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Porphyry Cu (Mo-Au) deposits have gained worldwide exploration interest. Recovering metals by leaching methods provides mining companies to produce low-cost copper even from low-grade oxide prospects. This assessment highlights the characteristic features of leached capping associated with supergene chalcocite blankets.
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Leached Andean Porphyry-BS Literature Review-libre
Porphyry Cu (Mo-Au) deposits have gained worldwide exploration interest. Recovering metals by leaching methods provides mining companies to produce low-cost copper even from low-grade oxide prospects. This assessment highlights the characteristic features of leached capping associated with supergene chalcocite blankets.
Porphyry Cu (Mo-Au) deposits have gained worldwide exploration interest. Recovering metals by leaching methods provides mining companies to produce low-cost copper even from low-grade oxide prospects. This assessment highlights the characteristic features of leached capping associated with supergene chalcocite blankets.
Bronto Sutopo-Postgraduate student, October 2005 Centre of Excellence in Ore Deposits University of Tasmania, Australia
1. Introduction
Porphyry Cu (Mo-Au) deposits have gained worldwide exploration interest over the past few centuries. Reasons includes that they are a class of deposits that gold rich, often telescoped and associated with epithermal Au in lithocaps, display supergene oxidation or chalcocite blankets and also often have associated exotic Cu deposits, including skarn. In additional, recovering metals by leaching methods provides mining companies to produce low- cost copper even from low-grade oxide prospects. Thus, supergene and copper oxides represent an attractive exploration target.
Leached cappings within porphyry systems have been a subject of considerable research for several decades (e.g., Locke, 1926; Anderson, 1982; Titley and Marozas, 1996; Sillitoe, 1995; Chavez, 2000).
The leached capping is generally situated on the upper part of porphyry copper deposits. The capping often provides the vectors to exploration target for supergene enriched chalcocite blankets. So, understanding of the origin of leached capping, and correct interpretation of residual iron and copper minerals within it are the fundamental to locate supergene chalcocite blanket mineralisation in porphyry copper systems.
This assessment highlights the characteristic features of leached capping associated with supergene chalcocite blankets, in particularly Andean porphyry belt.
2. Lithocap and Leached Capping
Exploration geologists are more than likely to encounter these two types of outcrop on his first assessment across a porphyry system. In fact, both of outcrops are very difficult to interpret and many geologists may not recognize what they are standing on. Firstly, it is important that these two are not the same. The development of a lithocap is a hypogene phenomenon (Sillitoe, 1995).
The leached cap is the result from the oxidized of supergene processes, usually historical of hypogene. The idealized lithocap related to underlying porphyry copper is shown in Fig.1a; therefore, the spatial relationship between lithocap and leached capping is displayed in Fig. 1b.
2.1 Lithocap
Lithocap are the products of interaction of highly acidic and relatively oxidized fluids and rocks located above one or more, commonly mineralized subvolcanic stocks. Steep faults and fracture sets act as the principal conduits for fluid ascent (Sillitoe, 1995). Thus a lithocap will always have a root, which is structurally controlled (Fig.1a).
Lithocap area is commonly exceeded 20 km 2 in original areal extent and 1 km in thickness and is developed typically in volcanic rock. But in most cases their dimensions have been reduced appreciably by erosion. Lithocap may be separated from underlying porphyry Cu stocks by zero to 1 km, or more, of barren or poorly mineralized rock (Sillitoe, 1995).
The lithocap alteration is predominantly advanced argillic and associated with argillic alteration. Advanced argillic alteration generally comprises quartz and crystalline alunite grading outwards to assemblages comprising one or more of kaolinite, dickite, sericite (muscovite), pyrophyllite and diaspore assemblages. Then, this zone is bordered by intermediate argillic alteration comprising illite, smectite and/or mixed-layer clays and, externally, by a chloritic or at deeper levels, propylitic (chlorite-epidote) zone (Fig. 1a). The deeper parts of lithocaps are generated from hotter fluid and therefore contain more pyrophyllite and at least locally, andalusite and corundum (Sillitoe, 1995).
The lithocap is present typically as numerous discrete bodies (ledges) localized by fault and, less commonly, permeable rocks. Within some ledges, especially in the upper parts of lithocaps, are characterized by vuggy silica or, more commonly, by chalcedonic silicification caused by less acidic fluids (pH<2).These ledges also occur in high sulphidation systems and may be associated with advanced argillic (Sillitoe, 1995).
1 The boundary between lithocaps and the underlying porphyry copper system is marked by the transition from advanced argillic to sericitic and/or intermediate argillic alteration. In peripheral, chloritic or propylitic alteration is more likely to underlie lithocap
Fig. 1a Fig. 1b
Fig. 1 (a). A cross section showing idealized lithocap and underlying porphyry Cu/Au deposits. Note that High-sulphidation (HS) and Low-sulphidation (LS) mineralisation vein occur in the shallow parts and on the edge of the lithocap, (b). Hematitic leached capping and supergene enrichment blanket, developed in sericitic-altered porphyry at the roots of the lithocap, are concealed by alluvial gravels. The nearby low hill is underlain by more distal parts of the advanced argillic lithocap displaying jarositic leached capping (Sillitoe, 1995).
2.2 Leached Capping
Leached capping is situated on upper part of the oxidized portions that has undergone oxidation and metal removal. It also acted as source of metal for enrichment zone (Chavez, 2000). In some cases, leached zone are narrow and structurally controlled by subvertical structures (originally quartz-pyrite D-type veins) that cut the oxide zone down to the top of sulfides, such as in Radomiro Tomic deposit (Cuadra, 2001).
One needs to consider removal of metals within leached capping as it is important to minerals exploration. Although removal of metals from leached capping may be very efficient, such as superleached at Escondida (Lowell, 1988), residual copper and iron are always present in detectable quantities and comprise the geochemical anomalies (Chavez, 2000).
3. What controls on Leaching Process and Supergene Enrichment
The leached capping and associated supergene mineralisation are developed depend on the amount of acid producing sulfides in the rock volume, the neutralizing capacity of the minerals in the host rocks, the density and extent of host rock fracturing, and the nature and duration of local and regional weathering condition (op.cit Lopez and Title, 1995).
