1

Table of Contents
About this Book 2
Introduction 3
Chapter 1 Sentence 4
Chapter 2 Parts of speech 5
Chapter 3 Noun 6
Chapter 4 Pronoun 7 - 8
Chapter 5 Adjective 9 - 10
Chapter 6 Degrees of comparison 11 - 13
Chapter 7 Articles 14 - 15
Chapter 8 Verbs - Helping verbs 16 - 19
Chapter 9 Main verbs 20 - 21
Chapter 10 Tenses 22 - 24
Chapter 11 Conjugation of verbs 25 - 29
Chapter 12 Voice of verbs 30 - 33
Chapter 13
Asking Questions and Question Tags (Making Statements, Negatives,
Questions, And Question Negatives)
34 - 35
Chapter 14 Reported Speech (Direct And Indirect Speech) 36 - 38
Chapter 15 Adverb 39
Chapter 16 Preposition 40 - 42
Chapter 17 Conjunction 43 - 44
Chapter 18 Interjection 45
Chapter 19 Punctuation 46 - 48
Chapter 20 Subject, Predicate, Phrase and Clause 49
Chapter 21 Simple, Compound, Complex Sentences 50
Chapter 22 Conditional Clauses (If & Unless) 51

2

About this Book
This Book is designed for the benefit of the Non-English Medium students and for the
teachers who teach to those students. It will be more helpful for the Telugu medium students
and teachers who are in touch with the A.P. State Syllabus. Here I mentioned the page nos. of
the academic text books for class VIII, IX and X also (A.P. State Syllabus) against the topic
in the book, which are existed in the respective page nos. In future I will give page nos. for
more text books.
In this book I give only explanation and a few examples for better understanding. For the
exercises I suggest some suitable links against the topic. I think that this book may be helpful
to the teachers and the students to understand and achieve more marks in the examinations.
You can use it as your hand book by copying the book for a print.
Thank you very much for choosing my bool to read.

3

Introduction
In the present day rat racing for marks and ranks the students as well as the teachers neglect
the importance of language skills. The result is that even the students who have high caliber
in their respective subjects cant present their knowledge where ever necessary and lose the
opportunities in the open market. They cant enjoy the essence of a language. In addition to
this now-a-days using short massaging system, chatting and other latest techno-
communicative factors may be the causes of great loss in feeling and sharing the values and
making fun of English Language. To overcome this shortage of language skills one must
learn at least the basic grammar and make a little bit practice, and I think this book will be
helpful for that. It is helpful for you to make self study by learning little by little and if you
are learned and want to make a speed recall among all the grammatical awareness, you make
it as fast as you can. Try it as for your choice and make a call for me, if you have any doubt.

4

Chapter 1
SENTENCE
GRAMMAR is a study of the rules for the words and structures of a language.
The base for any language is sounds. The sounds appear in the forms ofLETTERS.
The letters in English are divided into VOWELS andCONSONENTS
VOWELS : A,E,I,O,U.
CONSONENTS : B,C,D,F,G,H,J,K,L,M,N,P,Q,R,S,T,V,W,X,Y,Z.
WORD : A collection of letters, which gives some sense.
e.g.: school, girl, write, beautiful, beside, fast, etc.
SENTENCE : A group words, which gives complete meaning.
e.g.: I go to school everyday.
She is an English teacher.
SENTENCES ARE OF FOUR KINDS
1. Assertive sentence
2. Imperative sentence
3. Interrogative sentence
4. Exclamatory sentence
ASSERTIVE SENTENCE : It starts with a subject and ends with full stop.
e.g. I saw a snake. We got independence in 1947.
IMPERATIVE SENTENCE : It starts with a verb and ends with full stop.
(All commands, requests, orders, suggestions)
e.g. Sit down, Stand up, Open the window, etc.
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE : It appears in two ways.
(a) It starts with a question words like what, where, when, why, which, how, etc.
e.g. What is your father?
How old are you?
Who is your English teacher?
(b) It starts with helping verbs like is, was, does, has have will wont, etc.
e.g. I s he your father?
Haveyou had your lunch?
Did you finish your work?
Note: Every Interrogative sentence must be ended with a Question Mark. (?).
EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE :
It starts with a question word or an exclamation word and ends with an exclamation mark (!)
e.g. What a beautiful flower it is!
Oh! My God, He is coming again.

5

Chapter 2
PARTS OF SPEECH
There are EI GHT kinds of parts of speech.
1. NOUN Name of a person, place or thing.
2. PRONOUN Used instead of a noun.
3. VERB What the subject is / has / does / what happened to it.
4. ADJECTIVE Qualifies a noun.
5. ADVERB Qualifies an adjective / a verb / another adverb.
6. PREPOSITION Shows the relationship of a noun with another.
7. CONJUNCTION Joins two things.
8. INTERJECTION A strong and sudden feeling.

6

Chapter 3
NOUN
ANOUN is a naming word. It indicates the name of a person, Place or thing.
e.g. Syam, Ramya, Boy, Girl, Cattle, Bunch, Table, Fan, Love, Beauty, etc.
NOUNS ARE OF FIVE KINDS
1. PROPER NOUN 2. COMMON NOUN 3.MATERI AL NOUN
4. COLLECTI VE NOUN AND 5. ABSTRACT NOUN
1. PROPER NOUN is the personal name of a particular person, place or thing.
e.g. RAMYA is a beautiful girl. SYAM is her friend.
1. COMMON NOUN is the name used commonly to all the things of same kind.
e.g. Ramya is a beautiful GI RL. Her Mother is a brave WOMAN.
1. MATERIAL NOUN is the name used to the things made by any kind of material.
e.g. The TABLE is made of wood. It is broken by an iron HAMMER.
1. COLLECTIVE NOUN is the name used to the things, when they appear
collectively.
e.g. The CATTLE is grazing there. I saw a BUNCH of keys on the table
1. ABSTRACT NOUN is the name used to the feelings, ideas, qualities, etc., which are
uncountable. We cant touch them, see them or show them.
e.g. I cant express myLOVE. We cant bear this NEGLI GENCE.

7

Chapter 4
PRONOUN
A Pronoun is word, which is used instead of a Noun.
e.g. Ramya is a beautiful girl. SHE plays tennis.
NOTE: Pronouns, which are related to persons, are called PERSONAL PRONOUNS
These are THREE kinds.
1
st
PERSON: The person speaking (I, We)
2
nd
PERSON: The person spoken to (You)
3
rd
PERSON: The person or thing spoken about. (He, She, It & They)
PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL
1
st
PERSON I WE
2
nd
PERSON YOU YOU
3
rd
PERSON HE, SHE, IT. THEY
The personal pronouns appear differently depending on their placements.
PERSON
SUBJECTIVE OBJECTIVE POSSESSIVE
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
FIRST I We Me Us My Our
SECOND You You You You Your Your
THIRD
M F N All M F N All M F N All
He She It They Him Her It Them His Her Its Their
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
AP state syllabus class-IX
TM
page-43
1
st
PERSON : I -- My self; We -- Ourselves;
2
nd
PERSON : You -- Yourself; You -- Yourselves;
3
rd
PERSON : He -- Himself;
She -- Herself;
It -- It self; They -- Themselves
The uses of the pronoun IT:
AP state syllabus class-X
TM
page-42
The pronoun IT is used
1. for things without life Here is your book; tale it away.
2. For animals, unless we clearly wish to speak of them as male or female:
The horse fell and broke itsleg.
1. For a young child, unless we clearly wish to refer to the sex:
When I saw the child, it was crying.
1. To refer to some statement going before;
He is telling what is not true; as he knew it.
1. As a provisional and temporary subject before the verb to be when the real subject
follows: I t is easy to find fault. (To find fault is easy.)
2. To give emphasis to the noun or pronoun following:
I twas you who began the quarrel.
I t was at Hyderabad that the Afro-Asian Games were held.
1. As an indefinite nominative of an impersonal verb.
8

I t rains; I t shows; I t thunders;
The Pronoun it here seems to stand for no noun whatever, though this can be readily
supplied from the verb. Thus, It rains means The rain rains.
Itso used is called an Impersonal Pronoun. So also the verb rains is here called an
impersonal verb
1. In speaking of the weather or the time;
I tis fine; I tis winter; I t is ten O clock.

