant of Levi the )on of Ja*ob/ 6n the 3em.le in
Jeru)alem, the levite) )an- N)alm), .erformed *on)tru*tion, maintenan*e, Ianitorial, and
-uard dutie), a))i)ted the .rie)t), and )ometime) inter.reted the law and 3em.le ritual to
the .ubli*/ 3oday, a Levite i) *alled u. )e*ond to the readin- of the 3orah/
&rayer leaders
From the time of the 9i)hnah and 3almud to the .re)ent, Judai)m ha) reJuired ).e*iali)t) or
authoritie) for the .ra*ti*e of very few ritual) or *eremonie)/ 1 Jew *an fulfill mo)t reJuirement)
for .rayer by him)elf/ :ome a*tivitie)Rreadin- the 3orah and ha&tarah (a )u..lementary .ortion
from the Nro.het) or ;ritin-),, the .rayer for mourner), the ble))in-) for bride-room and bride,
the *om.lete -ra*e after meal)RreJuire a minan, the .re)en*e of ten Jew)/
3he mo)t *ommon .rofe))ional *ler-y in a )yna-o-ue are$
8abbi of a *on-re-ation L Jewi)h )*holar who i) *har-ed with an)werin- the le-al
Jue)tion) of a *on-re-ation/ 3hi) role reJuire) ordination by the *on-re-ationE) .referred
authority (i/e/ from a re).e*ted <rthodo4 rabbi or, if the *on-re-ation i) 5on)ervative or
8eform, from a*ademi* )eminarie),/ 1 *on-re-ation doe) not ne*e))arily reJuire a rabbi/
:ome *on-re-ation) have a rabbi but al)o allow member) of the *on-re-ation to a*t a)
shatz or -aal kriah ()ee below,/
o Ha))idi* 2e--e L rabbi who i) the head of a Ha)idi* dyna)ty/
HaKKan (note$ the "h" denote) voi*ele)) .haryn-eal fri*ative, (*antor, L a trained vo*ali)t
who a*t) a) shatz/ 5ho)en for a -ood voi*e, knowled-e of traditional tune),
under)tandin- of the meanin- of the .rayer) and )in*erity in re*itin- them/ 1
*on-re-ation doe) not need to have a dedi*ated haKKan/
Jewi)h .rayer )ervi*e) do involve two ).e*ified role), whi*h are )ometime), but not alway),
filled by a rabbi andCor haKKan in many *on-re-ation)/ 6n other *on-re-ation) the)e role) are
filled on an adLho* ba)i) by member) of the *on-re-ation who lead .ortion) of )ervi*e) on a
rotatin- ba)i)$
:halia*h tKibur or !hatz (leaderRliterally "a-ent" or "re.re)entative"Rof the
*on-re-ation, lead) tho)e a))embled in .rayer, and )ometime) .ray) on behalf of the
*ommunity/ ;hen a shatz re*ite) a .rayer on behalf of the *on-re-ation, he i) not a*tin-
a) an intermediary but rather a) a fa*ilitator/ 3he entire *on-re-ation .arti*i.ate) in the
re*ital of )u*h .rayer) by )ayin- amen at their *on*lu)ion; it i) with thi) a*t that the
shatz's .rayer be*ome) the .rayer of the *on-re-ation/ 1ny adult *a.able of re*itin- the
.rayer) *learly may a*t a) shatz/ 6n <rthodo4 *on-re-ation) and )ome 5on)ervative
*on-re-ation), only men *an be .rayer leader), but all Nro-re))ive *ommunitie) now
allow women to )erve in thi) fun*tion/
3he 2aal kriyah or -aal koreh (ma)ter of the readin-, read) the weekly 3orah .ortion/
3he reJuirement) for bein- the -aal kriah are the )ame a) tho)e for the shatz/ 3he)e
role) are not mutually e4*lu)ive/ 3he )ame .er)on i) often Jualified to fill more than one
role, and often doe)/ <ften there are )everal .eo.le *a.able of fillin- the)e role) and
different )ervi*e) (or .art) of )ervi*e), will be led by ea*h/
9any *on-re-ation), e).e*ially lar-er one), al)o rely on a$
Gabbai ()e4ton, L 5all) .eo.le u. to the 3orah, a..oint) the shatz for ea*h .rayer )e))ion
if there i) no )tandard shatz, and make) *ertain that the )yna-o-ue i) ke.t *lean and
)u..lied/
3he three .re*edin- .o)ition) are u)ually voluntary and *on)idered an honor/ :in*e the
Dnli-htenment lar-e )yna-o-ue) have often ado.ted the .ra*ti*e of hirin- rabbi) and haKKan) to
a*t a) shatz and -aal kriah, and thi) i) )till ty.i*ally the *a)e in many 5on)ervative and 8eform
*on-re-ation)/ However, in mo)t <rthodo4 )yna-o-ue) the)e .o)ition) are filled by lay.eo.le on
a rotatin- or adLho* ba)i)/ 1lthou-h mo)t *on-re-ation) hire one or more 8abbi), the u)e of a
.rofe))ional haKKan i) -enerally de*linin- in 1meri*an *on-re-ation), and the u)e of
.rofe))ional) for other offi*e) i) rarer )till/
Speciali-ed religious roles
3aan (Iud-e, L 1n ordained rabbi with ).e*ial le-al trainin- who belon-) to a -eth din
(rabbini*al *ourt,/ 6n 6)rael, reli-iou) *ourt) handle marria-e and divor*e *a)e),
*onver)ion and finan*ial di).ute) in the Jewi)h *ommunity/
9ohel (*ir*um*i)er, L 1n e4.ert in the law) of *ir*um*i)ion who ha) re*eived trainin-
from a .reviou)ly Jualified mohel and .erform) the -rit milah (*ir*um*i)ion,/
:ho*het (ritual )lau-hterer, L 6n order for meat to be ko)her, it mu)t be )lau-htered by a
shochet who i) an e4.ert in the law) of ka)hrut and ha) been trained by another shochet4
:ofer ()*ribe, L 3orah )*roll), te&illin (.hyla*terie),, mezuzot ()*roll) .ut on door.o)t),,
and gittin (bill) of divor*e, mu)t be written by a so&er who i) an e4.ert in Hebrew
*alli-ra.hy and ha) under-one ri-orou) trainin- in the law) of writin- )a*red te4t)/
8o)h ye)hiva L 1 3orah )*holar who run) a ye)hiva/
9a)h-ia*h of a ye)hiva L Oe.endin- on whi*h ye)hiva, mi-ht either be the .er)on
re).on)ible for en)urin- attendan*e and .ro.er *ondu*t, or even )u.ervi)e the emotional
and ).iritual welfare of the )tudent) and -ive le*ture) on mu))ar (Jewi)h ethi*),/
9a)h-ia*h L :u.ervi)e) manufa*turer) of ko)her food, im.orter), *aterer) and re)taurant)
to en)ure that the food i) ko)her/ 9u)t be an e4.ert in the law) of ka)hrut and trained by a
rabbi, if not a rabbi him)elf/
'istory
9ain arti*le$ Jewi)h hi)tory
!rigins
9ain arti*le$ <ri-in) of Judai)m
Further information$ 1n*ient :emiti* reli-ion

:*ene) from the 2ook of D)ther de*orate the OuraLDuro.o) )yna-o-ue datin- from #00 5D
1t it) *ore, the 3anakh i) an a**ount of the 6)raelite)E relation)hi. with God from their earlie)t
hi)tory until the buildin- of the :e*ond 3em.le (*/ 7+7 25D,/ 1braham i) hailed a) the fir)t
Hebrew and the father of the Jewi)h .eo.le/ 1) a reward for hi) a*t of faith in one God, he wa)
.romi)ed that 6)aa*, hi) )e*ond )on, would inherit the Land of 6)rael (then *alled 5anaan,/ Later,
Ja*ob and hi) *hildren were en)laved in D-y.t, and God *ommanded 9o)e) to lead the D4odu)
from D-y.t/ 1t 9ount :inai they re*eived the 3orah L the five book) of 9o)e)/ 3he)e book),
to-ether with MeviEim and >etuvim are known a) #orah !he-ikhta$ a) o..o)ed to the <ral 3orah,
whi*h refer) to the 9i)hna and the 3almud/ Dventually, God led them to the land of 6)rael where
the taberna*le wa) .lanted in the *ity of :hiloh for over +AA year) to rally the nation a-ain)t
atta*kin- enemie)/ 1) time went on, the ).iritual level of the nation de*lined to the .oint that
God allowed the Nhili)tine) to *a.ture the taberna*le/ 3he .eo.le of 6)rael then told :amuel the
.ro.het that they needed to be -overned by a .ermanent kin-, and :amuel a..ointed :aul to be
their >in-/ ;hen the .eo.le .re))ured :aul into -oin- a-ain)t a *ommand *onveyed to him by
:amuel, God told :amuel to a..oint Oavid in hi) )tead/

