1

OUR VISION

The prime objective of SAEINDIA NIT Kurukshetra Collegiate Club is to
provide a platform to the budding engineers and help them to practically
apply the theoretical knowledge; to bring dynamism in their vision and
thinking; to find solutions to the problem in the existing field of
automobile by connecting the minds of future engineers along with those
pioneering in the industry.

The idea, vision and objectivity of the club and its working can be
uniformly summarized under the club motto
Dream. Create.
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INDEX
1. Introduction to Automotive..4
1.1 Automotive4
1.2 Automobile4
1.3 Components of an auto mobile..4
2. Basic Terminology.5
2.1 Vehicle Axis System.5
2.2 Some Common terms used in automobiles5
3. Chassis6
3.1 Introduction6
3.2 Types of chassis..6
4. Aerodynamic fundamentals..8
4.1 Introduction8
4.2 Aerodynamic forces.8
4.3 Spoilers....9
4.4 Automotive Wings.9
5. Engine.10
5.1 Introduction...10
5.2 Steam and Combustion engines..10
5.3 Classification of engines...10
5.4 Basic engine parts..12
5.5 Petrol Engine v/s Diesel Engine...18
5.6 New Technologies..18
6. Transmission20
6.1 Introduction20
6.2 Clutch..20
6.3 Gear Ratio...20
6.4 Manual Transmission21
6.5 Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)22
6.6 Automatic Transmission.23
6.7 Differentials24
6.8 Types of Driveline..26
7. Steering System .27
7.1 Introduction27
7.2 Types of steering System ...27
7.3 Steering Geometry...29
7.4 Four Wheel Steering.30
7.5 Power Steering.30
8. Suspension System...32
8.1 Introduction32
8.2 Suspension Geometry.32
8.3 Types of suspension systems.32
8.4 Macpherson struts vs. Double Wishbone..33
9. Brakes.35
9.1 Introduction35
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9.2 Brake Fade..35
9.3 Types of Brakes...35
9.4 Methods to reduce brake fade....36
9.5 Types of calipers..37
9.6 Hydraulic Brakes..37
9.7 Proportioning valve..38
9.8 Anti-lock Braking System (ABS)...38
9.9 Types of Brake Fluids...38
9.10 Regenerative Brakes..39
10. Wheel..40
10.1 Tubeless tyres...40
10.2 Wheel Alignment....40
10.3 Tire Size notations.....42
10.4 The wheel Assmebly...43
11. Electrical System44
11.1 Ignition System....44
11.2 Ignition Coil..44
11.3 Distributor...45
11.4 Spark Plug.45
# Appendix 46
# Common Abbreviations..49
# Test Yourself.50




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1. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMOTIVE
1.1 Automotive: It is a branch of engineering dealing with automobiles or anything automatically
in motion. Automotive engineering includes:
1.Mechanical engineering
2.Vehicle dynamics
3.Engine design
4.Drive train engineering
1.2 Automobile: The word automobile comes, via the French automobile, from the Ancient Greek
word (auts, "self") and the Latin mobilis ("movable"); meaning a vehicle that moves itself. A
vehicle moving itself rather than being pulled by an animal or other vehicle which can be used to carry
passengers and goods. Each of these vehicles is operated by engine which consumes gasoline (petrol),
diesel, natural or LPG gas etc.
The first practical automobile with a petrol engine was built by Karl Benz in 1885 in Mannheim, Germany.
Benz was granted a patent for his automobile. After that the automobile became a primary mode of
transportation for all countries. In 1806, Francois Isaac de Rivaz of Switzerland invented an internal
combustion engine that used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen for fuel. Further developments led to the
introduction of modern gasoline- or petrol- fuelled internal combustion engine in 1885.
1.3 COMPONENTS OF AN AUTOMOBILE

The main units of an automobile
are:
The superstructure or chassis
The power plant or Engine
Transmission system or power
train
Steering system
Suspension system
Brakes
Wheels
Electrical System



Figure 1 - Various components of an automobile
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2. BASIC TERMINOLOGY

2.1 VEHICLE AXES SYSTEM
2.1.1 Longitudinal axis:
The line passing through the front and rear roll
center of the vehicle (vehicle rolls about this line)
represented as X axis.
2.1.2 Lateral axis:
Axis about which vehicle pitches, represented by
Y axis.
2.1.3 Vertical axis:
Axis about which vehicle experiences yaw
movement.



2.2 SOME COMMON TERMS
USED IN AUTOMOBILES
2.2.1 Wheel base:
Wheel base is the longitudinal distance measured
between contact patches of front to rear wheel.
2.2.2 Track width:
The lateral distance between the contact patches
of left and right wheel is track width of vehicle.
2.2.3 Turning Radius:
It is actually a misnomer as it is the diameter of
the circle of the outside wheels that a car turns
through while turning at full lock.

Figure 2 - Axes of motion of a vehicle
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3. CHASSIS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Chassis consists of an internal framework that
supports the vehicle body. It is analogous to
skeleton. Following section covers different types
of chassis.
3.2 TYPES OF CHASSIS
3.2.1 Ladder frame chassis
Its construction looks like a ladder- two
longitudinal rails inter connected by several lateral
and cross braces. The longitudinal members are
the main stress bearing members. They deal with
static load and also the load transfer during
acceleration and braking. The lateral and cross
members provide resistance to the lateral forces
produced during cornering and further increases
torisional rigidity.
3.2.2 Tubular space frame chassis
As ladder chassis is not strong enough, motor
racing engineers developed a 3 dimensional
design Tubular space frame. It employs several
circular-section tubes, a square section can also be
used for better connection to body panel, but
circular cross section provides maximum strength
against forces from anywhere. These tubes are
welded together and form a very complex
structure. For high strength required by high
performance sports cars, tubular space frame
chassis usually incorporates a strong structure
under both doors, hence results in a difficult
access to the cabin.

Figure 4 - Tubular frame chassis of a formula SAE car
3.2.3 Monocoque frame chassis
Monocoque is one piece structure which defines
the overall shape of car. While ladder and tubular
space frame provide only stress bearing members
and need to build body around them, monocoque
chassis is already incorporated with the body in
single piece. Actually many pieces are welded
together. The floor-pan which is the largest piece
and other pieces are pressed by big stamping
machines. They are spot welded together within
minutes.
Figure 3 - Ladder frame chassis of a truck
Figure 5 - Monocoque chassis of Lamborghini Aventedor
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3.2.4 Uslab monocoque chassis
Pressing sheet metal to make chassis creates
inhomogeneous thickness at the edges hence to
maintain minimum thickness designers have to
choose a thicker sheet metal. By the Hydro form
technique thin steel tubes are used. The steel tubes
are placed in a die which defines the desired
shape, then fluid at very high pressure will be
pumped into the tube, which expands the latter to
the inner surface of die. The thickness of steel
tube remains uniform which results in lighter
design.
3.2.5 Backbone frame chassis
A strong tubular backbone (usually rectangular
section) connects the front and rear axle and
provides all strength required. The whole drive-
train, engine and suspensions are connected to
both the ends of backbone. A body build on the
backbone is usually made of glass fiber. It is
strong enough for the sports car but not up to the
job for high ends ones.
3.2.6 Aluminum space frame chassis
It consists of an extruded aluminum section;
vacuum die cast components and
aluminum sheets of different thickness. They are
made of high strength aluminum alloys. At the
highly stressed corners and joints, extruded
section is connected by complex aluminum die
casting. It is very complex and production cost is
far higher than steel monocoque.
3.2.7 Carbon fiber monocoque
The carbon fiber called Kevlar offers highest
rigidity-to-weight ratio. Kevlar can be found in
body panels of exotic cars, although most of them
simultaneously use other kind of carbon fiber in
relatively large amount.
Carbon fiber panels are made by growing carbon
fiber sheets on either side of aluminum foil, the
foil which defines the shape of the panel, is
stacked with several layers of carbon fiber sheets
impregnated with resin, then cooked in oven for 3
hours at 120C and 90 psi pressure. The carbon
fiber layers will be melted and forms uniform
rigid panel.


Figure 7 - Carbon fiber chassis of a Super Sports Car
Figure 6 - Backbone frame chassis of a lotus esprit
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4. AERODYNAMIC FUNDAMENTALS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Following section covers different types of
aerodynamic forces, and aerodynamic devices
(spoiler etc.) deployed in a vehicle.
4.2 AERODYNAMIC FORCES
It plays a major role in high performance cars
through its contribution to Road Load.
The force due to friction of air interacts with the
moving vehicle and causes drag, lift (or
downward), momentum roll, pitch, yaw and
noise hence decreases fuel economy, handling etc.
The fluid flow follows Bernoullis equation for
automotive aerodynamics
P (static) + P (dynamic) =P (total)
4.2.1 Side force
The lateral wind component will impose a side
force on the vehicle, attempting to change the
direction of travel. In case of a strong cross wind
the side force is greater than the drag force, such
that the angle of overall wind force is much
greater than the relative wind angle.
4.2.2 Drag
It is the largest and most important aerodynamic
force encountered by a passenger car at normal
highway speed. More than 65% of drag arises
from the body (fore-body, after-body, underbody
and skin friction. After-body is the major
contributor of drag as it contains a
separation zone. Slope angle of 15 consistently
reduces drag.


Figure 8 - Drag forces with (upper) and
without (lower) spoiler
DA = v
2
CD A
CD = Aerodynamic drag coefficient
A= Front area of vehicle
= Air density
v
2
is the dynamic pressure of air. The Drag
properties of a car are characterized by the value
of product of Coefficient of Drag and Front area
of the vehicle.
4.2.3 Lift
The pressure difference between the top and
bottom of a vehicle causes a lift force. These
forces are significant as they influence driving
stability and handling through reduced control
forces available at tires. Front lift that reduces
steering controllability is reduced by deploying a
front bumper spoiler and by rear ward inclination
of front surface.
Figure 9 - Uplift produced due to air-flow
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The lift at the rear of the vehicle which reduces
traction and stability is variable with vehicle
design. This lift can be reduced by spoilers etc.
4.3 SPOILERS
A spoiler is an automotive aerodynamic device
whose function is to 'spoil' unfavourable air
movement across a body of a vehicle in motion.
Spoilers on the front of a vehicle are called air
dams, because in addition to directing air flow
they also reduce the amount of air flowing
underneath the vehicle which reduces
aerodynamic lift. Spoilers are often fitted to race
and high-performance sports cars, although they
have become common on passenger vehicles as
well. Some spoilers are added to cars primarily for
styling purposes and have either little
aerodynamic benefit or even make the
aerodynamics worse.
Spoilers for cars are often incorrectly confused
with, wings. Automotive wings are devices whose
intended design is to generate down force as air
passes around them, not simply disrupt existing
airflow patterns.