9

Chapter 5
ADJECTIVE
AP state syllabus class-VIII
TM
page-53 to 56
An Adjective is a word which qualifies a noun.
e.g. I saw a WHITE elephant.She wears a NICE sari.
KINDS OF ADJECTIVES: Adjectives are two types;
1. Descriptive Adjectives. 2. Limiting Adjectives.
1.Descriptive Adjectives : These can describe the state or quality of a noun.
These are four types.
1. Adjectives of Quality:
Shape : round, square, circular, rectangular, oval, angular, triangular,
etc.
Size : long, narrow, thick, thin, huge, big, small, high, lengthy, little, etc.
Color : red, blue, dark, green, light, white, black, purple, pink, alive, etc.
Taste : sweet, sour, bitter, hot, salty, astringent, pungent, chili, etc.
Condition : good, bad, dirty, weak, strong, smooth, rough, sick, dead, live, etc.
Behavior : Kind, cruel, angry, gentle, harsh, nice, mischievous, naughty, etc.
Feeling : hard, cold, smooth, rough, thorny, hot, sultry, easy, nice, etc
General Impression : Pleasant, beautiful, excellent, great, nice, attractive, etc.
1. Proper Adjectives: formed from proper nouns;
e.g.: Indian, American, Chinese, Japanese, Australian, Canadian, etc.
AP state syllabus classVIII
TM
page-99
1. Epithet Adjectives: A noun functioning as an adjective;
e.g.: Express train, coir factory, master key, etc.
1. Participle Adjectives: Present and past partciples functioning as adjectives
e.g..: a sleeping dog,; a wounded soldier; a moving train; a jumping ball;
2. Limiting Adjectives: those that limit the scope of the noun.
e.g.: Latha and Devi are in the same class; Sujatha bought four saris;
Limiting Adjectives are threetypes
1. Emphasising Adjectives : there would be some stress in saying them;
e.g.: I saw the same film five times;
He saw the accident with his own eyes.
1. Quantitative Adjectives : show the quantity
(any, no, many, much, a little, little, the little, etc.)
e.g.: There are no fruits in the basket; I havent much time to discuss it.
The Usage of FEW & LITTLE:
1. Few and Little : they give negative meaning;
e.g.: I have few coins in my pocket. (I have no coins in my pocket)
I have littlehope of getting post. (I have no hope)
2. A Few and A Little : in the sense of some or some thing.
e.g.: I have a few coins in my pocket. ( some coins )
I have a little hope of getting the post. ( some hope )
3. The Few and The Little : in the sense of that particular something.
10

e.g.: I have the few coins in my pocket that are given by my father.
The littlehope I had, helped me in getting the post.
1. Pronominal Adjectives: these are made from the pronouns; five types.
1. Possessive Adjectives : her book, their car, its mouth, etc.
2. Demonstrative Adjectives : that girl, thosefruits, this shirt, etc.
3. Distributive Adjectives : each bench, every boy, either side, etc.
4. Interrogative Adjectives : which question, what answer, how many, how
much, whose advice, etc.
5. Relative Adjectives: The man whoseland we wanted to buy is here.
This is the girl whomdid I want to meet.

NOTE : To show the differences in the forms of an Adjective,
Degrees of comparison are to be used.
There are three kinds of Degrees of Comparison

11

Chapter 6
DEGREES OF COMPARISON
1. Positive Degree. 2. Comparative Degree. & 3. Superlative Degree
Here, various forms of Adjectives are given.

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
RULE : Single syllable adjectives are
added by er & est.
High Higher Highest
Tall Taller Tallest
Bold Bolder Boldest
Kind Kinder Kindest
Hard Harder Hardest
Sweet Sweeter Sweetest
Small Smaller Smallest
Clever Cleverer Cleverest
Young Younger Youngest
Great Greater Greatest
Thick Thicker Thickest

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
RULE : The adjectives, end with e, are
simply added by r & st
Brave Braver Bravest
Sure Surer Surest
Able Abler Ablest
Fine Finer Finest
Wise Wiser Wisest
White Whiter Whitest
Large Larger Largest
Noble Nobler Noblest
Dense Denser Densest
Pure Purer Purest
Rare Rarer Rarest
RULE: When an adjective ends with
a consonant, preceded by a vowel, the
consonant must be doubled and then
writeer & est
Hot Hotter Hottest
Slim Slimmer Slimmest
Fat Fatter Fattest
Thin Thinner Thinnest
Sad Sadder Saddest
Big Bigger Biggest
RULE : When an adjective ends withy
preceded by a consonant y is replaced by
ier & iest
Easy Easier Easiest
Holy Holier Holiest
Happy Happier Happiest
Merry Merrier Merriest
Wealthy Wealthier Wealthiest
Heavy Heavier Heaviest
Worthy Worthier Worthiest
12

Silly Sillier Silliest
Lovely Lovelier Loveliest
Jolly Jollier Jolliest
Dry Drier Driest
Some exceptions to the above
Gay Gayer Gayest
Gray Grayer Grayest

RULE :The adjectives of two or more syllables
must be preceded by MORE & MOST
Beautiful
More
Beautiful
Most
Beautiful
Difficult More Difficult Most Difficult
Courageous
More
Courageous
Most
Courageous
Industrious
More
Industrious
Most
Industrious
Learned More Learned Most Learned
Proper More Proper Most Proper
Splendid More Splendid Most Splendid
Sincere More Sincere Most Sincere
Diplomatic
More
Diplomatic
Most
Diplomatic
Fruitful More Fruitful Most Fruitful
intelligent
More
intelligent
Most
Intelligent
Ideal More Ideal Most Ideal
Modest More Modest Most Modest
Honest More Honest Most Honest

DEGREES OF COMPARISON
If we want to say about only onething, we should write it in Positive degree.
If we want to make comparison between two things we use Comparative degree.
When we want say about the best of its kind we use Superlative degree.
But, if a sentence is in comparative degree, we can change it into positive degree
only. If it is in the Superlative degree, we can change it into comparative as well as positive
degree, vise versa. The following tables will be helpful.
Type Degree

Example
Type I
Comparative
Degree
Structure 1
st
N+V+CDA+than+2
nd
N
Sentence Hari is taller than Rama
Positive Degree
Structure 2
nd
N +V+not+so+PDA+as+2
nd

Sentence Rama is not so tall as Hari
Type II Positive Degree
Structure 1
st
N+V+not+CDA+than+2
nd
N
Sentence Siva is not cleverer than Ravi
13

Comparative
Degree
Structure 2
nd
N +V+as+PDA+as+2
nd

Sentence Ravi is as clever as Siva
AP state VIII
TM

75&76
Type III
Superlative
Degree
Structure Sub+V+the+SDA+---
Sentence Geeta is the youngest girl in the class
Comparative
Degree
Structure Sub+V+CDA+than+any other+---
Sentence
Geeta is younger than any other girl in
the class
Positive Degree
Structure No other +---+V+so/as+PDA+as+sub
Sentence
No other girl in the class is so young as
Geeta



Type
IV
Superlative Degree
Structure Sub+V+ one of the+SDA+---
Sentence Shilpa is one of the most beautiful girl in the town
Comparative
Degree
Structure Sub+V+CDA+than+many other+plu.N+---
Sentence
Shilpa is more beautiful than many other girls in the
town
Positive Degree
Structure Very few+plu.N+---+V+as/so+PDA+as+sub
Sentence Very few girls in the town are as beautiful as shilpa
Type V
Superlative Degree
Structure Sub+V+not+the+SDA+of all+---
Sentence Venkat is not the greatest of all Musicians
Comparative
Degree
Structure Sub+V+not+CDA+than+some other+---
Sentence Venkat is not greater than some other musicians
Positive Degree
Structure Some+---+V+at least+as+PDA+as+sub
Sentence Some musicians are at least as great as Venkat
N=Noun; V=verb; PDA=Positive degree of adjective; CDA=Comparative degree of adjective;
SDA=Superlative degree of adjective.

14

Chapter 7
ARTICLES
Articles are like adjectives and are used before nouns.
There are two kinds of articles in English language.
Indefinite article : A or An ( because it leaves indefinite the person or thing spoken
of.)
e.g. I sawaman ( not a particular man )
Definite article : The (because it refers to some particular person or thing)
e.g. I sawtheman, who helped him. (a particular man)
Note: Generally, an article is used before a common noun, singular number.
Indefinite Article : A / An : The choice between A and An is determined by sound.
USAGE:
An: is used before a word beginning with a vowel sound(a,e,i,o,u,) and before a silent
h.
e.g. an apple, an eye, an ink-bottle, an ox, an orange,anumbrella,
anhour, an honest man, an honorable man, etc.
A: is used before a word beginning with a consonant sound
and before h when it is pronounced heavily.
e.g. a boy, a girl, a park, a street, a road, a box, a pen,
a hotel, a hundred, a hill, a hen.
Some times, even though the word starts with the vowelU, or E,
it pronouns like a consonant.(long U)
e.g. a university, auniform, a European.
Some words start with O but pronouns the consonant soundV.
e.g. a one rupee note, a one eyed giant.
In the meaning of any, a is used.
e.g. I want to havea cup of coffee.