- Acidity of the solutions generated during oxidation The sulphides ratio in the original mineralized rock is the fundamental controlling acidity of the solutions (Anderson, 1982), where high pyrite (py):chalcopyrite (cp) ratios being more favorable for efficient leaching than low py:cp ratios. In an ideal situation, copper and iron bearing mineral will have leached during oxidation due highly acid fluids (created in areas of high pyrite content). If geological trap condition occurs, re-deposit these metals present beneath the water table, forming the supergene mineralisation. However, if the trap does not exist, it is possibly that these metals will be dispersed and gone.
- Neutralizing capacity of the rocks Both source and host rocks act importantly in neutralizing the acid. If the acid produced during oxidation can easily neutralized by rocks, then metals will not stay in solution and enrichment will not significant. This case mainly occurred where biotite, feldspars and calcite minerals are dominant in alteration assemblages. Conversely, if the wallrock cannot neutralize the acid during oxidation, the acidic fluid will be passed through to the water table and supergene sulphide mineralisation will form. This is the case in rocks with phyllic alteration.
- Upward-downward level of water table In many case, multi stage supergene enrichment will occur by continuously relative decreasing the level of water table. A significant downward water table level may be through tectonic uplift or by gradual climatic desiccation as noted by Sillitoe (1996).
2 - Fracture density and permeability The supergene oxidation fluids need conduits or channels and pathways through to find the reducing environment beneath the water table to permit precipitation of secondary sulphide minerals.
- Reduced S avaibility Precipitation of the secondary sulphides is occurred beneath the water table, due to mixing between the Cu and Fe rich-oxidized fluid and a source of reduced sulphur. The sulphur is formed as primary sulphides, which are replaced by secondary chalcocite during the enrichment process.
4. Identifying residual minerals in Porphyry Copper Leached Capping
The identification of iron oxides is critical in the interpretation of leached capping and gossan protolith mineralogy.
Blanchard (1968) determined limonite as the gossanous material derived from leaching of sulfides or other strongly iron-yielded minerals; the rust of iron machinery exposed to the elements; the brownish, slimy, flocculent material which frequently encrusts the insides of pipelines and the mouths of the faucets, or forms along drains from mine workings; the brownish or reddish crusts and stains that coat rock fractures in regions of abundant rainfall; the glistening reddish-black desert varnish of pebbles and boulders exposed to the action of wind and sun in the arid tropics; the pigment which imparts the reddish, yellowish, or brownish or brownish-black deposits formed by decomposing iron yielding minerals or substances of nature, regardless of their origin.
A summary of the iron oxides present in the leached cap (see also Andersons paper, 1982) for detail as follow:
Type Precursor Sulphide Cu Enrichment Geochemistry (Reflect to soils) Jarosite (FeAlSO4), yellow streak Py Py/Cp > 2 S > 4% Absent to incipient Low <200 ppm Cu Goethite (FeO(OH) orange/yellow streak Py poor Py/Cp+bo < 2 (K-silicic alteration) Absent (not enough acid) Hypogene Cu content in soils Hematite Fe2O3 Red-brown streak Chalcocite rich Py/Cc 2<x<5 Cumulative blanket Low <300 ppm Cu Hematite plus Basic Cu Sulphates Py/Cc < 2 Minor Near to precursor
Tabel 1. The iron oxides present in the leached cap. Modified from Green (1998)
It is therefore important to consider what has gone on in the supergene zone to interpret soil values of copper. Goethite caps can be very ordinary and even with 0.4% Cu on surface one may have difficulty picking them upon Landsat or even photographs. Hematitic caps develop purple-red powdery type caps. When dealing with iron oxide color type anomalies the angle of lights is often critical and a number of quite obvious anomalies have been missed out because of the time of day that they were flown over (Green, 1998).
Care should also be exercised in iron oxide interpretation as for example a first cycle enrichment hematitic cap may be changed to a jarositic cap if the water table is suddenly dropped. One can also bake a jarositic cap to hematite if heated by an overlying ignimbrite flow or by simple sunshine exposure.
The color of limonite varies considerable in most porphyry leached caps and original workers formulated an empirical field base hypothesis, that the original content of acid forming sulphides determined local pH conditions. pH conditions strongly dictate the relative proportions of goethite to jarosite formed, with very low pH favouring jarosite production via the breakdown of orthoclase and potassium-rich micas (Taylor and Pollard, 2004). It was thus rationalized that high pyrite zones could be distinguished from low or medium concentrations (Alpers and Brimhall, 1989). Then, this was expressed:
Table 2. Relationship between limonite composition and original volume percent of acid-forming sulfides (AFS) (Gilmour, 1995). Composition of Limonite (proportion geothite:jarosite) Volume% Acid forming 100% goethite results from oxidation <0.5% 50/50 goethite/jarosite result from oxidation +2.5% 100% jarosite result from oxidation >5%
3 The division above is reflected in the field by general colour of the iron/limonite components which are orange/yellow towards the goethite end, and yellow when jarosite rich. Many geologists use this visually to separate suspected high pyrite zones from more medium to low levels (Taylor and Pollard, 2004). It is therefore important to consider what has gone on in the supergene zone to interpret soil values of copper. With respect to streak, in the field the limonites must be scratched to eliminate surface colour effects (Fig. 2 and 3).
By collecting iron smudges from various geochemical environments, one can characterize the geochemical setting of weathering-related oxidation; this is turn, permits one to interpret the potential for metals mobility attributable to supergene oxidation and transport. Note that goethite as a stable iron oxide, although dehydration of goethite produces red hematite as an end product (Peterson and Chavez, 2002).
Hematite Goethite Jarosite
Fig. 2. Iron Oxide Characterization Chart for comparing smudges from the leached outcrops and drill holes intervals. Note that the standard smudges are derived from leached capping environments and represents XRD analyzed end- member iron oxides. Mixtures of red hematite, goethite and jarosite will produce gradational colors as shown in the standard box. From Peterson and Chavez (2002).
