INTRODUCING

HINDUISM, BUDDHISM & ISLAM

Nihal Abeyasingha











Asian Institute of Missiology
291 Deans Road, Colombo
Sri Lanka

2

2013





Copyright Asian Institute of Missiology


ISBN: Softcover


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NA# 2. From ancient times down to the present, there is found
among various peoples a certain perception of that hidden power
which hovers over the course of things and over the events of
human history; at times some indeed have come to the
recognition of a Supreme Being, or even of a Father. This
perception and recognition penetrates their lives with a profound
religious sense.
Religions, however, that are bound up with an advanced culture
have struggled to answer the same questions by means of more
refined concepts and a more developed language. Thus in
Hinduism, men contemplate the divine mystery and express it
through an inexhaustible abundance of myths and through
searching philosophical inquiry. They seek freedom from the
anguish of our human condition either through ascetical practices
or profound meditation or a flight to God with love and trust.
Again, Buddhism, in its various forms, realizes the radical
insufficiency of this changeable world; it teaches a way by which
men, in a devout and confident spirit, may be able either to
acquire the state of perfect liberation, or attain, by their own
efforts or through higher help, supreme illumination. Likewise,
other religions found everywhere try to counter the restlessness
of the human heart, each in its own manner, by proposing
"ways," comprising teachings, rules of life, and sacred rites.



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HINDUISM


Hinduism is the third largest world religion with about 900
million Hindus worldwide. The religion dates back over 4,000
years. Hinduism has no founder. It is made up of a variety of
different religious beliefs and practices which originated near the
river Indus in India. The name 'Hindu' comes from the word
Indus.

The term Hinduism is of recent origin, having been applied
mostly by Westerners to denote the majority religion of India.
Only groups that had clear non-Hindu identities, such as Jains,
Buddhists, Parsis, Muslims, Jews, and Christians, were not
included in the generic Hindu category The use of a foreign
designation derives from the fact that there is no corresponding
word indigenous to South Asia. There, people generally define
themselves according to local caste and community and, among
these, there is no single scripture, deity, or religious teacher
common to all that can be designated as the core of Hinduism.
Yet, the very vagueness of the term makes it useful. This is
because the word Hinduism comes from Hindu, a name used by
medieval Muslims to refer to the people living around the Sindu
(Indus) River. This then became an umbrella term for all the
people residing in the Indian subcontinent. Hence, Hinduism, as
the religious faith indigenous to the Indians, includes most of the
regional traditions that developed in India. Indian religions that
define themselves as non-Hindu, like Buddhism and Jainism, had
to develop clear boundaries to distinguish themselves from the
Hindus. But Hinduism itself has never evolved such clear
boundaries and religious practices across the subcontinent show
great regional variation. The amorphous quality of the term
Hinduism makes it a convenient designation for the very varied
traditions of approximately 80 percent of the people in India and
their kindred communities around the world. It is important,
however, to remember that the word is a modern invention and
that to project Hindu religion back through time is to use an

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artificial category in order to distinguish the roots of modern
Hinduism from other Indian religions.

CHRONOLOGY:
Prehistory and Indus
Valley Civilization
c. 7000-6000 B.C.E. Early agriculture in Indus Valley area
c. 2500 B.C.E. Urban civilization appearing along Indus River
c. 2300-2000 B.C.E. Peak of Indus Valley civilization
c. 2000-1500 B.C.E. Indo-European migrations to Europe, Iran, and India
c. 1900-1500 B.C.E. Decline of Indus Valley civilization
The Vedic Period

c. 1200-900 B.C.E.
Composition of the Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama
Veda, and Atharva Veda
c. 1000-800 B.C.E. Composition of the Brahmanas
c. 900-600 B.C.E. Composition of the Aranyakas
c. 600-300 B.C.E. Composition of the Upanishads
c. 563-483 B.C.E. Gautama Buddha, founder of Buddhism
c. 527 B.C.E. Death of Vardhamana Mahavira, last sage of Jainism
The Epic and Classical
Periods
c. 400 B.C.E. -300 C.E. Compilation of the Mahabharata
324-185 B.C.E. Mauryan Empire
c. 200 B.C.E. -200 C.E. Compilation of the Ramayana
c. 200 B.C.E. -200 C.E. Composition of Manu Smriti
c. 320-500 C.E. Gupta Dynasty, Classical Age of India
c. 350-450 C.E.
Samkhya Karika of Ishvarakrishna, classical
description of Samkhya philosophy
c. 400-500 C.E. Yoga Sutru of Patanjali, classical description of yoga
c. 400-1000 C.E. Composition of the 18 great Puranas
c. 500-900 C.E. Alvars, Vaishnava Tamil poets of south India
c. 500-1200 C.E. Nayanars, Shaiva Tamil poets of south India
c. 700 C.E. Early Tantras
c. 788-820 C.E. Shankara, founder of Advaita Vedanta
c. 1025-1137 C.E.
Vedanta Ramanuja, founder of vishishta-advaita
Vedanta
c. 1150 C.E.
Iramavataram, Tamil version of Ramayana by
Kampan
1211-1526 C.E. Delhi Sultanate, Muslim rule of north India