Figure 10 - Spoiler in a Nissan car
The main role of a spoiler in passenger vehicles is
to reduce drag and increase fuel efficiency Front
spoilers, found beneath the bumper, are mainly
used to direct air flow away from the tires to the
under-body where the drag coefficient is less.
Rear spoilers, which modify the transition in
shape between the roof & the rear and the trunk &
the rear, act to minimize the turbulence at the rear
of the vehicle.
4.4 AUTOMOTIVE WING
A wing in this context is an aerodynamic device
intended to generate down force on an automobile.
The angle of attack of the wing on some cars can
be adjusted to increase downward force over the
rear wheels, but drag is also increased.
Spoilers are often confused with wings, and the
terms are frequently (but incorrectly) used
interchangeably. Spoilers reduce the lift created
by a car's shape, and also reduce drag by
eliminating the induced drag associated with that
lift. Wings increase the road grip by producing
down-force, at the expense of additional induced
drag. Although identical in form to the wing of an
aircraft, wings used in automotive applications are
usually inverted (oriented upside-down) and
sometimes reversed (oriented backwards) by
comparison.
DID YOU KNOW?
Nowadays DRS (Drag reduction system) is
used in Formula one races. At certain
stretches in the circuit the driver lagging
behind by 1 second can adjust the rear wing
so as to reduce Drag force and attain
greater speed in the stretch.
Figure 11 - Aerodynamic wing in a motor-sport car
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5. ENGINE
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Engine is a device designed to convert chemical
energy of the fuel into useful mechanical energy.
5.2 EXTERNAL & INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES:
5.2a STEAM ENGINES
A steam engine is a heat engine that performs
mechanical work using steam as its working fluid.
Steam engines are typically external combustion
engines, where heat is supplied to the working
fluid from fuel burned outside the engine. The
water turns to steam in a boiler and expands
greatly in volume, and can be used to generate
mechanical power, usually via pistons or turbines.
5.2b INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES
A combustion engine is also a heat engine that
burns fuel containing chemical energy to get heat
energy and then converts this heat energy in to
mechanical energy.
5.3 CLASSIFICATION OF
ENGINES
5.3.1 On the basis of Basic Engine
Design
They are classified as follows:
Rotary Engine
Reciprocating Engine


5.3.1a Rotary engines
In rotary engines, a rotor rotates inside the
engine to produce power. Example: Wankel
engine.
5.3.1.b Reciprocating Engine
In the case of the reciprocating engines, a piston
reciprocates within a cylinder. Reciprocating
engines have different layouts or cylinder
configurations including the straight or inline
configuration, the more compact V configuration,
and the wider but smoother flat or boxer
configuration. More unusual configurations such
as the H, U, X, and W have also been used.

Figure 13 - Various configurations of an engine
Figure 12 - A Wenkel engine & its 4-Strokes
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5.3.2 On the basis of Working Cycle
They are classified as:
Two stroke engines
Four stroke engines
5.3.2a Two stroke engines
In the case of the two stroke engine, for every two
strokes of the piston inside the cylinder the fuel is
burnt. This means for every single rotation of the
wheel the fuel is burnt. In the case of four-stroke
engines, the fuel is burnt for every four strokes of
the piston inside the cylinder. That means each
time the fuel is burnt there are two rotations of the
wheels of the vehicle. The stroke is the distance
traveled by the piston inside the cylinder; it is
usually equal to the length of the cylinder.
5.3.2b Four stroke engines
Since the 4-stroke engines produce two rotations
while 2-stroke engine produces single rotation
each time the fuel is burnt, the efficiency of 4-
stroke engines is greater than in 2-stroke engines.
Ideally the efficiency of 4-stroke engine should be
double of 2-stroke engine, but in actuality it is
never so.
Almost all cars currently use what is called a
four-stroke combustion cycle to convert gasoline
into motion. As their name implies, operation of
four stroke internal combustion engines have four
basic steps that repeat with every two revolutions
of the engine.
The four-stroke approach is also known as the
Otto cycle, in honour of Nikolaus Otto, who
invented it in 1867. The four strokes are as
follows:
Intake stroke: The piston starts at the top,
the intake valve opens, and the piston moves
down to let the engine take in a cylinder-full of air
and gasoline. This is the intake stroke. Only the
tiniest drop of gasoline needs to be mixed into the
air for this to work
.Compression stroke: Then the piston
moves back up to compress this fuel/air mixture.
Compression makes the explosion more powerful.
Combustion stroke: When the piston
reaches the top of its stroke, the spark plug emits a
spark to ignite the gasoline. The gasoline charge
in the cylinder explodes, driving the piston down.
Exhaust stroke: Once the piston hits the
bottom of its stroke, the exhaust valve opens and
the exhaust leaves the cylinder to go out the
tailpipe

Figure 14 - Working cycle of a 4-Stroke engine
5.3.3 On the basis of Ignition
They are classified as:
Spark ignition
Compression Engines
5.3.3a Spark ignition
In SI engines, the burning of fuel occurs by a
spark generated by the spark plug located in the
cylinder head of engine. Due to this fact they are
called spark ignition engines. In these engines the
fuel used is petrol or gasoline, hence SI engines
are also known as Petrol or Gasoline Engines.

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5.3.3b Compression ignition
In the case of CI engines, burning of the fuel
occurs because of the high pressure exerted on the
fuel. The fuel is compressed to high pressures and
it starts burning, hence these engines are called
compression ignition engines. In CI engines the
fuel used is diesel; hence they are also called
Diesel engines.

5.4 BASIC ENGINE PARTS
5.4.1Cylinder head
The cylinder head is a casting bolted to the top of
the cylinder block, injector location holes, forms
the upper face of the combustion chamber. The
coolant passages, cavities, intake and exhaust
ports, and the spark plug are also located within
the head casting. The cylinder head is detachable
for easy access to the valves and piston tops and to
facilitate machining of the cylinder bore,
combustion chamber and valve ports. The
materials generally used for the cylinder head are
grey cast iron and aluminum alloys.
5.4.2 Cylinder block
The cylinder block is the portion of the engine
between the cylinder head and sump. All the
engine parts are mounted on it or in it and this
holds the parts in alignment. Large diameter holes
in the block-castings form the cylinder bores
required to guide the pistons. Both spark-ignition
and compression-ignition cylinder blocks are
similar but later blocks are relatively heavier and
stronger to withstand high compression ratios and
internal pressure.

Figure 16 - Cylinder block of a 4-Cylinder engine
Within the cylinder, combustion process produces
rapid and periodic rises in temperature and
pressure. These induce circumferential and
mechanical properties such as strength, toughness,
hardness, and corrosion and wear resistance.
Cylinder liners provide prolonged cylinder life,
which outweighs the extra cost. The liners can be
made from lightly alloyed cast iron. They are
centrifugally cast into the cylindrical sleeve,
machined, the then heat-treated to produce the
optimum wear-resisting properties
5.4.3 Crank case and Crank shaft
The crankcase supports the individual main
journals and bearings of the crankshaft and also
DID YOU KNOW?
Bugatti Veyron Super Sport is the fastest car
in production. It features an 8.0L W16
Quad-Turbocharged engine which churns
out 1200 HP and can attain a maximum
speed of 435 kmph.
Figure 15 - Cylinder head of a 4 cylinder engine
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maintains the alignment of the journal axes of
rotation as they are subjected to rotary and
reciprocating inertia forces and the periodic torque
impulses. The crankshaft, which is one of a series
of links between the pistons and the drive wheels,
is a one-piece part located in the bottom end of the
engine that harnesses the huge forces produced by
the explosions in the combustion chamber. The
front end of the crankshaft, known as the snout,
turns the sprocket, or timing gear, to drive the
camshaft, pulley that runs a belt connected to the
alternator, fan, water pump and power steering.
The other end of the crankshaft is connected to the
flywheel, which is toothed, allowing the starter
motor to rotate the crankshaft.
Function
When the spark plugs ignite the fuel-air mixture in
the combustion chamber, the resulting explosion
forces the pistons downward with tremendous
force. The function of the crankshaft is to change
the up-and-down motion of the pistons to a
rotating motion. This is accomplished by having
the connecting rods (which are attached to the
pistons) connect to the crankshaft in an offset
manner, so that as they go up and down their
angle changes.
5.4.4 Cam shaft
Its job is to open and close the valves at just the
right time during engine rotation, so that
maximum power and efficient cleanout of exhaust
can be obtained. The camshaft drives the
distributor to electrically synchronize spark
ignition. Camshafts do their work through
eccentric "lobes" that actuate the components of
the valve train. The camshaft itself is forged from
one piece of steel, on which the lobes are ground.
On single-camshaft engines there are twice as
many lobes as there are cylinders, plus a lobe for
fuel pump actuation and a drive gear for the
distributor. The camshaft operates cam followers
that in turn operate the rest of the valve train.

Figure 18 - Camshaft of a 4-Cylinder engine
5.4.5 Rocker shafts and rocker arms
assembly
Rocker arm assembly consists of rocker arm,
rocker shaft and springs. Rocker arm comes in
contact with the valves as directed by the rotation
of the camshaft.
Rocker shaft
Rocker-shaft
provides a rigid
pivot support for the
rocker-arms. These
shafts are machined
from hollow steel
tubing. These are
mounted and
clamped on cast-iron
or aluminum alloy pedestals, which are generally
fitted between each pair of rocker-arms. For
Figure 17 - Crank shaft of a 4-Cylinder engine
Figure 19 - A rocker shaft
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lubrication purposes radial holes are drilled
through the rocker-shaft to align with each rocker
arm, and both ends of the shaft are plugged to
prevent the oil leakage. One of the support
pedestals normally incorporates a vertical drilled
hole to supply the oil from the camshaft to the
hollow rocker-shaft. This hole matches with a
corresponding radial hole in the shaft. When
reassembling the rockers and shaft, these two
holes must align, to restore oil supply to the shaft.
The material for these tubular shafts is carbon
steel, a typical composition of which is 0.55%
carbon, 0.2% silicon, 0.65% manganese, and the
balance iron. After machining, the shaft is case-
hardened to withstand the rubbing action.
Rocker-Arm
A rocker-arm rocks or oscillates about its pivot
and relays the push-rod up-and- down movement
to the stem of the poppet-valve. Therefore this
arm acts as a rocking beam. Rocker-arms may be
manufactured from materials which can be cast,
forged, or cold-pressed to shape. These are cast
from malleable cast iron with induction-hardening
at selected regions. For forging a medium-carbon
steel with a typical composition of 0.55% carbon,
0.2% silicon, 0.65% manganese, and the balance
(98.6%) iron can be used. This can be hardened by
quenching from a temperature of 1085 K to 1115
K and then tempering at a suitable temperature
between 825 K and 975 K. For cold-pressing a
low-carbon steel of composition 0.2% carbon,
0.8% manganese, and the balance (99%) iron can
be used. Rockers, when manufactured in this
method, incorporate a hardened-steel contact pad
attached at the valve-stem end.
5.4.6 Piston
The automotive engine piston converts the
combustion pressure to a force on the crankshaft.
The piston starts, accelerates and stops twice in
each crankshaft revolution. This reciprocating
action of the piston produces large inertial forces.
The inertial force depends on the piston and less
inertia permits higher engine operating speeds.
During operation of the piston, a temperature
gradient of about 150 K from the head of the
piston to its bottom is experienced. Also it has to
support piston sealing rings. Therefore, design of
a piston is based on a compromise between
strength, weight and thermal expansion control.
The piston must have enough strength to support
combustion pressure and reciprocating loads, to
have sufficient length of the skirt to guide the
piston straight in the bore, to have expansion
control for quiet and long-life operation, and to
hold the piston rings perpendicular to the cylinder
wall.
Functions of a piston in brief are:
It must form a sliding gas and oil tight seal
within the cylinder.
It must transmit the gas load to the small end
of the connecting rod.
It generally acts as a bearing for the gudgeon
pin.