3he ;e)tern ;all in Jeru)alem i) a remnant of the wall en*ir*lin- the :e*ond 3em.le/ 3he
3em.le 9ount i) the holie)t )ite in Judai)m/
<n*e >in- Oavid wa) e)tabli)hed, he told the .ro.het Mathan that he would like to build a
.ermanent tem.le, and a) a reward for hi) a*tion), God .romi)ed Oavid that he would allow hi)
)on, :olomon, to build the fir)t .ermanent tem.le and the throne would never de.art from hi)
*hildren/
8abbini* tradition hold) that the detail) and inter.retation of the law, whi*h are *alled the 5ral
#orah or oral law, were ori-inally an unwritten tradition ba)ed u.on what God told 9o)e) on
9ount :inai/ However, a) the .er)e*ution) of the Jew) in*rea)ed and the detail) were in dan-er
of bein- for-otten, the)e oral law) were re*orded by 8abbi Judah haMa)i (Judah the Nrin*e, in
the 9i)hnah, reda*ted circa #AA 5D/ 3he 3almud wa) a *om.ilation of both the 9i)hnah and the
Gemara, rabbini* *ommentarie) reda*ted over the ne4t three *enturie)/ 3he Gemara ori-inated in
two maIor *enter) of Jewi)h )*holar)hi., Nale)tine and 2abylonia/ 5orre).ondin-ly, two bodie)
of analy)i) develo.ed, and two work) of 3almud were *reated/ 3he older *om.ilation i) *alled
the Jeru)alem 3almud/ 6t wa) *om.iled )ometime durin- the 0th *entury in 6)rael/ 3he
2abylonian 3almud wa) *om.iled from di)*u))ion) in the hou)e) of )tudy by the )*holar) 8avina
6, 8avina 66, and 8av 1)hi by 7AA 5D, althou-h it *ontinued to be edited later/
:ome *riti*al )*holar) o..o)e the view that the )a*red te4t), in*ludin- the Hebrew 2ible, were
divinely in).ired/ 9any of the)e )*holar) a**e.t the -eneral .rin*i.le) of the do*umentary
hy.othe)i) and )u--e)t that the 3orah *on)i)t) of in*on)i)tent te4t) edited to-ether in a way that
*all) attention to diver-ent a**ount)/
B0"B7"B="
9any )u--e)t that durin- the Fir)t 3em.le .eriod,
the .eo.le of 6)rael believed that ea*h nation had it) own -od, but that their -od wa) )u.erior to
other -od)/
B?"B@"
:ome )u--e)t that )tri*t monothei)m develo.ed durin- the 2abylonian D4ile,
.erha.) in rea*tion to aoroa)trian duali)m/
BB"
6n thi) view, it wa) only by the Helleni* .eriod that
mo)t Jew) *ame to believe that their -od wa) the only -od, and that the notion of a *learly
bounded Jewi)h nation identi*al with the Jewi)h reli-ion formed/
!AA"
John Oay ar-ue) that the ori-in) of bibli*al Pahweh, Dl, 1)herah, and 2aEal, may be rooted in
earlier 5anaanite reli-ion, whi*h wa) *entered on a .antheon of -od) mu*h like the Greek
Nantheon/
!A!"
Anti.uity
9ain arti*le)$ 1n*ient 6)rael and Judah, 2abylonian *a.tivity, Helleni)ti* Judai)m, Ha)monean
>in-dom, 6udaea Nrovin*e, and 2ar >okhba revolt
3he Hnited 9onar*hy wa) e)tabli)hed under :aul and *ontinued under >in- Oavid and :olomon
with it) *a.ital in Jeru)alem/ 1fter :olomonE) rei-n the nation ).lit into two kin-dom), the
>in-dom of 6)rael (in the north, and the >in-dom of Judah (in the )outh,/ 3he >in-dom of 6)rael
wa) *onJuered by the 1))yrian ruler :ar-on 66 in the late @th *entury 25D with many .eo.le
from the *a.ital :amaria bein- taken *a.tive to 9edia and the >habur 8iver valley/ 3he
>in-dom of Judah *ontinued a) an inde.endent )tate until it wa) *onJuered by a 2abylonian
army in the early =th *entury 25D, de)troyin- the Fir)t 3em.le that wa) at the *enter of an*ient
Jewi)h wor)hi./ 3he Judean elite were e4iled to 2abylonia and thi) i) re-arded a) the fir)t Jewi)h
Oia).ora/ Later many of them returned to their homeland after the )ub)eJuent *onJue)t of
2abylonia by the Ner)ian) )eventy year) later, a .eriod known a) the 2abylonian 5a.tivity/ 1
new :e*ond 3em.le wa) *on)tru*ted, and old reli-iou) .ra*ti*e) were re)umed/
Ourin- the early year) of the :e*ond 3em.le, the hi-he)t reli-iou) authority wa) a *oun*il
known a) the Great 1))embly, led by DKra of the 2ook of DKra/ 1mon- other a**om.li)hment)
of the Great 1))embly, the la)t book) of the 2ible were written at thi) time and the *anon )ealed/
Helleni)ti* Judai)m ).read to Ntolemai* D-y.t from the +rd *entury 25D/ 1fter the Great 8evolt
(==?+ 5D,, the 8oman) de)troyed the 3em.le/ Hadrian built a .a-an idol on the 3em.le
-round) and .rohibited *ir*um*i)ion; the)e a*t) of ethno*ide .rovoked the 2ar >okhba revolt
!+#!+= 5D after whi*h the 8oman) banned the )tudy of the 3orah and the *elebration of Jewi)h
holiday), and for*ibly removed virtually all Jew) from Judea/ 6n #AA 5D, however, Jew) were
-ranted 8oman *itiKen)hi. and Judai)m wa) re*o-niKed a) a religio licita ("le-itimate reli-ion",,
until the ri)e of Gno)ti*i)m and Darly 5hri)tianity in in the fourth *entury/
Followin- the de)tru*tion of Jeru)alem and the e4.ul)ion of the Jew), Jewi)h wor)hi. )to..ed
bein- *entrally or-aniKed around the 3em.le, .rayer took the .la*e of )a*rifi*e, and wor)hi. wa)
rebuilt around the *ommunity (re.re)ented by a minimum of ten adult men, and the
e)tabli)hment of the authority of rabbi) who a*ted a) tea*her) and leader) of individual
*ommunitie) ()ee Jewi)h dia).ora,/
'istorical Jewish groupings /to 01223
1round the !)t *entury 5D there were )everal )mall Jewi)h )e*t)$ the Nhari)ee), :addu*ee),
aealot), D))ene), and 5hri)tian)/ 1fter the de)tru*tion of the :e*ond 3em.le in ?A 5D, the)e
)e*t) vani)hed/ 5hri)tianity )urvived, but by breakin- with Judai)m and be*omin- a )e.arate
reli-ion; the Nhari)ee) )urvived but in the form of 8abbini* Judai)m (today, known )im.ly a)
"Judai)m",/ 3he :addu*ee) reIe*ted the divine in).iration of the Nro.het) and the ;ritin-),
relyin- only on the 3orah a) divinely in).ired/ 5on)eJuently, a number of other *ore tenet) of the
Nhari)ee)E belief )y)tem (whi*h be*ame the ba)i) for modern Judai)m,, were al)o di)mi))ed by
the :addu*ee)/ (3he :amaritan) .ra*ti*ed a )imilar reli-ion, whi*h i) traditionally *on)idered
)e.arate from Judai)m/,
Like the :addu*ee) who relied only on the 3orah, )ome Jew) in the @th and Bth *enturie) reIe*ted
the authority and divine in).iration of the oral law a) re*orded in the 9i)hnah (and develo.ed by
later rabbi) in the two 3almud),, relyin- in)tead only u.on the 3anakh/ 3he)e in*luded the
6)unian), the Pud-anite), the 9alikite), and other)/ 3hey )oon develo.ed oral tradition) of their
own, whi*h differed from the rabbini* tradition), and eventually formed the >araite )e*t/
>araite) e4i)t in )mall number) today, mo)tly livin- in 6)rael/ 8abbini*al and >araite Jew) ea*h
hold that the other) are Jew), but that the other faith i) erroneou)/
<ver a lon- time, Jew) formed di)tin*t ethni* -rou.) in )everal different -eo-ra.hi* area) R
amon-)t other), the 1)hkenaKi Jew) (of *entral and Da)tern Duro.e,, the :e.hardi Jew) (of
:.ain, Nortu-al, and Morth 1fri*a,, the 2eta 6)rael of Dthio.ia, and the Pemenite Jew) from the
)outhern ti. of the 1rabian Nenin)ula/ 9any of the)e -rou.) have develo.ed differen*e) in their
.rayer), tradition) and a**e.ted *anon); however the)e di)tin*tion) are mainly the re)ult of their
bein- formed at )ome *ultural di)tan*e from normative (rabbini*, Judai)m, rather than ba)ed on
any do*trinal di).ute/
&ersecutions
9ain arti*le)$ Ner)e*ution of Jew), 1nti)emiti)m, and Hi)tory of anti)emiti)m
1nti)emiti)m aro)e durin- the 9iddle 1-e), in the form of .er)e*ution), .o-rom), for*ed
*onver)ion, e4.ul)ion), )o*ial re)tri*tion) and -hettoiKation/
3hi) wa) different in Juality to any re.re))ion) of Jew) in an*ient time)/ 1n*ient re.re))ion wa)
.oliti*ally motivated and Jew) were treated no differently than any other ethni* -rou. would
have been/ ;ith the ri)e of the 5hur*he), atta*k) on Jew) be*ame motivated in)tead by
theolo-i*al *on)ideration) ).e*ifi*ally derivin- from 5hri)tian view) about Jew) and Judai)m/
!A#"
'asidism
9ain arti*le$ Ha)idi* Judai)m
Ha)idi* Judai)m wa) founded by Pi)roel ben DlieKer (!?AA!?=A,, al)o known a) the Ba'al !hem
#o$ (or Besht,/ 6t ori-inated in a time of .er)e*ution of the Jewi)h .eo.le, when Duro.ean Jew)
had turned inward to 3almud )tudy; many felt that mo)t e4.re))ion) of Jewi)h life had be*ome
too "a*ademi*", and that they no lon-er had any em.ha)i) on ).irituality or Ioy/ Hi) di)*i.le)
attra*ted many follower); they them)elve) e)tabli)hed numerou) Ha)idi* )e*t) a*ro)) Duro.e/
Ha)idi* Judai)m eventually be*ame the way of life for many Jew) in Duro.e/ ;ave) of Jewi)h
immi-ration in the !@@A) *arried it to the Hnited :tate)/ 3he movement it)elf *laim) to be
nothin- new, but a re&reshment of ori-inal Judai)m/ <r a) )ome have .ut it$ 6the merel re-
emphasized that which the generations had lost6/
!A+"
Meverthele)), early on there wa) a )eriou)
)*hi)m between Ha)idi* and nonLHa)idi* Jew)/ Duro.ean Jew) who reIe*ted the Ha)idi*
movement were dubbed by the Ha)idim a) 9i)na-dim, (lit/ "o..onent)",/ :ome of the rea)on)
for the reIe*tion of Ha)idi* Judai)m were the overwhelmin- e4uberan*e of Ha)idi* wor)hi., it)
untraditional a)*ri.tion) of infallibility and alle-ed mira*leLworkin- to their leader), and the
*on*ern that it mi-ht be*ome a me))iani* )e*t/ :in*e then differen*e) between the Ha)idim and
their o..onent) have )lowly dimini)hed and both -rou.) are now *on)idered .art of Haredi
Judai)m/
The 4nlightenment and new religious mo%ements
9ain arti*le)$ Ha)kalah and Jewi)h reli-iou) movement)
6n the late !@th *entury 5D, Duro.e wa) )we.t by a -rou. of intelle*tual, )o*ial and .oliti*al
movement) known a) the Dnli-htenment/ 3he Dnli-htenment led to redu*tion) in the Duro.ean
law) that .rohibited Jew) to intera*t with the wider )e*ular world, thu) allowin- Jew) a**e)) to
)e*ular edu*ation and e4.erien*e/ 1 .arallel Jewi)h movement, Ha)kalah or the "Jewi)h
Dnli-htenment", be-an, e).e*ially in 5entral Duro.e and ;e)tern Duro.e, in re).on)e to both the
Dnli-htenment and the)e new freedom)/ 6t .la*ed an em.ha)i) on inte-ration with )e*ular )o*iety
and a .ur)uit of nonLreli-iou) knowled-e throu-h rea)on/ ;ith the .romi)e of .oliti*al
eman*i.ation many Jew) )aw no rea)on to *ontinue to ob)erve Jewi)h law and in*rea)in-
number) of Jew) a))imilated into 5hri)tian Duro.e/ 9odern reli-iou) movement) of Judai)m all
formed in rea*tion to thi) trend/
6n 5entral Duro.e, followed by Great 2ritain and the Hnited :tate), 8eform Judai)m and Liberal
Judai)m develo.ed, rela4in- le-al obli-ation) (e).e*ially tho)e that limited Jewi)h relation) with
nonLJew),, emulatin- Nrote)tant de*orum in .rayer, and em.ha)iKin- the ethi*al value) of
Judai)mE) Nro.heti* tradition/ 9odern <rthodo4 Judai)m develo.ed in rea*tion to 8eform
Judai)m, by leader) who ar-ued that Jew) *ould .arti*i.ate in .ubli* life a) *itiKen) eJual to
5hri)tian), while maintainin- the ob)ervan*e of Jewi)h law/ 9eanwhile, in the Hnited :tate),
wealthy 8eform Jew) hel.ed Duro.ean )*holar), who were <rthodo4 in .ra*ti*e but *riti*al (and
)ke.ti*al, in their )tudy of the 2ible and 3almud, to e)tabli)h a )eminary to train rabbi) for
immi-rant) from Da)tern Duro.e/ 3he)e leftLwin- <rthodo4 rabbi) were Ioined by ri-htLwin-
8eform rabbi) who felt that Jewi)h law )hould not be entirely abandoned, to form the
5on)ervative movement/ <rthodo4 Jew) who o..o)ed the Ha)kalah formed Haredi <rthodo4
Judai)m/ 1fter ma))ive movement) of Jew) followin- 3he Holo*au)t and the *reation of the )tate
of 6)rael, the)e movement) have *om.eted for follower) from amon- traditional Jew) in or from
other *ountrie)/
Spectrum of oser%ance