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1290 C.E.
Jnaneshwari, Marathi translation of Bhagavad Gita
with commentary by Jnaneshwar Maharaj
1440-1518 C.E. Kabir, poet-saint
c. 1498-1546 C.E. Mirabai, Rajasthani princess and poet-saint
1485-1533 C.E. Chaitanya, Bengali poet-saint
1526-1757 C.E. Mughal Empire, Muslim rule over most of India
1532-1623 C.E.
Tulsi Das, author of Ramcharitmanas, a Hindi
version of Ramayana
The Modern Period

1772-1833 Ram Mohan Roy, founded Brahmo Samaj in 1828
1781-1830 Sahajanand Swami, founder of Swami Narayanan
1824-83 Dayananda Sarasvati, founded Arya Samaj in 1875
1836-86 Life of Ramakrishna
1856-1920 B.G. Tilek
1863-1902
Swami Vivekananda, founded Ramakrishna Mission
in 1897
1869-1948 Mohaudas K. Gandhi
1893 World Parliament of Religions, Chicago
1947
Independence from Great Britain Partition of India
and Pakistan
1964 Vishva Hindu Parishad established
1973 Chipko Movement
1976
Dedication of Shri Venkateshwara Temple,
Pittsburgh, PA
1977 Dedication of Ganesh Temple, Flushing, NY
1983 Sacrifice for Unity Procession
1987-88 Television serials of Ramayana and Mahabharata
1992 Babri Masjid destroyed

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HISTORY
India Hinduism's early history is the subject of much debate for a
number of reasons. First, in a strict sense there was no
Hinduism called by that name - before modern times,
although the sources of Hindu traditions are very ancient.
Secondly, Hinduism is not a single religion but embraces many
traditions. Thirdly, Hinduism has no definite starting point. The
traditions which flow into Hinduism may go back several
thousand years and some practitioners claim that the Hindu
revelation is eternal. Although there is an emphasis on personal
spirituality, Hinduism's history is closely linked with social and
political developments, such as the rise and fall of different
kingdoms and empires. The early history of Hinduism is difficult
to date and Hindus themselves tend to be more concerned with
the substance of a story or text rather than its date.


AT A GLANCE

BELIEFS
GOD: Central to Hinduism is the belief in a supreme God Brahman, the universal
soul, which is found in everything. Brahman is worshipped in a variety of forms,
including Vishnu, Krishna, Rama, Shiva and several others.
CYCLE OF EXISTENCE: Hindus believe that life is a cycle of birth, death, and
rebirth, governed by Karma.
KARMA: Hindus believe that every action has an effect and there is a cause for
everything. This is called the law of Karma.
HOLY BOOKS
The main Hindu scriptures are:
the Vedas, a collection of hymns praising the Vedic gods. Veda means
'knowledge'
the Ramayana, long epic poems about Rama and Sita
the Mahabharata, which includes the Bhagavad Gita
the Puranas, a collection of stories about the different incarnations and the
lives of saints.

WORSHIP
Puja (worship) takes place in the Mandir (temple).
FESTIVALS:
Hindus celebrate many holy days. Some of them are Diwali (the festival of lights) is
the best known, Holi, Navaratri (celebrating fertility and harvest), Raksha Bandhan
(celebrating the bond between brother and sister), Janmashtami (Krishna's birthday)


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Hindu notions of time
Hindus in general believe that time is cyclical, much like the four
seasons, and eternal rather than linear and bounded. Texts refer to
successive ages (yuga), designated respectively as golden, silver,
copper and iron. During the golden age people were pious and
adhered to dharma (law, duty, truth) but its power diminishes
over time until it has to be reinvigorated through divine
intervention. With each successive age, good qualities diminish,
until we reach the current iron or dark age (kali yuga) marked by
cruelty, hypocrisy, materialism and so on. Such ideas challenge
the widespread, linear view that humans are inevitably
progressing.

