a) Valence shell: The outermost shell or orbit of an atom is known as valence shell or valence

orbit.
b) Atomic mass: The atomic mass number is defined as the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons contained in the nucleus of an atom of that element. It is denoted by the symbol A.
Atomic mass number (A) = Number of protons (p) + Number of neutrons (n)
c) Nucleons: Protons and neutrons are present inside the nucleus of the atom. Hence, they are
also known as nucleons.
d) Isotopes: Atoms of the same elements differing in the number of neutrons in their nuclei are
known as isotopes.
e) Radicals: Two or more non-metals that collectively accept or donate one or more electrons
and become negatively or positively charged in the process are called radicals.

Write a note on Discovery of Protons.
Discovery of Protons
A German scientist, E. Goldstein modified the discharge tube (discharge tube was fitted with a
perforated cathode) and passed an electric current through it.
He found that positively charged rays were emitted from the anode in the discharge tube. These
rays were called 'Canal Rays'.

Anode Rays Discharge Tube
When an electric field was applied, these rays deflected towards the negatively charged plate.
Thus, Goldstein concluded that an atom contains positively charged particles along with the
electrons.
These positively charged particles were named as 'protons' by a British scientist, Ernest
Rutherford.
Canal rays were also called anode rays since they emitted from anode (electrode connected to
positive terminal of high voltage source) in the gas discharge experiments using perforated
cathode.
Explain the formation of electropositive ions with the help of examples
ormation of Electropositive ions
Monovalent Potassium atom loses one electron from its outermost (valence) shell to form
univalent or monovalent positive ion. Here, univalent or monovalent means having the
valency one.
K - e
-
K
1+

Unstable potassium Stable potassium
atom ion

Divalent
Magnesium atom loses two electrons from its outermost (valence) shell to form divalent positive
ion. Here, divalent means having the
valency two.
Trivalent
Aluminium atom loses three electrons
from its outermost (valence) shell to
form trivalent positive ion. Here,
trivalent means having the valency
three.


Write a note on atomic number.
The atomic number and atomic mass number are two characteristic properties of an atom.
The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom is the atomic number of that atom. It
is represented by the symbol Z.
Atomic number (Z) = Number of protons (p)
For example, hydrogen has one proton in its nucleus. So atomic number of hydrogen is one. We
express it as Z = 1.
Mg - 2 e
-
Mg
2+

Unstable magnesium Stable magnesium
atom ion
Al - 3 e
-
Al
3+

Unstable aluminium Stable aluminium
atom ion
All atoms of an element have the same atomic number. The number of protons and electrons in
an atom are equal. Thus. The atom of an element is electrically neutral.
What are radioactive substances? Give two examples.
The phenomenon due to which certain elements spontaneously emit highly penetrating rays
made of sub-atomic particles is known as radioactivity.
The elements that emit radioactive rays are called radioactive elements.
Examples: Uranium, thorium, radium, polonium.
Write a note on discovery of cathode rays.
The study of atomic structure and sub-atomic particles was initiated by the discovery of the
discharge tube. Experiments on the discharge tube were first conducted in the year 1878, by
an English physicist, William Crookes.
When a high voltage electric current is passed through the discharge tube containing a gas at a
very low pressure, a green fluorescence is seen coming out of the other end of the discharge
tube.
This fluorescence is the result of rays emitted from the cathode (negative plate) towards anode
(positive plate) in the discharge tube. Hence, these rays are called as cathode rays.
Later, J.J. Thomson studied the characteristics and the constituents of cathode rays.

Cathode Rays Discharge Tube
J.J. Thomson Experiment
Electric field was applied in the path of cathode rays in the discharge tube. It was observed that
cathode rays travel in straight lines from cathode to anode.
Cathode rays cast a shadow of the object placed in their path.
When a magnetic field was applied over the discharge tube, cathode rays showed deviation in
their path.
Thomson applied an electric field to the cathode rays. He noticed that the rays deflected
towards the positively charged plate.

Deflection of cathode rays in an electric field
This indicated that the cathode rays must be negatively charged.
Bending of the rays in an electric field showed that the rays must be made up of particles.
When a small wheel made up of a light material was kept in the path of the cathode rays, it
rotated. This confirmed the particulate nature of the cathode rays.
From his experiment, Thomson arrived at the conclusion that, cathode rays are nothing but a
stream of negatively charged particles.
These negatively charged particles are called as electrons.