Definite Article : The : is used
1. Before a singular noun representing a whole class.
e.g. Thecow is a useful animal.
2. Before the names of rivers, oceans, seas, gulfs, groups of islands,
ranges of mountains, and descriptive nouns of countries and provinces.
e.g. TheGodavari, theIndian Ocean, theBlack sea, thePersian gulf, theAndamans,
theHimalayas, theUnited states, thePunjab, theCentral provinces
3. Before certain words of famous books.
e.g. TheRamayana, theMahabharatha, theBible, theKoran,
4. Before certain words which are unique.
e.g. thesun, themoon, thesky, theearth, thestars.
5. Before a proper noun only when it is qualified by an adjective.
e.g. thegreat Kalidasa, theimmortal Shakespeare .
6. Before the superlatives.
e.g. Rama isthecleverest boy in the class.
15

7. Before an adjective when the noun is understood.
e.g. Therich are enjoying life. (the rich people)
8. When we speak of a thing as the best of its kind.
e.g. This is thebook on the subject. (the best book)
9. With the force of a superlative.
e.g. He is theleader today. ( he is the greatest leader)
10. As an adverb with comparatives.
e.g. Themore you read, thebetter the marks.
Thehigher you climb, thebetter the view.
11. With abbreviations.
e.g. TheU.S.A., TheU.K., TheU.S.S.R., TheU.N.O.
12. With ordinals.
e.g. He isthefirst boy to enter the class.
13. Before a proper noun used as a common noun.
e.g. Kalidasa istheShakespeare of India.
14. Before the Newspapers and ships.
e.g. TheIndian Express, TheHindu, TheMail, TheJala Usha,
15. To refer to a whole family.
e.g. TheNehrus, theKennedys
Articles should not be used in the following cases:
1. Before proper nouns, material nouns and abstract nouns :
e.g. Govind is good boy; Cotton grows in Bombay.
Knowledgeis power.
2. Before man and woman when used in general sense.
e.g. Man is mortal. Woman ismans companion.
3. Before names of substances like metals and fluids.
e.g.: Gold is a precious metal. I dont take coffee.
4. Before the names of single mountains or islands and town and cities.
e.g.: Everest is the highest peak. Kakinada is small town.
Primary purpose & secondary purpose
Before certain places like temple, church, market, shop, prison, hospital, etc. we
shouldnt write any article when that place is used for the primary purpose. When it is
used for the secondary purpose we should use the article the before it.
1. She went totemple.(for worship). I went to the templeto bring her.
2. He went to church.(for prayers). She went to the church to meet him.
3. I went tomarket (to buy goods). He came to the market to talk to me.
4. She went to shop (to purchase). I wentthe shop to give some money to her.
5. He is admitted in hospital. (for treatment). They went tothe hospital to see him.
Note: Repetition of the articles:
1. She has a green and red sari. (one sari)
She has agreen and ared sari( two saris)
1. Thesecretary and correspondent says it. (one person)
Thesecretary and thecorrespondent say it. ( two persons)

16

Chapter 8
VERB
Verb is the chief part of a sentence. It tells what the subject is, what the subject does, what
the subject has and what happened to the subject.
e.g.: Raghuisa teacher. (state / position of the subject )
Sowmyawrotea letter. (work / action of the subject )
Amarhas two pens ( possession / ownership of the subject )
The snakewas killed by Sriram. (something is done/ happened to the subject)
CLASSIFICATION : Verbs are divided into two types. They are:
1. Helping verbs
2. Main verbs
Helping verbs: These are also called Auxiliaries. These are 24
Be, forms : Am, Is, Was, Are, Were, (Be, Been, Being )
Do forms : Do, Does, Did, (Done, Doing )
Have forms : Have, Has, Had, (Having )
Will forms : Will, Would
Shall forms : Shall, Should
Can forms : Can, Could
May forms : May, Might
Must : Must
Used : Used (to)
Dare : Dare (to)
Need : Need (to)
Ought : Ought (to)
While using these verbs they must agree with the subject, which is called
the agreement of the verb or concord.
Subject
BEforms Doforms Haveforms
Present tense Past tense Present tense Past tense Present tense Past tense
Iperson
Singular Am Was Do Did Have Had
Plural Are Were Do Did Have Had
IIperson
Singular Are Were Do Did Have Had
Plural Are Were Do Did Have Had
III person
Singular Is Was Does Did Has Had
plural Are Were Do Did Have Had
The usage of the helping verbs

Be forms :(am, is, was, are, were, be, been, being)
e.g.: Iama boy. She is a girl.
Hewas a student. They areactors.
We wereplayers. I will bethere in a minute.
You have been suffering from fever for the last two days.
It, beinga rainy day, we were in doors.

17

Have forms : ( have, has, had )
e.g.: I havetwo pens. She hasa nice dress.
They had a lot of money.
Note: In the above sentences have is used to denote the possession of the subject.
Apart from this have is used as the helping verb in the perfect tenses.
e.g.: She has been living in these house since 2002.
They have comea few minutes ago.
We had completed our work before he came.

Do forms: the verb do has two functions.
1. as a main verb.
2. as a helping verb.
As a main verb it is used:
1. in the sense of perform - e.g.: I shall do the work.
2. to avoid the repetition of the previous verb.
e.g.: she wrote as carefully as you did.(wrote).
1. as an intransitive verb. - e.g.: you must do so.

As a helping verb it is used:
1. for the sake of emphasis -e.g.: I do say that its wrong.
2. in asking questions. -e.g.: Did you go to market?
3. in replying to a question -e.g.: Yes, I did.
4. in negative sentences -e.g.: I did not go there.

Use of SHALL and WILL SHOULD and WOULD
1. Shall andshould in the first person represent futurity.
e.g.: I shall go to Chennai; You shouldgo to Hyderabad;
b) Shall and should in the second and third person represent command
or compulsion, promise or threat, implying determination on the part of
the speaker.
AP state syllabus class-X
TM
page-15
e.g.: You shalldo it. or You shoulddo it.
He (she, it or they) shall do it. or
He (she, it or they) shoulddo it.
1. will and would in the first person represent determination and intention.
e.g.: I willnever break my promise. or
I would never break my promise.
d) will and would in the second and third persons represent futurity.
e.g.: you will(would) finish the work.
He or she or It or they will(would) finish the work.

Exceptions in the use of Should.
Should is used in all the three persons:
1. after the conjunction lest, irrespective of the tense of the verb going before.
18

e.g.: I go ( have gone, went, will go) there lestthey (you, he, she)
should misunderstand me.
1. in the sense of duty ( meaning ought to ).
e.g.: I feel, I ( you, he, she ) should begin it without postponement.
c) in conditional clauses.
e.g.: If, I (you, she) shouldperform this.
d) Should signifies advice and refers to the immediate future.
e.g.: you should, on no account, miss seeing the film Sankar Dada MBBS.
e) should signifies a wish.
e.g.: I should very much like to meet your friend.

Exceptions in the use of will and would :
1. will and would can be used in all the three persons to denote habit.
e.g.: 1. An engineerwill study the house-site before drawing a plan.
2. I would go on shire with her every evening.
3. I think you wouldbe at the Sai Baba temple everyday.
b) in the sense of had willed - e.g.: would god I had died.
c) in the sense of wish - e.g.: would to god I were dead.
d) in the sense of it seems
e.g.: One wouldthink, from his talk last night, that he had not liked it.
Note: Will is not used at all in the first person in asking questions.
e.g.: Will I go there? (wrong). ShallI go there? (right)

May and Might
AP state syllabus class-VIII
TM
page-99
May and Might would mean is to be allowedor to be permitted to.
They are used:
1. to denote permission or request
e.g.: Youmay go ; May I come with you?
b) to denote possibility -e.g.: It mayrain today
c) to express a wish - e.g.: May god bless you.
d) to emphasis uncertainty in a question - e.g.: Who may this girl be?
e) to express a purpose -e.g.: we eat so that we may live.
Note: Although May and Might both describe a future action, only Might,
can be used when it follows a verb in the past tense.
e.g.: I thought that you might perform it.
Can and Could
Can means to have the power toor to be able to.
e.g.: I can speak English.
It is generally used in the sense of to have permission.
e.g.: CanI come to your house?
Could is the past form of Can. But it is used to signify the present tense.
e.g.: I couldwrite today.
Note: Can is used between equals and suggests familiarity.
19

Could is very polite and is used when speaking with strangers or superiors.
Dare
Dare means to have the courage to do something. It is always used as the
Principle verb, because it expresses a distinct meaning of its own. It is used
Even for the third person singular in present tense without adding s.
e.g.: He darenot utter a single word; How dareyou to tell me so?
She dared to accept the challenge.

Need:
AP state syllabus class-IX
TM
page-54
It is used in the sense of require and want.
e.g.: The boy neednot go there. She needssome money.
Must: Must indicates necessity or compulsion. It has no past tense,
But the past tense meaning can be shown by had or ought to have.
e.g.: I mustleave this place; We must not speak falsehood.
The bell rang, and the students had to go.
Ought:
AP state syllabus class-X
TM
page-15 & IX
TM
page-54 & 55

The verb ought is the past participle form of owe. It is now used only to express the sense
of duty. It is a transitive verb and the infinitive following is its object.
e.g.: She oughtto have done it; We ought to love our parents.

Used to:
AP state syllabus class-VIII
TM
page-03
It is always in the past tense form, it has no present tense form.
It is used to represent the habitual actions in the past tense.
Its always followed by an infinitive.
e.g.: I usedto smoke; She usedtolive in Chennai.