Main historical periods
Although the early history of Hinduism is difficult to date with
certainty, the following list presents a rough chronology.

Before 2000 BCE: The Indus Valley Civilisation
1500500 BCE: The Vedic Period
500 BCE500 CE: The Epic, Puranic and Classical Age
500 CE1500 CE: Medieval Period
15001757 CE: Pre-Modern Period
17571947 CE: British Period
1947 CEthe present: Independent India

THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION (BEFORE 2000 BCE)
The Indus Valley civilisation was located in the basin of the river
Indus, which flows through present day Pakistan. It had
developed by about 2500 BCE although its origins reach back to
the Neolithic period. It had faded away by 1500 BCE.

The Indus Valley was a developed urban culture akin to the
civilisations of Mesopotamia. Two major cities have been
uncovered, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, which has given us the
alternative name of Harappan culture. These cities housed about
40,000 people who enjoyed quite a high standard of living with
sophisticated water systems; most houses having drainage

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systems, wells, and rubbish chutes. Grain was the basis of the
economy and large grain stores collected grain as tax.
The civilisation was extensive, from the eastern foothills of the
Himalayas, to Lothar on the Gujarat coast, and to Sutgagen Dor
near the Iranian border. Some cities of the Indus valley culture
have yet to be excavated. The Indus civilisation did not develop
as a result of contact with other civilisations such as Sumer or
Egypt but was an indigenous development growing out of earlier,
local cultures.

Religion in the Indus valley: We know little of the religion,
social structure or politics of this early civilisation and we do not
know the language, but seals have been found with what looks
like a script inscribed on them. This has not been deciphered
successfully and some scholars now question whether it is in fact
a script, although this is contentious.

Religion in the Indus valley seems to have involved temple
rituals and ritual bathing in the 'great bath' found at Mohenjo-
Daro. There is some evidence of animal sacrifice at Kalibangan.
A number of terracotta figurines have been found, perhaps
goddess images, and a seal depicting a seated figure surrounded
by animals that some scholars thought to be a prototype of the
god Shiva. Others have disputed this, pointing out that it bears a
close resemblance to Elamite seals depicting seated bulls. One
image, carved on soapstone (steatite), depicts a figure battling
with lions which is reminiscent of the Mesopotamian Gilgamesh
myth.

There may be continuities between the Indus Valley civilisation
and later Hinduism as suggested by the apparent emphasis on
ritual bathing, sacrifice, and goddess worship. But ritual purity,
sacrifice and an emphasis on fertility are common to other
ancient religions.

THE VEDIC PERIOD (C.1500C.500 BCE)
There have been two major theories about the early development
of early south Asian traditions. (1) The Aryan migration thesis
that the Indus Valley groups calling themselves 'Aryans' (noble

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ones) migrated into the sub-continent and became the dominant
cultural force. Hinduism, on this view, derives from their religion
recorded in the Veda along with elements of the indigenous
traditions they encountered. (2) The cultural transformation
thesis that Aryan culture is a development of the Indus Valley
culture. On this view there were no Aryan migrations (or
invasion) and the Indus valley culture was an Aryan or vedic
culture.

There are two sources of knowledge about this ancient period -
language and archaeology - and we can make two comments
about them. Firstly, the language of vedic culture was vedic
Sanskrit, which is related to other languages in the Indo-
European language group. This suggests that Indo-European
speakers had a common linguistic origin known by scholars as
Proto-Indo-European. Secondly, there does seem to be
archaeological continuity in the subcontinent from the Neolithic
period. The history of this period is therefore complex. One of
the key problems is that no horse remains have been found in the
Indus Valley but in the Veda the horse sacrifice is central. The
debate is ongoing.

Vedic religion: If we take 'Vedic Period' to refer to the period
when the Vedas were composed, we can say that early vedic
religion centred around the sacrifice and sharing the sacrificial
meal with each other and with the many gods (devas). The term
'sacrifice' (homa, yajna) is not confined to offering animals but
refers more widely to any offering into the sacred fire (such as
milk and clarified butter).

Some of the vedic rituals were very elaborate and continue to the
present day. Sacrifice was offered to different vedic gods (devas)
who lived in different realms of a hierarchical universe divided
into three broad realms: earth, atmosphere and sky.

Earth contains the plant god Soma, the fire god Agni, and the god
of priestly power, Brhaspati. The Atmosphere contains the
warrior Indra, the wind Vayu, the storm gods or Maruts and the
terrible Rudra. The Sky contains the sky god Dyaus (from the

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same root as Zeus), the Lord of cosmic law (or rta) Varuna, his
friend the god of night Mitra, the nourisher Pushan, and the
pervader Vishnu.