Figure 21 - Piston & its parts
Figure 20 - A rocker arm assembly
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The piston material should have properties like
good cast-ability, high hot strength, high strength-
to-mass ratio, good resistance to surface abrasion
to reduce skirt and ring-groove wear, good
thermal conductivity to keep down piston
temperatures, and a relatively low thermal
expansion to have a minimum piston-to-cylinder
clearance. To achieve low reciprocating forces of
the piston in a high speed engine, the piston
should be lighter, and hence aluminum alloy is
preferred to cast iron and steel.
Gudgeon pin
The gudgeon-pin (piston pin) connects the piston
and connecting-rod. It is supported in holes bored
in the piston at right angles to the piston axis at
about mid-height position, and the centre portion
of the gudgeon-pin passes through the connecting-
rod small-end eye. This hinged joint transfers
directly the gas thrust from the piston to the
connecting-rod and allows the rod to pivot relative
to the cylinder axis with an oscillating motion.


Figure 22 -Piston and its gudgeon pin
Connecting rod
The connecting rod joins the piston to the
crankshaft and transfers piston reciprocating force
to crankshaft rotation. The small end of the
connecting rod reciprocates and the large end
follows the crank pin rotational pattern. For this
dynamic movement, the connecting rod should be
as light as possible while maintain its rigidity. The
connecting rod is basically of two ring forms,
which encircle the piston pin and the crankshaft
rod journal. From each of these ring forms a
tangential fillet blends into a tapered H-section of
the rigid rod strut. Each connecting rod is fastened
to the piston by piston pins and to the crank pin
(journal) of the crankshaft by a plain split bearing.
5.4.7 Valves Train and Valve Timings
The valve train consists of valves, rocker arms,
pushrods, lifters, and the camshaft. Valve train
opening/closing and duration, as well as the
geometry of the valve train, controls the amount
of air and fuel entering the combustion chamber at
any given point in time. Timing for open/ close
duration is controlled by the camshaft that is
synchronized to the crankshaft by a chain or belt.
Valve trains are built in several configurations,
each of which vary slightly in layout but still
perform the task of opening and close the valves
at the time necessary for proper operation of the
engine. These layouts are differentiated by the
location of the camshaft within the engine:
Overhead Camshaft: The camshaft (or
camshafts, depending on the design employed) is
located above the valves within the cylinder head,
and operates either indirectly or directly on the
valves. Cam-in-block: The camshaft is located
within the engine block, and operates directly on
the valves, or indirectly via pushrods and rocker
arms. Because they often require pushrods they
are often called pushrod engines.
Cam less: This layout uses no camshafts at all.
Technologies such as Solenoids are used to
individually actuate the valves.
Intake and Exhaust Valves
The valve arrangement in an engine controls the in
and out movements of charge and exhaust gases in
the cylinders in relation to the piston positions in
their bores. Now-a-days, this is located in the
cylinder head on all the engines. Among the
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commonly used sleeve, sliding, rotary, and poppet
type valves, the poppet-valve is most common
because this offers reasonable weight, good
strength and good heat transfer characteristics.
The most popular shape of the poppet-valve for
automobile application uses a small cup at one end
of the stem. The valve stem is placed in a guide
hole made centrally in a circular passage in the
cylinder head. The valve disc head opens and
closes the ported passage leading to the cylinder
during in and out movement of the stem.
To see how valve-timing works in a 4-stroke
engine cycle, lets show piston motion as a circle.
In this simple cycle, each stroke is shown as a
semi-circle. Theoretically speaking the intake
valve opens at top dead centre, and closes at
bottom dead centre and the exhaust valve opens at
bottom dead centre, then closes at top dead centre
before the new air-fuel mixture enters the
cylinder.
In practice, however, the intake valve usually
opens earlier than top dead centre, and stays open
a little past bottom dead centre. The exhaust valve
opens a little before bottom dead centre, and stays
open a little past top dead centre.
This intake valve opens 16 before the piston
reaches top dead centre and it closes 55 after
bottom dead centre.
The exhaust valve opens 55 before bottom
dead centre - and stays open - until 16 past
top dead centre. This gives exhaust gases more
time to leave.
By the time the piston is at 55 before bottom
dead centre on the power stroke, combustion
pressures have dropped considerably and little
power is lost by letting the exhaust gases have
more time to exit. letting the exhaust gases
have more time to exit.
When an intake valve opens before top dead
center and the exhaust valve opens before
bottom dead center, it is called lead.
When an intake valve closes after bottom
dead center, and the exhaust valve closes after
top dead center, it is called lag.
On the exhaust stroke, the intake and exhaust
valve are open at the same time for a few
degrees around top dead center. This is called
valve overlap. On this engine, it is 32.
Different engines use different timings.
Manufacturer specifications contain the exact
information.
5.4.8 Sump or oil pan
The sump is attached to the bottom of the cylinder
block underneath the crankcase. The functions of
the sump are:
To store the engine's lubrication oil for
circulation within the lubrication system.
DID YOU KNOW?
Due to physical time lag there is a limit to
which the valve springs can work up to.
To overcome this Ducati made a new
kind of valves that can run up to 18,000
RPM. The valves have separate opening
and closing lobes and are called as
Desmodromic Valves
Figure 23 -Intake and exhaust valve
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To collect the oil draining from the sides of
the crankcase walls and if ejected directly
from the journal bearings.
To provide a centralized storage area for any
contaminants like liquid fuel, water,
combustion products blown past the piston
ring, and worn metal particles.
To provide a short recovery period for the hot
churned-up and possibly aerated oil before it is
re-circulated in the lubrication system.
To provide some inter-cooling between the hot
oil inside and the air steam outside.

Figure 24 -Oil Sump of an engine
The sump may be made from a single sheet-steel
pressing or it may be an aluminum-alloy casting
with cooling fins and strengthening ribs. A soft
flexible gasket is used in between to seal the joint
and is tightened down by set-screws. The sump
generally has a shallow downward slope at one
end, which changes into a relatively deep but
narrow-walled reservoir at the other end.
The incoming oil flows towards the deep end,
where it submerges the pick-up pipe and strainer
of the lubricating system. A drain plug is located
at the lowest level in the sump for easy drainage
of used oil.
5.4.9 Flywheel
The flywheel mounts at the rear of the crankshaft
near the rear main bearing. This is usually the
longest and heaviest main bearing in the engine,
as it must support the weight of the flywheel. The
flywheel stores up rotation energy during the
power impulses of the engine. It releases this
energy between power impulses, thus assuring
less fluctuation in engine speed and smoother
engine operation. The size of the flywheel will
vary with the number of cylinders and the general
construction of the engine. With the large number
of cylinders and the consequent overlapping of
power impulses, there is less need for a flywheel;
consequently, the flywheel can be relatively small.
The flywheel rim carries a ring gear, either
integral with or shrunk on the flywheel, that
meshes with the starter driving gear for cranking
the engine. The rear face of the flywheel is usually
machined and ground and acts as one of the
pressure surfaces for the clutch, becoming a part
of the clutch assembly. The functions of a
flywheel are the following:
It stores up energy to help the engine over idle
strokes of the piston i.e., suction, compression
and exhaust.
It dampens out speed fluctuations of the
crankshaft due to the varying effect of the
firing impulses during the engine cycle.
It provides a convenient mounting point for
the clutch and starter ring gear.
5.4.10 Carburetor
A carburetor is a device that blends air and fuel
for an internal combustion engine. Carburetors
were the usual fuel delivery method for almost all
engines up until the mid-1980s, when fuel
injection became the preferred method of
automotive fuel delivery. The carburetor works on
Bernoulli's principle: the faster air moves, the
DID YOU KNOW?
The top speed ever achieved by a formula
one car during a race was 369.9 km/h
(229.8 mph) set during the 2004 Italian
Grand Prix at Monza, Italy by driver
Antnio Pizzonia of the BMW Williams F1
team driving the FW26 powered by a
BMW 3.0L V10.
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lower its static pressure, and the higher its
dynamic pressure. The throttle (accelerator)
linkage does not directly control the flow of liquid
fuel. Instead, it actuates carburetor mechanisms
which meter the flow of air being pulled into the
engine.

Figure 25 -Basic functioning of a carburetor
A carburetor basically consists of an open pipe, a
"throat" or "barrel" through which the air passes
into the inlet manifold of the engine. The pipe is
in the form of a venturi it narrows in section and
then widens again, causing the airflow to increase
in speed in the narrowest part. Below the venturi
is a butterfly valve called the throttle valve - a
rotating disc that can be turned end-on to the
airflow, so as to hardly restrict the flow at all, or
can be rotated so that it (almost) completely
blocks the flow of air. This valve controls the flow
of air through the carburetor throat and thus the
quantity of air/fuel mixture the system will
deliver, thereby regulating engine power and
speed. The throttle is connected, usually through a
cable or a mechanical linkage of rods and joints or
rarely by pneumatic link, to the accelerator pedal
on a car or the equivalent control on other vehicles
or equipment.


5.5 PETROL ENGINE v/s
DIESEL ENGINE
5.5.1 EXPANSION STROKE:
1. In petrol engine, the air and fuel mixture is
ignited using a spark plug and burns expanding
and forcing the piston down.
2. In diesel engine, fuel is injected at a high
pressure into the hot, compressed air in the
cylinder, causing it to burn and force the piston
down. No spark is required.
5.5.2EXHAUST STROKE:
In both petrol and diesel engines, the burned
mixture of air and fuel is pushed out of the
cylinder by the rising piston.
5.5.4 LIFE:
Petrol destroys lubrication and burns the engine
whereas diesel doesnt. So a diesel engine would
last longer than a petrol engine.
5.5.5WEIGHT:
Petrol engines are lighter than diesel engines.
5.5.6LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY:
Diesel engine would pull heavy loads easily than
a petrol engine. Though the pickup of a petrol
engine would be much more than that of a diesel
engine, the diesel engine would be steady and
carry heavier loads to longer distances.
5.5.7FUEL EFFICIENCY:
Diesel engines have better fuel efficiency as
compared to petrol due to the fact that they have
higher compression ratio.


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5.6 NEW TECHNOLOGIES:
Multi-Point Fuel Injection:
Multi-point fuel injection injects fuel into the
intake ports just upstream of each cylinder's intake
valve, rather than at a central point within an
intake manifold. MPFI (or just MPI) systems can
be sequential, in which injection is timed to
coincide with each cylinder's intake stroke;
batched, in which fuel is injected to the cylinders
in groups, without precise synchronization to any
particular cylinder's intake stroke; or
simultaneous, in which fuel is injected at the same
time to all the cylinders. The intake is only
slightly wet, and typical fuel pressure runs
between 40-60 psi.
Common Rail Direct Injection:

Figure 26 -Circuit diagram of a CRDI system
Common rail direct fuel injection is a modern
variant of direct fuel injection system for petrol
and diesel engines.
The fuel is pumped into a common rail using a
fuel pump and then injected directly into the
combustion chamber using high pressure injectors.
On diesel engines, it features a high-pressure (over
1,000 bar/15,000 psi) fuel rail feeding individual
solenoid valves, as opposed to low-pressure fuel
pump feeding unit injectors (Pumpe/Dse or
pump nozzles).