20

Chapter 9
MAIN VERBS:
Mainverbsor Principle verbs are divided into several types.

Finite verbs: The verbs that change according to the person and number of the
subject and the tense of the verb.
e.g.: Sita singssongs. They singsongs.
Ramya sang songs. They have sung songs.
Finite verbs are two kinds: transitive & intransitive
Transitive verbs : The verbs that have objects after them are called the transitive
verbs. These verbs transfer the action from subject to object.
e.g.: she atean apple. Ravi loves cricket
Intransitive verbs : These verbs dont have any objects and no transformation of action.
e.g.: The birds fly. The dogs bark. The trees grow.
Non-Finite verbs : The verbs that dont change their forms according to the
Person and number of the subject and the tense of the verb.
These are three types: Infinitive, participle & gerund.
Infinitive : These are two kinds: Plain/Bare Infinitive & To Infinitive.
Plain / Bare Infinitive : Every root form of the verb is called plain infinitive
Sometimes it is used without changing its form.
Irrespective of its subject and tense. This is used
Generally after the verbs make, help, let, etc.
e.g.: My fatherhelped him clearthe debts.
She made him winthe match.
They let him go.
To Infinitive :
AP state syllabus class-X
TM
page-2, class-VIII
TM
page-11 & 14
Sometimes the root form of the verb is preceded by to, irrespective of its subject and tense
of the verb.
e.g.: They asked him to votefor their leader.
She always begs him to loveher.
The teacher has asked the students to do the home work.
Participle : These are two types; Past participle & Present participle.
Past participle : The third form of the verb. It is always used in the passive
construction and also in the perfect tenses.
e.g.: The elephant is shotdead by the hunters.
They have celebrated the anniversary excellently.
Present participle: The root form of the verb is added by an ing form. It is used for the
on going actions at a particular point of time.
Main verbs
Finite verbs Non-finite verbs
(i) Transitive
(ii)Intransitive
Infinitive Participle
Gerund
To infinitive Plain infinitive Present participle Past participle
21

It is usually verbal adjective.
e.g.: I saw him crossing the road.
She has observed them listening the lesson.
Gerund : It isverbal noun. It is used as the subject or object of the verb.
It also appears with the ing form.
e.g.: Smoking is injurious to health.
I like swimming; Collecting stamps was his habit.
Note: The present participle form of a verb, present continuous form of a verb and
Gerund appear alike. But there was a lot of difference in their usage.
e.g.: Swimmingmakes a man healthy. (gerund)
He saw his son swimming in the river. ( present participle)
They are swimming in the river. ( present continuous tense)
In the above sentences the word swimming worked as gerund, present
participle and present continuous.
Gerund - verbal noun ; (used as subject or object)
Present participle - verbal adjective; Present continuous - verb

22

Chapter 10
TENSES
Generally tenses are threetypes- Present tense, Past tense and Future tense.
But again the tenses are divided into four types. Simple tense, continuous tense
perfect tense and perfect continuous tense. Then, we get twelve tenses.
1. Present tense a) Simple tense
2. Past tense b) Continuous tense
3. Future tense c) Perfect tense
d) Perfect continuous tense
various forms of forms of a verb and its structure must be as given bellow.
per example various forms of the verb eat are as follows
Tenses Simple tense Continuous tense Perfect tense Perfect continuous tense
Present tense
V1/v+
s/es eat/eats
Am/is/are+ v+ing
is eating
Have/has+ v3
have eaten
Have/has+been +v+ing
have been eating
Past tense V2 ate
Was/were+ v+ing
was eating
Had +v3 had
eaten
Had +been + v+ing had
been eating
Future tense
w/s/c/m+v1
will eat
w/s/c/m+be+v+ing
will be eating
w/s/c/m+have
+eaten will
have eaten
w/s/c/m+have+ been
+v+ing will have been
eating
W=will; S=shall; C=can; M=may; V1=verb in present tense; V2=verb in past tense; V3=verb
in past participle tense
The uses of the tenses
The simple present tense is used :
1. To express a habitual action : He takes milk every morning.
2. To express general truth : The sun rises in the east.
3. In the exclamatory sentences beginning with here and there.
e.g.: Here comesthe bus! There she goes!
4. In vivid narrative, as substitute for the Simple past :
e.g.: Akbar winsthe battle against Rana Prathap.
5. To indicate a future event that is part of a fixed programme or time table:
e.g.: He retiresnext month; The match startsat 9 O clock.
6. To introduce quotations : Keats says, A thing of beauty is a joy for ever.
Thepresent continuous Tense is used:
1. For an action going on at the time of speaking: She is singing now.
2. For a temporary action which may not be actually happening at the time
of speaking : I am reading a novel (but not at this moment.).
1. For an action that is planned or arranged to take place in the near future:
e.g.: I am going to the cinema tonight.
4. We use the present continuous tense with an adverb like always,
continually, constantly, etc.
e.g.: My dog is very silly; he is always running out into the road.
The present perfect tense is used :
To indicate completed activities in the immediate past.
23

e.g.: Hehas just gone; I have finished the work.
To express past actions whose time is not given and not definite;
e.g.: I have read that book; Mr. Hari has been to Japan.
To denote an action beginning at some time in the past and continuing up to
to the present moment:
e.g.: I have known him for a long time.
We havent seen Padma for several months.
The following words can be used with the present perfect tense: Just, often, yet,
never, ever, so far, till now, already, since, for, today, this week, this month, etc.
The Present perfect continuous tense is used :
for an action which began at some time in the past and is still continuing:
e.g.: They have been building the bridge for several years.
They have been playing foot ball since four O clock.
The Simple past tense is used:
AP state syllabus class-VIII
TM
page-64-66 & 70
To indicate an action completed in the past.
e.g.: Ireceivedhis letter a week ago; Sheleftschool last year.
To indicate historical or time implied actions :
e.g.: Babar defeated Rana Sanga at Kanwaha; He learntHindi in Nagpur.
For the past habitual actions Simple Past Tense is used with the used to
construction;
He used to smoke cigarettes. (but now, he stopped smoking).
The Past Continuous Tense is used:
AP state syllabus class-X
TM
page-34
To denote an action going on at some time in the past. The time of the action
may not be indicated.
e.g.: We were listening to the radio all evening.
Some times the Past Continuous Tense and Simple Past are used together,
when a new action happened in the middle of a longer action. The Simple
Past Tense is used for the new action.
e.g.: The light went out while I was reading.
When I saw him, he was playing chess.
The Past Perfect Tense is used :
AP state syllabus class-X
TM
page-23
To describe an action completed before a certain moment in the past
e.g.; I had seen him last five years before.
If two actions happened in the past, it may be necessary to show which action happened
earlier than the other. The Past Perfect is mainly used in such cases.
e.g.: When I reached the station the train had already started.
I had written the letter before he arrived.
The Past Perfect Continuous Tense is used :
for an action that began before a certain point in the past and continued up to
that time: e.g.: At that time he had been writing a novel for two months.
When Mr. Mukherji came to the school in 2002, Mr. Anand
24

had already been teaching there for five years.
The Simple Future Tense is used for an action that has still to take place:
e.g.: I shall seehim tomorrow; Tomorrow will beSunday.
Some times Future Tense is used with going to+infinitive construction.
e.g.; He is going to build a new house.
Future Continuous Tense represents an action as going on at some time in future.
e.g.: When I get home, my children will be playing.
This Tense is also used for future events that are planned:
e.g.: I will be staying here till Sunday.
Future Perfect Tense is used to indicate the completion of an action by a certain
future time:
e.g.: Before you go to see him, he will have left the place.
The Future Perfect Continuous Tense indicates an action represented as being in
progress over a period of time that will end in the future:
e.g.: By next July we shall have been living here for four years.


