MATERIALS USED IN FIXED RESTORATIONS

Materials used in fixed restorations can be classified as:

Metals
Porcelain
Resins and solders
METALS
Taggart in 1907 introduced the lost wax technique for casting dental
restorations. eneering of !etal su"structure with #orcelain "eca!e successful
in the late 19$0%s
Classification of dental casting alloys
A. According to function
1. Gold casting alloys (Bureau of standards,1927).
T&#e ' (soft). *!all inla&s+easil& "urnished, su"-ect to slight stress.
T&#e '' (!ediu!) 'nla&s su"-ect to !oderate stress, thic. three+quarter crowns,
a"ut!ents, Pontics and full crowns.
T&#e ''' (hard). 'nla&s su"-ect to high stress, thin three quarter crowns, thin cast
"ac.ings, a"ut!ents #ontics, full crowns, denture "ases and
short s#an fixed #artial dentures. These allo&s can "e age
hardened.
1
T&#e ' (extra hard) 'nla&s su"-ect to /er& high stress, denture "ase "ars,
clas#s, long s#an 0P1*, full crowns can "e age
hardened.
T&#es ''' and ' are generall& called 2rown and "ridge allo&s.
2. Metal ceramic (hard and extra hard)
*uita"le for /eneering with dental #orcelain, co#ings, thin walled
crowns, short s#an 0P1* (hard t&#e) and long s#an 0P1* (extra hard t&#e)
. !emo"able #artial denture alloys$Base metal alloys and ty#e %& gold alloys.
B. According to description (composition).
1. 'ro(n and bridge alloys.
a) 3old "ased (no"le) i) t&#e '''4 ' gold (high gold)
ii) alternati/e crown and "ridge allo&s (low
gold)containing less than 506 "ut !ore than
7068u.
") 9on gold+"ased
i) *li/er #alladiu! allo&s 70 :7; 68g, ;$6Pd. Pd resists the
tarnishing of 8g. *o!e 8g+#d allo&s contain s!all a!ounts (1$6) of
2u and ha/e #ro#erties si!ilar to t&#e ' gold allo&s.
ii) <ase !etal allo&s
9i+or co+ "ased, chea#er
;
2. Metal ceramic alloys
a) 9o"le !etal allo&s
i) 3old :#latinu! : #alladiu!
ii) 3old :#alladiu! :sil/er
iii) 3old :#alladiu!
i/) Palladiu! :sil/er
/) =igh #alladiu!
") <ase !etal allo&s
i) 9ic.el : chro!iu!
ii) 2o"alt : chro!iu!
iii) >ther s&ste!s
The sil/er in #d+8g allo&s can cause discoloration (&ellow, green or
"rown) of so!e #orcelains. 9on+greening #orcelain s&ste!s ha/e #artiall&
o/er co!e this.

?
T&#ical co!#ositions of so!e !odern no"le !etal dental allo&s
Au% Cu% Ag% Pd% In, Sn, Fe
!, "n
T&#e ' 3old @? 5 10 0.$ <alance
T&#e '' 3old 77 7 17 1 <alance
T&#e ''' 3old 7$ 9 11 ?.$ <alance
T&#e ''' Aow gold 75 @ ?9 5 <alance
T&#e ''' 8g+Pd + + 70 ;$ <alance
T&#e ' 3old 59 10 1;.$ ?.$
(B?0.o#t)
<alance
T&#e ' Aow gold $5 17 ;$ 7 <alance
T&#e ' 8g+#d 1$ 17 7$ ;$ <alance
Metal cera!ic
(Chite)
3old $; + + ?@ <alance
Metal cera!ic Pd+8g + + ?0 50 <alance
Metal cera!ic
(&ellow)
3old @@ + 1 5.$(B7.0#t) <alance
Metal cera!ic =igh #d 0+5
0+1$
or
0+
@2o
0+5.$ 77+@@ <alance
The #h&sical #ro#erties and handling characteristics of 9i+2r allo&s are
i!#ro/ed "& addition of ;6"& weight of "er&lliu!. >ne #articular "rand of 9i+
2r+<e allo& has a low enough casting te!#erature to "e successfull& cast into a
g&#su! "onded in/est!ent. 9i gi/es strength and 2r the #assi/ating effect
which !a.es the allo& corrosion resistant. <e reduces /ision te!#erature,
7
i!#ro/es casting characteristics, refines grain structure and #artici#ates in
#orcelain "onding.
Metal ceramic alloys ha"e common features)
a) The #otential to "ond to dental #orcelain
") 2oefficient of ther!al ex#ansion co!#ati"le with #orcelain
c) *ufficientl& high solidus te!#erature #er!itting the a##lication of
low fusing #orcelains.
Properties of modern cro#n !nd $ridge !%%o&s
8!ong the !inor additi/es, Dinc is added #ri!aril& as an ox&gen
sca/enger. 'n the a"sence of En, sil/er causes a"sor#tion of >
;
during !elting,
the >
;
re-ected during solidification causes gas #orosit&. 'ndiu!, tin and iron
harden the allo&. The eli!ination of 8g fro! these allo&s !ar.edl& decreases
the #ro#ensit& for the green stain at the !argins of the !etal #orcelain
interface. 8ll !odern no"le !etal crown and "ridge allo&s are fine grain.