Fig. 3. Graphical representation of logarithmic scale correlations between limonite mineralogy and original pyrite/chalcocite ratios in rocks prior to oxidation for non reactive gangue (argillic, advanced argillic, and phyllic alteration) (from Alpers and Brimhall, 1989).
Because most ore deposits have abundant pyrite, oxidation of sulfides (as well as silicates) yields cellular structures consisting limonites or limonite jasper. However, iron may be relatively mobile under proper condition, thus presence of limonite in one location may not necessarily be indicative of he original rock in the immediate vicinity. Therefore, one of the first tasks in interpreting iron oxide is determination of whether the limonite is indigenous, fringing or exotic (Blanchard, 1968), the definitions are as follow:
- Indigenous limonite is defined as that precipitated from iron-bearing solutions within the cavity or space formerly occupied by the sulphide or other mineral from which the iron was derived.
- Fringing limonite is termed as that precipitated from iron-bearing solutions outside the limits of the minerals which was their source, yet sufficiently close to those limits for the source to be known beyond doubt.
- Transported (or exotic) limonite is determined as that precipitated from iron-bearing solutions which have moved so far from their source that the source no longer can be identified specifically.
The identification of indigenous is usually recognized by the presence of characteristic cellular boxwork textures and minute relict suphides preserved within the limonites.
Indigenous limonite has been formed in place from the original sulfide mineral, as it forms pseudomorphs of original sulfide (usually pyrite) or fills cavities where the parent mineral was originally. These may be used to determine which primary minerals were present as well as making some estimate of original sulfide percentages. The estimate of original sulfide percentages is important to interpretation of porphyry copper systems, in terms of whether there is likely to be sufficient secondary Cu minerals to make a mineral deposit into an ore deposit.
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Fig. 4. Sketches showing granular or pulverulent limonites at x10 magnification. The limonites were derived from disseminated sulphides and precipitated as indigenous, fringing and exotic products. From Blanchard (1968).
The whole point above can be seen from standard porphyry copper model style diagrams (Figs. 5, 6, and 7) where the highest copper-values are in the inner medium range pyrite content regions (1-2%) as opposed to 5-10%. Anderson (1982) found that the percentage of goethite in limonite equals the percentage of copper formerly present that still remains in the leached cap (Fig. 6).
A cross section below indicates the idealized location of leached capping and supergene enrichment blanket. Both zones are situated directly above the most pyritic part, in a high fracture density and a phyllic alteration. Phyllic alteration as mentioned above is a wall rock alteration assemblage with little capacity to neutralize the acids during oxidation, and sulphide ratios favorable for efficient leaching and supergene enrichment are most found in this zone. However, most copper mineralisation will locate in the potassic zone.
Fig. 5. Generalized cross-section through an altered porphyry copper system in rocks of felsic igneous rock mineralogy. The section shows the position of common hypogene alteration types as well as generalized characteristics of the hypogene sulfide assemblage. (From Titley and Marozas, 1995).
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Fig 6. Idealized cross section through typical porphyry copper deposits showing oxidation cycles, capping classification, and limonite characteristic. Interpretations shown for a system with 0.2 percent primary copper and 5 volume percent total sulfides (A- D) and for a system with 0.5 percent primary copper and 1 volume percent total sulfides (E-H). From Anderson (1982).
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Fig 7. Cross section through hypothetical porphyry copper deposits showing hypogene and supergene mineralisation and alteration and graphically displaying numerical relationship between latter and volume hypogene acid-forming sulfides (AFS) (from Gilmour, 1995 cf. Taylor, 2004).
7 5. The Andean porphyry copper province Porphyry copper deposits are present along the whole Andean belt (Fig. 8), where they attain worlds ranks, both in tonnage and grade. Besides, some of them, as El Salvador deposit (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975) have been studied in great detail, becoming classic examples of their type. Copper deposits are present from the northern to the southern ends of the Andean belt, and their ages cover the Upper Palaeozoic to Pleistocene metallogeny (Fig. 8 and 9). In the central Andes, from an economic standpoint, three pre-eminent metallogenic epochs may be defined: copper- dominated deposits, some associated with gold concentrations, of Jurassic to Early Cretaceous age; copper-dominated deposits of Palaeocene to early Oligocene age; and Copper-gold deposits of early Miocene to Pliocene age (Sillitoe, 1992). Also, the distribution of the deposits along and across the Andean belt and the facts that they belong to a wide chronological span, present different erosion levels and were emplaced in a variety of host rocks, under distinct tectonic conditions, have allowed the construction of a number of genetic models (e.g., Sillitoe, 1973, Sillitoe, 1992). On the other side, the abundance of important deposits and studies about them, make difficult to present a synoptical view. For that purpose, the publication by Camus et al, eds., (1996) is strongly recommended, as well as the paper by Sillitoe, (1992). The Andean porphyry copper that have been selected for high tonnage mining operations, is geographically restrained to the sector between 10 S and 35 S and to those deposits of Tertiary age. They alone account for about a 25 to 30% of the worlds reserves and current production of both copper and molybdenum. As shown in (Fig. 8), this sector is in close coincidence with the Andean segment that presents a thicker continental crust. The larger porphyry copper deposits are located in this segment, like Chuquicamata and El Teniente, attain ore reserves (before mining) up to 50 M.t. metallic Cu. Most porphyry copper deposits in the Andes are related to dacitic-granodioritic porphyry stocks, emplaced in volcanic rocks or in intrusive complexes. Although a majority of the deposits fits well in the Lowell and Guilbert (1970) model, the phyllic zone is rather absent in some of them, such as El Abra or El Teniente. Porphyry copper deposits present both spatial and chronological clusters in the Andean belt. And many important porphyry copper deposits in the Andes are in or close to large fault zones. Thus, the Arequipa lineament includes four important Paleocene deposits (Cerro Verde, Cuajone, Quellaveco and Toquepala) along a 150 km long narrow band in SW Peru (Fig. 8). Also, six major Eocene-Oligocene deposits, including Chuquicamata, El Abra and Collahuasi, are distributed along a 125 km N-S line, between M.M. and Quebrada Blanca, following the important Domeyko fault system Other important cluster is that of the Los Bronces-Ro Blanco and El Teniente (130 km south), the three deposits of Pliocene age. The Andean porphyry copper deposits have Mo contents that range between 0.01% and 0.1% and this metal follows copper in economic importance. Given the large tonnages of porphyries like Chuquicamata and El Teniente, they also rank among the major Mo deposits of the world. 5.1. Leached Capping profiles above Andean Porphyry Copper
The wide range of leached capping and supergene profiles contained in the selected Andean porphyry deposits, summarized in Table 3 and Fig. 10, as well as variations in hypogene ore and alteration. The residual copper content in leached cap will vary substantially (Table 2) from 10s to 100s o ppm Cu if leaching has been highly effective, but may be in the 1000s ppm if leaching is incipient or absent, such as in Cerro Colorado (up to 2000 ppm) due contribution of relic hypogene. While Cu content in leached caps of Quebrada Blanca and Radomiro Tomic (up to 1000 ppm) mainly developed from incomplete oxidation of former chalcocite and poorly derived from K-silicate altered protolith.