25

Chapter 11
VERB AND ITS CONJUGATIONS
A List of Strong Verbs
Sl. Present Tense Past Tense Past participle
1 Am / Is / Be was Been
2 Are were Been
3 Has / have had had
4 Do / does did done
5 Abide abode abode
6 arise arose arisen
7 awake awoke awaken
8 bear bore born
9 beat beat beaten
10 become became become
11 begin began begun
12 bend bent bent
13 befall befell befallen
14 beget begot begotten
15 behold beheld beheld
16 breed bred bred
17 beseech besought besought
18 bereave bereft bereft
19 bethink bethought bethought
20 bind bound bound
21 bite bit bit
22 bleed bled bled
23 blow blew blown
24 break broke broken
25 bring brought brought
26 build built built
27 burn burnt burnt
28 buy bought bought
29 catch caught caught
30 choose chose chosen
31 cling clung clung
32 come came come
33 creep crept crept
34 choose chose chosen
35 chide chided chidden
36 cleave clove cloven
26

37 crow crew crown
38 deal dealt dealt
39 dive dove dove
40 dwell dwelt dwelt
41 dig dug dug
42 draw drew drawn
43 dream dreamt dreamt
44 drink drank drunk
45 drive drove driven
46 eat ate eaten
47 fall fell fallen
48 feed fed fed
49 feel felt felt
50 fight fought fought
51 find found found
52 flee fled fled
53 fling flung flung
54 fly flew flown
55 forbid forbade forbidden
56 freeze froze frozen
57 foresee foresaw foreseen
58 foretell foretold foretold
59 forget forgot forgotten
60 forgive forgave forgiven
61 forsake forsook forsaken
62 get got gotten
63 give gave given
64 go went gone
65 gild gilt gilt
66 gird girt girt
67 grind ground ground
68 grow grew grown
69 hang hung hung
70 hear heard heard
71 hide hid hid
72 hold held held
73 keep kept kept
74 kneel knelt knelt
75 know knew known
76 lay laid laid
77 lead led led
27

78 leap leapt leapt
79 learn learnt learnt
80 leave left left
81 lend lent lent
82 lie lay lain
83 lie lied lied
84 light lit lit
85 lose lost lost
86 make made made
87 mean meant meant
88 meet met met
89 misspell misspelt misspelt
90 misdeal misdealt misdealt
91 misunderstand misunderstood misunderstood
92 mistake mistook mistaken
93 overcome overcame overcome
94 overtake overtook overtaken
95 oversee oversaw overseen
96 rebuild rebuilt rebuilt
97 rebind rebound rebound
98 relay relaid relaid
99 rend rent rent
100 repay repaid repaid
101 rewrite rewrote rewritten
102 ride rode ridden
103 ring rang rung
104 rise rose risen
105 run ran run
106 say said said
107 see saw seen
108 seek sought sought
109 sell sold sold
110 send sent sent
111 shake shook shaken
112 shine shone shone
113 shoot shot shot
114 shrink shrank shrunk
115 shrive shrove shriven
116 sing sang sang
117 sink sank sunk
118 sit sat sat
28

119 slay slew slain
120 sleep slept slept
121 slide slid slid
122 sling slung slung
123 slink slunk slunk
124 sleep slept slept
125 smell smelt smelt
126 smite smote smitten
127 speak spoke spoken
128 spell spelt spelt
129 spend spent spent
130 spill spilt spilt
131 spin span spun
132 spit spat spat
133 spring sprang sprung
134 stand stood stood
135 stave stove stove
136 steal stole stolen
137 stick stuck stuck
138 sting stung stung
139 stink stank stunk
140 stride strode stridden
141 strike struck stricken
142 string strung strung
143 strive strove striven
144 swear Swore sworn
145 sweep swept swept
146 swim swam swum
147 swing swung swung
148 take took taken
149 teach taught taught
150 tear tore torn
151 tell told told
152 think thought thought
153 throw threw Thrown
154 thrive throve thriven
155 tread trod trodden
156 unbind unbound unbound
157 undergo underwent undergone
158 understand understood understood
159 undertake undertook undertaken
29


The verbs having no change in their conjugation
Sl. Present Tense Past Tense Past participle
1 bet bet bet
2 bid bid bid
3 broadcast broadcast broadcast
4 burst burst burst
5 cast cast cast
6 cost cost cost
7 cut cut cut
8 hit hit hit
9 hurt hurt hurt
10 knit knit knit
11 let let let
12 put put put
13 read read read
14 rid rid rid
15 set set set
16 shed shed shed
17 spread spread spread
18 slit slit slit
19 shut shut shut
20 thrust thrust thrust
21 wet wet wet
22 upset upset upset
23 quit quit quit
24 sweat sweat sweat
25 forecast forecast forecast


160 wake woke waken
161 wear wore worn
162 weave wove woven
163 weep wept wept
164 win won won
165 wind wound wound
166 withdraw withdrew withdrawn
167 withhold withheld withheld
168 withstand withstood withstood
169 wring wrung wrung
170 write wrote written
30

Chapter 12
VOICE OF VERBS
Voice is a form of the verb. It shows whether the word denoted by the subject or has
something done to it. There are two kinds of voice namely.
1. Active Voice.: The verb is said to be in the Active Voice when the subject represents the
doer.
2. Passive voice: The verb is said to be in the passive voice when the subject represents the
person or thing that has something done to him or it.
e.g.: Raghu ate an apple. (Active Voice- A.V.)
( In the above sentence Raghu is the Subject in singular.
Ate is the verb in the past tense. An apple is the
Object of the sentence )
An apple was eaten by Raghu. (Passive Voice P.V.)
Note: While changing the verb from active voice to passive voice, the following rules are to
be observed.
AP state syllabus class-X
TM
page-52
1. Change the Object into Subject.
2. Recognize the tense of the verb and the number and person of the subject.
3. If the verb is in the present tense, is must be added to the singular subject or
are must be added to the plural subject. If the verb is in the past tense,was
must be added to the singular subject, or were must be added to the
plural subject.
1. Then the past participle form of the verb must be added.
2. The preposition By must be added then.
3. Lastly, Subject must be changed into Object.
If the subject has no object, we cant change the sentence into passive voice.
AS FOR THE TENSES THE VOICE IS CHANGED AS FOLLOWES:
1. Simple Present tense
A.V.
Structure Sub+v1/v1+s/es+Obj
Sentences
Sita sings a song
Sita sings songs
P.V.
Structure Object+am/is/are+v3+by+Subject
Sentences
A song is sung by Sita
Songs are sung by Sita.
2.
Present Continuous
Tense
A.V.
Structure Subject+am/is/are+v+ing+Object
Sentences
Sita is singing a song.
Sita is singing songs
P.V.
Structure Object+am/is/are+being+v3+by+Subject
Sentences
A song is being sung by Sita
Songs are being sung by Sita.
3. Present Perfect Tense
A.V.
Structure Subject+Has/Have+v3+Object
Sentences
Sita has sung a song
Sita has sung songs
P.V. Structure Object+Has/Have+been+v3+by+Subject
31

Sentences
A song has been sung by Sita
Songs have been sung by Sita.
4. Simple Past Tense
A.V.
Structure Subject+v2+Object
Sentences
Sita sang a song
Sita sang songs
P.V.
Structure Object+was/were+v3+by+subject
Sentences
A song was sung by Sita
Songs were sung by Sita.
5. Past Continuous Tense
A.V.
Structure Subject+was/were+v+ing+Object
Sentences
Sita was singing a song
Sita was singing songs
P.V.
Structure Object+was/were+being+v3+by+subject
Sentences
A song was being sung by Sita.
Songs were being sung by Sita.
6. Past Perfect Tense
A.V.
Structure Subject+had+v3+Object
Sentences
Sita had sung a song
Sita had sung songs
P.V.
Structure Object+had+been+v3+by+Subject
Sentences
A song had been sung by Sita
Songs had been sung by Sita
7. Simple Future Tense
A.V.
Structure Subject+w/s/c/m+v1+Object
Sentences
Sita will sing a song
Sita will sing songs
P.V.
Structure Object+w/s/c/m+be+v3+by+Subject
Sentences
A song will be sung by Sita
Songs will be sung by Sita.
8.
Future Perfect
Tense
A.V.
Structure Subject+w/s/c/m+have+v3+Object
Sentences
Sita will have sung a song.
Sita will have sung songs
P.V.
Structure Object+w/s/c/m+have+been+v3+by+Sub
Sentences
A song will have been sung by Sita
Songs will have been sung by Sita.
W=will; S=shall; C=can; M=may; V1=verb in present tense; V2=verb in past tense;
V3=verb in past participle tense
The following things are to be noted while changing the voice:
1. Subject: The doer of the action;
2. Object : The person or a thing, to which something has done;
3. Verb : Which denotes what the subject is/has/does/what happen to it;
4. Only EIGHT tenses can be changed into passive voice; Perfect
Continuous Tenses and Future Continuous Tense cant be changed.
5. In every passive sentence we can find past participle form of the verb;
A.V. P.V.
a) Simple present tense v1/v1+s/es am/is/are+v3
32

b) Present continuous tense am/is/are+v+ing am/is/are+being+v3
c) Present perfect tense has/have+v3 has/have+been+v3
d) Simple past tense v2 was/were+v3
e) Past continuous tense was/were+v+ing was/were+being+v3
f) Past perfect tense had+v3 had + been +v3
g) Simple future tense w/s/c/m+v1 w/s/c/m+be+v3
h) Future perfect tense w/s/c/m+have+v3 w/s/c/m+have+been+v3
In Future tenses the words will, would, shall, should, can, could, may,
might, must will be appear.
Rules for changing Imperative sentences:
e.g.: Bring me a cup of coffee. A.V.
Let a cup of coffee be brought (to) me (by you). P.V.
In the Imperative sentences the sentence starts with a verb and endswith a full
stop. We cant find the subject here. But the subject You is always understood. We need
not to change it as the object. While changing the sentences into passive voice the following
things are to beobserved.
1. Start the sentence with Let
2. Change the object as the subject
1. Directly Be must be used instead of Be form.
2. The past participle form of the verb should be added.
e.g.: Post this letter A.V.
Let this letter be posted (by you). P.V.
Note: Some times the imperative sentences starts with the word please then
we should remove it and write you are requested to to change it.
e.g.: Please, post the letter --- You are requested to post the letter.