2o##er is the #rinci#al hardenerF in excessi/e a!ounts it reddens the &ellow
allo&s and reduces resistance to tarnish and corrosion.
*il/er !ini!iDes this reddening effect.
Pd hardens and whitens the allo& and reduces its cost.
$
Lo#er go%d content !%%o&s
8 7;6gold allo& containing 96 #alladiu! was clinicall& found to
tarnish less than a7$6gold allo& containing no #alladiu!. This .nowledge led
to the introduction of 8g+#d t&#e ''' and ' allo&s containing little, of an&,
gold. 'n t&#e ' 8g+Pd allo&, gold is added not for its no"ilit& and colour, "ut
for its age hardening effect. Chen 2u is added to the 8g+#d allo&, the !elting
range is reduced to #er!it the use of g&#su! "onded in/est!ent and gas air
torch.
P'&sic!% properties
The u##er li!it of the !elting range is the liquidus. Chen 7$to 1$0
0
c is
added to the liquidus, we arri/e at the casting te!#erature. The lower li!it or
solidus can si!ilarl& "e used to o"tain the !axi!u! soldering te!#erature.
The !etal cera!ic allo&s should ha/e high !elting range so that the
!etal is solid well a"o/e the #orcelain "a.ing te!#erature to !ini!iDe
distortion (sag) of the casting.
(e!t tre!tment of no$%e met!% !%%o&s
3old allo&s can "e su"-ected to hardening heat treat!ent or age
hardening, if the allo& contains sufficient a!ount of 2u. T&#e ', and '' allo&s
do not harden li.e t&#e ''' and ' allo&s. The allo&s can also "e softened "&
softening heat treat!ent or solution heat treat!ent.

5
Softening 'e!t tre!tment
The casting is #laced in a furnace at 700G2 for 10 !inutes and then
quenched in water. 8ll inter!ediate #hases are changed to a disordered solid
solution, and the ra#id quenching #re/ents ordering during cooling. Tensile
strength, #ro#ortional li!it and hardness are reduced "& such a treat!ent, "ut
the ductilit& is increased. This ena"les the !etal to "e ground, sha#ed or
otherwise cold wor.ed, either in or out of the !outh.
(!rdening 'e!t tre!tment
The dental casting is soa.ed or aged for 1$ to ?0 !inutes at ;00G2 to
7$0G2. The casting is su"-ected to a softening heat treat!ent to relie/e all
strain hardening "efore a hardening heat treat!ent. The #ro#ortional li!it (or
&ield strength) and !odulus of resilience and hardness are increased which
!a.es the #rosthesis withstand !echanical stresses without #er!anent
defor!ation. *o!e ductilit& is essential if !argin and ad-ust!ent and
"urnishing are to "e done. <ut a cast #rosthesis that has undergone #lastic
defor!ation has failed in ser/ice. 1uctilit& is decreased "& age hardening.
C!sting s'rin)!ge
*his occurs in three stages
1) Ther!al contraction of the liquid !etal "etween the te!#erature to which it
is heated and the liquidus te!#erature.
;) 2ontraction of !etal fro! liquid to solid stateF and
?) Ther!al contraction of solid !elt down to roo! te!#erature.
7
+inear casting shrin,age of inlay casting gold alloys
Metal 2asting shrin.age (6)
3old (1006)
;;+.arat allo&
T&#e+'
T&#e+''
T&#e+'''
<ase !etal
1.57
1.$0
1.$5
1.?7
1.7;
;.76
Platinu!, #alladiu! and co##er are effecti/e in reducing casting
shrin.age. 8s ther!al contraction of the allo& as it cools to roo! te!#erature
do!inates casting shrin.age the higher !elting allo&s tend to exhi"it greater
shrin.age.
ener!% fe!tures of met!% cer!mic !%%o&s
Porcelain has low tensile and shear strength "ut can resist co!#ressi/e
stresses with reasona"le success. To facilitate co!#ressi/e loading, and
#orcelain is fused to a cast allo& su"structure which fits o/er the #re#ared
tooth, this can a/oid or !ini!iDe "rittle fracture. Harlier, !echanical retention
and undercuts were used to #re/ent detach!ent of the cera!ic /eneer. <&
adding less than 16 oxide for!ing ele!ents such as iron, indiu! and tin to the
high gold content allo&, the #orcelain+!etal "ond strength was i!#ro/ed ?
ti!es.
@
Mec'!nic!% properties
The #rosthesis should "e rigid to a/oid "rittle fracture of #orcelain.
1ou"ling the thic.ness of the !etal su"structure increases the rigidit& "& a
factor of @. <ut occlusion and esthetics li!it the extent to which the !etal
thic.ness can "e increased. <ase !etal allo&s ha/e a !odulus of elasticit&
a##roxi!atel& thrice that of #re/iousl& used gold allo&s and hence are !ore
suita"le for long s#an "ridges and thinner castings. <ase !etals are harder,
reducing occlusal wear significantl&. 1ensit& of "ase !etal allo&s is @.0
g!Ic!
?
co!#ared to 1@.?9 g!Ic!
?
for co!#ara"le no"le !etal allo&s, thus
!a.ing centrifugal casting of "ase !etal allo&s easier and #recise.