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Fig. 9. Porphyry copper deposits and major geological traits of the Andean belt. 1- Ocean trench. 2- Thick continental crust. 3- Paleozoic tecto-magmatic belts. 4- Andean magmatism. 5- Precambrian massifs. 6- Gravimetric contour lines. 7 to 12- Order of magnitude of ore deposits, expressed in metallic Cu content; 7: 50 M.t., 8: 20 M.t., 9: 5-10 M.t., 10: 2.5-5 M.t., 11: 1-2.5 M.t., 12: < 1 M.t.. 13- Paleozoic ore deposits. 14- Mesozoic and Cenozoic ore deposits. 15- Pampean Massif. 16- Patagonean Massif. 17- Limits of the Andean geosynclinal basin. 18- Limits of the Paleozoic geosynclinal basin. From Oyarzn (2000).
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Fig 9. Types of principal copper and gold deposits in the central Andes. From Sillitoe (1992).
Figure 10 shown simplified schematic cross sections showing anatomies of supergene and leached capping profiles of selected central Andean Paleogene porphyry copper Cu Deposits. Paleocene to middle Eocene deposits exhibit complex profile abundant oxidized supergene ore reflecting their polystage histories of leaching, oxidation and enrichment. In contrast, upper Eocene to Lower Oligocene deposits exhibit simpler profiles with thicker supergene sulfide blankets, except at Radomiro Tomic, which is deeply oxidized.
10 Cu Content Deposit Supergene Leached Capping Comments Supergene Geochronology Cuajone 1.5 % Simple and thin blanketing by thick ignimbrite flow of Chuntacala Fm Quellaveco >0.8 % A thick enrichment blanket by continuously ignimbrite blanketing through the Early and Middle Miocene Toquepala, Peru 1.03 % Well defined leached zones separating chalcocite horizons No radiometric dates for supergene blankets. Age of enrichment corr. To 24 Ma Altos de Camilaca Cerro Colorado, Chile 1.0 % Up to 2,000ppm Py/Cc < 2 Cu contribution contamination from relic hypogene sulphides and residual supergene chalcocite+Cu Oxides Between 35.26+0.68 and 14.59+2.46 Ma Quebrada Blanca, Chile
700 to 1,500ppm Chalcocite rich Py/Cc 2<x5 In hematite leached cap, probably developed from incomplete oxidation of former chalcocite
El Abra, Chile No leached capping K-Silicate stable protolith with cp-bn-cc protore (0.65% Cu) and in situ chry-broch-neo Cu oxide with average grade 0.55% Cu
Radiro Tomic, Chile 0.76% Up to 1000 ppm In poorly developed leached volumes derived from K-silicate altered protolith Proximity to Chuquicamata Chuquicamata 1.32 % Mineralisation is strongly influenced by hypogene setting 19.0+1.4 to 15.2+1.0 Ma MM Immature, thin Thin, jarosite dominated, minor chrysocalla 34.8+31.7 Ma (Alunite) Spence 1.22 % Both oldest and most protracted supergene enrichment From 44.44+0.54 to 27.74+5.42 Ma La Escondida, Chile 1.89 % <100 ppm-600 ppm in superleached cap Super leaching effects common in Atacama Desert environment
Exceptionally thick and high grade chalcocite Thick hematite cap similar to Cerro Colorado From 14.7+1.2 to 18.0+1.4 Ma El Salvador, Chile 1.6 % <500 ppm Jar-hem leached capping developed over phyllic altered protolith grading 0.6% Cu. A small portion of chalcocite blanket is leached to hematite 12.89+0.06to19.44+0.6Ma 35.85+3.18t43.9+2.6 Ma Lomas Bayas, Chile 0.37 % X00 in leached and oxidized rock With residual Cu values to >1,000 ppm as sulfate, chlorides. Alunite from jarosite cap 20.8+1.6 Ma
Table 3. Copper Content in leached caps and supergene from porphyry copper deposits in Andean belt. Data from Chavez, 2000; Bouzari and Clark, 2002, Sillitoe, 1996
(a) Paleocene to middle Eocene deposits (b) Upper Eocene to Lower Oligocene deposits
Fig. 11. Simplified schematic cross section showing anatomies of supergene and leached capping profiles of selected central Andean Paleogene porphyry copper Cu Deposits. See Fig.18 for symbols and patterns. Modified from Bouzari and Clark, 2002.
11 The following examples of deposits setting in which leached capping have demonstrated significantly in their porphyry copper system.
6. LA ESCONDIDA
The La Escondida porphyry copper district is an example of discovery by correct interpretation of leached capping textures. The La Escondida project was funded in early 1979 and was initially based on assumption that the belt (later known as Cordillera de Domeyko) of mid Tertiary age Chilean porphyry copper deposits would project in a straight line from previously known deposits of El Salvador and Chuquicamata across an area (Lowell, 1988).
The deposits is located in the northern Chile in and along the Domeyko faults (Padilla et al, 2001), the main structural feature of the Cordillera de Domeyko province (Fig. 12). Several giants deposits also emplaced on the Domeyko faults system, including Collahuasi, El Abra, Chuquicamata, and El Salvador (Fig. 12 and 13) and were developed within the Precordillera de Domeyko and its western margin between 42 and 31 Ma.