Interrogative sentences must be changed as follows:
1. Why did he write the letter? --- Why was the letter written by him?
2. How did they solve the problem? --- How was the problem solved by them?
3. Where did you hide the book? --- Where was the book hidden by you?
4. When did she bring the file? --- When was the file brought by her?
Note: The Interrogative sentences should be changed as the assertive sentences can
be, with some changes.
1. We should write the question word (why, where, etc.) first.
2. The helping verb must be written before the subject.
3. Some of the questions start without a question word,
e.g.: Did they finish the work?. --- Was the work finished by them?
Have you repaired the box?--- Has the box been repaired by you?
Some times we may have two objects, for which we can make passive in two ways.
e.g.: He gave me a book. A.V. --- A book was given (to) me by him. P.V.
I was given a book by him. P.V.
We can change the sentences in passive voice into active voice by following the rules
in rivers. But in some passive sentences we cant find the object then we have to adopt some
words
like, some one, we, they, you, etc. as the subject.
33

e.g.: The thief was caught. --- Some one caught the thief.
Promises should be kept--- We should keep promises.
Now let us see the above sentences, structure wise in a table:
1.
Imperative
sentences
commands
A.V.
Structure V1+ Object
Sentences Open the door.
P.V.
Structure Let+ object+be+v3
Sentences Let the door be opened.
Requests
A.V.
Structure Please+v1+object
Sentences Please open the door.
P.V.
Structure You are requested to+v1+object
Sentences You are requested to open the door
2.
Interrogative
sentences
Question
words
A.V.
Structure Q.W.+H.V.+subject+v1/(v3)+ object?
Sentences
How did you finish the work?
How had he finished the work?
P.V.
Structure Q.W+H.V+object+(been)+v3+by+subject?
Sentences
How was the work finished by you?
How had the work been finished by
him?
Helping
verbs
A.V.
Structure H.V.+subject+v1/v3+object
Sentences
Did he complete the work
Had he completed the work
P.V.
Structure H.V.+object+v3+by+subject
Sentences
Was the work completed by him
Had the work been completed by him.
3. Double objects
A.V.
Structure
Subject+ V +IDO+DO
Subject + V + DO + to + IDO
Sentences
She gave me a book
She gave a book to me
P.V.
Structure
DO + H.V.+ V3 + IDO + by + subject
IDO+ H.V.+ V3 + to +DO +by+subject
Sentences
I was given a book by her
A book was given (to) me by her.
QW=Question word, HV=Helping verb, DO=Direct object, IDO=Indirect object
Usually in the passive construction the object is preceded by the preposition by,but in some
constructions byis not suitable for them. In such cases we should take the prepositions
in, to, etc. as per the necessity
AP state syllabus class-IX
TM
page-87-89
.e.g.: The bottle contains water.--Water is contained in the bottle.
I know him -- He is known to me.
Some times there is no need of using any preposition after the verb because
there isnt much scope for the object in passive voice; it may be unknown.
e.g.: Some one has stolen my watchMy watch has been stolen.
34

Chapter 13
ASKING QUESTIONS AND QUESTION TAGS (Making Statements, Negatives,
Questions, And Question Negatives)
Asking Questions : Questions can be asked in two ways;
1. Started with question words like, what, where, when, why, which, etc.
e.g.: What is your name? When did you come here?
AP state syllabus class-VIII
TM
page-99-102
The structure must beQ.W + H.V + Subject + M.V. + ----- + ?
The answers for these questions must be in at least one or two sentences.
2. Started with Helping Verbs like, do, is, can, will, may, etc.
e.g.: May I go home? Can I sit here? Do you remember?
The structure must be --- H.V. + Subject + M.V. + ----- + ?
These questions asked for making conformation, and we can answer them by saying
simply yes or no. What ever the question is we must put the Helping Verb before the
Subject,
where as in statements, after the subject;
Some other Specific ways of seeking information:
AP state syllabus class-VIII
TM
page-22,23,86 & 87
e.g.: How far, How long, How many, How much, How old, How big, etc.
Structure : How------+ ( Adjective + ) Verb + Subject + ------- + ?
Making Statements, Negatives, Questions, and Question negatives:
Sl .
no
Sentence Structure Example
1. Statement Subject + Verb +-----
He wrote a book.
He had written a book.
He is writing a book.
2. Negative Subject + H.V.+ not + Verb + ---
He did not write a book.
He hadnt written a
book.
He is not writing a book.
3. Question H.V. + subject + Verb + -----?
Did he write a book?
Had he written a book?
Is he writing a book?
4.
Question
negative
H.V. + not + subject + Verb + ----
-?
Didnt he write a book?
Hadnt he written a
book?
Isnt he writing a book?
Question Tags:
AP state syllabus class-X
TM
page-69
It is common practice in conversation to make a statement and ask for conformation; as, Its
very hot, isnt it? The later part, (isnt it?)is called a question tag. The pattern is
(i) Helping verb+ nt + Subject, if the statement is positive,
(ii) Helping verb + Subject,if the statement is negative.
35

Negative Question TagsforPositive statements
Its raining, isnt it?
You are free, arent you?
Sita can swim well, cant she?
Gopi broke the glass, didnt he?
Your sister cooks well, doesnt she?
Im alright, arent I?
He was brilliant, wasnt he?
They were good boys, werent they?
You cross your limits, dont you?
They have committed a mistake, havent they?
She has listened the story, hasnt she?
My mother had cooked the dinner, hadnt she?
My father hadnt stopped smoking, had he?
They will go to Chennai, wont they?
She shall meet him, shant she?
Ravi can complete this, cant he?
Positive Question Tags forNegative statements.
You arent busy, are you?
She cant swim, can she?
Mohan doesnt work hard, does he?
They havent come yet, have they?
She isnt your aunt, is she?
Im not a fool, am I?
He wasnt there, was he?
We werent waiting, were we?
You dont go there, do you?
She hasnt believed him, has she?
I wont do it again, will I?
He shant come again, shall he?
Lalitha cant accept this, can she?
Note: The subject of the question tag is always a pronoun, never a noun and it
starts with a small letter.

36

Chapter 14
REPORTED SPEECH (Direct And Indirect Speech)
In English speech is two types- Direct speech & Indirect speech
Direct speech is always in the quotation marks
AP state syllabus class-IX
TM
page-21-23, 64 & 100
e.g.: Rama said to Krishna, I am going to market (Direct speech)
Rama told Krishna that he was going to market. (Indirect speech)
In the above example the words in the quotation marks are told directly by
Rama. But in the next sentence the words are told indirectly by others. while changing the
sentences from
the direct speech into indirect speech the following things should be observed
1. The sentence in the direct speech is divided into two parts-Reporting part &
Reported part
2. The part, which is out side of the inverted commas is the Reporting part.
i.e. Rama said to Krishna.
3. The part, which is in the inverted commas is the Reported part of the sentence
i.e. I am going to market.
4. If the verb in the reporting part is in the past tense there will be some changes in
the reported verb as follows.
Simple present tense - Simple past tense
Present continuous tense - Past continuous tense
Present perfect tense - Past perfect tense
Simple past tense - Simple past tense/ past perfect tense
Present perfect continuous tense - Past perfect continuous tense
will, shall, can, may, - would, should, could, might.

e.g.: Sita said, I goto school today
Sita said that she wentto school that day.
Ramya said, I am teachingEnglish
Ramya said that she was teachingEnglish.
Kumar said to Radha, I have metyour father
Kumar told Radha that he had mether father.
Rahim said to Janaki, I completedmy work yesterday
Rahim told Janaki that he had completedhis work the day before.
Kavya said to them, I have been livinghere for five years.
Kavya told them that shehad been livingthere for five years.
She said to him, I will goto Chennai
She told him that she would goto Chinnai.

5. But when the reporting verb is in the simple presenttense or in the
simple futuretense no changes, required.
e.g.: She says, My father is a doctor.
She says that her fatherisa doctor.
37

He will say, I agree to this.
He will say that he agreesto that.
6. If the reported part is a universal truthor a habitual action, the tense
is not changed even though the reporting verb is in the past tense.
e.g.: My teacher said, The sun rises in the east
My teacher said that the sun risesin the east.
1. Generally said to is changed as told. We should not use to after
told. Some times as for the meaning, said tois changed into
asked, enquired, questioned, ordered, commanded, advised,
requested, threatened, agreed, suggested, ignored, etc.
1. Pronouns and Possessive Adjectives in First person and Second person
should be into Third person. Observe the following table:
Sl. No Person
Singular
Plural
Masculine Feminine
1. I He She ---
2. You (subject) He She They
3. You (object) Him Her Them
4. Me Him Her ---
5. My His Her ---
6. Myself Himself Herself ---
7. Your His Her Their
8. We --- --- They
9. Us --- --- Them
10. Our --- --- Their
11. Ourselves --- --- Themselves
Some times, if the person addressed, reports the speech, Second person
is changed into First person.
1. While changing the speech, the two parts of the sentence should be
connected with a conjunction. There are four types of sentences in
reported part. So the conjunctions should be used as follows.

