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Lecture2
Chapter2:MechanicalandElectrical
Sensors
ByDr.HungNguyen
NCforMaritimeEngineeringandHydrodynamics
Chapter2
Learningoutcomes
Assessmentcriteria
Overview Maintopics
Temperature
Pressure
Flow
Level
Strain
Temperature
Basictheory:
Physicalvariable: Temperatureisreferredtothehotnessand
thecoldnessofabody
Units/Scales: Celsiusdegree(
o
C),(SI)Kelvin(K),and
Fahrenheit(
o
F)
Relationships:
) 32 F (
9
5
C =
32 C
5
9
F + =
15 . 273 C K + =
Celcius - Kelvin
Celcius - Fahrenheit
Fahrenheit Celcius
Temperature
BasicTheory:
Measurementoftemperaturedoesnottakeplace
directly.
Effectsoftemperature:expansion,thermal
conduction,convectionandradiation
Commonmethods:expansion,electricalandradiation
Commontemperatureinstruments:liquidin
glassthermometers,filledsystemthermometers,
bimetallicthermometers,thermocouples,RDT,
thermistors andpyrometers
Temperature
Liquidinglassthermometers:
Principle:expansionoffluids(mercuryHg,alcohol)
Range:dependsonfluids&gasathighpressure
Mercury:30
o
Cto600
o
C
Alcohol:80
o
Cto70
o
C
ASTM = American Society for Testing and Materials
Temperature
Filledsystemthermometers:
Principle:liquid,vapourorgasfilledtypes
Construction:bulb,connectingcapillaryanda
Bourdon tube mechanism Bourdontubemechanism
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Temperature
Bimetallicthermometers:
Differentialexpansionoftwodifferent
materialsrigidlyjoinedtogether
Temperature
Thermocouples:emfgeneratediftwo
endjunctionsatdifferenttemperatures
Construction
1:Measuringjunction
2:Thermocouplewires
3:Ceramicinsulators
4:Protectivesheath
5:Connectionhead
Temperature
Thermocouples:differenttypes
Type Materials Max. Range (
o
C)
T Copper (+) / Constantan () -270 to + 400
E Chromel (+) I Constantan () -270 to + 1000
J Iron (+) I Constantan () -210 to +850
K Chromel (+) / Alumel () [also known as T1/T2] -270 to + 1370
S Platinum-10% Rhodium (+) I Platinum (-.) -50 to +1760
R Platinum-13% Rhodium (+) / Platinum () -50 to +1760
B Plat.-30% Rhodium (+) / Plat.-6% Rhodium () -50 to +1 820
Temperature
Thermocouples:sensitivity
50
60
o
r
c
e
,

m
V
change in output
K
changein input
=
E l 2 1
-10
0
10
20
30
40
-300 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
Temperature, C
T
h
e
r
m
a
l

e
l
e
c
t
r
o
m
o
t
i
v
e

f
o
TypeK
TypeJ
TypeT
TypeS
Example2.1
ThermocoupleTables
Temperature
Thermocouples:
Compensating(extension)leads
Coldconjunctioncompensation
Basic thermocouple circuit Basicthermocouplecircuit
Temperature
Thermocouples:Useofthermocoupletables
Example2.2
Example2.3
A ti iti Activities:
Activity2.1
Activity2.2
Activity2.3
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Temperature
Thermocouples:
Thermocoupleinterfacing
Temperature
RTD:ResistanceTemperatureDetector
Principle:resistance(ofmetals)increaseswhen
thetemperatureincreases
Construction: as shown in Figure 2 9 Construction:asshowninFigure2.9
Temperature
TheoryofRTD:
ResistanceattemperatureT
2
R R 1 aT bT + +