Turbo charging:


Figure 27 -A Centrifugal Turbocharger
A diesel engine is more easily turbocharged than a
petrol engine. A petrol engine cannot be easily
turbocharged due to the fact that if the
compression ratio and the pressure in the cylinder
is to high during the inlet stroke, the mixture starts
to burn to soon, while the piston is on its way up.
The diesel engine has no fuel in the cylinder, thus
letting the turbocharger suck as much air as it can
without creating any problems. (A turbo charger is
a simple air compressor which compresses air in
the combustion chamber for burning). Some diesel
engines also have an intercooler which helps in
blowing cold and oxygen rich air in the
combustion chamber.



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6. TRANSMISSION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
As the term indicates it refers to the transfer of
power. It refers to an entire assembly that
transmits power developed in an engine to the
wheels of a vehicle. The power may be
transmitted using a belt drive, chain and sprocket
system or a gear drive. This assembly includes a
clutch, gearbox (manual, automatic, cvt), propeller
shaft, differential, final drive shafts etc.
6.2 CLUTCH
A clutch is what enables you to change gears, and
sit at traffic lights without stopping the engine.
You need a clutch because your engine is running
all the time which means the crank is spinning all
the time. You need some way to disconnect this
constantly-spinning crank from the gearbox, both
to allow you to stand still as well as to allow you
to change gears. The clutch is composed of three
basic elements; the flywheel, the pressure plate
and the clutch plate(s). The flywheel is attached to
the end of the main crank and the clutch plates are
attached to the gearbox layshaft using a spline.
In the diagram here, the clutch cover is bolted to
the flywheel so it turns with the flywheel. The
diaphragm springs are connected to the inside of
the clutch cover with a bolt/pivot arrangement that
allows them to pivot about the attachment bolt.
The ends of the diaphragm springs are hooked
under the lip of the pressure plate. So as the
engine turns, the flywheel, clutch cover,
diaphragm springs and pressure plate are all
spinning together.
The clutch pedal is connected either mechanically
or hydraulically to a fork mechanism which loops
around the throw-out bearing. When you press the
clutch pedal, the fork pushes on the throw-out
bearing and it slides along the layshaft putting
pressure on the innermost edges of the diaphragm
springs. These in turn pivot on their pivot points
against the inside of the clutch cover, pulling the
pressure plate away from the back of the clutch
plates. This release of pressure allows the clutch
plates to disengage from the flywheel. The
flywheel keeps spinning at the end of the engine
crank but it no longer drives the gearbox because
the clutch plates aren't pressed up against it. As
you start to release the clutch pedal, pressure is
released on the throw-out bearing and the
diaphragm springs begin to push the pressure plate
back against the back of the clutch plates, in turn
pushing them against the flywheel again. Springs
inside the clutch plate absorb the initial shock of
the clutch touching the flywheel and as you take
your foot off the clutch pedal completely, the
clutch is firmly pressed against it. The friction
material on the clutch plate is what grips the back
of the flywheel and causes the input shaft of the
gearbox to spin at the same speed.
6.3 GEAR RATIO
Gear ratio is defined as the ratio of the speed of
the input shaft to that of the output shaft. It is
calculated as the ratio of the number of teeth on
the output gear to the number of teeth on the input
gear. For example, imagine an input gear with 10
teeth, a secondary gear with 20 teeth and a final
gear with 30 teeth. From the input gear to the
secondary gear, the ratio is 20/10 = 2:1. From the
second gear to the final gear, the ratio is 30/20 =
Figure 28 -Components of a diaphragm spring clutch

21

1.5:1. The total gear ratio for this system is
(2*1.5):1, or 3:1. i.e. to turn the output gear once,
the input gear has to turn three times.
This also neatly shows how you can do the
calculation and misses the middle gear ratios -
ultimately you need the ratio of input to output. In
this example, the final output is 30 and the
original input is 10. 30/10 = 3/1 = 3:1.


Figure 29 -Figure depicting gear ratios
6.4 MANUAL
TRANSMISSION
6.4.1 Constant Mesh type Gearbox
You can see the helical gears meshing with each
other. The lower shaft in this image is called the
lay-shaft - it's the one connected to the clutch - the
one driven directly by the engine. The output shaft
is the upper shaft in this image. Well look at the
output shaft. You can see 5 helical gears and 3
sets of selector forks. At the most basic level, it
tells you that this is a 5-speed box (note that
example has no reverse gear). With the clutch
engaged, the lay shaft is always turning. All the
helical gears on the lay shaft are permanently
attached to it so they all turn at the same rate.
They mesh with a series of gears on the output
shaft that are mounted on
slip rings so they actually spin around the output
shaft without turning it. Look closely at the
selector forks; you'll see they are slipped around a
series of collars with teeth on the inside. Those are
the dog gears and the teeth are the dog teeth. The
dog gears are mounted to the output shaft on a
splined section which allows them to slide back
and forth. When you move the gear stick, a series
of mechanical pushrod connections move the
various selector forks, sliding the dog gears back
and forth.
Observing the close-up of the area between third
and fourth gear, when the gearstick is moved to
select fourth gear, the selector fork slides
backwards. This slides the dog gear backwards on
the splined shaft and the dog teeth engage with the
teeth on the front of the helical fourth gear. This
locks it to the dog gear which itself is locked to
the output shaft with the splines. When the clutch
is let out and the engine drives the lay shaft, all the
gears turn as before but now the second helical
gear is locked to the output shaft and- fourth gear.


Figure 30 - A Constant mesh gearbox
Figure 31 - Gear selection in a constant mesh gearbox

22

6.4.2 Reverse Gear
Reverse gear is normally an extension of
everything explained above but with one extra
gear involved. Typically, there will be three gears
that mesh together at one point in the gearbox
instead of the customary two. There will be a gear
each on the lay-shaft and output shaft, but there
will be a small gear in between them called the
idler gear. The inclusion of this extra mini gear
causes the last helical gear on the output shaft to
spin in the opposite direction to all the others. The
principle of engaging reverse is the same as for
any other gear - a dog gear is slid into place with a
selector fork. Because the reverse gear is spinning
in the opposite direction, when you let the clutch
out, the gearbox output shaft spins the other way -
in reverse. The image the shows the same gearbox
as above modified to have a reverse gear.

Figure 32 - Idler gear being used to reverse direction of
motion
6.4.3 Synchromesh
A synchro is a device that allows the dog gear to
come to a speed matching the helical gear before
the dog teeth attempt to engage.
In this way, you don't need to 'blip' the throttle and
double-clutch to change gears because the synchro
does the job of matching the speeds of the various
gearbox components for you. To the left is a
colour-coded cutaway part of my example
gearbox. The green cone-shaped area is the
synchro collar. It's attached to the red dog gear
and slides with it.

As it approaches the helical gear, it makes friction
contact with the conical hole. The more contact it
makes, the more the speed of the output shaft and
free-spinning helical gear are equalized before the
teeth engage. If the car is moving, the output shaft
is always turning (because ultimately it is
connected to the wheels). The lay-shaft is usually
connected to the engine, but it is free-spinning
once the clutch has been operated. Because the
gears are meshed all the time, the synchro brings
the lay-shaft to the right speed for the dog gear to
mesh. This means that the lay-shaft is now
spinning at a different speed to the engine, but
that's OK because the clutch gently equalizes the
speed of the engine and the lay-shaft, either
bringing the engine to the same speed as the lay-
shaft or vice versa depending on engine torque
and vehicle speed.

Figure 33 - Cone Shaped synchro collars
6.5 Continuously Variable
Transmission (CVT)
Figure 34 - CVT at high speed

23

The most basic CVT has two variable pulleys and
either a steel-core rubber pull-belt or a steel alloy
push-belt. One pulley is connected to the flywheel
and the other to the gearbox output shaft. The belt
loops around between the two. On simple scooter-
type CVTs, the pulleys change geometry simply
by rotational forces - the faster the engine pulley
spins, the more it closes up and the faster the
output pulley spins, the more it opens out. In
automotive applications, the geometry of the
pulley is governed by a hydraulic piston
connected to the ECU (Electronic Control Unit).
The pulley itself is basically a splined shaft with a
pair of sliding conical wedges on it
(called 'Sheaves'). The closer the wedges are
together, the larger the radius 'loop' the belt has to
make to get around them. The further they are
apart, the smaller the radius 'loop' the belt has to
make. Based on the principles of intermeshing
gears, if the flywheel pulley has a small radius and
the output pulley has a large radius, then the
transmission is essentially in low gear. As the car
gets up to speed, the two pulleys are adjusted
together so that they present an infinitely changing
series of radii to the belt which ends up with the
flywheel pulley having the largest radius and the
output pulley having the smallest.
The first image shows the basic layout of a pulley-
based CVT with the two sliding pulleys and the
drive belt. This is the equivalent of 'low gear' - the
drive pulley spins two or three times for each
rotation of the output pulley. It's the equivalent of
a small gear meshing with a large gear in a regular
manual gearbox. The second image shows the
same system in 'high gear'. The drive pulley has
closed up forcing the drive belt to travel a larger
radius. At the same time, the output pulley has
pulled apart giving a smaller radius. The result is
that for each turn of the drive pulley, the output
pulley now spins two or three times. It's the
equivalent of a large gear meshing with a small
gear in a regular manual gearbox. The difference
here is that to get from the low gear to the high
gear, the infinite adjustment of the position of the
pulleys basically means an infinite number of
gears ratios in between.
6.6 AUTOMATIC
TRANSMISSION
Automatic gearboxes are totally different from
manual gearboxes. First of all they dont have any
clutch pedal or u can say they dont have any
clutch at all. Instead of clutch they use torque
converter. In automatic gearboxes apart from
torque converter they have a planetary gear set. In
an automatic gearbox the planetary gearbox
produces all the different gear ratios in one go and
with only one set of gears.
A planetary gear set has three components-
1. The sun gear
2. The planet gears
3. The ring gear
DID YOU KNOW?
Most of the innovations come from
Formula 1. One of them being the Dog
Box transmission with fewer, larger and
straighter teeth. A strain gauge sends a
signal to the ECU to stop the ignition
which in turn unloads power long enough
for a super quick shift.
Figure 35 - CVT at low speed

24

They are arranged like a solar system. You can
imagine the sun gear being in the centre
surrounded by the planetary gears
and then the whole assembly (the sun gear and the
planetary gears) is contained in the ring gear. In
other words, the sun gear is in the centre and with
it the planetary gears are meshed n at the same
time the planetary gears are meshed with the inner
side of the ring gear. In planetary gearset we can
have the gear ratio by locking one of the gear from
the above three components and using the other
two as input and output gears.
In the simplest planetary gear system we can have
three gear ratio i.e. two for forward and one for
reverse.
But in the compound planetary system there are
two sun gears and two sets of intermeshing planet
gears but it still contain one ring gear which
contained the whole assembly inside in it. In this
system we can now have four forward gear ratio
and one reverse gear. In the arrangement shown
we have two sets of planet gears that are arranged
as inner and outer planets and the inner one are
shorter and only engage the smaller sun gear and
the outer planet gears. And then the outer planet
gear in turn rotates the larger sun gear at the
bottom and the outermost ring gear.
6.7 DIFFERENTIALS
The differential is a device that or a gear assembly
between two shafts that permits the shafts to turn
at different speeds (if necessary) while continuing
to transmit torque. It is used in axles to allow
different rates of wheel rotation on curves. They
are classified as follows.
6.7.1 Open Differentials