Significant climate changes favored the formation and preservation of enrichment blankets on the Central Andean porphyry copper occurred from 31 Ma to the present partly covered by post mineral gravels and cut Oligocene- Miocene rhyolitic subvolcanic and extrusive rocks (Alpers and Brimhall, 1988).
Geology of the district consists of Paleozoic intrusive, volcanic and sedimentary of the Argomedo and la Tabla Formation are occurred in the eastern part, overlain by marine and continental Mesozoic sedimentary of Profeta and Santa Ana Formations, respectively at the western part (Fig.13). Two main fault systems have been identified in the La Escondida districts: an early NNW striking generally (N10 o W with variation 20 degree in both side) toward the east mineralized faults and a later NE postmineralisation fault (Fig 11). The Domeyko Fault system coincides with the NNW direction of the mineralized faults systems.
La Escondida mineralisation deposits district consists of Escondida, Escondida Norte, Zalvidar, Carmen, Pinta Verde and Ricardo are spatial and probably temporally related to the intrusion of Paleocene-Oligocene quartz monzonitic and granodioritic porphyritic stocks hosted by Paleocene andesites (Fig. 13).
The alteration evolved from early potassic (that may have been synchronous with propylitic alteration), to sericitic- chlorite, and quartz-sericite, including the overprinting of a younger advance argillic alteration event. The advance argillic assemblage represents the latest alteration stages. Development of the advanced argillic alteration took place late in the life of the system when high-level fracture permeability had developed and progressed through the time of fracture formation, as indicated by the presence of quartz-enargite-pyrite-alunite veins in high-level pervasive assemblage.
Fig.12 Fig.13 Fig. 12. Porphyry copper districts of the Antofagasta region associated with N-S Domeyko fault system. From Padilla et al, (2001). Fig. 13. Simplified geological map of the Escondida district, showing locations of deposits. From Padilla et al, (2001). 6.1. Escondida Leached Capping
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Escondida project really began in 1979 when Escondida was visited by Ortiz, Donaldo Rojas, and Lowell through Utah Internationals Atacama Project. They were impressed by the presence of large phyllic zone surrounded by strong propylitic alteration and found some skarn bodies and peripheral polymetallic vein deposits were also present. All settings had shown a favorable characteristic for a well zoned porphyry copper system.
Leached capping was present in two hills, surrounded by postmineral cover in the central area. Limonite was very sparse in much of this capping and, but in about 20 percent of the specimens good evidence of limonite after chalcocite was recognized. The area near-surface zone of leached cappings over porphyry copper deposits in the central has been significantly modified by remobilization of quartz and other rock constituents and by removal of limonite minerals from sulfide relict cavities. This removal of limonite from leached capping is a typical effect of superleaching in the Atacama Desert environment.
The leached capping specimens were generally very nondescript looking, with empty sulfide cavities and slaggy- looking quartz crust. As before notified, a few attractive specimens were also present. In the leached capping over La Escondida, this process resulted in the destruction of most of the surface evidence of typical hematitic, live limonite a fluffy maroon to black hematite which is the characteristic oxidation product of chalcocite-, diagnostic leached capping textures after chalcocite mineralisation, although some unmodified leached capping specimens typical of chalcocite are still found.
Then, the recognition of importance of superleaching effects on field observations, including capping interpretation was the critical factor in Escondida discovery. Secondary enrichment processes at Escondida have been unusually effective, and the high grade of the orebody is due to multiple enrichment.
As in most chalcocite blankets, the top of the enriched zone is a sharp contact, and the highest copper values usually occur at the top of the blanket. The highest grade chalcocite ore, in general, overlies the strongest primary copper mineralisation. A thick section of leached capping is present over the chalcocite.
It is worthwhile noting relationship between Cu, Zn and Mo from leached capping specimen samples and stream- sediment geochemical anomalies in the Escondida area. From the leached capping were collected, the molybdenum analysis were, in general, anomalous, averaging about 20 ppm and ranging up to 480 ppm. Whereas, the copper results were barely anomalous, averaging about 100 ppm and ranging up to 660 ppm (Fig. 14a). Figure 14 shows the Cu and Mo content in the Escondida leached capping and it is clear that the Mo anomaly stronger than the Cu anomaly.
Copper is commonly associated with molybdenum (and gold) in the porphyry environment and it is worthwhile noting that Mo is not usually transported from the leached capping during oxidation. This was also a significant factor in the exploration of Escondida porphyry system (Lowell, 1991) and is a useful tool in assessing the potential significance of leached caps.
A stream-sediment Mo anomaly of 10-22 ppm was defined over an area of 20 km 2 , whereas Cu anomalies covered over 45km 2 of 80 to 585 ppm. These anomalies were surrounded by Zn anomalies to form a halo, as is commonly the case in porphyry copper system (Fig. 14c).
Figure 15 shows distribution of alteration zone in which N-S sections (Fig. 17) is provided below. The N-S sections are generally shown by the upper limit of the leached capping zone is marked by the modern land surface, whereas its lower limit varies from a few meters below the surface, above the zone of copper oxide, to more than 200 m below the surface, over the enrichment blanket.
This zone is mainly formed of limonites with compositions that exhibit good spatial correlation with supergene grade and thicknesses. The higher grade and thicker zones of underlying supergene Cu sulphide blanket are normally below hematite, whereas thinner zones with lower supergene copper grades lie below jarositic-rich capping. Goethite is most abundant where copper oxides are dominant.
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(a) (b)
(c) (d) Fig. 14. Map showing (a) Molybdenum and (b) copper in rock samples. (c) Leached capping interpretation. (d) Stream-sediment geochemical anomalies in the Escondida area. Black dots shown anomalous samples (>80 ppm Cu and/or >100 ppm Zn and/or 10 ppm Mo), while hollow circles indicated normal values. From Lowell (1988).
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Fig. 15. Plan view showing dominant hypogene alteration mineral of Escondida deposit from 100 to 650 m below surface. From (Padella et al, 2001).