Write a note on atomic mass of an element.
Atomic Mass
The atomic mass of an element is the number of times by which the mass of its atom is heavier
than 1/12
th
of the mass of a carbon atom.
The atomic mass of an atom is measured by comparing it with the mass of a standard atom like
hydrogen. Thus it is referred to as relative atomic mass.
The unit of this physical value is known as atomic mass unit (amu).






Write distinguishing properties of protons, neutrons and electrons.
sub-atomic
particle
Symbol Location in
the atom
Relative
Charge
Relative
mass
Actual mass
Electron e Outside the
nucleus
-1 1/1840
a.m.u.
9.1 x 10
-31
kg
Proton p Inside the
nucleus
+1 1 a.m.u. 1.673 x 10
-27
kg
Neutron n Inside the
nucleus
0 1 a.m.u. 1.675 x 10
-27
kg

Write main features of Rutherfords atomic model.
The main features of Rutherfords Theory of an Atom
There is a positively charged centre in the atom called the nucleus in which nearly all the mass
of the atom is concentrated.
Negatively charged particles called electrons revolve around the nucleus in paths called orbits.
The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.
His model can be compared to the solar system where the planets are compared with electrons
and the sun with the nucleus.
Explain the formation of electronegative ions with the help of examples.
Formation of Electronegative ions
Monovalent Chlorine atom gains one electron to form univalent or monovalent negative ion
Cl + 1 e
-
Cl
1-

Stable chlorine Unstable chlorine
atom ion
Divalent
Sulphur atom gains two electrons to form divalent negative ion.
S + 2 e
-
S
2-

Stable sulphur Unstable Sulphur
atom ion
Trivalent
Nitrogen atom gains three electrons to
form trivalent negative ion.
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00:00:28

Describe Thomsons model of an atom.
Thomsons Model of the Atom
After the discovery of electrons and protons, J.J. Thomson proposed a model of an atom to be
similar to a plum pudding.
He proposed that, an atom consist of a positively charged sphere where the electrons are
embedded in it.
The positive and negative charges are equal in magnitude. So the atom as a whole is electrically
neutral.
But, his model could not
explain the results of
experiments carried out
by other scientists like
Rutherford and Bohr.



Explain Modern Atomic Theory.
Modern Atomic Model
According to the modern, standard model of atom:
1. An atom comprises of three fundamental particles. They are electron, proton and neutron.
2. There are two structural parts of an atom.
N + 3 e
-
N
3-

Stable nitrogen Unstable nitrogen
atom ion

Thomsons model of an Atom Plum pudding
(i) The nucleus
(ii) The orbits or the shells described in the empty space that surrounds the nucleus.
3. The nucleus is the positively charged, central part of an atom. Protons and neutrons are present
inside the nucleus of the atom. Hence, they are also known as nucleons.
4. They are held firmly in the nucleus by strong nuclear forces.
5. The entire mass of an atom lies in its nucleus, since electrons have negligible mass.
6. The positive charge of the nucleus is due to the protons present in it. The protons remain
unaffected by the neutrons since the latter have no electrical charge.
7. Orbits (or shells) are the imaginary paths traced by the electrons in the empty space
surrounding the nucleus.
8. Each orbit is associated with a fixed amount of energy.
9. The negatively charged electrons revolve round the nucleus in these orbits. The shell (or the
orbit) lying closest to the nucleus carries the lowest amount of energy and the shell that lies
farthest from it carries the highest amount of energy.
10. An atom is electrically neutral because the number of protons and the number of electrons
present in it are the same thus, balancing the charge budget of the atom.
What are the reason for exhibiting variable valency?
Reason for exhibiting variable valency are as follows:
If positive and negative electrical charges are not same in the compound, then multiple or
variable integer of positive and negative electrical charges are obtained to attain neutral
characteristic in the compound.
In other words, an atom of an element can sometimes lose more electrons than are present in its
valence shell (or outermost shell) and hence exhibit more than one or variable valency.
Describe Rutherfords scattering experiment.
Rutherfords Scattering Experiment
Rutherford selected a gold foil as he wanted a very thin layer.
In his experiment, fast moving alpha particles were made to fall on a thin gold foil.
Alpha particles are helium ions with +2 charge and have a considerable amount of energy.
These particles were studied by means of flashes of light they produced on striking a zinc
sulphide screen.
He expected the alpha particles to pass through the gold foil with little deflections and strike the
fluorescent screen.
Rutherfords Scattering Experiment
But the observations he made were quite unexpected.
He observed that most of the alpha particles passed straight through the gold foil.
Some were deflected through small angles and some were deflected through large angles.
Very few appeared to bounce back.
From the experiment he concluded that-
As most of the alpha particles passed through the gold foil without getting deflected, most of
the space inside the atom is empty.
Very few particles deflected from their path; this indicated that the positive charge of the atom
occupies very little space.
A small fraction of alpha particles bounced back by 180 degrees, this indicated that the entire
positive charge and mass of the atom was concentrated in a very small volume within the
atom.
Based on his observations, he formulated his Theory of atom.
The main features of Rutherfords Theory of an Atom
There is a positively charged centre in the atom called the nucleus in which nearly all the mass
of the atom is concentrated.
Negatively charged particles called electrons revolve around the nucleus in paths called orbits.
The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.
His model can be compared to the solar system where the planets are compared with electrons
and the sun with the nucleus.