Judai)m ha) ).read to all *orner) of the world/ :een here i) a )yna-o-ue in downtown 9umbai/
5ountrie) )u*h a) the Hnited :tate), 6)rael, 5anada, Hnited >in-dom, 1r-entina and :outh
1fri*a *ontain lar-e Jewi)h .o.ulation)/ Jewi)h reli-iou) .ra*ti*e varie) widely throu-h all
level) of ob)ervan*e/ 1**ordin- to the #AA! edition of the Mational Jewi)h No.ulation :urvey, in
the Hnited :tate)E Jewi)h *ommunityRthe worldE) )e*ond lar-e)tR0/+ million Jew) out of 7/!
million had )ome )ort of *onne*tion to the reli-ion/ <f that .o.ulation of *onne*ted Jew), @AG
.arti*i.ated in )ome )ort of Jewi)h reli-iou) ob)ervan*e, but only 0@G belon-ed to a )yna-o-ue,
and fewer than !=G attend re-ularly/
!A0"
2irth rate) for 1meri*an Jew) have dro..ed from #/A to !/?/
!A7"
(8e.la*ement rate i) #/!/,
6ntermarria-e rate) ran-e from 0AL7AG in the H:, and only about a third of *hildren of
intermarried *ou.le) are rai)ed a) Jew)/ Oue to intermarria-e and low birth rate), the Jewi)h
.o.ulation in the H: )hrank from 7/7 million in !BBA to 7/! million in #AA!/ 3hi) i) indi*ative of
the -eneral .o.ulation trend) amon- the Jewi)h *ommunity in the Oia).ora, but a fo*u) on total
.o.ulation ob)*ure) -rowth trend) in )ome denomination) and *ommunitie), )u*h a) Haredi
Judai)m/ 3he 2aal te)huva movement i) a movement of Jew) who have "returned" to reli-ion or
be*ome more ob)ervant/
Judaism and other religions
Christianity and Judaism
9ain arti*le$ 5hri)tianity and Judai)m
:ee al)o$ JudeoL5hri)tian, 5hri)tianity and anti)emiti)m, Judai)mE) view of Je)u), 5ultural and
hi)tori*al ba*k-round of Je)u), and 5hri)tianLJewi)h re*on*iliation
Hi)torian) and theolo-ian) re-ularly review the *han-in- relation)hi. between )ome 5hri)tian
-rou.) and the Jewi)h .eo.le; the arti*le on 5hri)tianLJewi)h re*on*iliation )tudie) one re*ent
i))ue/
Islam and Judaism
9ain arti*le$ 6)lam and Judai)m
:ee al)o$ Hi)tory of the Jew) under 9u)lim rule and 6)lam and anti)emiti)m
3he relation)hi. between 6)lam and Judai)m i) ).e*ial and *lo)e/ 2oth reli-ion) *laim to ari)e
from the .atriar*h 1braham, and are therefore *on)idered 1brahami* reli-ion)/ 1) fellow
monothei)t), 9u)lim) view Jew) a) ".eo.le of the book", a term that Jew) have )ub)eJuently
ado.ted a) a way of de)*ribin- their own *onne*tion to the 3orah and other holy te4t)/
!A="
6n turn,
many Jew) maintain that 9u)lim) adhere to the :even Law) of Moah/ 3hu), Judai)m view)
9u)lim) a) ri-hteou) .eo.le of God/
!A?"
Jew) have intera*ted with 9u)lim) )in*e the ?th
*entury, when 6)lam ori-inated and ).read in the 1rabian .enin)ula, and many a).e*t) of 6)lamE)
*ore value), )tru*ture, Iuri).ruden*e and .ra*ti*e are ba)ed on Judai)m/
!A@"!AB"
9u)lim *ulture
and .hilo)o.hy have heavily influen*ed .ra*titioner) of Judai)m in the 6)lami* world/
!!A"
6n .remodern 9u)lim *ountrie), Jew) rarely fa*ed martyrdom, e4ile or for*ible *onver)ion, and
were mo)tly free in their *hoi*e of re)iden*e and .rofe))ion/
!!!"
6ndeed, the year) ?!# to !A== 5D
under the Hmmayad and the 1bba)id ruler) have been *alled the Golden a-e of Jewi)h *ulture in
:.ain/ MonL9u)lim monothei)t) livin- in the)e *ountrie), in*ludin- Jew), were known a)
dhimmi)/ Ohimmi) were allowed to .ra*ti*e their reli-ion and to admini)ter their internal affair),
but they were )ubIe*t to *ertain re)tri*tion) that were not im.o)ed on 9u)lim)/
!!#"
For e4am.le,
they had to .ay the IiKya, a .er *a.ita ta4 im.o)ed on free adult nonL9u)lim male),
!!#"
and they
were al)o forbidden to bear arm) or te)tify in *ourt *a)e) involvin- 9u)lim)/
!!+"
9any of the
law) re-ardin- dhimmi) were hi-hly )ymboli*/ For e4am.le, dhimmi) in )ome *ountrie) were
reJuired to wear di)tin*tive *lothin-, a .ra*ti*e not found in either the urEan or hadith) but
invented in early medieval 2a-hdad and in*on)i)tently enfor*ed/
!!0"
Jew) in 9u)lim *ountrie)
were not entirely free from .er)e*utionRfor e4am.le, many were killed, e4iled or for*ibly
*onverted in the !#th *entury, in Ner)ia and by the ruler) of the 1lmohad dyna)ty in Morth 1fri*a
and 1lL1ndalu)/
!!7"
1t time), Jew) were al)o re)tri*ted in their *hoi*e of re)iden*eRin 9oro**o,
Jew) were *onfined to walled Juarter) (mellah), be-innin- in the !7th *entury and in*rea)in-ly
)in*e the early !Bth *entury/
!!="
6n the late #Ath *entury, Jew) were e4.elled from nearly all the 1rab *ountrie)/ 9o)t have *ho)en
to live in 6)rael/ 3oday, anti)emiti* theme) have be*ome *ommon.la*e in the .ro.a-anda of 1rab
6)lami* movement) )u*h a) HiKbullah and Hama), in the .ronoun*ement) of variou) a-en*ie) of
the 6)lami* 8e.ubli* of 6ran, and even in the new).a.er) and other .ubli*ation) of 8efah Narti)i/
!!?"
Syncretic mo%ements incorporating Judaism
3here are )ome movement) that *ombine element) of Judai)m with tho)e of other reli-ion)/ 3he
mo)t wellLknown of the)e i) 9e))iani* Judai)m, whi*h aro)e in the !B=A)/
!!@"!!B"!#A"!#!"
6t blend)
evan-eli*al 5hri)tian theolo-y with element) of Jewi)h terminolo-y and ritual/
!#!"!##"!#+"!#0"!#7"