Open differentials are most commonly used and
they supply the same amount of torque to each
output. Open differentials have a few essential
components, illustrated below. The input pinion
gear is the gear that is driven from the drive-train -
typically the output shaft from the transmission. It
drives the ring gear which, being larger, is what
gives that final gear reduction. Attached to the
ring gear is the cage, containing two captive
pinion gears that are intermeshed with the two
output pinion gears, one connected to each axle.
The captive pinions are free to rotate how they
wish. As the input pinion spins, it meshes with the
ring gear. The ring gear spins, spinning the cage
and the two captive pinions.
When the vehicle is travelling in a straight line,
neither drive pinion is trying to spin any
differently from the other, so the captive pinions
Input Output Locked gears Caluclation
Sun Planet Carrier Ring 1+(Ring/Sun)
Planet Carrier Ring Sun 1/((1+(Ring/Sun))
Sun Ring Planet Carrier Ring/Sun
Figure 36 - Sun and Planet gears arrangement in an
automatic transmission
Figure 37 - An Open differential

25

don't spin and the turning of the ring gear is
translated directly to both drive pinions.
These are connected to the drive-shafts to the
wheels so effectively that the ring gear spins the
wheels at the same speed that it is turning. When
the vehicle starts to turn a corner, one of the
wheels spins more quickly than the other. At this
point, the captive pinions come into play, allowing
the two drive pinions to spin at slightly different
speeds whilst still transmitting torque to them.
One can check whether a vehicle's differential is
working properly by jacking the driven axle up off
the ground and spinning one wheel. Now gearbox
is stationary, it holds the ring gear solid, the
captive pinions spin in opposite directions, and the
other wheel on the axle spins the other way
around. This also explains why a two-wheel-drive
vehicle can get into trouble when one wheel has
less friction with the ground than the other. The
open differential cannot compensate for this. If
one drive pinion is held solid compared to the
other, then all the input gets redirected to the drive
pinion that has the least resistance. This is why
when you gun a two-wheel-drive car with one
wheel on ice and the other on the road, the wheel
on the ice spins and the wheel on the road doesn't.
The vehicle doesnt go anywhere because all the
engine power is directed to the wheel with least
resistance - the one on the ice. Imagine the same
scenario on a four-wheel-drive vehicle that has
open differentials on the front and rear. If you're
off-roading in such a vehicle and get it into a
situation where one front wheel and one rear
wheel are off the ground, you're stuck. This is
where the limited slip differentials are of great
help.
6.7.2 Limited slip Differentials
Sometimes known by "positraction" moniker, the
simplest form of limited-slip differential is
designed to combat the scenario outlined above.
Physically there's not a lot of difference in the
design of a limited-slip differential and an open
differential. It still has all the components of an
open differential but there are two crucial extra
elements. The first are spring pressure plates
which are a pair of springs and pressure plates
nestled in the cage between the two drive pinions.
These push the drive pinions outwards where the
second extra element comes into play - clutch
packs. The backside of the drive pinions have
friction material on them which presses against
clutch plates built into the cage. This means that
the clutch is always going to try to behave as if the
car was moving in a straight line by attempting to
make both output pinions spin at the same speed
as the ring gear and cage. However, when a car
with a limited-slip differential goes into a corner,
there are enough forces at play that the drive
Pinions begin to slip against the clutch material,
thus allowing them to turn at different speeds
again. The stiffness of the spring pack coupled
with the friction of the clutch pack together
determines the amount of torque required to
overcome the clutch. So lets go back to our
hapless driver stuck with one wheel on the ice and
another on the road.
With a limited-slip differential, because of the
spring- and clutch-packs, even though one wheel
is on the ice, the differential is going to attempt to
spin both drive pinions at the same speed. With
low engine revs and steady throttle control, the
wheel on the road will get enough spin to move
the vehicle forwards. If the engine is revved hard
though, it can still generate sufficient torque to
Figure 38 - A Limited slip differential

26

overcome the clutch pack and once again, only the
wheel on the ice will spin. To get around this, it's
a good idea to try to pull away in second gear -
that gives the limited-slip differential a chance to
do its job. The render here shows the generic open
differential from above modified to be a limited-
slip differential.

6.8 TYPES OF DRIVELINE
6.8.1 2-Wheel Drive
This is by far the most common type of drive-train
in any car today. The engine drives the gearbox
which sends its output to an open differential
either on the front or rear axle, which in turn
drives those wheels. If one of the driven wheels
comes off the ground, or gets on a slippery surface
like ice, the car gets stuck because all the torque is
being sent to that wheel whilst the other three sit
there helpless. (Refer appendix 1, 2).
6.8.2 4-Wheel Drive
A vehicle with a four wheel drive (4WD) has a
drive train that can send power to all the four
wheels. This provides maximum traction for off-
roading. It also provides maximum traction when
the road surface is slippery or covered with ice or
with snow. Some vehicles have a four wheel drive
system that that engages automatically or remains
engaged all the time. Other vehicles have a
selective arrangement that permits the driver to
shift from 4WD to 2WD and back according to
driving conditions. (Refer appendix-3).
6.2.3 All Wheel Drive
Some passenger vehicles have an all wheel drive
system. This is a version of 4WD used in vehicles
primarily for on road use. It provides improved
traction primarily on slippery or snow covered
surfaces. A two speed transfer case is not used.
When the wheels on one axle slip the system
automatically transmits power to that axle which
has better traction. The engine drives the gearbox
which drives two output shafts. One goes to the
front open differential and the other goes to the
viscous coupling, the output of which is connected
to the rear open differential.
DID YOU KNOW?
A Dual Clutch Transmission takes less than
10 milliseconds to shift between gears,
which is less than time taken by one
revolution of the crankshaft.
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7. STEERING SYSTEM
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The main purpose of the steering system is to
provide the directional control to a vehicle. Most
of the steering systems are made up of the
following components
Steering wheel
Steering column-that connects the steering
wheel to the track rod
Tie rods, connected to the track rod
Steering arm, connected to the tie rods
The track rod, tie rod and the steering arm are
connected to each other by ball and socket joints
respectively.
7.2 TYPES OF STEERING
SYSTEM
The different types of steering systems are:
Pitman arm type steering system
Rack and pinion type steering system
7.2.1 Pitman Arm Type Steering
System
A pitman arm type of steering system involves the
use of a steering gearbox that is connected to the
steering wheel by the steering column at its one
end and at its other end it is connected to the track
rod via a pitman arm and other relay linkages,
which is further connected to the tie rods. The
track rod is supported in its place by idler arms.
This type of steering system is generally used in
heavy duty vehicles, eg: trucks, busses etc.
The steering gearboxes are further classified into
the following:


7.2.2 Worm and sector
In this type of steering box, the end of the shaft
from the steering wheel has a worm gear attached
to it. It meshes directly with a sector gear (so
called because it's a section of a full gear wheel).
When the steering wheel is turned, the shaft turns
the worm gear, and the sector gear pivots around
its axis as its teeth are moved along the worm
gear. The sector gear is mounted on the cross shaft
which passes through the steering box and out the
bottom where it is splined, and the pitman arm is
attached to the splines. When the sector gear turns,
it turns the cross shaft, which turns the pitman
arm, giving the output motion that is fed into the
mechanical linkage on the track rod.
7.2.3 Worm and roller
The worm and roller steering box is similar in
design to the worm and sector box. The difference
Figure 39 - Worm and Sector steering system
Figure 40 - Worm and Roller steering system
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here is that instead of having a sector gear that
meshes with the worm gear, there is a roller
instead. The roller is mounted on a roller bearing
shaft and is held captive on the end of the cross
shaft. As the worm gear turns, the roller is forced
to move along it but because it is held captive on
the cross shaft, it twists the cross shaft.
Typically in these designs, the worm gear is
actually an hourglass shape so that it is wider at
the ends. Without the hourglass shape, the roller
might disengage from it at the extents of its travel.

7.2.4 Re-circulating ball
This is by far the most common type of steering
box for pitman arm systems. In a re-circulating
ball steering box, the worm drive has many more
turns on it with a finer pitch.

A box or nut is clamped over the worm drive that
contains dozens of ball bearings. These loop
around the worm drive and then out into a re-
circulating channel within the nut where they are
fed back into the worm drive again. As the
steering wheel is turned, the worm-drive turns and
forces the ball bearings to press against the
channel inside the nut. This forces the nut to move
along the worm drive. The nut itself has a couple
of gear teeth cast into the outside of it and these
mesh with the teeth on a sector gear which is
attached to the cross shaft just like in the worm
and sector mechanism.

7.2.5 Cam and lever
These are very similar to worm and sector
steering boxes. The worm drive is known as a cam
and has a much shallower pitch and the sector
gear is replaced with two studs that sit in the cam
channels. As the worm gear is turned, the studs
slide along the cam channels which forces the
cross shaft to rotate, turning the pitman arm.
One of the design features of this style is that it
turns the cross shaft 90 to the normal so it exits
through the side of the steering box instead of the
bottom.
7.2.6 Rack And Pinion Type Steering
System
It consists of a steering column, connected to a
pinion gear, connected to a rack rod, which is
further connected to tie rods in its both sides via
ball and socket joints. The rotational movement of
the steering wheel and hence the pinion gear is
converted to linear motion by the rack rod which
is a linear gear.
Figure 41 - Re-Circulating balls steering system
Figure 42 - Cam and Lever steering system
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The main advantage of this type of steering
system is that it has a better feedback and direct
steering feel, but the disadvantage is that it is not
adjustable, so that when it wears out and develops
lash, the only cure is replacement.
7.3 STEERING GEOMETRY
All the steering systems used in passenger cars use
ACKERMANN GEOMETRY; this prevents the
slipping of tires. In this type of geometry the
wheels pivot about a common point while turning.
It is a trapezoidal geometry. A simple
approximation to perfect Ackermann steering
geometry may be generated by moving the
steering pivot points inward so as to lie on a line
drawn between the steering arm and the centre of
the rear axle.

Steering Ratio:
It is defined as the ratio of the angle turned by the
steering wheel to the angle turned by the wheels
on the ground. For example: if the steering ratio of
any car is 20:1, it means that if you turn the
steering wheel 20 and the front wheels only turn
1. The lock to lock angle of the steering wheel is
the twice of the product of steering ratio and the
lock angle of front wheels. For example: if the
steering ratio is 22 and the average lock angle of
the front wheels is 25deg, then the lock to lock
angle of the steering wheel is 1100 deg and the
steering wheel will undergo approximately 3 full
rotations.

DID YOU KNOW?
Ackerman geometry was not invented by
Ackerman. It was invented by the
German carriage builder Georg
Lankensperger in Munich in 1817, and
then patented by his agent in England,
Rudolph Ackermann (17641834) in 1818
for horse drawn carriages. Erasmus
Darwin may have a prior claim as the
inventor dating from 1758.
Figure 43 - Rack and Pinion steering system
Figure 44 - Ackerman steering geometry
Figure 45 - Different steering angles in inner and outer
wheels
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7.4 FOUR WHEEL STEERING
Four-wheel steering (or all wheel steering) is a
system employed by some vehicles to improve
steering response, increase vehicle stability while
maneuvering at high speed, or to decrease turning
radius at low speed. It is of two types:
7.4.1 Passive Four Wheel Steering
System:
Many modern vehicles offer a form of passive rear
steering to counteract normal vehicle tendencies.
For example: to correct for the rear wheel's
tendency to toe-out. On many vehicles, when
cornering, the rear wheels tend to steer slightly to
the outside of a turn, which can reduce stability.
The passive steering system uses the lateral forces
generated in a turn (through suspension geometry)
and the bushings to correct this tendency and steer
the wheels slightly to the inside of the corner. This
improves the stability of the car, through the turn.
This effect is called compliance under steer and it,
or its opposite, is present on all suspensions.