*ag resistance is the a"ilit& of an allo& to resist #er!anent defor!ation
or wear induced "& ther!al stresses. 't is #articularl& i!#ortant in long s#an
"ridges during #orcelain firing. <ase !etal allo&s will defor! less than 0.001
inch, while a no"le !etal allo& will defor! 0.009 inch. The higher fusion
te!#erature of "ase !etal allo&s also contri"utes to their su#erior sag
resistance.
To "e co!#ati"le, the allo& !ust not interact with the cera!ic so as to
/isi"l& discolour the #orcelain, and their "ond should "e strong. The use of
"ase !etal allo&s has increased ra#idl& at the ex#ense of the high no"le !etal
cera!ic allo&s.
*or)ing c'!r!cteristics
a) -ase of casting : 8llo& !ust "e eas& to !elt and !ust ra#idl& fill the !old.
9
") -ase of soldering : the liquid solder !ust wet the allo& surface readil&,
no"le !etal allo&s render the!sel/es well to "oth #re+cera!ic and #ost+
cera!ic soldering.
c) -ase of burnishing : no"le !etals with high+gold or high #alladiu! contents
are "urnisha"le. 9i+2r allo&s ha/e lower casting accurac& and greater
surface roughening than cold allo&s, "ut higher strength and sag resistance.
C!sting in+estments
a) 3&#su! "onded in/est!ents : for gold "ased crown and "ridge allo&s.
") 2ar"on containing #hos#hate "onded in/est!ents : for gold "ased !etal
cera!ic allo&s.
c) 9on+car"on #hos#hate "onded in/est!ents : for non gold "ased allo&s li.e
9i+2r or 2o+2r allo&s.
Bio%ogic!% consider!tions
'nhalation of dust and fu!es of <er&lliu! is toxic and hence exhaust
/entilation is necessar&. 8s#iration of 9i containing dust can "e carcinogenic.
9i can also cause contact der!atitis and hence is contraindicated in 9i+
sensiti/e #atients.
Etc'ing $!se met!% !%%o&s
Mar&land "ridge utiliDes !icro!echanical retention of etched+!etal
resin+"onded retainers. The etching of !etal surface can "e done either
electrol&ticall& or using che!ical etchants.
10
,ec&c%ing of no$%e met!% c!sting !%%o&s
9o"le !etal allo&s are significantl& sta"le to react two or three ti!es.
The non+/olatile "ase !etals li.e En, 'n, *n and 0e !a& "e lost during
re!elting and this loss can "e co!#ensated "& adding equal a!ounts of fresh
allo& to the scra# "efore !elting.
-ent!% Cer!mics
1ental #orcelains are used to !a.e denture teeth, single unit crowns,
fixed #artial dentures and la"ial /eneers. *ingle unit crown !a& "e #orcelain
-ac.et crown (PJ2), a !etal cera!ic crown or #orcelain+fused to !etal
restoration (P0M), or the newer glass+cera!ic crown.
ener!% Consider!tions
'om#osition
i. *ilica (*i>
;
) the cr&stalline for! or quartD is used.
ii. *odiu!, #otassiu! or calciu! car"onate increases the fluidit& and
decreases the softening te!#erature. These glass !odifiers are added in
/ar&ing a!ounts to #roduce three t&#es of #orcelains "ased on their firing
te!#erature.
.igh fusing : ;?$0 to ;$00G0 (1;90 to 1?70G2)
Medium fusing : ;000 to ;?00G0 (109$ to 1;50G2)
+o( fusing : 1500 to 19$0G0 (@70 to 105$G2)
11
iii. /elds#ar : a natural !ineral containing #otash (K
;
>), alu!ina (8l
;
>
?
),
and silica (*i>
;
). 0leds#ar when fired at high te!#eratures can for! a glass
#hase that softens and flows slightl& at #orcelain firing te!#eratures. This
softened #hase allows the #orcelain #articles to coalesce togather at high
te!#erature without co!#lete !elting : a #rocess referred to as sintering.
0elds#ar when heated "etween 11$0G2 and 1$?0G2 undergoes
incongruent !elting to for! the cr&stalling !ineral leucite, which is
#otassiu!+alu!iniu!+silicate !ineral with a large coefficient of ther!al
ex#ansion. This #ro#ert& is utiliDed in the !anufacturer of #orcelains for fusing
to !etal.
i/. 0ther additions : <oric oxide (<
;
>
?
) is added in s!all a!ounts to act as
a glass !odifier to decrease the /iscosit& and lower the softening
te!#erature. 't also for!s its own glass networ..
Pig!enting oxides are added to o"tain /arious shades to si!ulate natural
teeth. These #ig!ents are #roduced "& fusing !etallic oxides together with fine
glass and felds#ar and then regrinding to a #owder. These #owders are "lended
with un#ig!ented #owdered frit to #ro/ide #ro#er hue and shade.
<rown : 0e or 9i oxides
3reen : 2u oxide
Lellowish "rown : Ti oxide
Aa/ender : Mn oxide
<lue : 2o oxide
>#acit& is achie/ed "& adding Eirconiu!, Titaniu!, Tin oxides.