The figures (16 and 17) below are comparison between a broad outlines of the original interpretation that remained valid (Lowell, 1988) and sections were built when the development drilling was completed and information was also available from surface and underground workings (Padella et al, 2001).
Fig. 16. Original cross section showing leached capping and chalcocite blanket indicated by discover holes. The section remained valid although the development drilling was completed and other recent information was available. From Lowell (1988).
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(A) (B) Fig. 17. Updated sections (A) N-S 15100 and (B) N-S 16450, looking west (see Fig 15 for locations and symbols). Chalcocite blanket divided into High enrichment (no pyrite) and Low enrichment zone that contain a few percentage of pyrite coexisting the supergene copper sulphides. From (Padella et al, 2001).
7. CERRO COLORADO
Cerro Colorado porphyry Cu (-Mo) deposit is located in an altitude of 2,600 masl on the flank of the Central Andean, northern Chile. The main open pit exploits a complex supergene profile incorporating approximately equal proportions of oxide and sulphide minerals. The Cu orebody contains a reserve approximately 228 Mt at 1.0 percent, whereas the preserved hypogene proctore averages 0.4 to 0.5 percent Cu. So, supergene processes may be tentatively inferred to have approximately doubled the Cu grade.
Supergene processes at Cerro Colorado generated a complex weathering profile that attains of present dept of 450 m. The supergene profile comprises four facies: (1) Leached cap, underlying the Choja pediplain, a regionally extensive mid-Tertiary erosion surface; (2) Upper Supergene cap; (3) Lower leached cap; and 4) lower Supergene. Both the leached cap and lower leached cap zone are mainly hematite; implying chalcocite-rich precursors. The upper supergene ore is dominated by brochantite and atacamite with relics of chalcocite, but it includes a superimposed zone of abundant chrysocolla veins. Chalcocite usually accompanied by supergene kaolinite and smectite, is the main ore mineral of the Lower Supergene ore, which overlies the 0.4-to 0.5 percent Cu hypogene protore.
7.1 Cerro Colorado Leached Capping and Supergene profile
Cerro Colorado orebody has geometrically a ~2.8 km strike length, 1.0 km wide and 100 to 180 m thick, and lies below a 50-200 m thick leached zoned (Fig. 20). It is almost horizontal with east-west ore body. The main ore body (East Zone) is separated by a lower-grade section from the West Zone, but the ultimate open pit will incorporate both orebodies.
The supergene sulphide ore are dominated by chalcocite and the oxide ores by brochantite, followed in decreasing proportions by atacamite, chrysocolla and malachite. Chrysocolla is more abundant in the upper sections of the oxide ore, whereas brochantite and atacamite are more common in lower parts.
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Fig. 18. Simplified schematic cross section showing anatomies of supergene profile of Cerro Colorado. Modified from Bouzari and Clark, 2002.
Four major supergene facies are herein defined and delimited in both Main Zone and West Zone. With increasing depth these are (1) Leached Cap; (2) Upper Supergene ore (mainly oxidic, but with abundant supergene sulphides in some areas; (3) Lower leached Zone, and (4) Lower Supergene ore (mainly sulphidic, but locally dominated by oxides). For simplicity, the oxide-dominated facies of the Upper Supergene ore is referred to herein as the Upper Oxide ore and its sulphide-rich as the Upper Sulphide ore. Similarly the Lower Supergene comprises the lower Sulfide ore and the Lower oxide ore.
The supergene zones that are described from top to bottom can be summarized as below:
Supergene Profile Characteristic 1 Leached Cap Iron oxide-rich zone, Hem dominant in most area, jar is dominant in North and northeastern part of deposit. Grade < 0.1 percent of Cu, some up to > 0.3 percent of Cu. Upper Oxide Ore the oxide-dominated facies 2 Upper Supergene Ore Upper Sulphide Ore The sulphide rich facies with abundant supergene clays 3 Lower Leached Zone Hem-dominant and had a Cc-rich protolith in West and western Main Zone Oxide and mixed oxide-sulphide ores in the southeast part of the main Zone Lower Oxide Ore the oxide-dominated facies in the West zone 4 Lower Supergene Ore Lower Sulphide Ore the sulphide-rich facies in the Main zone
Tabel 3. Major supergene facies in Cerro Colorado
Leached Capping zone: The upper leached cap is defined as an iron oxide-rich zone, generally with less than 0.1 percent Cu but some areas attaining 0.3 percent, and overlying the Upper Supergene ore. The thickness of leached cap increases from west to east across the West zone, decreases eastward over the Main zone, where the Upper Sulphide ore is best developed, and finally increase across the eastern section of Main zones. (Fig. 20 and 21).
Supergene Cu-bearing assemblages are preserved at the highest elevations of the Leached cap as supergene sulfide or oxide ore (Fig 2o). The Leached Cap in most areas of the mine is hematitic, except at northeastern extremity of the deposit and north of Cerro Colorado, where Jarosite is dominant. The hematite produces variety of colours in hand specimen, such as red, reddish brown and even black. From these observations it can be concluded that the present leached cap records the site of an older supergene sulfide horizon (Bouzan and Clark, 2002). Thus pyrite that accompanied chalcocite was converted to hematite during oxidation and under these markedly acidic conditions; copper is leached from chalcocite (Anderson, 1982; Titley, 1995).
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Fig. 19. Topography of the Cerro Colorado area showing drill hole locations and cross section in Fig. 20 and 21. From Bouzari and Clark (2002).
Upper Supergene Ore: The Leached cap is underlain by the Upper Supergene ore. This unit is represented by the Upper Oxide ore, with a mean elevation of 2440 and upper sulphide ore with abundant clays.
Lower Leached Zone: The Lower Leached zone, which is dominated by hematite and had a chalcocite-rich protolith, is well developed in the West zone and the western sector of the Main zone (Fig 18). In contrast, it is poorly developed in the southeast part of the Main zone, where the leached facies grades laterally to oxide and mixed sulphide-oxide ores or mixed sulfide-leached ores. The thickness of the Lower Leached zone varies from 2 m to more than 65 m (Fig. 20 and 21).
Lower Supergene ore: The Lower Leached zone is underlain by the Lower Supergene ore, which comprises the Lower Sulphide ore in the West zone and the Lower Sulfide and Oxide ores in the Main zone.