Typical methods of achieving compliance under
steer are to use a Watt's Link on a live rear axle, or
a pan hard rod at the rear axle.
7.4.2 Active Four Wheel Steering
System:
In most active four-wheel steering systems, the
rear wheels are steered by a computer and
actuators. The rear wheels generally cannot turn as
far as the front wheels. In active four wheel
steering system the rear wheels turn in a direction
opposite to that of the front wheels to reduce the
turning radius, sometimes critical for large or
vehicles with trailers.. Whereas, at high speeds the
rear wheels turn in the same direction as the front
wheels in order to improve the traction and
maneuverability and prevent under steer.

7.5 POWER STEERING
As vehicles have become heavier and switched to
front wheel drive, the effort to turn the steering
wheel manually has increased - often to the point
where major physical exertion is required. To
alleviate this, power steering system has
developed. There are two types of power steering
systems:
7.5.1Hydraulic Power Steering (HPS):
It uses hydraulic pressure supplied by an engine-
driven pump to assist the motion of turning the
steering wheel. Most power steering systems work
by using a hydraulic system to steer the vehicle's
wheels. The hydraulic pressure typically comes
from a gyrator or rotary vane pump driven by the
vehicle's engine. A double-acting hydraulic
DID YOU KNOW?
The Steering wheel of a F1 Car costs about
$50,000. It is made up of carbon fiber and
has more than 15 mounted controls.
Figure 46 - A watt's link
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cylinder applies a force to the steering gear, which
in turn steers the road wheels. The steering wheel
operates valves to control flow to the cylinder.
The more torque the driver applies to the steering
wheel and column, the more fluid the valves allow
through to the cylinder, and so the more force is
applied to steer the wheels. Since the hydraulic
pumps are positive-displacement type, the flow
rate they deliver is directly proportional to the
speed of the engine. This means that at high
engine speeds the steering would naturally operate
faster than at low engine speeds. Because this
would be undesirable, a restricting orifice and
flow-control valve direct some of the pump's
output back to the hydraulic reservoir at high
engine speeds. A pressure relief valve prevents a
dangerous build-up of pressure when the hydraulic
cylinders piston reaches the end of its stroke.
7.5.2 Electric/electronic power
steering (EPS):
It is more efficient than the hydraulic power
steering, since the electric power steering motor
only needs to provide assistance when the steering
wheel is turned, whereas the hydraulic pump must
run constantly. In EPS the assist level is easily
tuneable to the vehicle type, road speed, and even
driver preference. An added benefit is the
elimination of environmental hazard posed by
leakage and disposal of hydraulic power steering
fluid.

DID YOU KNOW?
Audis electromechanical steering,
electronic control motor only consumes
energy when steering actions are actually
being performed. Sensors detect steering
torque and speed at which driver is
turning & transfer this information to the
ECU. This leads to a fuel saving of about
0.2L per 100 km.
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8. SUSPENSION SYSTEM
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The following topic covers suspension geometry,
types of suspension system.
8.2 SUSPENSION GEOMETRY
The suspension system deals with how the sprung
mass of the vehicle is connected to the un-sprung
mass.
These connections:
1. Control forces transmitted among them.
2. Provide wheel travel so that the wheel can
follow uneven road surface.
3. Keep wheel in proper alignment (caster,
camber, etc.)
5. Control forces produced during roll, pitch and
yaw.
6. Maintain proper traction in the wheels.
8.3 TYPES OF SUSPENSION
SYSTEM
8.3.1 Dependent suspension system
Wheels are mounted on a rigid beam so any
movement of one wheel is transmitted to the other
and produces roll or bump steer and camber
change. Used in rear suspension of cars and
trucks.
Wheel camber is not affected by body roll. Wheel
alignment is maintained to a great extent, hence
reduces the tire wear. But some steering vibrations
are produced.
8.3.1a Hotchkiss drive
It consists of a solid axle with leaf spring mounted
longitudinally, their ends connected to chassis and
axle attached near the midpoint. The leaf spring is
relatively stiff in lateral and longitudinal direction;
only vertical deflection is allowed.
Used widely in the rear axle of early passenger
cars, still used in light and heavy trucks.
8.3.1b Four link
The lower control arm provides longitudinal
control over the axle while the upper absorbs
lateral forces and driving torque. Use of coil
spring provides better ride and elimination of
coulomb friction.

Figure 48 - A Four link suspension system
Figure 47 - A Hotchkiss suspension system with leaf
springs
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It provides better control over roll center*
location, anti-squat and anti-dive performance and
roll steer properties
8.3.2Independent Suspension System
In such a suspension system each wheel moves
vertically without affecting the opposite wheel.
All passenger cars and light trucks use this type of
suspension as it provides better resistance to
steering vibration and provides higher roll
stiffness.
Easy control over the roll center* height by
changing the geometry of control arms, larger
deflection, greater roll stiffness for given
suspension vertical rate.
8.3.2a McPherson suspension system
A telescopic strut member incorporating damper
is rigidly attached to the wheel at its lower end
and upper end to chassis. Absorbs both lateral and
longitudinal force and maintains the wheel in
camber direction.
Uses small packing space hence used in front
suspension of front-wheel-drive cars. Fewer
numbers of parts and capability to spread
suspension load to body structure over wide area.
High installation height leads to disadvantages.
8.3.2b Wishbone and double
wishbone suspension system (SLA)
This system basically contains equal or unequal
upper and lower control arms. Such an
arrangement precludes camber change during
suspension deflection. However under cornering
conditions when suspension deflection is due to
body roll, such a system produces camber change.
8.3.2c Trailing arm suspension
system
It is one of the most simple and economic design
of an independent suspension system used by
Volkswagen and Porsche around the time of
Second World War. It uses parallel equal length
trailing arm connected at the front arm to the
lateral torsion bar (a spring is connected to this
bar). There is very little chamber change with
body roll.

8.3.2d Swing axle suspension system
Swing axle suspension is the easiest way to obtain
independent rear suspension. The camber behavior
is established entirely by the axis shafts pivoting
at the U joint adjacent to the differential. The
swing radius is small thus camber change with
jounce and rebound movements will be large.
Hence difficulty arises to get consistent cornering
performance.
8.3.4 Hydro-gas Suspension System
Instead of a spring, a nitrogen filled spherical
spring chamber is welded to the double conical
shaped displacement chamber. Hydraulic damper
in the form of a pair of rubber compression blocks
separates both spherical spring and displacer
chamber; it controls the flow of the fluid as it
passes to and fro between the two chambers. The
displacer chamber is sealed at its lower end by a
load absorbing nylon reinforced rubber diaphragm
which rolls between the conical piston and tapered
displacer chamber skirt as the suspension deflects
up and down.
Butyl rubber diaphragm separates the sphere into
nitrogen charged upper region and lower region
Figure 49 - A Macpherson Strut on a lower control arm
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filled with fluid. A water based fluid containing
50% industrial alcohol and small percentage of
anti-corrosion additive is pumped into chamber
at the pressure of 23 bars so that reaches the
nitrogen charging pressure.
8.4 Macpherson Struts vs.
Double wishbone
In a double wishbone assembly, the wheel sits
besides the suspension system and is guided by
two "A" arms or wishbones. The spring and shock
assembly is connected at the top to the frame of
the vehicle and at the bottom to the lower
wishbone.

Figure 50 - A Macpherson setup
The design of a double wishbone assembly allows
for a very compact suspension system compared
to a Macpherson type assembly. This allows for a
suspension system to be lower in the vehicle and
making it ideal for transmitting loads and
providing excellent road handling. This, of course,
is a very basic explanation because a double
wishbone suspension is very complex and
contains more minute parts and pieces than a
Macpherson assembly.

Figure 51 - A Double wishbone setup

With a Macpherson suspension system, the wheel
is located below the spring and shock assembly.
The spring and shock assembly sits on a ball joint
of a single lower arm connected by a tie rod. The
single lower arm is usually an "A" arm. The top
piston rod of the shock is used as a swivel axis.
This is necessary, because with a Macpherson
suspension, when the wheel is turned, the whole
suspension system turns with the wheel, not true
with a double wishbone. On a wishbone
suspension the wheel assembly is independent of
the shock assembly and so when the wheel
assembly turns, the shock assembly is stationary.
While different automotive experts will argue for
each suspension type, there is no clear winner.
Auto manufacturers and professional racing teams
alike use both suspensions.


*Roll Centre is the point about which the body rotates while rolling.
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9. BRAKES
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Brakes are essentially a mechanism to change
energy types. When you're travelling at speed,
your vehicle has kinetic energy. When you apply
the brakes, the pads or shoes that press against the
brake drum or rotor convert that energy in to
thermal energy via friction.
They should stop the vehicle within minimum
possible distance.
To increase the maneuverability by locking all the
four wheels together in the least time possible.

9.2 BRAKE FADE
With continuous use, the brake shoes in a drum
brake or brake pads in a disc brake will get heated
and get no time to cool. When the brake is applied
again the components are already so hot that they
cannot absorb more heat. In every brake pad there
is the friction material which is held together with
resin. Once this lot starts to get too hot, the resin
holding the pad material starts vaporizing,
forming a gas. That gas forms a thin layer between
the two whilst trying to escape. The result is very
similar to hydroplaning; hence the pads lose
contact with the rotor, thus reducing the amount of
friction

9.3 TYPES OF BRAKES
9.3.1 Drum brakes
Two semicircular brake shoes sit inside a spinning
drum which is attached to the wheel. When brakes
are applied the shoes are expand outward to press
against the inside of the drum. This creates
friction, which creates heat, which transfers
kinetic energy, which slows you down. When the
actuator is twisted, it is forced against the brake
shoes and in turn forces them to expand outwards.
The return spring is what pulls the shoes back
away from the surface of the brake drum when the
brakes are released.
The "single leading edge" refers to the number of
parts of the brake shoe which actually contact the
spinning drum. Because the brake shoe pivots at
one end, simple geometry means that the entire
brake pad cannot contact the brake drum.
The leading edge is the term given to the part of
the brake pad which does contact the drum, and in
the case of a single leading edge system, it's the
part of the pad closest to the actuator. When the
shoes are pressed outwards, the part of the brake
pad which first contacts the drum is the leading
edge.
9.3.2 Drum brakes - double leading
edge
The drawbacks of the single leading edge style of
drum brake can be eliminated by adding a second
return spring and turning the pivot point into a
second actuator. Now when the brakes are
applied, the shoes are pressed outwards at two
points. So each brake pad now has one leading
and one trailing edge. Because there are two brake
shoes, there are two brake pads, it mean there are
two leading edges.
9.3.3 Disc brakes
Disc brakes are better at stopping vehicles than
drum brakes, that is why you'll find disc brakes on
the front of almost every car and motorbike built
today also in sportier vehicles with higher speeds
need better brakes to slow them down.