1;
Mec'!nic!% $e'!+iour !nd p'&sic!% properties
Materials fail to exhi"it the strengths that we ex#ect fro! interato!ic
"onds. This is "ecause of the !inute scratches and other defects #resent on
their surface. The defects ha/e shar# notches whose ti#s are as narrow as the
s#acing "etween the ato!s. 1ue to stress concentration at the ti#s of the
notches the "onds at the notch ti# "rea. leading to crac. #ro#agation. 8s the
"rittle cera!ic ha/e no !echanis! for &ielding to stress without fracture as do
!etals, crac.s #ro#agate at low stress le/els. *o their tensile strengths are !uch
lower than their co!#ressi/e strengths.
Met'ods of strengt'ening porce%!in
*!oothen and reduction of surface flow is one of the reasons for glaDing
dental #orcelain, which #roduces a /er& large increase in their strength.
*trengthening of "rittle !aterials can "e done either "& the introduction
of residual co!#ressi/e stresses into the surface of the !aterial or "& the
interru#tion of crac. #ro#agation through the !aterial.
.) Introduction of residu!% compressi+e stresses
*trengthening is gained "& /irtue of the fact that there residual stresses
!ust first "e negated "& the a##lied force "efore an& tensile stresses can "e
created in the o"-ect. Residual co!#ressi/e stresses can "e introduced "& the
following techniques.
1?
a) %on exchange (chemical tem#ering)
8 sodiu! containing glass article is #laced in a "ath of !olten
#otassiu! nitrate, when so!e K ion in the "ath exchange #laces with 9a ions
on the glass surface. The larger K ions squeeDe into the sa!e s#ace occu#ied "&
the 9a ions leading to a /er& large increase in residual co!#ressi/e stress in the
glass surface.
b) *hermal tem#ering
=ere the o"-ect is ra#idl& cooled (quenched) while it is in the soft
(!olten) state. 8s the solidif&ing !olten cone tries to shrin. or #ull the rigid
solidified outer s.in, residual co!#ressi/e stresses are created in the outer s.in.
c) *hermal ex#ansion coefficient mismatch
=ere a !etal housing slightl& larger coefficient of ther!al ex#ansion is
used. 1uring cooling fro! the firing te!#erature, the !etal contracts slightl&
!ore than the #orcelain. This !is!atch lea/es the #orcelain in residual
co!#ression.
/) Interruption of cr!c) prop!g!tion
a) 1is#ersion of a crystalline #hase.
8 tough cr&stalline !aterial such as alu!ina (8l
;
>
?
) is added to glass in
a #articulate for!. The glass is toughened and strengthened "ecause the crac.
cannot #enetrate the alu!ina #articles easil&. This technique has "een utiliDed
17
in the de/elo#!ent of alu!ina #articles easil&. This technique has "een
utiliDed in the de/elo#!ent of alu!inous #orcelains.
This technique is also used in the cast glass crown 1icor where the glass
crown is su"-ected to a heat treat!ent that causes !icrosco#ic !ica cr&stals to
grow in the glass, these cr&stals interru#t crac. #ro#agation.
0or !axi!u! reinforcing effect, the dis#ersed #hase should ha/e a
!ini!u! difference in ther!al ex#ansion with the glass.
b) *ransformation toughening
This in/ol/es incor#oration of a cr&stalline !aterial that is ca#a"le of
undergoing a change in cr&stal structure when #laced under stress, a"sor"ing
the energ& fro! the crac.. Partiall& sta"iliDed Dirconia (P*E) is the usuall& used
cr&stalline !aterial. The disad/antage is that it can #roduce an o#acif&ing
effect.
-esign of cer!mic restor!tions
The design should a/oid su"-ecting the #orcelain to high tensile stresses.
*o PJ2s are contraindicted for restoring #osterior teeth. H/en on anterior teeth
with dee# /ertical o/erla# and !oderate horiDontal o/erla# P0M restoration is
to "e #referred o/er PJ2.
To #re/ent stress concentration shar# line angles on the #re#aration and
sudden changes in #orcelain thic.ness should "e a/oided. The co#ing surface
in P0M should also not ha/e shar# line angles.
1$
Co%our of porce%!in
Porcelain is an esthetic restorati/e !aterial ca#a"le of !atching the
ad-acent tooth in translucence, colour and intensit&. 2o!#lete colour !atching
is difficult. The sa!e o"-ect !a& show slight /ariation in colour when /iewed
under different t&#es of light sources this is the #heno!enon of !eta!eris!. 8
shade guide is used to !atch the colour. 'deall& colour !atching is done under
the illu!ination of northern light fro! a "lue s.& as this light contains the !ost
e/en "alance of light wa/elengths. 'f this light source cannot "e o"tained,
colour !atching should "e done under two or !ore different light sources.
The o#acit&, of the ce!enting !ediu! also affects the esthetic qualities
of a PJ2. Einc #hos#hate ce!ent is o#aque whereas silico#hos#hate and glass
iono!er ce!ents are !ore translucent. Man& ce!ents are s#ecificall& tinted for
colour !atching.
F!$ric!tion of ! cer!mic restor!tions
Condens!tion 0 Porcelain is su##lied as a fine #owder that is !ixed with
distilled water or another /ehicle and condensed into the desired for!. Particles
of different siDes allow dense #ac.ing. 1ense #ac.ing has the "enefits of lower
firing and less #orosit& in the fired #orcelain. 2ondensation is achie/ed "&
/i"ration, s#atulation and "rush techniques.