3he movement )tate) that Je)u) i) .art of the 3rinity,
!#="!#?"
and )alvation i) only a*hieved
throu-h a**e.tan*e of Je)u) a) oneE) )avior/
!#@"
:ome member) of the movement are ethni*ally
Jewi)h, and )ome of them ar-ue that 9e))iani* Judai)m i) a )e*t of Judai)m/
!#B"
Jewi)h
or-aniKation) and reli-iou) movement) reIe*t thi), )tatin- that 9e))iani* Judai)m i) a 5hri)tian
)e*t/
!+A"
3he mo)t *ontrover)ial of the)e -rou.) i) the 1meri*an or-aniKation Jew) for Je)u),
whi*h a*tively .ro)elytiKe) ethni* Jew) throu-h numerou) mi))ionary *am.ai-n) in maIor
1meri*an *itie)/
<ther e4am.le) of )yn*reti)m in*lude JudeoLNa-ani)t), a loo)ely or-aniKed )et of Jew) who
in*or.orate .a-an or ;i**an belief) with )ome Jewi)h reli-iou) .ra*ti*e), like 9e))iani*
Judai)m; Jewi)h 2uddhi)t), another loo)ely or-aniKed -rou. that in*or.orate) element) of 1)ian
).irituality in their faith; and )ome 8enewal Jew) who borrow freely and o.enly from 2uddhi)m,
:ufi)m, Mative 1meri*an reli-ion, and other faith)/
3he >abbalah 5entre, whi*h em.loy) tea*her) from multi.le reli-ion), i) a Mew 1-e movement
that *laim) to .o.ulariKe the kabbalah, the Jewi)h e)oteri* tradition/
See also
9ain arti*le$ <utline of Judai)m
1ntiLJudai)m
Franki)m
Jewi)h view) of reli-iou) .lurali)m
Judai)m by *ountry
Li)t of *onvert) to Judai)m
:abbateani)m
:e*ular Jewi)h *ulture
5riti*i)m of Judai)m
Hnited :tate) military *ha.lain )ymbol)
References
1. 5 9ethod) and 5ate-orie)$ Judai)m and Go).el
2. 5 1)k<4ford$ Judai)m
3. 5 :haye J/O/ 5ohen !BBB #he Beginnings o& ,ewishness7 Boundaries% 8arieties%
"ncertainties, 2erkeley$ Hniver)ity of 5alifornia Nre)); ./ ?
4. 5 Ja*ob), Loui) (#AA?,/ "Judai)m"/ 6n Fred :kolnik/ 'ncclopaedia ,udaica/ 00 (#d ed/,/
Farmin-ton Hill), 9i*h/$ 3hom)on Gale/ ./ 7!!/ 6:2M B?@ALA#L@=7B#@L#/ "Judai)m, the
reli-ion, .hilo)o.hy, and way of life of the Jew)/"
5. 5 ">nowled-e 8e)our*e)$ Judai)m"/ 2erkley 5enter for 8eli-ion, Nea*e, and ;orld
1ffair)/ htt.$CCberkley*enter/-eor-etown/eduCre)our*e)Ctradition)CIudai)m/ 8etrieved
#A!!L!!L##/
6. 5 ";hat i) the oral 3orah]"/ 3orah/or-/
htt.$CCwww/torah/or-Clearnin-Cba)i*)C.rimerCtorahCoraltorah/html/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
7. 5 ">araite Jewi)h Hniver)ity"/ >Iuonline/*om/
htt.$CCwww/kIuonline/*omC3o<urFellowJew)/htm/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
8. 5 ":o*iety for Humani)ti* Judai)m"/ :hI/or-/ htt.$CCwww/)hI/or-C/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
9. 5 "8eli-ion Dthi*) L Judai)m"/ 225/ htt.$CCwww/bb*/*o/ukCreli-ionCreli-ion)CIudai)mC/
8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
10. 5 8eli-ion$ 3hree 8eli-ion), <ne God N2:
11. 5 !ettings o& sil$er7 an introduction to ,udaism ./ 7B by :te.hen 9/ ;ylen, Nauli)t Nre)),
#AAA !"
12. 5 Heribert 2u))e (!BB@,/ Islam% ,udaism% and 9hristianit7 #heological and Historical
A&&iliations/ 9arku) ;iener Nubli)her)/ ../ =+!!#/ 6:2M B?@!77@?=!007/
13. 5 6rvin- 9/ aeitlin (#AA?,/ #he Historical Muhammad/ Nolity/ ../ B#B+/
6:2M B?@A?07=+BBB0/
14. 5 Jewi)h 5ontribution) to 5iviliKation$ 1n D)timate (book,
15. 5 :ee, for e4am.le, Oeborah Oa)h 9oore, American ,ewish Identit Politics, Hniver)ity
of 9i*hi-an Nre)), #AA@, ./ +A+; Dwa 9oraw)ka, Insecure Prosperit7 !mall-#own ,ews
in Industrial America% ):;<-);=<, Nrin*eton Hniver)ity Nre)), !BBB/ ./ #!?; Neter P/
9eddin-, 8alues% interests and identit7 ,ews and politics in a changing world, ~olume
!! of :tudie) in *ontem.orary Jewry, <4ford Hniver)ity Nre)), !BB7, ./ =0; DKra
9endel)ohn, People o& the cit7 ,ews and the ur-an challenge, ~olume !7 of :tudie) in
*ontem.orary Jewry, <4ford Hniver)ity Nre)), !BBB, ./ 77; Loui) :andy 9ai)el, 6ra M/
Forman, Oonald 1lt)*hiller, 5harle) ;alker 2a))ett, ,ews in American politics7 essas,
8owman Littlefield, #AA0, ./ !7@; :eymour 9artin Li.)et, American '>ceptionalism7
A 3ou-le-'dged !word, ;/ ;/ Morton 5om.any, !BB?, ./ !=B/
16. 5 ;orld Jewi)h No.ulation, #A!A/ :er-io Oella Ner-ola, Hebrew Hniver)ity of Jeru)alem
17. 5 "Jewi)h Oenomination)"/ 8eli-ionFa*t)/
htt.$CCwww/reli-ionfa*t)/*omCIudai)mCdenomination)/htm/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
18. 5 "8eform Judai)m"/ 8eli-ionFa*t)/
htt.$CCwww/reli-ionfa*t)/*omCIudai)mCdenomination)Creform/htm/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
19. 5 ";hat i) 8eform Judai)m]"/ 8eformIudai)m/or-/
htt.$CCreformIudai)m/or-Cwhati)rI/)html/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
20. 5 Dn*y*lo.dia 2ritanni*a/ "2ritanni*a <nline Dn*y*lo.edia$ 2et Oin"/ 2ritanni*a/*om/
htt.$CCwww/britanni*a/*omCD2*he*kedCto.i*C=+!+0CbetLdin/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
21.
a

b
"Judai)m !A!$ 8abbi), Nrie)t) and <ther 8eli-iou) Fun*tionarie)"/ JewfaJ/or-/
htt.$CCwww/IewfaJ/or-Crabbi/htm/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
22. 5 Mahum :arna !B=B "nderstanding ?enesis/ Mew Pork$ :*ho*ken
23. 5 ,aco- .eusner% ''3e&ining ,udaism''% in ,aco- .eusner and Alan A$er-Peck% 6#he
Blackwell companion to ,udaism6 @Blackwell% A<<+B% p4+/ 2ook)/-oo-le/*om/au/ #AA+L
A#L#+/ 6:2M B?@!7??!@A7B+/ htt.$CCbook)/-oo-le/*omC]
ida)Po6wKBK#H5.-N1#+Al.-N1#+AdJ3he2la*kwell5om.aniontoJudai
)m2yJa*obMeu)ner,1lan1veryLNe*kvone.a-eJffal)e/ 8etrieved #A!AL
A@L##/
24. 5 Gen/ !?$+L@ Gene)i) !?$ +L@$ 1bram fell fa*edown, and God )aid to him, "1) for me,
thi) i) my *ovenant with you$ Pou will be the father of many nation)/ Mo lon-er will you
be *alled 1bram ; your name will be 1braham, for 6 have made you a father of many
nation)/ 6 will make you very fruitful; 6 will make nation) of you, and kin-) will *ome
from you/ 6 will e)tabli)h my *ovenant a) an everla)tin- *ovenant between me and you
and your de)*endant) after you for the -eneration) to *ome, to be your God and the God
of your de)*endant) after you/ 3he whole land of 5anaan, where you are now an alien, 6
will -ive a) an everla)tin- .o))e))ion to you and your de)*endant) after you; and 6 will be
their God;" Gen/ ##$!?L!@ Gene)i) ##$ !?L!@$ 6 will )urely ble)) you and make your
de)*endant) a) numerou) a) the )tar) in the )ky and a) the )and on the )ea)hore/ Pour
de)*endant) will take .o))e))ion of the *itie) of their enemie), and throu-h your off).rin-
all nation) on earth will be ble))ed, be*au)e you have obeyed me/"
25. 5 D4odu) #A$+ "Pou )hall have no other -od) before me; Oeut/ =$7 Oeuteronomy =$7
"Love the L<8O your God with all your heart and with all your )oul and with all your
)tren-th/"
26. 5 Lev/ !B$!@ Leviti*u) !B$!@$ "EOo not )eek reven-e or bear a -rud-e a-ain)t one of your
.eo.le, but love your nei-hbor a) your)elf/ 6 am the Lord"
27. 5 >adu)hin, 9a4, !B?# #he 2a--inic Mind/ Mew Pork$ 2lo*h Nubli)hin- 5om.any/ !B0
28. 5 >adu)hin, 9a4, !B?# #he 2a--inic Mind/ Mew Pork$ 2lo*h Nubli)hin- 5om.any/ #A+
29. 5 3he 2ook) of 9ela*him (>in-), and 2ook of Pe)haiahu (6)aiah, in the 3anakh *ontain
a few of the many 2ibli*al a**ount) of 6)raelite kin-) and )e-ment) of an*ient 6)raelE)
.o.ulation wor)hi.in- other -od)/ For e4am.le$ >in- :olomonE) "wive) turned away hi)
heart after other -od)///and he" did that whi*h wa) evil in the )i-ht of the L<8O, and
went not fully after the L<8O" (elaborated in ! 9ela*him !!$0L!A,; >in- 1hab "went
and )erved 2aal, and wor)hi.ed him///1nd 1hab made the 1)herah a .a-an .la*e of
wor)hi."; and 1hab did yet more to .rovoke the L<8O, the God of 6)rael, than all the
kin-) of 6)rael that were before him" (! 9ela*him !=$+!L++,; the .ro.het 6)aiah
*ondemn) the .eo.le who ".re.are a table for the idol" Fortune, and that offer min-led
wine in full mea)ure unto the idol" Oe)tiny" (Pe)haiahu =7$!!L!#,/ 3ran)lation$ JN:
(Jewi)h Nubli*ation :o*iety, edition of the 3anakh, from !B!?, available at 9e*hon
9amre/
30. 5 #he ,ewish roots o& 9hristological monotheism7 papers &rom the !t4 Andrews
con&erence on the historical origins o& the worship o& ,esus/ 2ook)/-oo-le/*om/ !BBB/
6:2M B?@BAA0!!+=!B/ htt.$CCbook)/-oo-le/*omC]
idB:37w6:v3a5.rint)e*front*overdJJewi)hmonothei)mvone.a-eJff
al)e/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
31. 5 :teinber-, 9ilton !B0? Basic ,udaism Mew Pork$ Har*ourt 2ra*e Jovanovi*h/ +=
32. 5 "Judai)m !A!$ 9ovement) of Judai)m"/ JewfaJ/or-/
htt.$CCwww/IewfaJ/or-Cmovement/htm/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
33. 5 8abbi :/ of 9ont.elier, Pad 8ama, P/ 1lfa*her, 8o)h 1manah/
34. 5 "9aimonide) !+ Foundation) of Judai)m"/ 9e)ora/
htt.$CCwww/me)ora/or-C!+.rin*i.le)/html/ "However if he reIe*t) one of the)e
fundamental) he leave) the nation and i) a denier of the fundamental) and i) *alled a
hereti*, a denier, et*/"
35. 5 8abbi 9orde*hai 2lumenfeld/ "9aimonide), !+ Nrin*i.le) of Faith"/ 1i)h Ha3orah/
htt.$CCwww/ai)h/*omC).C.hC0@B#+?##/html/ "1**ordin- to the 8ambam, their a**e.tan*e
define) the minimum reJuirement ne*e))ary for one to relate to the 1lmi-hty and Hi)
3orah a) a member of the Neo.le of 6)rael"
36.
a