Foralimitedrangeoftemperature
T 0
R R 1 aT bT = + +

[ ]
T 0
R R 1 aT = +
Temperature
RTD:
PlatinumRTD100(datasheet)
Example2.4
Three wire system: Threewiresystem:
Temperature
RTD:
Measuringsystem
Fig.2.12Nullbalancesystemw
Wheatstonebridge
Fig.2.13Anelectronicresistancethermometer
Temperature
RTD:
RTDinterfacing(to
indicator,recorder
orcontrollerorPCs)
RTD:
Anexampleof
RTDapplication
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Temperature
RTD:Activities
Activity2.4: Discusstheoperatingprinciplesand
normaltemperaturerangesofthermocouplesand
resistancethermometers(RTDs). ( )
Activity2.5: AnRTD100Platinumresistance
thermometeristestedatatemperatureof160
o
C
andfoundtohavearesistanceof162.1.
Determinethetemperaturebeingmeasuredata
timewhentheresistanceofthisthermometeris
150 .
Temperature
Summaryoftemperaturemeasurement:
Commonmethods:expansion,electricaland
radiation
Commontemperatureinstruments:
liquidinglassthermometers
filledsystemthermometers
bimetallicthermometers
thermocouples
RTDs:resistancetemperaturedetectors
Applications:indicationandcontroloftemperature
Temperature
Question?
Pressure
Basictheory:
Pressureisoneofthemostcommonlymeasured
variablesonboardavessel
Steampressure,feedwaterpressure,condenser
pressure,lubricatingoilpressure,gaspressure,air
compressorpressureetc.
Pressureisthemeasurementofforceactingon
areaofsurface,thus:
F
P
A
=
SIUnits:Pa,kPa,MPa
British:PSI(poundspersquareinch)
Common:bar(100kPa)
Pressure
Basictheory:
Absolutepressure(P
2
=zero)
Atmosphericpressure(101.3kPa)(standard:temperature=
20 C(68 F),airdensity=1.225 kg/m(0.0765lb/cu ft),altitude=sealevel,and
relativehumidity=20%) y )
Gaugepressure(P
2
=atmosphericpressure)
Vacuum(P
2
smallerthanatmosphericpressure)
Differentialpressure(P
2
=atacertainpressure)
1 2
P P P =
Pressure
Pressurehead: static
pressureheadorstatic
head
760 mm Hg
Glasstube
760mmHg
Approx.101.3kPa
Approx.1bar
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Pressure
Pressureatdepth:
Actsequallyinalldirections
Actsnormallytosurface
p hg =
p p
h
g
= =

Pressure
Manometer
( )
1 2 B A
P P P gh = =
1 2 B
P P gh =
Application:indication
andmonitoring
Example2.5
Pressure
Bourdontube:
Principle:Ctype
Construction:asshowninFigure2.20a
Pressure
Bourdontube:
Alternative:Spiral&
Helicaltypes
Applications:pressure
transmitters
Activity 3.1
Pressure
Differentialpressurecell:
Pressuregaugewithaflexiblemetaldiaphragm
D/Pcellwithtwoseparatebellows
Pressure
D/Ptransmitters:Bellows,
resistance,inductance(lvdt),
capacitance,diaphragm,piezo
electrictypes
http://www.pressure-transducer.com
http://www.enercorp.com
http://www.foxboro.com
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Pressure
ApplicationsofD/Ptransmitters:
Threebasicfunctions:indication,alarmandcontrol
(pressure,flow,levelcontrolsystems)
Environmentalconcerns:
Atmospheric pressure: Pressure instrument is Atmosphericpressure:Pressureinstrumentis
sensitivetovariationsintheatmosphericpressure
surroundingthedetector causetheindicated
pressuretochange
Ambienttemperature:resistanceofcomponents,
thenreduceaccuracyandreliability
Humidity:highmoistureaffectselectric/electronic
equipment:shortcircuits,grounds,corrosion
Pressure
Summaryofpressuremeasurement
Basictheory
Pressurehead
Pressure at depth Pressureatdepth
Utubemanometer
Bourdontube
Differentialpressurecells(manytypes)
Pressuremeasurement
Question?
Flow
Basictheory:
Variousphysicalpropertiesareconsidered:density,
pressure,flowrate(velocity,volumeflowrateand
massflowrate)andviscosity
Flow measurement involves liquids (water oil) gasses Flowmeasurementinvolvesliquids(water,oil),gasses
(compressedair)andpneumaticandhydraulic
systems
Pipingandpumpingsystems
Offshoregasandoilindustry
SI Unit: m
3
/s
Other units: m
3
/h, litter/min, etc.
Differentialpressure Bernoullisequationfor
flowmeasurement
V
1
V
2
Flow
Flow
1 3
2
P
1
P
2