Chen !ild /i"rations used for #ac.ing, the excess water is "lotted awa&
with a clean tissue. 'n the second !ethod, a s!all s#atula is used to a##l& and
s!ooth the wet #orcelain. The s!oothen action "rings excess water to the
surface, where it is re!o/ed. 'n the "rush technique, dr& #owder is #laced with
a "rush to the side o##osite fro! an incre!ent of wet #orcelain. 8s the water is
15
drawn toward the dr& #owder, the wet #articles are #ulled together ("& ca#illar&
action). The #orcelain !ust ne/er "e allowed to dr& out "efore condensation is
co!#lete.
Firing procedures
8fter condensation, the restoration is #laced on a fire+cla& sla" or tra&
and inserted in the !uffle of a #orcelain furnace. Porcelain should not contact
the !uffle walls or floor. Porcelain can e!"rittle the heating ele!ent if the
latter is contracted. 1uring firing the #owder #articles fuse together.
The condensed #orcelain is first #laced in front of the !uffle of a
#reheated furnace (a##roxi!atel& 5$0G2) for $ !inutes to #er!it the water
/a#our to dissi#ate, "efore the firing. 1uring firing, the #orcelain #articles unite
at their #oints of contact and then the fused glass graduall& flows to fill u# the
air s#aces. =owe/er, the !ass is too /iscous to allow the esca#e of air. Porosit&
can "e reduced "& /acuu! offset firing.
%!1ing
*tains and glaDes #ro/ide a !ore life+li.e a##earance. Hxternal staining
is su"-ect to che!ical dura"ilit&, #ro"le!s. 'nternal staining is #er!anent and
life+li.e, #articularl& when si!ulated craDe lines are "uilt into it. 'nternal
staining and characteriDation ha/e the disad/antage that the #orcelain !ust "e
co!#letel& stri##ed if staining is unsuita"le.
3laDed #orcelain is !uch stronger and #re/ents crac. #ro#agation then
ad-ust the occlusion, the trans/erse strength is hal/ed.
17
Coo%ing 0 sudden cooling fro! the firing te!#erature can fracture the glass.
2ooling a !etal cera!ic restoration too slowl& can cause the coefficient of
ther!al ex#ansion of #orcelain to increase and can actuall& !a.e it !ore li.el&
to crac. or craDe.
Met!% cer!mic cro#n
Chen #orcelain is "onded to an inner s.in of !etal, crac.s can de/elo#
onl& when the !etal is defor!ed or "ro.en. Hstheticall&, the P0M restorations
are slightl& inferior to the PJ2.
P0M utiliDes cast or non cast !etal co#ings.
C!st coping
To "e fused to !etal, the #orcelains ha/e to "e low fusing and ha/e a
coefficient of ther!al ex#ansion considera"l& higher than ordinar& #orcelains.
The allo&s used should ha/e higher !elting ranges to #re/ent sag, cree# or
!elting during firing.
3old allo&s used for cast co#ing contain a"out 16 of "ase !etals such
as 0e, 'n and *n which for! a surface oxide la&er during degassing and this
la&er is res#onsi"le for de/elo#!ent of a "ond with #orcelain. The #orcelain :
!etal "ond is #ri!aril& che!ical in nature and is ca#a"le of for!ing e/en
when the !etal surface is s!ooth i.e. when there is no o##ortunit& for
!echanical interloc.ing. <oth !etal and cera!ic !ust ha/e closel& !atched
coefficients of ther!al ex#ansion, to !ini!iDe residual ther!al stresses in the
latter.
1@
'n P0M fa"rication, the cera!ic should contain greater a!ounts of soda
and #otash to increase the ther!al ex#ansion to a le/el co!#ati"le with the
!etal. >#aque #orcelains contain large a!ounts of !etallic oxide o#acifiers to
conceal the underl&ing !etal and to !ini!iDe the thic.ness of the o#aque la&er.
The !etal and #orcelain should #refera"l& ha/e co!#ati"le ther!al
conducti/it& to resist ther!al shoc..
<ecause of the high !elting te!#erature of the allo&s, g&#su!
in/est!ents can not "e used, a #hos#hate "onded or silica "onded in/est!ent is
used. Ther!al ex#ansion is utiliDed to co!#ensate casting shrin.age. The
casting should "e carefull& cleaned to ensure a strong "ond to #orcelain.
1egassing also "urns off surface i!#urities. >il fro! fingers can "e a
conta!inant. 2era!ic "onded stones !a& "e used for cleaning the surface.
0inal texturing with an ;$ alu!ina air a"rasi/e !a.es #orcelain "ond to
!echanicall& rece#ti/e surface.
>#aque #orcelain is condensed to a thic.ness of 0.;!! and fired to its
!aturing te!#erature. This is followed "& translucent #orcelain and finall& the
glaDe.
Mnli.e acr&lic resin /eneered structures there is al!ost no wear "&
a"rasion or change in colour "ecause of !icrolea.age "etween #orcelain
/eneer and !etal P0M requires re!o/al of !ore tooth structure than for PJ2.
Bonded p%!tinum foi% coping
=ere tin oxide coating on #latinu! foil is utiliDed for #orcelain "onding.