b

c
Oaniel :e.timu)/ "3he 3hirteen Nrin*i.le) of Faith"/ 9yJewi)hLearnin-/*om/
htt.$CCwww/myIewi)hlearnin-/*omCbelief)C3heolo-yC3hinker)and3hou-htCOo*trinean
dOo-maC3he9iddle1-e)CNrin*i.le)ofFaith/)html/
37. 5 8onald L/ Di)enber- (#AA0,/ #he ,P! guide to ,ewish traditions/ Jewi)h Nubli*ation
:o*iety/ ./ 7AB/ 6:2M A@#?=A?=A!/ htt.$CCbook)/-oo-le/*omC]
idJGHiB>!705.-81!+LN17ABl.-81!+L
N17ABdJ9aimonide)Ethirteen.rin*i.le)offaith/ "3he *on*e.t of "do-ma" i) ///
not a ba)i* idea in Judai)m/"
38. 5 Oo-ma in 9edieval Jewi)h 3hou-ht, 9ena*hem >ellner/
39. 5 "3he 3hirteen Nrin*i.le) of the Jewi)h Faith"/ Hebrew05hri)tian)/
htt.$CCwww/hebrew0*hri)tian)/netC:*ri.tureC:hlo)hahL1)ar6kkarimC)hlo)hahL
a)arikkarim/html/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
40. 5 ";hat Oo Jew) 2elieve]"/ 9e*hon 9amre/ htt.$CCwww/me*honL
mamre/or-CIewfaJCbelief)/htm/ "3he *lo)e)t that anyone ha) ever *ome to *reatin- a
widely a**e.ted li)t of Jewi)h belief) i) 9aimonide)E thirteen .rin*i.le) of faith/"
41. 5 3he JN: -uide to Jewi)h tradition), .a-e 7!A, "3he one that eventually )e*ured almo)t
univer)al a**e.tan*e wa) the 3hirteen Nrin*i.le) of faith"
42. 5 "Judai)m !A!$ ;hat Oo Jew) 2elieve]"/ JewfaJ/or-/
htt.$CCwww/IewfaJ/or-Cbelief)/htm/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
43. 5 "Oe)*ri.tion of Judai)m, <ntario 5on)ultant) on 8eli-iou) 3oleran*e"/
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A@L##/
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45. 5 8ietti, 8abbi Jonathan/ "How Oo Pou >now the D4odu) 8eally Ha..ened]"/ 1r*hived
from the ori-inal on #AA0LABL!@/
htt.$CCweb/ar*hive/or-CwebC#AA0AB!@A=#B!AChtt.$CCIewi)hin).iration/*omCta.e/.h.]
ta.eid0!/ 3he word "emunah" ha) been tran)lated in*orre*tly by the >in- Jame) 2ible
a) merely "belief" or "faith", when in a*tuality, it mean) con$iction, whi*h i) a mu*h
more em.hati* knowled-e of God ba)ed on e4.erien*e/
46. 5 "Jewi)h :a*red 3e4t)"/ 8eli-ionFa*t)/ htt.$CCwww/reli-ionfa*t)/*omCIudai)mCte4t)/htm/
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47. 5 9/ :an !A$!/ 3ran)lation available here #"/
48. 5 "Judai)m !A!$ 1 Glo))ary of 2a)i* Jewi)h 3erm) and 5on*e.t)"/ Hnion of <rthodo4
Jewi)h 5on-re-ation) in 1meri*a/ 1.ril !#, #AA=/
htt.$CCwww/ou/or-CaboutCIudai)mCtanakh/htm/
49. 5 #he Praer -ook7 Ceekda% !a--ath% and (esti$al tran)lated and arran-ed by 2en aion
2ok)er/ Mew Pork$ Hebrew Nubli)hin- 5om.any/ BL!A
50. 5 >adu)hin, 9a4 !B?# #he 2a--inic Mind Mew Pork$ 2lo*h Nubli)hin-/ #!+
51. 5 Meu)ner, Ja*ob #AA+ In$itation to the #almud :ti.f and :on, <re-on 4viiL44ii
52. 5 :tern, Oavid "9idra)h and 6ndetermina*y" in 9ritical InDuir, ~ol/ !7, Mo/ ! (1utumn,
!B@@,, ./ !7!/
53. 5 Meu)ner, Ja*ob #AA+ In$itation to the #almud :ti.f and :on, <re-on 4viiLvi4;
:tein)altK, 1din !B?= #he 'ssential #almud Mew Pork$ 2a)i* 2ook)/ +LB; :tra*k,
Hermann !B@A Introduction to the Midrash and #almud Mew Pork$ 1theneum/ B7; :tern,
Oavid "9idra)h and 6ndetermina*y" in 9ritical InDuir, ~ol/ !7, Mo/ ! (1utumn, !B@@,,
../ !+#L!=!
54. 5 :tern, Oavid "9idra)h and 6ndetermina*y" in 9ritical InDuir, ~ol/ !7, Mo/ ! (1utumn,
!B@@,, ./ !0?/
55. 5 5ohen, 1bner !B0B '$erman's #almud Mew Pork$ D/N/ Outton 5o/ 44iv; :tra*k,
Hermann !B@A Introduction to the Midrash and #almud Mew Pork$ 1theneum/ B7
56. 5 5ohen, 1bner !B0B '$erman's #almud Mew Pork$ D/N/ Outton 5o/ 44iv; :tein)altK,
1din !B?= #he 'ssential #almud Mew Porki$ 2a)i* 2ook)/ ###; :tra*k, Hermann !B@A
Introduction to the Midrash and #almud Mew Pork$ 1theneum/ B7
57. 5 :tra*k, Hermann !B@A Introduction to the Midrash and #almud Mew Pork$ 1theneum/
B7
58. 5 i} ^_i i` %^` ` Jeru)alem$ !B?0, ../ +@L+B
59. 5 5hief 8abbi :ir Jonathan :a*k), #AA= #he Koren !acks !iddur7 He-rewE'nglish
Praer Book7 #he Authorized 3ail Praer Book o& the "nited He-rew 9ongregations o&
the 9ommonwealth London$ Har.er 5ollin) Nubli)her) ../ 70L77
60. 5 Mo))on :*herman #AA+ #he 9omplete Artscroll !iddur 3hird Ddition 2rooklyn, M/P/$
9e)orah Nubli*ation) ../ 0BL7+
61. 5 8abbi :*hneur aalman of Liadi, Mi))en 9an-el, #AA+ !iddur #ehillat Hashem >ehot
Nubli*ation :o*iety/ #0L#7
62. 5 "9ethod) and 5ate-orie)$ Judai)m and Go).el"/ 2ibleinter./*om/ #AA?L!!LA=/
htt.$CCwww/bibleinter./*omCarti*le)Cma)on+/)html/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
63. 5 1)k<4ford$ Judai)m
dead link"
64. 5 5scar !akrsaune% 6In the !hadow o& the #emple7 ,ewish In&luences on 'arl
9hristianit6Inter8arsit Press% A<<A% PP4+;((/ 2ook)/-oo-le/*om/au/ #AA#/
6:2M B?@A@+A@#=?A0/ htt.$CCbook)/-oo-le/*omC]id#J=J3bL1?Gw5.-81!L
N1+Bl.-81!LN1+BdJGreekori-in)of6udai)mo)vone.a-eJffal)e/
8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
65. 5 3he <4ford Dn-li)h Oi*tionary/
66. 5 2oyarin, Oaniel (<*tober !0, !BB0,/ "6ntrodu*tion"/ A radical ,ew7 Paul and the
politics o& identit/ 2erkeley, 5alifornia$ Hniver)ity of 5alifornia Nre))/ ../ !++@/
6:2M :.e*ial$2ook:our*e)CAL7#ALA@7B#L# L55M B+L+=#=BAL7#ALA@7B#L# L55M B+L
+=#=B""/ htt.$CC*ontent/*dlib/or-C4tfCview]
do*6dft?w!AA@=w*hunk/idintrodu*tionto*/de.th!to*/idintrodu*tionbrandu
*.re))/ 8etrieved #AA=LA=L!7/ "Naul wa) motivated by a Helleni)ti* de)ire for the <ne,
whi*h amon- other thin-) .rodu*ed an ideal of a univer)al human e))en*e, beyond
differen*e and hierar*hy/ 3hi) univer)al humanity, however, wa) .redi*ated (and )till i),
on the duali)m of the fle)h and the ).irit, )u*h that while the body i) .arti*ular, marked
throu-h .ra*ti*e a) Jew or Greek, and throu-h anatomy a) male or female, the ).irit i)
univer)al/ Naul did not, however, reIe*t the bodyRa) did, for in)tan*e, the -no)ti*)Rbut
rather .romoted a )y)tem whereby the body had it) .la*e, albeit )ubordinated to the ).irit/
NaulE) anthro.olo-i*al duali)m wa) mat*hed by a hermeneuti*al duali)m a) well/ Ju)t a)
the human bein- i) divided into a fle)hy and a ).iritual *om.onent, )o al)o i) lan-ua-e
it)elf/ 6t i) *om.o)ed of outer, material )i-n) and inner, ).iritual )i-nifi*ation)/ ;hen thi)
i) a..lied to the reli-iou) )y)tem that Naul inherited, the .hy)i*al, fle)hy )i-n) of the
3orah, of hi)tori*al Judai)m, are reLinter.reted a) )ymbol) of that whi*h Naul take) to be
univer)al reJuirement) and .o))ibilitie) for humanity/"
67. 5 2oyarin, Oaniel (!BB0,/ "1n)werin- the 9ail"/ A radical ,ew7 Paul and the politics o&
identit/ 2erkeley, 5alifornia$ Hniver)ity of 5alifornia Nre))/ 6:2M AL7#ALA@7B#L#/
htt.$CC*ontent/*dlib/or-C4tfCview]
do*6dft?w!AA@=w*hunk/id*h!Ato*/de.th!to*/id*h!Abrandu*.re))/
"Jewi)hne)) di)ru.t) the very *ate-orie) of identity, be*au)e it i) not national, not
-enealo-i*al, not reli-iou), but all of the)e, in diale*ti*al ten)ion with one another/"
68. 5 ;einer, 8ebe**a (#AA?,/ ";ho i) a Jew]"/ Jewi)h ~irtual Library/
htt.$CCwww/Iewi)hvirtuallibrary/or-CI)our*eCJudai)mCwhoIew!/html/ 8etrieved #AA?L!AL
A=/
69. 5 "EE8eformE) No)ition <n///;hat i) una**e.table .ra*ti*e]EE"/ FaJ)/or-/ #A!ALA=L#B/
htt.$CCwww/faJ)/or-CfaJ)CIudai)mCF1C!AL8eformC)e*tionL!7/html/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L
##/
70. 5 He)*hel, :u)annah (!BB@, 1braham Gei-er and the Jewi)h Je)u)/ 5hi*a-o$ Hniver)ity
of 5hi*a-o Nre))/ ./ !7?/ 6:2M AL##=L+#B7BL+
71. 5 "Law of 8eturn 7?!AL!B7A"/ 6)rael 9ini)try of Forei-n 1ffair)/ #AA?/
htt.$CCwww/mfa/-ov/ilC9F1C9F11r*hiveC!B7A!B7BCLawG#AofG#A8eturnG#A7?!AL
!B7A/ 8etrieved #AA?L!AL##/
72. 5 ,aco-% Calter @);:FB4 9ontemporar American 2e&orm 2esponsa4 Mars% PA7
Pu-lishers 9hoice Book M&g4/ 2ook)/-oo-le/*om/ !B@?/ 6:2M A@@!#+AA+A/
htt.$CCbook)/-oo-le/*omCbook)]
id=Pb>Jl45ad)5.rint)e*front*overvone.a-eJffal)e/ 8etrieved #A!!LABL#@/
73. 5 8obert Gordi)/ "3orah 9i:inai$5on)ervative ~iew)"/ A Modern Approach to a Gi$ing
Halachah/ 9a)orti ;orld/ 1r*hived from the ori-inal on #AA?LA?L!+/
htt.$CCweb/ar*hive/or-CwebC#AA?A?!+!@+@A7Chtt.$CCma)ortiworld/or-CfaJCtheolo-yL
belief)CtorahLmi)inai/html/ "3he 3orah i) an emanation of God/// 3hi) *on*e.tion doe)
not mean, for u), that the .ro*e)) of revalation *on)i)ted of di*tation by God/"
74. 5 "5on)ervative Judai)m"/ Jewli*iou)/ htt.$CCwww/Iewli*iou)/*omC#AA7CA=C*on)ervativeL
Iudai)mC/ ";e therefore under)tand thi) term a) a meta.hor to mean that the 3orah i)
divine and that it refle*t) God) will/"
75. 5 "3efillin", "3he 2ook of Jewi)h >nowled-e", Mathan 1u)ubel, 5rown Nubli)her), MP,
!B=0, ./07@,
76. 5 ":habbat"/ Judai)m !A!/ 1.ril !#, #AA=/ htt.$CCwww/IewfaJ/or-C)habbat/htm/
77.
a