Define:
(a) Nuclear Fission
(b) Nuclear Fusion
(a) Nuclear Fission: A nuclear reaction in which a heavy atomic nucleus breaks up into two
smaller nuclei, with the release of a very large amount of energy, is called nuclear fission.
(b) Nuclear Fusion: A nuclear reaction in which the nuclei of light atoms i.e, elements with
small mass umbers; join up to form a heavier nucleus, causing the release of a huge amount of
energy, is known as nuclear fusion.
Name the following
a) The sub-atomic particle with negative charge and negligible mass.
b) Protons and neutrons present in the nucleus.
c) The electrons present in the outermost shell.
d) The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom.
Atoms of same element with same atomic number but different mass number.
a) Neutron
b) Nucleon
c) Valence electrons
d) Atomic number
e) Isotopes
What are the reason for exhibiting variable valency?
Reason for exhibiting variable valency are as follows:
If positive and negative electrical charges are not same in the compound, then multiple or
variable integer of positive and negative electrical charges are obtained to attain neutral
characteristic in the compound.
In other words, an atom of an element can sometimes lose more electrons than are present in its
valence shell (or outermost shell) and hence exhibit more than one or variable valency.
What is variable valency? Explain the term with the help of examples.
Variable Valency
Sometimes, same element may exhibit one valency in one compound and another valency in
other compound. This property is called as variable valency.
Element Symbol Valencies exhibited
(variable valencies)

Copper Cu 1, 2 Cu
+1
, Cu
+2

Silver Ag 1, 2 Ag
+1
, Ag
+2

Gold Au 1, 3 Au
+1
, Au
+2

Iron Fe 2, 3 Fe
+2
, Fe
+3


Explain Modern Atomic Theory.
Modern Atomic Model
According to the modern, standard model of atom:
1. An atom comprises of three fundamental particles. They are electron, proton and neutron.
2. There are two structural parts of an atom.
(i) The nucleus
(ii) The orbits or the shells described in the empty space that surrounds the nucleus.
3. The nucleus is the positively charged, central part of an atom. Protons and neutrons are present
inside the nucleus of the atom. Hence, they are also known as nucleons.
4. They are held firmly in the nucleus by strong nuclear forces.
5. The entire mass of an atom lies in its nucleus, since electrons have negligible mass.
6. The positive charge of the nucleus is due to the protons present in it. The protons remain
unaffected by the neutrons since the latter have no electrical charge.
7. Orbits (or shells) are the imaginary paths traced by the electrons in the empty space
surrounding the nucleus.
8. Each orbit is associated with a fixed amount of energy.
9. The negatively charged electrons revolve round the nucleus in these orbits. The shell (or the
orbit) lying closest to the nucleus carries the lowest amount of energy and the shell that lies
farthest from it carries the highest amount of energy.
10. An atom is electrically neutral because the number of protons and the number of electrons
present in it are the same thus, balancing the charge budget of the atom.