=ere the thic.er !etal co#ing is re#laced "& a thin #latinu! foil, gi/ing !ore
roo! for #orcelain. 8lu!inous #orcelain is used.
19
S#!ged go%d !%%o& foi% coping
Renaissance is a la!inated gold allo& foil ha/ing a fluted sha#ed which
is swaged on to the die and fla!e :sintered to for! a co#ing. 8n interfacial
allo&, #owder is a##lied and fired, and the co#ing is then /eneered with
#orcelain.
Porce%!in2met!% $ond
2he!ical and !echanical "onds exist. 8llo&s that for! adherent oxides
during degassing for! good che!ical "ond with #orcelain, whereas those
allo&s with #oorl& adherent oxides for! #oor "onds. Minor ele!ents li.e *n or
'n are "elie/ed to !igrate to the interface where the& oxidiDe and for! co/alent
or ionic "onds across the interface. *o!e Pd+8g allo&s for! no external oxide
at all, "ut rather oxidiDe internall&, these allo&s need !echanical "onding.
*hear tests show that "ond failure can "e cohesi/e through the #orcelain,
!etal+oxide or !etal, or adhesi/e at the !etal+#orcelain, !etal oxide+#orcelain
or !etal oxide+!etal interfaces, or a !ixture of cohesi/e and adhesi/e shear
strength and tensile strength of #orcelain are when fired in ox&gen than when
/acuu! fired.
Bonding using e%ectrode position
Hlectrode+#osition of a la&er #ure gold onto the cast !etal, followed "&
a short flashing de#osition of tin, has "een shown to i!#ro/e the wetting of
#orcelain onto the !etal and to reduce #orosit& at the #orcelain !etal interface.
The electrode#osited la&er also inhi"its ion #enetration fro! the !etal, and acts
as a "uffer Done to a"sor" stresses caused "& differentials in the coefficients of
;0
ther!al ex#ansion "etween the !etal casting and the #orcelain during cooling.
The gold colour of the oxide fil! enhances the /italit& of the #orcelain when
co!#ared with the nor!al dar. oxides that require hea/& o#aque la&ers.
C!st!$%e %!ss cer!mic cro#n
The casta"le glass cera!ic, or 1icor was introduced to dentistr& in
19@7. 3lass cera!ics are co!#osite !aterials of a glass& !atrix #hase and a
cr&stal #hase. 1icor is co!#rised of *i>
;
, K
;
>, Mg>, Mg0
;
, s!all a!ounts of
8l
;
>
?
and Er>
;
and a fluoresing agent. 't is technicall& descri"ed as Tetrasilicic
fluoro!ica glass+cera!ic. 't is for!ed into full crown restorations "& a lost
wax casting #rocess. 8fter the trans#arent glass casting is reco/ered, it is
su"-ected to a heat treat!ent to induce #artial de/itrification (i.e. loss of glass
structure "& cr&stalliDation), a #rocess called cera!!ing. 2era!!ing causes
!icrosco#ic #late+ li.e #articles of cr&stalline !aterial (!ica) to grow within
the glass !atrix. 8fter cera!!ing, it is coated with a thin la&er of #orcelain to
#ro/ide esthetics. The final colour of the restoration is due, in #art fro! the
colour #ic.ed u# fro! the ad-acent teeth (che!eleon effect) and in #art fro!
the tinted ce!ents used in luting.
0laws (3riffith%s flaws) de/elo#ing on the surface of glass are #re/ented
fro! #ro#agating, "& the !ica cr&stals. The !arginal ada#tation or fit of 1icor
is "etter than gold crowns. The "ioco!#ati"ilit& of glass cera!ics is excellent.
The soft tissue res#onse of glass cera!ic restoration is si!ilar to that of
unrestored control teeth "ecause:
a. The !arginal ada#tation is exce#tional
;1
". The fluoride content of the !aterial inhi"its "acterial
coloniDation and
c. The surface of the restoration is s!ooth and non #orous.
1icor has a low wear #otential and low ther!al conducti/it& that
insulates the underl&ing tooth fro! changes in te!#erature. The fa"rication of
1icor is si!#le, as the lost wax technique is used. 2asta"le cera!ics #ro/ide
life li.e /italit&. 1icor can "e used for single restoration li.e full /eneer
restorations on anterior and #osterior teeth, inla&s, onla&s, three+quarter
crowns, #artial /eneers and recentl& la!inate /eneers. 't is contraindicated on
teeth with short clinical crowns.
8nother casta"le glass cera!ic de/elo#ed in Ja#an #roduces
h&drox&a#atite cr&stals in the glass !atrix instead of !ica cr&stals, on
cera!!ing.
In3ection mo%ded g%!ss cer!mic cro#n
This is a shrin. free cera!ic crown, !ar.eted originall& under the na!e
2erestore. 2on/entional cera!ics shrin. 10 to ;06 during firing. The #ri!ar&
constituents in 2erestore are Mg>, 8l
;
>
?
, glass frit, silicone resin and .aolin.
These non shrin. cera!ics ha/e good flexural strength.