b

c

d

e

f

g
"Judai)m !A!$ >a)hrut"/ JewfaJ/or-/ htt.$CCwww/IewfaJ/or-Cka)hrut/htm/
8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
78. 5 5haya :hu*hat/ "3he >o)her Ni-]"/
htt.$CCwww/meanin-fullife/*omCtorahC.ar)haCvayikraC)heminiC3he>o)herNi-/.h./ "6t i)
al)o the mo)t Juinte))entially treif of animal), with it) name bein- nearly )ynonymou)
with nonLko)her /// 1lthou-h far from alone in the litany of nonLko)her animal), the .i-
)eem) to )tand in a *la)) of it) own/"
79. 5 "3amar Levy, :t/ Loui), 9< 2lo*k Pe)hiva Hi-h :*hool, Grade B"/ <Hko)her/or-/
htt.$CCwww/ouko)her/or-Cinde4/.h.C*ommonCarti*leCB==AC/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
80. 5 :hul*han 1ru*h, Poreh OeEah, (@?$+,
81. 5 Dlliot Oorff, "<n the H)e of 1ll ;ine)"NOF (#/!B 92,, PO !#+$!/!B@7, ../ !!!7/
82. 5 ">a)hrut Fa*t)"/ 8eli-ionfa*t)/*om/
htt.$CCwww/reli-ionfa*t)/*omCIudai)mC.ra*ti*e)Cko)her/htm/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
83. 5 "Judai)m !A!$ >a)hrut$ Jewi)h Oietary Law)"/ JewfaJ/or-/
htt.$CCwww/IewfaJ/or-Cka)hrut/htm2lood/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
84. 5 ~ayyiJra (Leviti*u), !!
85. 5 8i*e, Pi)rael (#AA?LA=L!A,/ "Judai)m and the 1rt of Datin-"/ 5habad/
htt.$CCwww/*habad/or-ClibraryCarti*le*doCaidC@B7=?CIewi)hCJudai)mLandLtheL1rtLofL
Datin-/htm/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
86. 5 Jewi)h life in ;;66 Dn-land$ "there wa) a///).e*ial di).en)ation///that allowed Jew)
)ervin- in the armed )ervi*e) to eat "nonLko)her" when no Jewi)h food wa) available;
that deviation from hala*ha wa) allowed Ein order to )ave a human life in*ludin- your
own/E"
87. 5 P/ Li*hten)htein 9/1// ";eekly Nam.hlet @A7"/ 2arL6lan Hniver)ity, Fa*ulty of
Jewi)h :tudie), 8abbini*al offi*e/ htt.$CCwww/biu/a*/ilCJHCNara)haC)hminiCli*t/html/
"///*ertain .rohibition) be*ome allowed without a doubt be*au)e of lifethreatenin-
*ir*um)tan*e), like for e4am.le eatin- nonLko)her food"
88.
a

b
~ayyiJra (Leviti*u), !7/
89. 5 2amidbar (Mumber), !B/
90. 5 1vi >ehat/ "3orah tidbit)"/ <u/or-/
htt.$CCwww/ou/or-CtorahCttC7?=?C)hemot=?Cmikda)h/htm/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
91.
a

b
"Judai)m !A!$ >o)her :e4"/ JewfaJ/or-/ htt.$CCwww/IewfaJ/or-C)e4/htm/ 8etrieved
#A!ALA@L##/
92. 5 ">araite)"/ Dn*y*lo.edia/*om/ htt.$CCwww/en*y*lo.edia/*omCdo*C!G#L
+07@AA!7A@/html/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
93. 5 ;a))erfall, 8ahel (!BBB,/ Comen and water7 menstruation in ,ewish li&e and law/
2randei) Hniver)ity Nre))/ 6:2M A@?07!B=A@/
94. 5 PeheKkal >auffman, #he 2eligion o& Israel
95. 5 8obert 1lter #he Art o& Bi-lical Poetr
96. 5 D/ 1/ :.ei)er ?enesis (3he 1n*hor 2ible,
97. 5 John 2ri-ht A Histor o& Israel
98. 5 9artin Moth #he Histor o& Israel
99. 5 D.hraim Hrba*h #he !ages
100. 5 :haye 5ohen #he -eginnings o& ,ewishness
101. 5 John Oay Yahweh and the ?ods and ?oddesses o& 9anaan, .a-e =@/
102. 5 Lan-muir, Gavin (!BB+,/ Histor% religion% and antisemitism/ Hniver)ity of
5alifornia Nre))/ 6:2M A7#AA??#@@/
103. 5 ""3he 9a--id of 9eKrit*h" 5ha.ter ? L <..o)ition 6nten)ifie)"/ Mi)hma)/or-/
htt.$CCwww/ni)hma)/or-Cma--idC*ha.t?/htm/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
104. 5 htt.$CCwww/harri)intera*tive/*omCvaultCHarri)L6ntera*tiveLNollL8e)ear*hL;hileL
9o)tL1meri*an)L2elieveLinLGodL<nlyL+=L.*tL1L#AA+L!A/.df 8eli-iou) )ervi*e
attendan*e at lea)t on*e a month
105. 5 #his is M Belo$ed% #his is M (riend7 A 2a--inic Getter on Intimate relations,
./ #?, Dlliot M/ Oorff
106. 5 Hen*e for e4am.le )u*h book) a) People o& the Book7 #hirt !cholars 2e&lect
on #heir ,ewish Identit (John) Ho.kin) Hniver)ity Nre)), !BB?, and People o& the Book7
9anon% Meaning% and Authorit (Harvard Hniver)ity Nre)), !BB?,/
107. 5 "Jewi)h 8abbi admit) 6)lam i) the olde)t reli-ion"/ Pou3ube/
htt.$CCwww/youtube/*omCwat*h]vN1#M#6K7D49/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
108. 5 Nra-er, O; 3elu)hkin, J/ Ch the ,ewsH7 #he 2eason &or Antisemitism/ Mew
Pork$ :imon :*hu)ter, !B@+/ .a-e !!AL!#=/
109. 5 Jewi)hL9u)lim 8elation), Na)t Nre)ent, 8abbi Oavid 8o)en
110. 5 "3he Golden 1-e of 1rabLJewi)h 5oe4i)ten*e, 3he Golden Dra"/ 3he Nea*e
F1/ !BB@LABLA!/ htt.$CCwww/.ea*efaJ/*omC-olden/htmlwhati)/ 8etrieved #A!ALA@L##/
111. 5 Lewi) (!BBB,, ./!+!; (!B@0,, ../@,=#
112.
a

b
Lewi) (!B@0,, ../!A,#A
113. 5 Lewi) (!B@?,, ./ B, #?
114. 5 Lewi) (!BBB,, ./!+!
115. 5 Lewi) (!B@0,, ../ !?, !@, 7#, B0, B7; :tillman (!B?B,, ../ #?, ??
116. 5 Lewi) (!B@0,, ./ #@
117. 5 9u)lim 1ntiL:emiti)m by 2ernard Lewi) (9iddle Da)t uarterly, June !BB@
118. 5 Feher, :ho)hanah/ Passing o$er 'aster7 9onstructing the Boundaries o&
Messianic ,udaism, 8owman 1ltamira, !BB@, 6:2M B?@A?=!B@B7+A, ./ !0A/ "3hi)
intere)t in develo.in- a Jewi)h ethni* identity may not be )ur.ri)in- when we *on)ider
the !B=A), when 9e))iani* Judai)m aro)e/"
119. 5 1riel, Paakov (#AA=,/ "Judai)m and 5hri)tianity Hniteb 3he HniJue 5ulture of
9e))iani* Judai)m"/ 6n Galla-her, Du-ene ~/; 1)h*raft, ;/ 9i*hael/ ,ewish and
9hristian #raditions/ 6ntrodu*tion to Mew and 1lternative 8eli-ion) in 1meri*a/ 6/
;e)t.ort, 5onn$ Greenwood Nubli)hin- Grou./ ./ !B!/ 6:2M B?@LA#?7B@?!07/
L55M #AA=A##B70/ <5L5 +!7=@B!+0/ htt.$CCbook)/-oo-le/*omCbook)]
id5lay:HbHDo-5.-81!LN1!B!/ "6n the late !B=A) and !B?A), both Jew) and
5hri)tian) in the Hnited :tate) were )ur.ri)ed to )ee the ri)e of a vi-orou) movement of
Jewi)h 5hri)tian) or 5hri)tian Jew)/"
120. 5 1riel, Paakov (#AA=,/ "Judai)m and 5hri)tianity Hniteb 3he HniJue 5ulture of
9e))iani* Judai)m"/ 6n Galla-her, Du-ene ~/; 1)h*raft, ;/ 9i*hael/ ,ewish and
9hristian #raditions/ 6ntrodu*tion to Mew and 1lternative 8eli-ion) in 1meri*a/ 6/
;e)t.ort, 5onn$ Greenwood Nubli)hin- Grou./ ./ !B0/ 6:2M B?@LA#?7B@?!07/
L55M #AA=A##B70/ <5L5 +!7=@B!+0/ htt.$CCbook)/-oo-le/*omCbook)]idoai:*vb:=L
*5.-81!L
N1!B0dJ;henthetermre)urfa*edin6)raelhleneieeBa3L3oD@LL
@1bHK;y1-)aoibookre)ult*tre)ultre)num#vedA5O9=1Dw1
vone.a-eJ;henG#AtheG#AtermG#Are)urfa*edG#AinG#A6)raelffal)e/ "3he
8i)e of 9e))iani* Judai)m/ 6n the fir)t .ha)e of the movement, durin- the early and midL
!B?A), Jewi)h *onvert) to 5hri)tianity e)tabli)hed )everal *on-re-ation) at their own
initiative/ Hnlike the .reviou) *ommunitie) of Jewi)h 5hri)tian), 9e))iani* Jewi)h
*on-re-ation) were lar-ely inde.endent of *ontrol from mi))ionary )o*ietie) or 5hri)tian
denomination), even thou-h they )till wanted the a**e.tan*e of the lar-er evan-eli*al
*ommunity/"
121.
a