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Disc brakes are again a two-part system: a disc or
rotor, brake caliper assemblies. The caliper
assemblies contain one or more hydraulic pistons
which push against the back of the brake pads,
clamping them together around the spinning rotor.
The harder they clamp together, more is the
friction generated, which means more
heat, which means more kinetic energy transfer,
which slows you down.
Standard disc brakes have one or two cylinders in
them - also known as one or two-pot calipers.
Where more force is required, three, or more
cylinders can be used.
9.4 METHODS TO REDUCE
BRAKE FADE
9.4.1 Drilled Rotors
Drilled rotors are typically use in race cars. The
drilled holes give more bite hence more friction
and also allow air currents (eddies) to blow
through the brake disc to assist cooling and
ventilating gas. Typically found in race cars.
There are some other types of rotors such
grooved, grooved-drilled rotors which give
more bite hence more friction as they pass
between the brake pads, and they also allow the
gas to vent from between the pads.


9.4.2 Master cylinder
The master cylinder is a control device that converts
force provided by the driver at the brake paddle into
hydraulic pressure, in order to move other devices
which are located at the other end of the hydraulic
system, such as one or more slave cylinders. The
movement of piston inside master cylinder is
transferred through the hydraulic fluid, to result in
a movement of the slave cylinder. The hydraulic
pressure created by moving a piston toward the
slave cylinder compresses the fluid evenly, but by
varying the comparative surface-area of the master
cylinder or each slave cylinder, one will
vary the amount of force and displacement applied
to each slave cylinder
Figure 52 - Various components of a disc brake setup Figure 53 - A Drilled Rotor
Figure 54 - Various parts of a master cylinder
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9.4.3 Tandem Master Cylinder
Tandem master cylinder is characterized by two
pistons operating in series within a common bore.
In rear-wheel drive applications the piston that's
located closer to the pedal (labeled "Piston 1")
applies the vehicle's front brakes. In normal
operation, fluid displaced and pressurized by
Piston 1 also causes movement of a second piston
("Piston 2"). Piston 2 applies the vehicle's rear
brakes.
The following two illustrations show how a
tandem master cylinder isolates leaks in the front
and rear brake plumbing respectively. (In both
illustrations, the pedal has already been depressed
to the point of brake application.)
As shown in Illustration 1, if a leak develops in
the front brake system, Piston 1 will move
forward until it contacts Piston 2. Force from the
brake pedal will be transmitted mechanically
through Piston 1 to Piston 2. Although overall
braking performance will be severely
compromised, the rear brakes will still be
functional provided sufficient pedal travel is
available. The pedal will need to travel further
than normal to fully engage the rear brakes. Also,
it should be appreciated that trying to stop quickly
with just the rear brakes is very tricky because the
rear tires will easily reach the point of lock-up. As
the car is slowing, weight transfers forward and
the rear wheels lose some of their much needed
traction.

9.5 TYPES OF CALIPERS
9.5.1 Fixed calipers: Fixed calipers are rigidly
fixed to its mounting surface. It requires minimum
of two pistons one on each side. When the brakes
are applied, each piston drives its corresponding
brake pad into contact with the rotor
9.5.2 Floating calipers: Floating calipers can
slide side to side on its mounting surface. Thus the
piston is required only on one side. When the
brakes are applied, each piston drives its brake
pad into contact with the rotor. This results in the
reaction force that causes the calipers to slide
away from the rotor. This sliding motion brings
the opposite pad in contact with the rotor, and the
brakes are fully applied.
Most passenger cars use floating because fewer
components are involved than fixed calipers. On
the other hand, most high performance cars use
fixed calipers with multiple positions on either
side of calipers to generate higher application
forces that the performance of vehicle requires.
9.6 HYDRAULIC BRAKES
This type of brake system is used on most cars
and motorbikes today. Single-circuit hydraulic
systems have three basic components - the master
cylinder, the slave cylinder and the reservoir.
They're joined together with hydraulic hose and
filled with a non -compressible hydraulic fluid
(see brake fluid below). When you press your foot
on the brake, or squeeze the brake lever, you
compress a small piston assembly in the master
Figure 56 - Functioning of a Tandem Master Cylinder
Figure 55
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cylinder. Because the brake fluid does not
compress, that pressure is instantaneously
transferred through the hydraulic brake line to the
slave cylinder where it acts on another piston
assembly, pushing it out. That slave assembly is
either connected to a lever to activate the brakes,
or more commonly, is the brake caliper itself, with
the slave cylinder being the piston that acts
directly on the brake pads. Because of the
arrangement of the slave cylinder, heat from the
brakes can be transferred back in to the brake
fluid.

9.7 PROPORTIONING VALVE
Proportioning valve reduces the pressure in the
rear brakes lines. Regardless of what type of
brakes a car has, the rear brakes require less force
than the front brakes.
The amount of brake force that can be applied to a
wheel without locking it depends on the amount
of weight on the wheel. More weight means more
brake force can be applied. For equal braking
force applied at all four wheels during a stop, the
rear wheels would lock up before the front wheels.
The proportioning valve only lets a certain portion
of the pressure through to the rear wheels so that
the front wheels apply more braking force.
9.8 ANTI LOCK BRAKING
SYSTEM (ABS)
ABS is a form of electronic braking which was
invented to help driver to steer the vehicle under
heavy braking and preventing the wheel from
locking.
As during heavy braking there is a chance that
wheel stop rotating before the car comes to rest
this happens because the braking force on the
wheel is not transferred efficiently to stop the
vehicle due to the fact that tire is sliding upon the
road, which leads to greater stopping distance and
loss in control over vehicle.
The electronic control unit constantly monitors the
rotational speed of each wheel; if any wheel
rotating slower than the others; it actuates the
valves to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at
the affected wheel, thus reducing the braking force
on that wheel; the wheel then turns faster.
If the ECU detects any wheel rotating faster than
the others, brake hydraulic pressure to the wheel is
increased so the braking force is reapplied,
slowing down the wheel. This process is repeated
continuously at the rate of 16 times per second.
9.9 TYPES OF BRAKE FLUIDS
DOT 3 and 4
The main characteristics of this type brake fluid
are as follows:
Poly-glycol based
Most commonly used
Compatible with one another
Inexpensive
Destroys paint
Ruined by moisture
DOT 5
The main characteristics of DOT5 type of brake
fluid are:
Silicone Based
Used only for heavy duty applications
Not Compatible with 4&5
Very Expensive
Does not damage paint


Where DOT- Department of Transportation

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9.10 NEW TECHNOLOGY:
9.10.1 Regenerative braking:
Every time you step on your car's brakes, you're
wasting energy. Is there anything that you, the
driver, can do to stop wasting this energy? Not
really. In most cars it's the inevitable by-product
of braking and there's no way you can drive a car
without occasionally hitting the brakes. But
automotive engineers have given this problem a
lot of thought and have come up with a kind of
braking system that can recapture much of the
car's kinetic energy and convert it into electricity,
so that it can be used to recharge the car's
batteries. This system is called regenerative
braking. At present, these kinds of brakes are
primarily found in hybrid vehicles like the Toyota
Prius, and in fully electric cars, like the Tesla
Roadster. In vehicles like these, keeping the
battery charged is of considerable importance.
However, the technology was first used in trolley
cars and has subsequently found its way into such
unlikely places as electric bicycles and even
Formula One race cars.








In a traditional braking system, brake pads
produce friction with the brake rotors to slow or
stop the vehicle. Additional friction is produced
between the slowed wheels and the surface of the
road. This friction is what turns the car's kinetic
energy into heat. With regenerative brakes, on the
other hand, the system that drives the vehicle does
the majority of the braking. When the driver steps
on the brake pedal of an electric or hybrid vehicle,
these types of brakes put the vehicle's electric
motor into reverse mode, causing it to run
backwards, thus slowing the car's wheels. While
running backwards, the motor also acts as an
electric generator, producing electricity that's then
fed into the vehicle's batteries. These types of
brakes work better at certain speeds than at others.
In fact, they're most effective in stop-and-go
driving situations. However, hybrids and fully
electric cars also have friction brakes, as a kind of
back-up system in situations where regenerative
braking simply won't supply enough stopping
power. In these instances, its important for
drivers to be aware of the fact that the brake pedal
might respond differently to pressure. The pedal
will sometimes depress farther towards the floor
than it normally does and this sensation can cause
momentary panic in drivers.
















Figure 57 - Functioning of Regenerative braking system
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10. WHEEL
A wheel is a circular component that is
intended to rotate on an axial bearing. The
wheel is one of the main components of the
wheel and axle which is one of the six simple
machines. Wheels, in conjunction with axles,
allow heavy objects to be moved easily
facilitating movement or transportation while
supporting a load.

10.1 TUBELESS TIRES
Tubeless tires are pneumatic tires, the tire is built
in such a way that it can contain the air by itself. It
does not require a tube within it. The tire and rim
assembly form an air container, to Seal and
Contain the compressed air inside the assembly.
Friction between the tire & tube is not
experienced, thus lower rolling resistance,
improved fuel efficiency, less vibrations, less heat
generation and better comfort.
The inner liner of the tubeless tire is constructed
of halo-butyl/chloro-butyl and other materials.
This performs, in essence, the important core of
substantially reducing the permeation of air, as
compared to the natural rubber inner liner, a
function of which is why we use a butyl tube in a
tubed tire.
10.2 WHEEL ALIGNMENT
10.2.1 Caster angle
The caster angle is the angle between the steering
axis and the vertical plane viewed from the side of
the tire. The caster trail is defined as the distance
at the ground between the center of the contact
patch and the point at which the steering axis
intersects the ground.

It is important that the caster angle and caster trail
be positive because both of these quantities will
affect the aligning moment.
The aligning moment is the moment that will act
against the driver as he/she is trying to steer the
vehicle.
10.2 Camber angle
The camber angle is defined as the inclination of
the tire with respect to the road surface in the
vertical plane (when looking at the vehicle from
the front view).
Figure 58 - Side view of the front wheel
Figure 58 - Front view of the front wheel
autokriti 4.0

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Negative camber occurs when the top of tire
points in towards the vehicle, and positive camber
occurs when the top of the tire points.
Camber on a wheel will produce a lateral force
which is known as camber thrust. A rolling tire
that is cambered will produce a lateral force which
is in the direction the tire is tilting from the
vehicle. It is best to go with a static negative
camber angle because it improves the effective
cornering stiffness of the tire. A large camber
angle (negative or positive) increases tire wear
which is undesirable. Camber change reduces the
contact patch area thus grip, and also introduces
non-neutral steering.
For best performance the camber angle should
remain between -2 and -7 degrees throughout the
suspension travel.
10.2.3 Toe angle
The toe angle is defined as the angle between the
longitudinal axis of the vehicle and a line passing
through the center of the tire when viewed from
the top. Toe in occurs when the front of the tire
points in towards the vehicle, and toe out occurs
when the front of the tire points away from the
vehicle. There will be usually some elastic
deformation of the
suspension under driving or braking that will
cause changes in the toe angle.

Therefore, initial toe angle (-2) is given
suspension system so that the deformation in the
system will force the tire to straighten when the
vehicle is driving or braking.
10.2.4 Steering axis inclination
The angle between the steering axis and the
vertical plane, when viewing the tire from the
front is termed as Steering Axis Inclination. The
scrub radius is the distance measured at the
ground level between the center of the contact
patch and the point where the steering axis
intercepts the ground.