The technique in/ol/es construction of a s#ecial non shrin.ing e#ox&
die of the #re#ared tooth. 8 wax #attern of the co#ing is found on this die. The
die and #attern are in/ested in a g&#su! "onded in/est!ent and the wax
re!o/ed with "oiling water. The in/est!ent !old is then heated to 1@0G2. the
cera!ic !aterial su##lied as dense #ellets is heated to until the silicone reti!
carrier in the cera!ic is flowa"le and then in-ection !olded "& #ressure into
;;
the heated !old. The green state co#ing is retrie/ed, s#rue re!o/ed and an&
ad-ust!ents !ade. 't is then su"-ected to a /er& high te!#erature, firing c&cle
to for! a true glass cera!ic core or co#ing.
>/er this co#ing low fusing dentin and ena!el #orcelains are a##lied to
de/elo# the external sha#e and esthetics. The equi#!ent required is s#ecialiDed
and ex#ensi/e. The technique is ti!e consu!ing and calls for extra attention to
detail.
Porce%!in +eneers, in%!&s !nd on%!&s
=ere the tooth ena!el or !etal is etched and resin ce!ent is used as the
ce!enting agent for the #orcelain la!inates. 2era!ic /eneers can "e used on
stained h&#o#lastic teeth, and #ro/ide excellent esthetics. 2ost and wear of
o##osing natural teeth are the draw"ac.s.
C'emic!% st!$i%it&
To#ical fluorides such as 8P0 and stannous fluoride, used for caries
control, #roduce h&drofluoric acid which etches glass and leads to surface
roughness of cera!ic restorations. =ence, 8P0 gels should not "e used when
glaDed #orcelain restorations are #resent. 'f such a gel is used, the surface of the
restoration should "e #rotected with aseline, cocoa "utter or wax.
,esins
Resins !a& "e indicated for an indi/idual restoration or as a /eneer o/er
a casting.
;?
Ad+!nt!ges
Hsthetics
Aow cost
2on/enient re#air, e/en intra orall&
Hase of fa"rication
9o a"rasion of o##osing teeth
-is!d+!nt!ges
Aow #ro#ortional li!it and #ronounced #lastic defor!ation distortion on
occlusal loading, hence resin should "e #rotected with !etal occlusal surface.
Microlea.age and staining under /eneers
1i!ensional change during ther!al c&cling and water sor#tion
*urface staining and intrinsic discolouration.
Tooth "rush wear
Resin /eneered !etal restoration unsuita"le for RP1 clas#ing.
T&pes of s&nt'etic resins
T&#e ' (acr&lic)
T&#e '' (di!ethacr&late)
T&#e ''' (co!#osite)
8cr&lic resins are #owder liquid s&ste!s "ased on !eth&l !ethacr&late
and si!ilar to self cured acr&lic resins. 1i!ethacr&late resins are cured at
higher te!#eratures and &ield cross lin.ed wear resistant resins. Microfilled
;7
co!#osite resins use <'*+3M8, Mrethane di!ethacr&late, or 7, @
di(!ethacr&lox& !eth&lene)+tric&clo+($.;.1.0;.5) decane resin !atrixes. These
new resins are #ol&!eriDed using light, or heat and #ressure. Microfilled resins
ha/e su#erior #h&sical #ro#erties including "etter wear resistance than the
original unfilled resin.
Harlier resins had low strength and hardness, and high water sor#tion.
The accelerated loss of !aterial ex#osed the !etal fra!ewor., which required
re#air with a direct filling resin.
The dis#arit& in ther!al ex#ansion and lac. of adhesion "etween resin
and !etal lead to #ercolation of fluids at the resin+!etal interface contri"uting
to discolouration of the resin and corrosion of non+no"le allo&s.
Rigidit& of !etal fra!e wor. is needed to #re/ent #lastic defor!ation.
Processing #orosit& also leads to wea.ness of resin, o#aque a##earance,
#otential for incu"ating !icro+organis!s and tissue irritation due to roughness.
Porcelains ha/e largel& re#laced resins.
Resins are indicated where #orcelains cause undue wear of o##osing
teeth and restorations. The de/elo#!ent of wear resistant, esthetic resin
!aterial is warranted to !eet clinical de!ands.
8n acr&lic resin called P&ro#last is still used for esthetic /eneering of
castings. The #ol&!er is !ixed with !ono!er and a##lied in s!all incre!ents
to the casting. 't is cured in a s#ecial curing o/er at ;7$G0 for @ !inutes. Then
the gingi/al and incisal colours are a##lied and "lended, curing follows each
la!ination. 8fter #rocessing the /eneer is finished and #olished.
;$
Composite ,esins
'sosit, was the first che!icall& acti/ated co!#osite resin used for 0P1
wor.. 't is cured using #ressure and te!#erature.
The !a-orit& of co!#osite resin !aterial, use /isi"le light for
#ol&!eriDation. 8 single #aste is used. >ne s&ste! utiliDes a di.etone,
ca!#horoquinone, and a reducing agent 9,9+di!eth&l a!inoeth&l+
!ethacr&late.
,esin ,etention
Mechanical retention or an inter!ediar& cou#ling agent is used in
"onding, resin to !etals fra!ewor.. Retenti/e "eads, loo#s or ladders ha/e
"een suggested. >#aque la&er does not o"struct the retenti/e #atterns
co!#letel&, the resin is also loc.ed in.