Variations in the thickness and inclination of the above ore zones result in complex facies and grade relationships in the eastern part of the orebody. For example, the Lower Leached zone, thin in the northern part of part of the Main zone, dips gently (10 o -12 o ) to the south as its thickness increases in the pyrite-rich Western Breccia.
In addition, the northern part of the Main zone is dominated by oxide ore. This distribution of ore also may reflect peripheral, less pervasive sericite-chlorite-clay alteration, with abundant surviving hydrothermal biotite that buffered the acidic supergene waters, resulting in weak environment and in situ oxidation of the ore (cf. Anderson, 1982).
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Fig. 20. EW cross section A-A (Fig) showing (a) supergene ore facies (b) grade distribution and (c) host rock geology with drill hole framework. From Bouzari and Clark, 2002.
Fig. 21. EW cross section B-B (Fig) showing (a) supergene ore facies (b) grade distribution and (c) host rock geology with drill hole framework. From Bouzari and Clark, 2002.
19 8. RADOMIRO TOMIC
Radomiro Tomic porphyry copper deposit is situated at elevation of 3,000 masl, about 5 km north of the Chuquicamata mine and 40 km north of the town of Calama in the Antofagasta region of northern Chile (Fig. 9 and 10). The deposit is beneath a flat desert valley and completely buried by 40-150 m of Tertiary to Quaternary gravels, below which a thick oxidation zone was developed on granitic bedrock during semiarid condition.
The orebody that is 1 km wide and elongated north-south consists of a horizontal blanket of oxide copper minerals that extend 4.3 km north-south and up to 800m east-west, with a thickness varying between 180 and 200m.
The deposit was discovered in 1952 in the area called Pampa Norte area by the Chile Exploration Company, which sought the extension of low-grade oxide minerals to the north of the Chuquicamata deposit. The exploration work at Pampa Norte was completely postponed in 1960, following the discovery of a high-grade exotic copper deposit south of Chuquicamata, known today as Mina Sur. In 1971, Codelco-Chile became owner of the property and further exploration was carried out in the area discontinuously during the ensuing years (Cuadra and Rojas, 2001).
The Radomiro Tomic deposit is located along the West Fissure structural zone, one of the Main strands of the Domeyko fault Zone (Fig.22). The host rock of copper mineralisation is the Chuquicamata Porphyry, the youngest intrusion emplaced on the eastern side of Tertiary intrusive sequence.
The Chuquicamata Porphyry is granodioritic to monzonitic intrusion characterized by medium to coarse grained phenocrysts set in a fine groundmass, and they were originated within the West Fissure fault zone. Dating on Radomiro Tomic gives and average age of 32.7 Ma for K-silicate late magmatic phase and an average 31.8 M for the sericitic alteration.
Fig. 22. Surface geology of Radomiro Tomic area. The shaded are represents the subsurface geologic projection of the orebody at level 2,825 m. From Cuadra and Rojas (2001).
At Radomiro Tomic potassic alteration is younger and the quartz sericitic event is older than at Chuquicamata, so the time duration of alteration is shorter at Radomiro Tomic than at Chuquicamata.
20 To the east the Chuquicamata Porphyry is in contact with a coarse-grained granodioritic intrusion, the Elena Granodiorite, and to the west with the Fortuna Granodiorite Complex (Fig 22). The porphyries dated 39 to 37 Ma intruded Triassic to early Tertiary andesitic volcanic.
The mineralisation is buried beneath Tertiary to Quaternary alluvial gravels, with a thickness ranging from 30m on the east to 150m to the west side. The gravels are composed of angular andesitic fragments, 1 to 10 cm in diameter, in a sandy and poorly to moderately cemented matrix. This unit is in direct contact with underlying leached or oxide zones of the deposits. A tuff intercalated in the gravels, 2 m below the current surface, was dated in biotite by the K- Ar method at 9.7+0.7 Ma.
Late Eocene to early Oligocene regional structures in the Chuquicamata has not only controlled the intrusion of Chuquicamata Porphyry and the associated hydrothermal alteration and copper mineralisation, but also controlled the circulation of the later ground water, resulting in leached zones in the oxide zones and downward projections of the secondary sulfides into the primary zone.
Hypogene mineralisation follows a concentric distribution of inner bornite-chalcopyrite, intermediate chalcopyrite>pyrite, and outer pyrite>chalcopyrite zones and averaging 0.5 wt percent total copper. Arsenic minerals such as enargite are absent in significant contrast to the Chuquicamata orebody. This difference may indicate a greater degree of erosion for Radomiro Tomic ore body.
Supergene oxidation and leaching process affected the hypogene mineralisation to an average depth of about 200 m beneath the gravel bedrock contact. Supergene mineralisation is present immediately below the gravels with typical vertical distribution of leached oxide zone, a mixed (oxide sulfide) zone and a secondary sulfide zone.
8.1. Radomiro Tomic Leached Zone
Leached zone are narrow and structurally controlled by subvertical structures (originally quartz-pyrite D-type veins) that cut the oxide zone down to the top of sulfides, constituting internal dilution of ore. Along the east side of the deposit there is a more massive leached zone, possibly developed from a pyrite rich marginal zone (Fig.3). In general, leached zones contains less than 0.2 wt percent total copper.
Fig. 23. Geologic cross setion 10,700 N showing distribution of the different geologic units defined at Radomiro Tomic. From Cuadra and Rojas (2001).
21 Oxide Zone
A thick blanket of oxide copper mineralisation is present immediately below the contact with gravels. It characterized by the presence of atacamite and subordinate copper clays, chrysocolla, and copper wad, in association with supergene alteration minerals (mainly kaolinite and montmorillonite). This blanket has a thickness of 150 and 200 m in the central part of deposit and thins to the north and south. The oxide zone represents a total of geologic resources of approximately 1,000 Mt that average 0.55 wt percent total copper. The spatial distribution of the main oxide minerals show a heterogenenity in the vertical direction that separate into two large units: Upper Oxide unit and Lower Oxide Unit. There is a sharp contrast in alteration, because of montmorillonite is more abundant in the Upper Oxide unit.