b
9elton, J/ Gordon/ 'ncclopedia o& Protestantism/ 6nfoba)e Nubli)hin-,
#AA7, 6:2M B?@A@!=A707=7, ./ +?+/ "9e))iani* Judai)m i) a Nrote)tant movement that
emer-ed in the la)t half of the #Ath *entury amon- believer) who were ethni*ally Jewi)h
but had ado.ted an Dvan-eli*al 5hri)tian faith/// 2y the !B=A), a new effort to *reate a
*ulturally Jewi)h Nrote)tant 5hri)tianity emer-ed amon- individual) who be-an to *all
them)elve) 9e))iani* Jew)/"
122. 5 1riel, Paakov (#AA=,/ "Judai)m and 5hri)tianity Hniteb 3he HniJue 5ulture of
9e))iani* Judai)m"/ 6n Galla-her, Du-ene ~/; 1)h*raft, ;/ 9i*hael/ ,ewish and
9hristian #raditions/ 6ntrodu*tion to Mew and 1lternative 8eli-ion) in 1meri*a/ 6/
;e)t.ort, 5onn$ Greenwood Nubli)hin- Grou./ ./ !B!/ 6:2M B?@LA#?7B@?!07/
L55M #AA=A##B70/ <5L5 +!7=@B!+0/ htt.$CCbook)/-oo-le/*omCbook)]
id5lay:HbHDo-5.-81!L
N1!B!dJ;hile5hri)tianity)tartedinthefir)t*enturyofthe5ommonDrahl
eneioL
Ba3M:)>oL7@1b5!t;91w)aoibookre)ult*tre)ultre)num!vedA55*
=1Dw11vone.a-eJ;hileG#A5hri)tianityG#A)tartedG#AinG#AtheG#Afir)t
G#A*enturyG#AofG#AtheG#A5ommonG#ADraffal)e/ ";hile 5hri)tianity )tarted in
the fir)t *entury of the 5ommon Dra a) a Jewi)h -rou., it Jui*kly )e.arated from Judai)m
and *laimed to re.la*e it; ever )in*e the relation)hi. between the two tradition) ha) often
been )trained/ 2ut in the twentieth *entury -rou.) of youn- Jew) *laimed that they had
over*ome the hi)tori*al differen*e) between the two reli-ion) and amal-amated Jewi)h
identity and *u)tom) with the 5hri)tian faith/"
123. 5 1riel, Paakov (#AA=,/ "Judai)m and 5hri)tianity Hniteb 3he HniJue 5ulture of
9e))iani* Judai)m"/ 6n Galla-her, Du-ene ~/; 1)h*raft, ;/ 9i*hael/ ,ewish and
9hristian #raditions/ 6ntrodu*tion to Mew and 1lternative 8eli-ion) in 1meri*a/ 6/
;e)t.ort, 5onn$ Greenwood Nubli)hin- Grou./ ../ !B0!B7/ 6:2M B?@LA#?7B@?!07/
L55M #AA=A##B70/ <5L5 +!7=@B!+0/ htt.$CCbook)/-oo-le/*omCbook)]idoai:*vb:=L
*5.-81!L
N1!B0dJ;henthetermre)urfa*edin6)raelhleneieeBa3L3oD@LL
@1bHK;y1-)aoibookre)ult*tre)ultre)num#vedA5O9=1Dw1
vone.a-eJ;henG#AtheG#AtermG#Are)urfa*edG#AinG#A6)raelffal)e/ ";hen
the term re)urfa*ed in 6)rael in the !B0A) and !B7A), it de)i-nated all Jew) who a**e.ted
5hri)tianity in it) Nrote)tant evan-eli*al form/ 9i))ionarie) )u*h a) the :outhern 2a.ti)t
8obert Lind)ey noted that for 6)raeli Jew), the term nozrim, "5hri)tian)" in Hebrew,
meant, almo)t automati*ally, an alien, ho)tile reli-ion/ 2e*au)e )u*h a term made it
nearly im.o))ible to *onvin*e Jew) that 5hri)tianity wa) their reli-ion, mi))ionarie)
)ou-ht a more neutral term, one that did not arou)e ne-ative feelin-)/ 3hey *ho)e
Meshichim, 9e))iani*, to over*ome the )u).i*ion and anta-oni)m of the term nozrim/
Meshichim a) a term al)o had the advanta-e of em.ha)iKin- me))iani)m a) a maIor
*om.onent of the 5hri)tian evan-eli*al belief that the mi))ion) and *ommunitie) of
Jewi)h *onvert) to 5hri)tianity .ro.a-ated/ 6t *onveyed the )en)e of a new, innovative
reli-ion rather thatIsicJ an old, unfavorable one/ 3he term wa) u)ed in referen*e to tho)e
Jew) who a**e.ted Je)u) a) their .er)onal )avior, and did not a..ly to Jew) a**e.tin-
8oman 5atholi*i)m who in 6)rael have *alled them)elve) Hebrew 5hri)tian)/ 3he term
9e))iani* Judai)m wa) ado.ted in the Hnited :tate) in the early !B?A) by tho)e *onvert)
to evan-eli*al 5hri)tianity who advo*ated a more a))ertive attitude on the .art of
*onvert) toward) their Jewi)h root) and herita-e/"
124. 5 5ohnL:herbok, Oan (#AAA,/ "9e))iani* Jewi)h mi))ion"/ Messianic ,udaism/
London$ 5ontinuum 6nternational Nubli)hin- Grou./ ./ !?B/ 6:2M B?@A@#=0707@0/
<5L5 0#?!B=@?/ htt.$CCbook)/-oo-le/*omCbook)]
id7a<<l;dL.Mw5.-N1!=BdJG##9e))iani*Judai)m
G##5hri)tianJewi)hhlenei6kth3Ja>9930@1a4dOa5)aoibookre)
ult*tre)ultre)num!vedA5O-=1Dw11vone.a-eJDvan-eli)m
G#AJewi)hG#A.eo.leG#AheartG#Amovementffal)e/ 8etrieved 1u-u)t !A, #A!A/
"Dvan-eli)m of the Jewi)h .eo.le i) thu) at the heart of the 9e))iani* movement/"
125. 5 1riel, Paakov :/ (#AAA,/ "5ha.ter #A$ 3he 8i)e of 9e))iani* Judai)m" (Goo-le
2ook),/ '$angelizing the chosen people7 missions to the ,ews in America% )::<KA<<</
5ha.el Hill$ Hniver)ity of Morth 5arolina Nre))/ ./ ##+/ 6:2M B?@A@A?@0@@A?/
<5L5 0+?A@07A/ htt.$CCbook)/-oo-le/*omCbook)]
idr+h5-6a2?BA5.rint)e*front*overvJadvo*atedoff).rin-rhetori*:halomv
one.a-eJadvo*atedG#Aoff).rin-G#Arhetori*G#A:halomffal)e/ 8etrieved 1u-u)t
!A, #A!A/ "9e))iani* Judai)m, althou-h it advo*ated the idea of an inde.endent
movement of Jewi)h *onvert), remained the off).rin- of the mi))ionary movement, and
the tie) would never be broken/ 3he ri)e of 9e))iani* Judai)m wa), in many way), a
lo-i*al out*ome of the ideolo-y and rhetori* of the movement to evan-eliKe the Jew) a)
well a) it) early ).on)or)hi. of variou) form) of Hebrew 5hri)tian e4.re))ion)/ 3he
mi))ion) have .romoted the me))a-e that Jew) who had embra*ed 5hri)tianity were not
betrayin- their herita-e or even their faith but were a*tually fulfillin- their true Jewi)h
)elve) by be*omin- 5hri)tian)/ 3he mi))ion) al)o .romoted the di).en)ationali)t idea that
the 5hur*h eJual) the body of the true 5hri)tian believer) and that 5hri)tian) were
defined by their a**e.tan*e of Je)u) a) their .er)onal :avior and not by their affiliation)
with ).e*ifi* denomination) and .arti*ular litur-ie) or mode) of .rayer/ 9i))ion) had
been u)in- Jewi)h )ymbol) in their buildin-) and literature and *alled their *enter) by
Hebrew name) )u*h a) Dmanuel or 2eth :ar :halom/ :imilarly, the mi))ion)E .ubli*ation)
featured Jewi)h reli-iou) )ymbol) and .ra*ti*e) )u*h a) the li-htin- of a menorah/
1lthou-h mi))ionarie) to the Jew) were alarmed when they fir)t *onfronted the more
a))ertive and inde.endent movement of 9e))iani* Judai)m, it wa) they who were
re).on)ible for it) *on*e.tion and indire*tly for it) birth/ 3he ideolo-y, rhetori*, and
)ymbol) they had .romoted for -eneration) .rovided the ba*k-round for the ri)e of a new
movement that mi))ionarie) at fir)t reIe*ted a) -oin- too far but later a**e.ted and even
embra*ed/"
126. 5 ";hat are the :tandard) of the H9J5]"/ (AL/ Hnion of 9e))iani* Jewi)h
5on-re-ation)/ June #AA0/ htt.$CCwww/umI*/netChomeLmainmenuL!CfaJ)LmainmenuL
7@C!0LumI*LfaJC!BLwhatLareLtheL)tandard)LofLtheLumI*/ 8etrieved #AAALA?LA+/ "!/ ;e
believe that there i) one GLd, eternally e4i)tent in three .er)on), Father, :on and Holy
:.irit/
#/ ;e believe in the deity of the LL8O Pe)hua, the 9e))iah, in Hi) vir-in birth, in Hi)
)inle)) life, in Hi) mira*le), in Hi) vi*ariou) and atonin- death throu-h Hi) )hed blood, in
Hi) bodily re)urre*tion, in Hi) a)*en)ion to the ri-ht hand of the Father, and in Hi)
.er)onal return in .ower and -lory/"
127. 5 6)rael b/ 2etKalel (#AAB,/ "3rinitariani)m"/ Jeru)alem5oun*il/or-/
htt.$CCIeru)alem*oun*il/or-Carti*le)Ca.olo-eti*)Ctrinitariani)mC/ 8etrieved #AABLA?LA+/
"3hi) then i) who Pe)hua i)$ He i) not Iu)t a man, and a) a man, he i) not from 1dam, but
from God/ He i) the ;ord of Ha:hem, the 9emra, the Oavar, the 8i-hteou) <ne, he
didnt be*ome ri-hteou), he i) ri-hteou)/ He i) *alled God) :on, he i) the a-ent of