8dhesi/e cou#ling agents are a recent introduction one s&ste! utiliDes
fla!ing silica onto the !etal. 8nother s&ste! of resin retention in/ol/es
electrol&ticall& etching a !icroretenti/e surface, high "ond strengths are
acco!#lished. These new techniques allow a !ore conser/ati/e #re#aration,
reduced cost and i!#ro/ed esthetics. 8 disad/antage is the difficult& in clinical
re#airs of fractured /eneers.
C%inic!% !pp%ic!tions
'n resin /eneer areas, tooth structure is to "e reduced "& 1.$ to ;!!
de#th. 8 "e/eled solder is #re#ared on the la"ial surfaces into the inter#roxi!al
;5
surfaces. 't "lends into a 2ha!fer finish line in /eneer areas. The occlusal
surface of the restoration should "e in !etal.
2o!#lete crowns in resin are onl& interi! restorations. 'n !andi"ular
central and lateral incisors extensi/e tooth reduction can "e a/oided using resin
o/er !ini!u! !etallic fra!ewor.. 1 to 1.$!! reduction is enough.
The #ontic of an acid etched, resin "onded retainer Mar&land "ridge is
usuall& fa"ricated with dental #orcelain and render itself to electrol&tic etching.
8 heat cured co!#osite !aterial for #ontic is a reasona"le solution, which is
costless. The tissue surface of #ontic can "e allo&, which #roduces a fa/oura"le
tissue res#onse.
Custom %!min!te +eneers
=ere the teeth are !ini!all& #re#ared to recei/e resin /eneers 0.$ to
1!! reduction gi/es attracti/e results. The fa"ricated heat cured la!inates are
"onded to the etched ena!el surface using a co!#osite resin.
Addition!% !pp%ic!tions
Recentl& co!#osite resin /eneering !aterials ha/e "een considered for
use as i!#lant !aterials and also for custo! occlusal s#lint thera#&.
So%ders
*oldering is the -oining together of !etal #arts "& !elting a filler
"etween the! at a te!#erature "elow the solidus te!#erature of the !etal
"eing -oined and "elow 7$0G2.
;7
2elen,o classifies solders as)
3rou# ' : traditional gold containing solders
3rou# '' : others (s#ecial solders)
Pre cera!ic soldering refers to soldering "efore #orcelain a##lication
and #ost cera!ic soldering after #orcelain a##lication. Pre+cera!ic solders are
high fusing, fusing onl& slightl& "eneath the softening #oint of the #arent allo&.
The& should flow well a"o/e the fusion te!#erature of the su"sequentl&
a##lied #orcelain. Post cera!ic solders !ust flow well "elow the #&ro#lastic
range of #orcelain.
1ental gold solders are gi/en a fineness nu!"er to indicate the
#ro#ortion of #ure gold contained in 1000 #arts of allo&. 8 $@$ fine solder
contains $@.$6 8u, 176 8g, 196 2u, ?.$06 *n and 7.$6 En, and has a flow
te!#erature of 7@0G2.
The !ain require!ent of solder is that it fuses safel& "elow the sag or
cree# te!#erature of the casting to "e soldered. Pre+cera!ic soldering is
relati/el& difficult and structurall& haDardous due to /olatiliDation of "ase !etal
solder constituents due to o/erheating. olatiliDation causes #itting or
!icro#orosit&.
Porcelain does not che!icall& "ond equall& well to all solders. *olders
should also resist tarnish and corrosion, should flow easil&, !atch the colour of
the units "eing -oined and "e strong.
;@
The no"le !etal content and 8g: 2u ratio deter!ine the solder%s tarnish
resistance. 'f the co!#osition of solder and the #arent !etal differ gal/anic
corrosion results.
The surfaces to "e soldered should "e s!oothed with a"rasi/e dis.s and
not with ru""er wheels or #olishing co!#ounds. The solder !ust wet or flow
freel& o/er the !etal surface. 8g increases and 2u decreases the flow Aow
fineness gold solders are often !ore fluid. Proxi!al contacts are added, if
needed with a higher fineness solder since it flows less.
The strength of !ost solders is greater than the #arent !etal. <rittleness
is often seen with gold "ased 2u containing solders, on cooling to roo!
te!#erature.
0P1s fa"ricated fro! t&#e ''' gold allo&s are -oined with gold "ased
solders and usuall& water quenched 7 to $ !inutes after soldering. Nuenching
i!!ediatel& after soldering causes war#ing of the 0P1F not quenching lea/es a
-oint with little or no ductilit&. 8 "rittle -oint !a& easil& fracture. Thus a
disad/antage of #ost+cera!ic soldering is the loss of -oint ductilit&. *ince the
co!#onents are #artiall& #orcelain, quenching is not #ossi"le "ecause #orcelain
fracture will occur.
Conc%usion
The de/elo#!ent of newer allo&s and #orcelains with "etter wor.ing
#ro#erties are #rogressing in an encouraging !anner. Researchers are ho#eful
in their endea/our to !ini!iDe or totall& eli!inate the draw"ac.s that are
associated with these !aterials.
;9
,eferences
1. *.inner%s *cience of 1ental Materials, 9
th
Hd : Ral#h C. Philli#s
;. 2onte!#orar& fixed Prosthodontics, 1
st
Hd : *te#hen 0. Rosenstiel, et al
?. T&l!an%s Theor& and Practice of fixed Prosthodontics, @
th
Hd : C.0.P.
Malone et al.
?0