The Kingpin angle affects the camber angle as the
wheel is steered about the steering axis. With a
positive kingpin angle, the tire will lean out as it is
steered about the steering axis. Therefore the
greater the steering angle, the greater the amount
of positive camber generated, and the greater the
kingpin angle the greater the amount of change in
the camber angle.
Driving and braking forces will introduce a torque
about the steering axis and this torque will be
proportional to the moment arm, the scrub radius.
If the driving and braking forces are different on
any side of the vehicle then the driver will feel a
net steering torque acting to steer the vehicle. The
amount of tire scrub against the ground as the
wheel turns is dependent on the tire scrub if one
wheel losses traction when the vehicle is braking
Figure 59 - Bottom view of the front axle
Figure 60 - Steering axis inclination or the King Pin
inclination
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then the opposing wheel will toe an amount that is
determined by the compliance in the steering
system. This will tend to steer the car in the
straight line even though the braking force is same
on both lines. In general, a small amount of
negative scrub is required.
Typically, a small positive scrub radius(6-10 mm)
is used on vehicles with a small to moderate
kingpin angle (5-10) is used.



10.3 Tyre size notations:
When you look at your car and discover that it is shod with a nice, but worn set of 185-65HR13's (from the
tyre marking). Any tyre mechanic will tell you that he can replace them, and he will. You'll cough up and
drive away safe in the knowledge that he's just put some more rubber on each corner of the car that has
the same shamanic symbols on it as those he took off. So what does it all mean?









DID YOU KNOW?
Aircraft requires special tires to allow for
short duration but excessively high-impact
use, particularly when a plane comes in to
land and the weight of the aircraft
impacts the runway. For this purpose the
tires are filled with nitrogen or helium to
minimize the pressure differential
between the high altitude and the
compressed gas inside.
This is the width in
mm of the tire from
sidewall to sidewall
when it's unstressed
and you're looking at
it head on (or top-
down). This is known
as the section width.

This is the ratio of the
height of the tyre
sidewall, (section
height), expressed as a
percentage of the
width. It is known as
the aspect ratio. In this
case, 65% of 185mm is
120.25mm - the section
height.
This is the
speed rating
of the tyre.
This tells you
that the tyre is a
radial
construction.
This is the
diameter in inches
of the rim of the
wheel that the tyre
has been designed
to fit on.
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43

10.4 The Wheel Assembly:

10.4.1 The Hub (1):
The hub serves as housing for the wheel's bearings (5) and spacers and is the central support around which
the entire wheel revolves on the axle.
10.4.2 The rotor (2):
The rotor or disk is attached onto the hub of the wheel and the first impact of the brakes comes onto it and
further stops the wheel.
10.4.3 The Knuckle (6):
Knuckle is the stationary part and supports the Suspension and steering system. The knuckle is attached to
one of the edges of a bearing (5) using a sleeve (3) or directly.
10.4.4 The Caliper (4):
The brake caliper is mounted onto the knuckle (6) and thus remains stationary. When the brakes are applied
it clamps onto the rotor/disk (2) and thus slows down the wheel.
Figure 61 - The wheel assembly: (1) Hub, (2) Rotor, (3) Sleeve, (4) Caliper, (5) bearing, (6)
Knuckle.
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10 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
11.1 IGNITION SYSTEM
Most four-stroke engines in the past used a
mechanically timed electrical ignition system. The
heart of the system is the distributor. The
distributor contains a rotating cam driven by the
engine's drive, a set of breaker points, a
condenser, a rotor and a distributor cap. External
to the distributor is the ignition coil, the spark
plugs and wires linking the distributor to the spark
plugs and ignition coil.
The system is powered by a lead-acid battery,
which is charged by the car's electrical system
using a dynamo or alternator. The engine operates
contact breaker points, which interrupts the
current to an induction coil (known as the ignition
coil).
The ignition coil consists of two transformer
windings sharing a common magnetic corethe
primary and secondary windings. An alternating
current in the primary induces alternating
magnetic field in the coil's core. Because the
ignition coil's secondary has far more windings
than the primary, the coil is a step-up transformer
which induces a much higher voltage across the
secondary windings. For an ignition coil, one end
of windings of both the primary and secondary are
connected together. This common point is
connected to the battery (usually through a
current-limiting ballast resistor). The other end of
the primary is connected to the points within the
distributor. The other end of the secondary is
connected, via the distributor cap and rotor, to the
spark plugs.
11.2 Ignition Coil
The coil is a simple device - essentially a high-
voltage transformer made up of two coils of wire.
One coil of wire is called the primary coil.
Wrapped around it is the secondary coil. The
secondary coil normally has hundreds of times
more turns of wire than the primary coil. Current
flows from the battery through the primary
winding of the coil. The primary coil's current can
be suddenly disrupted by the breaker points, or by
a solid-state device in an electronic ignition.
If you think the coil looks like an electromagnet,
you're right - but it is also an inductor. The key to
the coil's operation is what happens when the
circuit is suddenly broken by the points. The
magnetic field of the primary coil collapses
rapidly. The secondary coil is engulfed by a
powerful and changing magnetic field. This field
induces a current in the coils -- a very high-
voltage current (up to 100,000 volts) because of
the number of coils in the secondary winding. The
Figure 62 - Circuit diagram of a battery ignition system
Figure 63 - An ignition Coil
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secondary coil feeds this voltage to the distributor
via a very well insulated, high-voltage wire.
11.3 Distributor
The distributor handles several jobs. Its first job is
to distribute the high voltage from the coil to the
correct cylinder. This is done by the cap and rotor.
The coil is connected to the rotor, which spins
inside the cap. The rotor spins past a series of
contacts, one contact per cylinder. As the tip of
the rotor passes each contact, a high-voltage pulse
comes from the coil. The pulse arcs across the
small gap between the rotor and the contact (they
don't actually touch) and then continues down the
spark-plug wire to the spark plug on the
appropriate cylinder. When you do a tune-up, one
of the things you replace on your engine is the cap
and rotor - these eventually wear out because of
the arcing. Also, the spark-plug wires eventually
wear out and lose some of their electrical
insulation. This can be the cause of some very
mysterious engine problems.
Older distributors with breaker points have
another section in the bottom half of the
distributor -- this section does the job of breaking
the current to the coil. The ground side of the coil
is connected to the breaker points.
A cam in the center of the distributor pushes a
lever connected to one of the points. Whenever
the cam pushes the lever, it opens the points. This
causes the coil to suddenly lose its ground,
generating a high-voltage pulse. The points also
control the timing of the spark. They may have a
vacuum advance or a centrifugal advance. These
mechanisms advance the timing in proportion to
engine load or engine speed. Spark timing is so
critical to an engine's performance that most cars
don't use points. Instead, they use a sensor that
tells the engine control unit (ECU) the exact
position of the pistons. The engine computer then
controls a transistor that opens and closes the
current to the coil.
11.4 Spark plug
The spark plug is quite simple in theory. It forces
electricity to arc across a gap, just like a bolt of
lightning the electricity must be at a very high
voltage in order to travel across the gap and create
a good spark. Voltage at the spark plug can be
anywhere from 40,000 to 100,000 volts. The
spark plug must have an insulated passageway for
this high voltage to travel down to the electrode,
where it can jump the gap and, from there, be
conducted into the engine block and grounded.
The plug also has to withstand the extreme heat
and pressure inside the cylinder, and must be
designed so that deposits from fuel additives do
not build up on the plug. Spark plugs use a
ceramic insert to isolate the high voltage at the
electrode, ensuring that the spark happens at the
tip of the electrode and not anywhere else on the
plug; this insert does double-duty by helping to
burn off deposits. Ceramic is a fairly poor heat
conductor, so the material gets quite hot during
operation. This heat helps to burn off deposits
from the electrode.
Some cars require a hot plug. This type of plug is
designed with a ceramic insert that has a smaller
contact area with the metal part of the plug. This
reduces the heat transfer from the ceramic, making
it run hotter and thus burn away more deposits.
Cold plugs are designed with more contact area,
so they run cooler.

APPENDIX

46




Figure 64
APPENDIX

47


Figure 65
APPENDIX

48



Figure 66
COMMON ABBREVIATIONS

49

CRDi
Common Rail Direct injection
i-VTEC
Intelligent Variable(valve) timing (and lift) Electronic Control
ABS
Antilock Brake System
DOHC
Double Overhead Camshaft
DDIS
Diesel Direct injection System
TDI
Turbocharged Diesel Injection
ARC Automatic Ride Control
A/T
Automatic Transmission
HCCI
Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition
VVTi
Variable Valve Timing with Intelligence
ECU
Electronic Control Unit
IRS
Independent Rear Suspension
ARAI
Automotive Research Association of India
DCRV
Deceleration Conscious Regulating Valve
GPS
Global Positioning System
ABRS
Airbags Restraint System
MPFI
Multi Point Fuel Injection
PGM-Fi
Programmed Fuel Injection
MUV
Multi Utility Vehicle
DCT
Dual Clutch Transmission
VAPS
Variable Assist Power Steering
FSI
Fuel Stratified Injection

TEST YOURSELF

50

1. What is turning radius?
2. What is the difference between valves and ports?
3. What principle does a CVT work on?
4. Why by-passing is done in a carburetor?
5. Why two compression rings in a piston are placed in the opposite direction?
6. Why Mobil oil is added in a 2-stroke engine but not in a 4 stroke engine?
7. What is the difference between leading edge and trailing edge?
8. What are airbags and what is their inflation speed?
9. Why teeth are cut on the flywheel of an engine?
10. What is the difference between indicated power and brake horsepower?
11. What will happen if we use diesel in a petrol engine?
12. Which is better: Double wishbone or Macpherson strut? And Why?
13. What is the firing order of a V6 engine?
14. What are the factors that affect the power output of an engine?
15. What is the difference between pan-hard bar and an anti-roll bar?
16. What are the differences between a 2-Stroke and 4-Stroke engine?
17. What is the difference between Petrol and a Diesel engine?
18. What is the Octane number?
19. What are the factors that determine the Octane Number of the fuel to be used?
20. What would happen if diesel comes in contact with a burning matchstick?
21. What is the function of glow plugs in a diesel engine?
22. What are the properties of a good braking fluid?
23. In case drum brakes, why brake pads have uneven thickness after a lengthy duration
of use?
24. How Tandem master cylinder is different from Master Cylinder?
25. What are the conventions for numbering the cylinders in an engine?


TEST YOURSELF

51

For the Auto maniacs:
1. Who is called as The Doctor in the world of Motorsports?
2. Who has the record of attaining the highest speed in Moto GP ever? And what was the
speed?
3. What is Hill decent control?
4. Where are the headquarters of FERRARI?
5. What does BMWs logo signify?
6. What is penny test for wear and tear of tyres?
7. What is the meaning of Superleggera?
8. Volkswagen is the parent co. of how many companies? Name them.
9. Mazda comes from which country?
10. Quattro is a system used by which company? How does it work?
11. Connect the name of a small car and a famous footballer.
12. This company is the tyre sponsor of the Formula 1 racing and also, is the T-Shirt
sponsor of the football club Internazionale. Which is this company?
13. How was the event BAJA named as it is?
14. Who is the youngest Formula 1 Driver to win a race?
15. Which Driver has the maximum F1 race wins?