Ha:hem *alled Ha:hem, and he i) Ha:hem who we intera*t with and not die/"
128. 5 "Oo 6 need to be 5ir*um*i)ed]"/ Jeru)alem5oun*il/or-/ Feb !A, #AAB/
htt.$CCIeru)alem*oun*il/or-Carti*le)CfaJ)CdoLiLneedLtoLbeL*ir*um*i)edC/ 8etrieved 1u-u)t
!@, #A!A/ "3o *onvert to the Jewi)h )e*t of HaOere*h, a**e.tin- Pe)hua a) your >in- i)
the fir)t a*t after one) heart turn) toward Ha:hem and Hi) 3orah a) one *an not obey a
*ommandment of God if they fir)t do not love God, and we love God by followin- hi)
9e))iah/ ;ithout fir)t a**e.tin- Pe)hua a) the >in- and thu) obeyin- Him, then -ettin-
*ir*um*i)ed for the .ur.o)e of Jewi)h *onver)ion only -ain) you a**e)) to the Jewi)h
*ommunity/ 6t mean) nothin- when it *ome) to inheritin- a .la*e in the ;orld to
5ome////Gettin- *ir*um*i)ed a.art from de)irin- to be obedient to Ha:hem, and a.art
from a**e.tin- Pe)hua a) your >in-, i) nothin- but a )ur-i*al .ro*edure, or wor)e, *ould
lead to you believe that Jewi)h identity -rant) you a .ortion in the ;orld to 5ome at
whi*h .oint, what -ood i) 9e))iah Pe)hua, the ;ord of Ha:hem to you] He would have
died for nothin-b///1) a *onvert from the nation), .art of your obli-ation in kee.in- the
5ovenant, if you are a male, i) to -et *ir*um*i)ed in fulfillment of the *ommandment
re-ardin- *ir*um*i)ion/ 5ir*um*i)ion i) not an ab)olute reJuirement of bein- a 5ovenant
member (that i), bein- made ri-hteou) before Ha:hem, and thu) obtainin- eternal life,,
but it i) a reJuirement of obedien*e to God) *ommandment), be*au)e *ir*um*i)ion i)
*ommanded for tho)e who are of the )eed of 1braham, whether born into the family,
ado.ted, or *onverted////6f after readin- all of thi) you under)tand what *ir*um*i)ion i),
and that i) an a*t of obedien*e, rather than an a*t of -ainin- favor before Ha:hem for the
.ur.o)e of re*eivin- eternal life, then if you are male believer in Pe)hua the 9e))iah for
the redem.tion from death, the *on)eJuen*e of your )in of rebellion a-ain)t Him, then
.ur)ue *ir*um*i)ion, and thu) *onver)ion into Judai)m, a) an a*t of obedien*e to the
9e))iah/"
129. 5
"Jewi)h 5onver)ion L Giyur"/ ,erusalem9ouncil4org/ Jeru)alem5oun*il/or-/ #AAB/
htt.$CCIeru)alem*oun*il/or-Chala*haC-iyurCIewi)hL*onver)ionC/ 8etrieved #AABLA#L
A7/ ";e re*o-niKe the de)ire of .eo.le from the nation) to *onvert to Judai)m,
throu-h HaOere*h (3he ;ay,(9e))iani* Judai)m,, a )e*t of Judai)m/"
130. 5
<rthodo4
:immon), :hra-a/ ";hy Jew) OonEt 2elieve in Je)u)"/ 1i)h Ha3orah/
htt.$CCwww/ai)h/*omCIwC)C0@@B#?B#/html/ 8etrieved July #@, #A!A/ "Jew) do not a**e.t
Je)u) a) the me))iah be*au)e$
Je)u) did not fulfill the me))iani* .ro.he*ie)/ Je)u) did not embody the .er)onal
Jualifi*ation) of the 9e))iah/ 2ibli*al ver)e) "referrin-" to Je)u) are mi)tran)lation)/
Jewi)h belief i) ba)ed on national revelation/"
5on)ervative
;a4man, Jonathan (#AA=,/ "9e))iani* Jew) 1re Mot Jew)"/ Hnited :yna-o-ue of
5on)ervative Judai)m/ 1r*hived from the ori-inal on June #@, #AA=/
htt.$CCweb/ar*hive/or-CwebC#AA=A=#@A++70!Chtt.$CCwww/u)*I/or-C9e))iani*Jew)MotJ
70@A/html/ 8etrieved #AA?LA#L!0/ "Hebrew 5hri)tian, Jewi)h 5hri)tian, Jew for Je)u),
9e))iani* Jew, Fulfilled Jew/ 3he name may have *han-ed over the *our)e of time, but
all of the name) refle*t the )ame .henomenon$ one who a))ert) that )Che i) )traddlin- the
theolo-i*al fen*e between 5hri)tianity and Judai)m, but in truth i) firmly on the 5hri)tian
)ide////we mu)t affirm a) did the 6)raeli :u.reme 5ourt in the wellLknown 2rother Oaniel
*a)e that to ado.t 5hri)tianity i) to have *ro))ed the line out of the Jewi)h *ommunity/"
8eform
"9i))ionary 6m.o))ible"/ Hebrew Hnion 5olle-e/ 1u-u)t B, !BBB/
htt.$CCwww/hu*/eduCnew)Cmi/html/ 8etrieved #AA?LA#L!0/ "9i))ionary 6m.o))ible, an
ima-inative video and *urri*ulum -uide for tea*her), edu*ator), and rabbi) to tea*h
Jewi)h youth how to re*o-niKe and re).ond to "Jew)LforLJe)u)," "9e))iani* Jew)," and
other 5hri)tian .ro)elytiKer), ha) been .rodu*ed by )i4 rabbini* )tudent) at Hebrew
Hnion 5olle-eLJewi)h 6n)titute of 8eli-ionE) 5in*innati :*hool/ 3he )tudent) *reated the
video a) a tool for tea*hin- why Jewi)h *olle-e and hi-h )*hool youth and Jew) in
intermarried *ou.le) are .rimary tar-et) of 5hri)tian mi))ionarie)/"
8e*on)tru*tioni)tC8enewal
"F1E) 1bout Jewi)h 8enewal"/ 1le.h/or-/ #AA?/ htt.)$CCwww/ale.h/or-CfaJ/htm/
8etrieved #AA?L!#L#A/ "What is ALEPH's position on so called messianic Judaism?
1LDNH ha) a .oli*y of re).e*t for other ).iritual tradition), but obIe*t) to de*e.tive
.ra*ti*e) and will not *ollaborate with denomination) whi*h a*tively tar-et Jew) for
re*ruitment/ <ur .o)ition on )oL*alled "9e))iani* Judai)m" i) that it i) 5hri)tianity and
it) .ro.onent) would be more hone)t to *all it that/"
7iliography
9ar* Lee 8a.hael, "Judai)m in 1meri*a" (5olumbia Hniver)ity Nre)), #AA+,
1veryLNe*k, 1lan, and Meu)ner, Ja*ob, (ed),, "3he 2la*kwell reader in Judai)m"
(2la*kwell, #AA!,
5ohnL:herbok, Oan, "Judai)m$ hi)tory, belief, and .ra*ti*e" (8outled-e, #AA+,
1veryLNe*k, 1lan, and Meu)ner, Ja*ob, (ed),, "3he 2la*kwell 5om.anion to Judai)m
(2la*kwell, #AA+,
2oyarin, Oaniel !BB0 A 2adical ,ew7 Paul and the Politics o& Identit 2erkeley$
Hniver)ity of 5alifornia Nre))
Ancient ,udaism, 9a4 ;eber, Free Nre)), !B=?, 6:2M ALA#LB+0!+AL#
Gi$ing ,udaism7 #he 9omplete ?uide to ,ewish Belie&% #radition and Practice ;ayne
Oo)i*k/
9onser$ati$e ,udaism7 #he .ew 9entur, Meil Gillman, 2ehrman Hou)e/
American ,ewish 5rthodo> in Historical Perspecti$e Jeffrey :/ Guro*k, !BB=, >tav/
Philosophies o& ,udaism Juliu) Guttmann, tran)/ by Oavid :ilverman, JN:/ !B=0
Back to the !ources7 2eading the 9lassic ,ewish #e>ts Dd/ 2arry ;/ HoltK, :ummit
2ook)
A Histor o& the ,ews Naul John)on, Har.er5ollin), !B@@
A People 3i$ided7 ,udaism in 9ontemporar America, Ja*k ;ertheimer/ 2randei) Hniv/
Nre)), !BB?/
'ncclopaedia ,udaica, >eter Nubli)hin-, 5OL8<9 edition, !BB?
#he American ,ewish Identit !ur$e, arti*le by D-on 9ayer, 2arry >o)min and 1riela
>ey)ar; a )ubL)et of 3he 1meri*an 8eli-iou) 6dentity :urvey, 5ity Hniver)ity of Mew
Pork Graduate 5enter/ 1n arti*le on thi) )urvey i) .rinted in #he .ew York ,ewish Ceek,
Movember #, #AA!/
Lewi), 2ernard/ (!B@0,/ #he ,ews o& Islam/ Nrin*eton$ Nrin*eton Hniver)ity Nre))/ 6:2M
AL=B!LAA@A?L@
Lewi), 2ernard/ (!BBB,/ !emites and Anti-!emites7 An InDuir into 9on&lict and
PreMudice/ ;/ ;/ Morton 5o/ 6:2M AL+B+L+!@+BL?
:tillman, Morman (!B?B,/ #he ,ews o& Ara- Gands7 A Histor and !ource Book/
Nhiladel.hia$ Jewi)h Nubli*ation :o*iety of 1meri*a/ 6:2M AL@#?=LA!B@LA
Oay, John/ Yahweh and the ?ods and ?oddesses o& 9anaan/ 5hi..enham$ :heffield
1*ademi* Nre)), #AAA/
Oever, ;illiam G/ 3id ?od Ha$e a Ci&eH/ Grand 8a.id)$ ;m/ 2/ Derdman) Nubli)hin-
5o/, #AA7/
;al)h, J/N/9/ #he Might (rom #heir #hrones/ Du-ene$ ;i.f and :to*k Nubli)her),
!B@?/
Finkel)tein, 6)rael (!BB=,/ 'thinicit and 5rigin o& the Iron I !ettlers in the Highlands o&
9anaan7 9an the 2eal Israel Please !tand "pH 3he 2ibli*al 1r*haeolo-i)t, 7B(0,/
Jews in Islamic countries$
1/ >hanba-hi/ #he (ire% the !tar and the 9ross7 Minorit 2eligions in Medie$al and
'arl Modern Iran (62 3auri) #AA=,/
4xternal lin(s