+ =

+ f
P
2
V P
2
V
2
2
2 1
2
1
restriction

=
P
K V
2
Flow
Flowmeasurement
Flowsensors:orifice,flownozzle,venturi,variable
areaflowmeter,turbine,positivedisplacement
meters
Differential types of flowmeter Differentialtypesofflowmeter
Applications:indicationandcontrol(flow,level)
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Flow
Orifice:cheapand
simple
Flow
Office:
Pressuredistribution
Flow
Tappingpoints:
Venacontractataps
Flangetaps
Corner taps Cornertaps
Radiustaps
Fullflowtaps
The positioning of the tapping points must be chosen
with care. Poor positioning of the tapping points may lead
to inaccurate flow readings due to turbulence!
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vena_contracta
Flow
Flownozzle
Flow
Venturi:
Construction:consistsofarelativelylongconvergent
sectionupstreamofthethroatfollowedbyanother
longdivergentsectiondownstream
Flow
Variableareaflowmeter(rotameter):
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Flow
Turbineflowmeter
Flow
Positivedisplacementmeters
Flow
Example2.6
Anorificeplateisbeingusedtomeasuretheflow
ofseawaterthroughapipe.Thedifferential
pressuremeasuredacrosstheorificeis5.0kPa p
whentherateofflowis40tonne/hour.Determine
theflowratewhenthedifferentialpressureis
indicatedas8.0kPa(densityofs.w.=1025
kg/m3).
Activity3.2
Flow
Differentialpressuretypesofflowmeters
Principles:differenttypes
Construction:flowsensor+transmitterunit
Flow
Differentialpressuretransmitters:flow,level
andpressure:
Resistance/potentiometer
Inductance or lvdt (linear variable differential Inductanceorlvdt(linearvariabledifferential
transformer)
Capacitance
Diaphragmorbellowstypes
Piezoelectrictypes
Flow
Differentialpressure
transmitters:
Anexampleof
datasheet datasheet
Model CO Compact Orifice
for use with
Foxboro Differential Pressure
Transmitters
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CurrentStatus ControlLab
Flowcontrolsystem:DAQandLabVIEW
PLCs:updated
Possible projects control algorithms for
I/P Converter
Control valve
Compressed air
(pneumatic supply)
D/P Transmitter
Possibleprojects:controlalgorithmsfor
flowcontrol,hydrauliccontrol
Controllaws:PID,selftuning,optimal,
neuralnetwork,etc.
D/P Transmitter
Orifice plate
PC-based controller
Flow
Othertypesofflowtransmitter
Magnetic
Ultrasonic
Thermal mass Thermalmass
Coriolis
Vortex
Flowmeasurement
Question?
Level
Basictheory:
Levelisalwaysrelativetosomedatum(reference)
thatappliestothatparticularsituation:bottomof
thetank,bottomofthegaugeglass,groundlevel
Depth:whenassessingthequantityofliquidina
tank,levelisoftenmeasuredfromthebottom
Ullage:thelevelofthesurfaceinatankisrelative
tosomedatumabovethesurface(topofthetank)
SIUnits:m,mm
Methods:directandindirect,mostcommon
differentialpressure
Level
Sightgauges:
Level
Floatoperated
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Level
Sealeddiaphragmpressureheadtype
Level
PneumaticBubblerPressureHeadType
Level
Othertypes:
4.7CapacitanceType(CapacitanceProbe)
4.8RadarType
4 9 Resistance Type 4.9ResistanceType
Example2.7:Abubblertypegauge
Activity4.1:
Level
Differentialpressureleveldetector
Level
Closedtank,dryreferenceleg
Level
Levelsensor
andalarm
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Level
Activity4.2: Describethe
operatingprincipleofthefloat
typeoflevelsensorinFigure
2.40
Level
Activity4.3:
Describethe
operating
principle of the principleofthe
capacitancetype
oflevelsensorfor
levelcontrolin
Figure2.41
Level
Summaryoflevelmeasurement
Basictheory
Sightglass
Float operated Floatoperated
Sealeddiaphragmpressureheadtype
Pneumaticbubblerpressureheadtype
Capacitancetype
Radartype
Levelsensorandalarm(boilers)
Levelmeasurement
Question?
Strain
Basictheory:
Definitionofstrain:
L
L
=
Stress:
http://www.tml.jp/e/product/strain_gauge/what_strain.html
P
A
=
Nodimension
Usually1x10
6
E = E:elasticmodulus
(Youngsmodulus)
Strain
Resistorstraingauge:
Whenametal(resistor)isexpandedorcontracted
byexternalforce,itexperiencesachangeof
electricalresistance.Bybondingametal(resistor) y g ( )
onthesurfaceofaspecimenwithanelectrical
insulatorbetweenthem,themetalchangesits
dimensionaccordingtotheexpansionor
contractionofthespecimen,thusresultinga
changeofitsresistance.Straingauge(electrical
resistancestraingauge)isasensortodetectthe
strainofaspecimenbythisresistancechange
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Strain
Wirewoundtype
Foiltype
Strain
Gaugefactor
Axesofsensitivity
Crosssensitivity
Temperaturecompensation
Example2.8(pp.4647)
Activity5.1(p.47)
Strain
StrainmeasurementusingaWheatstone
bridgecircuit
Strain
Summaryofstrainmeasurement:
Basictheoryofstrain
Resistancestraingauges
Wirewoundtype
Foiltype
Gaugefactor
Strainmeasurement
Question?
Strain
Furtherreadings:
http://www.tml.jp/e/product/strain_gauge/what_
strain.html
http://zone ni com/devzone/cda/tut/p/id/3092 http://zone.ni.com/devzone/cda/tut/p/id/3092