Upper oxide ore mineralogy is very heterogeneous and varies widely in a vertical direction. Atacamite is the most abundant in the upper part and copper clays are most abundant in lower part. The alteration is predominantly argillic of supergene origin (kaolinite and montmorillonite), superimposed on the hypogene sericitic and potassic alterations. Goethite is the main iron oxide mineral and the molybdenum content is low.
Lower oxide unit is more homogeneous in mineralisation with atacamite predominating over chrysocolla and copper clays. Supergene argillization is less intense than the upper oxide unit, reflected mainly in the low montmorillonite content, leaving a higher abundance of preexisting sericitic and potassic alteration. Hematite is the predominant iron oxide. Going downward, chalcocite (remnant of preexisting secondary enrichment) and atacamite coexist, showing a gradual increase of the former toward the top of the sulfides. The molybdenum content is significantly higher then in the upper oxide unit.
The origin of the oxide zone in Radomiro Tomic is thought as a result from two complex processes. The first is an in situ oxidation of a secondary sulfide zone, represented now by the lower Oxide unit. The second is a shallow process involving migration of copper bearing ground water to redeposit copper in the upper part of the deposit (Upper oxide unit) and in some places in the base of the gravels.
Most of the spatial distribution and proportions of ore minerals and other relevant related constituents, such as chlorine and total copper, can be explained as a consequence of paleontopography and the existence of the water table that oscillated in time.
Secondary Enrichment
The supergene copper sulfide enrichment zone is a continuous but irregular (20-150 m thick) blanketlike deposit underlying the oxide zone. The upper part of the enrichment zone, immediately below the top of sulfides, is characterized by the highest grades and is defined by the presence of >80 vol percent hypogene sulfides coated by chalcocite. In contrast, in the lower part has less chalcocite and the main secondary sulfide is covellite, with minor amounts of chalcocite (weak zone). The supergene sulfide mineralisation represents an overall geological resource of 350 Mt with a grade of 0.83 wt percent total copper in the upper part and 0.53 wt percent total copper in the lower part. Lying between the oxide and the sulfide zones is a mixed zone of oxides and secondary sulfides of 30 Mt with an average grade of 0.81 wt percent total copper.
9. Leached Capping: Implication to Copper Field Exploration
The observations which can be made in order to understanding of the prospects above as follow:
Escondida - As notified in Escondida, Mo is not usually transported from the leached capping during oxidation. Then, this will be a significant factor in the exploration porphyry system in term assessing the potential significance of leached caps. It was also clear that the Mo anomaly stronger than the Cu anomaly.
- There was a removal process of limonite from leached capping called superleaching. But by careful observation one can still identify presence of typical hematitic, live limonite a fluffy maroon to black hematite which is the characteristic oxidation product of chalcocite- and diagnostic leached capping textures after chalcocite mineralisation.
Then, the recognition of importance of superleaching effects on field observations, including capping interpretation was become the critical factor in Escondida discovery.
22 - The Escondida leached capping zone is mainly formed of sparsely limonites that exhibit good spatial correlation with supergene grade and thicknesses. The higher grade and thicker zones of underlying supergene Cu sulphide blanket are normally below hematite, whereas thinner zones with lower supergene copper grades lie below jarositic-rich capping. Goethite is most abundant where copper oxides are dominant. - The relative content of hematite, goethite and jarosite in leached cap provide direct evidence of the pre- oxidation sulphide distribution in the system. - Escondida exploits an exceptionally rich supergene sulfide blanket (~1.89% of Cu). - The deposit is hosted in Upper Eocene lower Oligocene metallogeny belt.
Cerro Colorado
- The pyrite-rich hypogene assemblages of the giant deposits of younger belt, e.g. Escondida deposit, resulted in stronger and more rapid enrichment than in the relatively pyrite-poor older deposits, such as Cerro Colorado (~1.% of Cu in supergene). - The deposit is hosted in paleocene to middle Eocene metallogeny belt then experienced greater erosion and developed complex profiles with multihorizon hematitic leached zones and considerable proportion of oxidized ore. Gravel and ash flow covers are widespread. - The anatomy of supergene blanket allows the inference that its evolution was similar to that at Escondida. - The deposit has variations in the thickness and inclination of the above ore zones result in complex facies and grade relationships.
Radomiro Tomic
- The supergene copper sulfide enrichment zone is a continuous but irregular (20-150 m thick). - The deposit is beneath a flat desert valley and completely buried by 40-150 m of Tertiary to Quaternary gravels. - The deposit is structurally controlled and hosted in Upper Eocene lower Oligocene metallogeny belt and also located along the West Fissure structural zone, one of the Main strands of the Domeyko fault Zone. - Leached zone are narrow and structurally controlled by subvertical structures.
References
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24 Lowell, J.D., 1991, The discovery of the La Escondida orebody, in Hutchinson, R.W., Grauch, Richard H., ed., Historical perspectives of genetic concepts and case histories of famous discoveries, Economic Geology Monograph 8: Denver, CO, Economic Geology Publishing Company, p. 300-313. Oyarzn, J. , 2000, Andean Metallogenesis: A Synoptical review and interpretation., In: Cordani, U.G., Milani, E.J., Thomas Filho, A., Campos, D.A., Tectonic Evolution of South America., p. 725-75 Peterson, E.U and Chavez W.X., 2002, Field Mapping in Porphyry Copper Environment, Cerro Colorado Mine, Chile, 14 pages Ruben A. Padilla Garza, Spencer R. Titley, and Francisco Pimentel B, 2001, Geology of the Escondida Porphyry Copper Deposit, Antofagasta Region, Chile, Economic Geology, Mar 2001; 96: 307 - 324. Sillitoe, R.H. 1973. The tops and bottoms of prophyry copper deposits. Economic Geology, 68, p. 799-815. Sillitoe, R.H. 1992. Gold and copper metallogeny in the Central Andes-past, present and future exploration objectives. SEG Distinguished Lecture. In: Economic Geology, 87:2205-2216. Sillitoe, R.H., 1995, Exploration of porphyry copper lithocaps, PACRIM95, Bali, p. 527-532
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