Sl. No. Sentence Conjunction
1. Assertive Sentence That
2. Imperative Sentence to
3. Interrogative Sentence
Question word Same Question word
Helping verb If / Whether
4. Exclamatory Sentence* That
* First Exclamatory sentence should be changed into Assertive
Sentence and then the conjunction that should be added.
1. My teacher said to me, Open the door. (order)
My teacher orderedme toopen the door.
2. He said to her, Please give me your pen. (request)
38

He requestedher togive him her pen.
She said to him, What is your name? (question)
She askedhim whathis name was.
4. They said to her, Did you finish the project?(enquiry)
They enquiredher whethershe had finished the project.
1. Giri said, How beautiful the flower is! *(the flower is very beautiful)
Giri exclaimedthatthe flower was very beautiful.
2. Words expressing nearness are generally changed into words
expressing , distance, as given below.

DIRECT INDIRECT * DIRECT INDIRECT
Now/Just Then * Thus So
This That * Here by There by
These Those * Today That day
Here There * Tomorrow The next day / The day after
Hence Thence * Yesterday
The day before /
The previous day
Hither Thither * Last night The night before
Ago Before * To-night That night


39

Chapter 15
ADVERB
An Adverb is a word which modifies a verb or an adjective or another adverb.
e.g.: Sathish eatsslowly. it modifies a verb.
This is a verysweetmango - it modifies an adjective.
Madhavi reads quitecorrectly. it modifies an adverb.
Some Adverbs are formed by adding ly to some adjectives.
e.g.: Sweet - Sweetly; Bitter Bitterly;
Sad Sadly; Glad Gladly;
Happy Happily; Slow Slowly;
Swift Swiftly; Quiet Quietly,
Fine Finely; Smart Smartly;

Adverbs of Time: Now, then, since, ago, before, already, soon, presently,
immediately, instantly, early, late, today, tomorrow,
yesterday, afterwards, etc.
Adverbs of Place : Here, there, hence, thence, hither, thither, in, out, within,
without, above, below, far, near, inside, outside, etc.
Adverbs of Number: Once, twice, thrice, again, seldom, never, sometimes,
always, often, firstly, secondly, thirdly, fourthly,
four-fold, five-fold, etc.
AP state syllabus class-X
TM
page-59
Adverbs of manner: This, so, well, ill, badly, probably, certainly, slowly,
sadly, conveniently, agreeably, etc.
Adverbs of Quantity: Almost, quite, partly, wholly, rather, somewhat,
a little, half, little, almost, much, very much, etc.
Adverbs of Affirmation: Yes, certainly, surely, by all means, definitely, etc.
Adverbs of Negation : No, nay, not, at all, etc.
Adverbs of Reason : As, because, since, therefore, etc.
Interrogative Adverbs : Where, what, when, how, which, why, etc.

40

Chapter 16
PREPOSITION
The word preposition means that which is placed before. It is placed before a noun
or pronoun to show its relation to some other word or words in the sentence.
Make a special note of the use of the following prepositions.
Among Between:
Between is used for two things;
Among is used for more than two.
e.g.: She is sitting betweenher parents;
He moves amongthe people of status.
With By:
With is used for an instrument;
By is used before the agent.
e.g. The snake was killed byhim witha stick.
From Since:
Since is used in perfect tenses;
From is used in all tenses.
e.g. I have been working here since2004;
He started writing this book from1
st
July 2005.
Beside Besides:
Beside means near, next to, at the side of;
Besides means in addition to.
e.g.: He lived besidethe sea-side;
I take coffee besidestea.
Till To:
Till is used for time;
To is used for place
e.g.: I wake up tilltwelve Oclock at night;
She walked tothe end of the street.
Since For: Since is used for Point of Time;
For is used for Period of Time.
Both are used in perfect tenses.

e.g.: I have been living here since2004.
I have been living hereforthe last three years.
In within:
In is used in the sense after the end of;
Within is used in the sense before the end of
e.g.: I shall come inan hour;
I shall come withinan hour.

On Upon:
On is used in speaking of things at rest;
41

Upon is used in speaking of things in motion.
e.g.: He stood onthe platform;
The dog sprang uponhim.
About is used for the following:
1. Nearness of time : It is aboutto dawn
2. Nearness of place : He had a friend abouthim.
3. Nearness of state : She is aboutto die.
4. Occupation : He went abouthis daily rounds.
5. Concerning: I know nothing abouther character.
Above is used in the sense of :
1. Over : There is a roof aboveour head.
2. More than : She had to spend abovefive hundred rupees.
3. Superior to : The gentleman is aboveall such means.
Afteris used in the sense of :
1. Sequence in place : She is placed afteryou.
2. Sequence in time : He returned afternight fall.
3. Pursuing/ following : They are always after power.
4. According to a name : The collage is named afterhim.
5. Resemblance : The son takes afterfather.

Againstis used in the sense of:
1. Opposition of place : he beggar was seen leaning againstthe tree.
2. Opposition of aim : A foolish person acts againsthis own interest.
3. Promotion : A wise man stores up food againsta rainy day.
4. Comparison : 5 persons got promotion this year against2 last year.
Foris used to mean;
1. In exchange for : I bought this book forten rupees.
2. Purpose : She applied fora job.
3. Destination: I am leaving forHyderabad.
4. On account of : She walked slowly forfear of disturbing him.
5. In spite of : Forall his efforts, he is unsuccessful.
6. To express a period of time: I have been living hereforthe lost 20years.
Ofis used to ;
1. Relationship : The dramas ofShakespeare are excellent.
2. division/measure : I wrote the story on a sheet ofpaper.
I took 1metre of cloth for his shirt.
1. to denote a subjective relation : The love ofmother is great.
2. to express cause : She died ofmalaria.
3. to denote source : She comes ofa rich family.
4. to indicate quality : He is a man ofnoble character.
5. to indicate contents: She sent me a basket full offruits.
6. to indicate material : This table is made ofwood.
7. to indicate possession : This is the factory ofher uncle.
8. Point of reference : He is blind ofone eye.
42

9. to indicate concerning : What do you think of me?

Atis used to indicate ;
1. a point of time : I shall meet you at4 O clock in the evening.
2. a place or a position : She is atschool.
3. state or condition : India and Pakistan are atwar.
4. rate / degree : Sugar is selling attwelve rupees a kilo.
The car is going atfull speed.
1. aim : She threw a stone atthe cat.
2. In the sense of being engaged in something : They are atplay.
3. With the names of villages and towns : My friend lives atRajampet.

1. Atis used in the following expressions.
He is clever atmathematics;
I am quite shocked atthe news;
She is good atmusic.
Byis used to mean :
1. near and at the side of : She sat byher mother.
2. during : By night or byday, he is a nuisance to his friends.
3. through the mean of / in the manner of :
The whole city was destroyed byan earth quake.
I received my royalty bycheque.
1. in measure of : She taller than you bytwo inches
Tois used to indicate :
1. purpose : She came tomeet me.
2. place : He came tohis own house.
3. limit : We shall pay tothe last pie.
4. effect : Totheir utter surprise, she won the race.
Onis used to indicate :
1. place : He kept the book onthe desk.
2. the exact time : He was born onthe 15
th
August 1975, at 8a.m.
3. a condition : He is onprobation this year.
4. the relationship : There is book onthe table.
5. membership : She is onthe staff of the State Bank of India.
6. cause / base : She always acts onmy advice.
7. concerning : This is book ongrammar.
Inis used to indicate :
1. time : The cloth shop was opened inMay 2002.
2. circumstances : My brother is inhurry to go to office.
3. dress : The young baby is dressed insilk.
4. activity : She spent her time inreading books.
5. Inis used with the names of countries and large towns and cities :
My brother lives in Bombay.
My cousin has settled in America.
43

Chapter 17
CONJUNCTIONS
A conjunction is a word which is used to join words or sentences or phrases.
There are three types of conjunctions. Let us see their usage in some sentences.
Coordinating Conjunctions:
AP state syllabus class-X
TM
page-02 & 78
class-IX pages-42,79 & class-VIII pages-32 &43
1. Give me a ball point pen ora pencil.
2. *Hari and Ravi are good friends. 8
th
32
3. I wish to see the officer, for I have to talk to him urgently.
4. She wrote to him, but he did not reply.
5. He worked very hard, still he could not get a first class.
6. She is rich, yetshe is unhappy.
7. *The patients condition was bad, so they took him to hospital.8
th
43
8. You should run, otherwise you can not catch the train.
9. He has not come to see me, nor has he sent me a message.
10. He has not come to see me, neither has he given me a ring.
11. Ram as well as his brother is studying medicine.
Co-relative Conjunction:
1. I can neither read nor speak Urdu.
2. I cant saywhether she will come or not.
3. *She spokeso loudly that everyone in the hall heard her clearly.9
th
42
4. Mr. Rams elder daughter is not soclever ashis younger daughter.
5. The old man was both blind and deaf.
6. Though he is rich, (yet) he is unhappy.
7. He lost not only his trunkbut also his bag.
8. No sooner did the peon ring the bell, than the boys left the class.
Sub-coordinating conjunctions:
1. I did not think that he would come.
2. Tell me whereyou have put my watch.
3. She was not told whyshe was arrested.
4. The girl wanted to know howbirds fly.
5. They were shocked whenthey heard the news.
6. Although I invited her personally, she did not attend the dinner.
7. *Sinceshe was suffering from fever, she could not sit for the exam.
8. The bus started after the tyre was repaired. 10
th
78
9. No one left the halltill (until) the national anthem was completed.
10. Do asI tell you. She writes better than she speaks.
11. *The examinations were postponed, becausethe courses could not be
finished. 10
th
78 & 9
th
79
12. *As the courses could not be finished, the examinations were postponed. 10
th
78
13. They reached the station, before the train arrived.
14. If you drop it, it will break. It looks as if he is going to jump.
44

1. I will not attend the function, unless I am personally invited.
2. Whilehe was going through the forest, a wasp stung him.
3. Can you tell me whether you can go there or not?
4. Please remind me, lest I should forget it.
5. Take some more money in case you need it.
6. *I am studying hard so that I can get high percentage. 10
th
-02
7. You can stay with me as long as you continue this job.
8. As soon as the peon rang the bell, the boys left the class.

45

Chapter 18
INTERJECTION
An Interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feeling or emotion.
It expresses:
AP state syllabus class-IX
TM
page-34
joy ( hurrah!, huzza!, Hello!);
grief ( Alas!);
surprise ( Ha!, Ah!, What!, Oh!);
approval(Bravo!, Hush!); Ah me!; For shame!; Well done!; Good gracious!

46

Chapter 19
PUNCTUATION
Punctuation means the right use of putting in pauses or stops writing.
The following are the principle stops:
Full stop (.) : It represents the greatest pause and separation. It is used to:
(a) To mark the end of a declarative or imperative sentence;
e.g. I have seen this book in the shop.
(b) To mark abbreviations and initials
e.g.: M.P., M.A., M.B.B.S., I.A.S., U.N.O., S.R.Prasad,
The Comma ( ,) : It represents the shortest pause, and it is used to:
(a) To separate a series of words in the same construction;
e.g.: England,France, Russia and Italy formed an alliance.
(b) To separate each pair of words connected by and;
e.g.: High and low, rich and poor, wise and foolish must all die.
(c) After a Nominative Absolute;
e.g.: The wind being favourable, they sailed.
(d) To mark off a Noun or Phrase in Apposition;
e.g.: Milton, the great English poet, was blind.
(e) To mark off the Nominative of Address;
e.g.: Lord of the universe, shield us and guide us.
(f) Before and after phrases or clauses in a sentence.
e.g.: His behaviour, to say the least, was very rode.
The people of Hyderabad, when they first saw Madhuri,
Thought she was an angel.

(g) To indicate the omission of a word, especially a verb.
e.g.: Rama received a fountain pen; Hari, a watch.
(h) To mark off a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence.
e.g.; He said to his son, Dont waste your time.
The Semicolon (;): It represents a pause of greater importance than that
shown by the comma. It is used:
(a) To separate the clauses that has a comma.
e.g.: He was a brave, large-hearted man; and we all honoured him.
(b) To separate a series of loosely related clauses;
e.g.: Today we love what tomorrow we hate; today we seek what
tomorrow we shun; today we desire what tomorrow we fear.
The Colon (:) : It marks a still more complete pause than that expressed
by the Semicolon. It is used (often with a dash after it):-
(a) To introduce a quotation;
e.g.: Bacon says:- Reading makes a full man, writing an exact man,
speaking a ready man.
(b) Before the examples;
e.g.: The parts of speech in English are: noun, pronoun, verb, ---
47

(c) Between sentences grammatically independent but closely
connected in sense.
e.g.: study to acquire a habit of thinking: no study is more important.
The note of interrogation(?): It is used, instead of the full stop, after a direct
question;
e.g. Have you written your exercise?
Note: the note of interrogation is not used after an indirect question.
e.g.: He asked me whether I had written my exercise.
The note of exclamation (!) : It is used after interjections and after phrases
and sentences expressing sudden emotion or wish.
e.g.: What a terrible fire this is! Alas!
Inverted Commas: These are used to enclose the exact words of a speaker,
e.g.: Id rather die, he exclaimed, than join the oppressors of my country.
The Dash ( ___ ) is used:
(a) To indicate a sudden stop or change of thought;
e.g.: I am waiting for ____ O, there she is now!
(b) To indicate that a word has been intentionally left out;
e.g.: Mr.____________ was sentences to death.
(c) To Resume a scattered subject;
e.g.: Friends, companions, relatives ___all deserted him.
The Hyphen (-) a shorter line than the dash is used to connect the parts
of a compound word;
e.g.: Brother-in-law; Man-of-war; Passer-by;
( It is also used to connect parts of a word divided at end of the line.)
The Apostrophe ( ): It is used:
(a) To show the omission of a letter or letters; as, Dont, eer, Ive.
(b) In the Genitive Case of Nouns; as, The kings crown
(c) To form the plural of letters and figures.
e.g.: Dot your is and cross your ts; Add two 5s and four 2s.
Parentheses or Double Dashes are used to separate from the main part of
the sentence a phrase or clause which does not grammatically belong to it.
e.g.: He gained from Heaven (it was all he wished) a friend.
CAPITAL LETTERS: Capitals are used:
(a) To begin a sentence.
(b) To begin each fresh line of poetry.
(c) To begin all Proper Nouns and Adjectives derived from them
e.g.: Delhi, Rama, Africa, African, Shakespeare, Shakespearean.
(d) For all nouns and pronouns which indicate the Deity;
e.g.: The Lord, He is the God.
(e) To write the pronoun I and the interjection O.
(f) At the beginning of the Quotations and Interjections.
e.g.: She said, Bring me water. Alas!
(g) For the Degrees, Titles, Names of the Weeks, Months, Years,
festivals, Sacred books, etc.
48

e.g.: B.A., M.A., Bharatha Ratna, Sunday, June, Bible, etc.

49

Chapter 20
SUBJECT, PREDICATE, PHRASE AND CLAUSE
Every sentence has two parts: Subject and predicate.
The Subject : The part which names the person or thing we are
speaking about is called the subject of the sentence.
e.g. The sun rises in the east.
The predicate : The part which tells about the subject is called the predicate
of the sentence.
e.g.: The sun rises in the east
Usually the subject comes first, sometimes it comes later also.
In Imperative sentences the subject is left out.
The Phrase : A group of words in a sentence, which gives some sense,
but not complete sense is called a phrase.
e.g.: The sun rises in the east.
The Clause : A group of words which has a subject and a predicate and
gives some sense is called a Clause. Clauses are two types :
Main Clause and Sub-Clause.
Main Clause : Its almost a sentence. It gives complete meaning.
e.g.: He has a chain, which is made of gold.
The sun, which is a bright star, rises in the east
Sub-Clause : It also like a sentence, but it doesnt give complete meaning.
It always depend on the main clause.
e.g.: He has a chain, which is made of gold.
The sun, which is a bright star, rises in the east.

50

Chapter 21
SIMPLE, COMPOUND, COMPLEX SENTENCES
As for the clauses and phrases used in the sentence, the sentences are divided
into three types: Simple, Compound and Complex sentences.
Simple sentence: It has only one subject and one predicate ( the verb is always
in the predicate.) It has only one finite verb.
e.g.: She bought a computer system.
They have met me at the auditorium.
Compound sentence: It has two or more principal or main clauses. Each part has
a subject and a predicate of its own, and forms part of a large sentence.
Each part is therefore a clause and they are added by conjunction.
e.g.: The moon was bright and we could see our way.
Night came on and rain fell heavily and we all got very wet.
Complex sentence : This sentence consists of one Main clause and one or
more Sub-ordinate clauses.
e.g.: Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown.
I have no advice that I can offer you.

51

Chapter 22
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES (If & Unless)
If is used in three conditions:
AP state syllabus class-IX
TM
page-33, 34, VIII-76
1. If you work hard, you will got first class;
2. If you worked hard, you would get first class;
3. If you had worked hard, you would have got first class;
In the above sentences, when the if-clause is in the present tense,
the main clause must be in will/shall/can/may + V1 construction;
When the if-clause is in the past tense, the main clause must be in
would/should/could/might + V1 construction;
When the if-clause is in the past perfect tense, the main clause should
be in would/should/could/might + have + V3 construction.
Unless means if-not: We can change them as follows.
If you work hard, you will get first class.
Unless you work hard, you will not get first class.
Unless you hurry up, you cant catch the bus.
If you hurry up, you can catch the bus.
If you come, I shall help you.
Unless you come I shall not help you.
If you dont follow my advice, you will be in trouble.
Unless you follow my advice, you will be in trouble.