THE EPIC, PURANIC AND CLASSICAL AGE (C.500 BCE
500 CE)
This period, beginning from around the time of Buddha (died c.
400 BCE), saw the composition of further texts, the Dharma
Sutras and Shastras, the two Epics, the Mahabharata and the
Ramayana, and subsequently the Puranas, containing many of the
stories still popular today. The famous Bhagavad Gita is part of
the Mahabharata.

The idea of dharma (law, duty, truth) which is central to
Hinduism was expressed in a genre of texts known as Dharma
Sutras and Shastras. The Dharma Sutras recognise three sources
of dharma: revelation (i.e. the Veda), tradition (smrti), and good
custom. The Laws of Manu adds 'what is pleasing to oneself.

During this period the vedic fire sacrifice became minimised with
the development of devotional worship (puja) to images of deities
in temples. The rise of the Gupta Empire (320-500 CE) saw the
development of the great traditions of Vaishnavism (focussed on
Vishnu), Shaivism (focussed on Shiva) and Shaktism (focussed
on Devi).

From this period we can recognise many elements in present day
Hinduism, such as bhakti (devotion) and temple worship. This
period saw the development of poetic literature. These texts were
composed in Sanskrit, which became the most important element
in a shared culture.

MEDIEVAL PERIOD (500 CE1500 CE)
From 500 CE we have the rise of devotion (bhakti) to the major
deities, particularly Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. With the collapse of
the Gupta empire, regional kingdoms developed which patronised
different religions. For example, the Cholas in the South
supported Shaivism.


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This period saw the development of the great regional temples
such as Jagganatha in Puri in Orissa, the Shiva temple in
Cidambaram in Tamilnadu, and the Shiva temple in Tanjavur,
also in Tamilnadu. All of these temples had a major deity
installed there and were centres of religious and political power.

Poet-saints and gurus: During this time not only religious
literature in Sanskrit developed but also in vernacular languages,
particularly Tamil. Here poet-saints recorded their devotional
sentiments. Most notable are the twelve Vaishnava Alvars (6th
9th centuries), including one famous female poet-saint called
Andal, and the sixty-three Shaiva Nayanars (8th10th centuries).

Subsequent key thinkers and teachers (acharyas or gurus)
consolidated these teachings. They formulated new theologies,
perpetuated by their own disciple-successions (sampradaya).

Shankara (780820) travelled widely, defeating scholars of the
unorthodox movements, Buddhism and Jainism, which around
the turn of the millennium had established prominent seats of
learning throughout India. He re-established the authority of the
Vedic canon, propagated advaita (monism) and laid foundations
for the further development of the tradition known as the
Vedanta.

Madhva (c.1238c.1317, Vaishnava saint and founder of the
philosophical school Dvaita.

The Vaishnava philosophers Ramanuja (c. 10171137), Madhva
(13th cent) and others followed, writing their own scriptural
commentaries, propounding new theologies and establishing their
own successions. Ramanuja qualified Shankara's impersonal
philosophy, and Madhva more strongly propounded the existence
of a personal God.

Shaivism similarly developed during this period with important
philosophers such as Abhinavagupta (c. 9751025) writing
commentaries on the Tantras, an alternative revelation to the
Veda, and other texts.

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The Tantras became revered as a revelation that fulfilled or
superseded the Veda. Some of these texts advocated ritually
polluting practices such as offering alcohol, meat and ritualised
sex to ferocious deities but most of these texts are simply
concerned with daily and occasional rituals, temple building,
cosmology and so on.


Schools
The Six Philosophical Systems (Darshana)
The Vedanta system is one of six orthodox (astika) perspectives
or systems (darshana) commonly identified in Hindu thought.
Each has a Sutra text and commentaries which explain and
interpret it. The Western distinction between philosophy and
theology has tittle relevance for understanding the darshanas.
They contain logic, analysis, and scriptural exegesis, and are
often directed to the liberation or salvation of the self.
1. Samkhya : This dualistic and atheistic perspective focuses
upon the distinctive nature of purusha, self or spirit, and
prakriti, matter.
2. Yoga : The yoga-darshana builds on the dualism of samkhya
but focuses on the spiritual discipline required for the self to
attain liberation.
3. Mimamsa : Focusing on dharma, right action, this is a system
of Vedic exegesis.
4. Vedanta : Also an exegetical system, Vedanta refers to the 'end
of the Veda', particularly the Upanishadic teaching on ultimate
reality (brahman).
5. Nyaya : A system of logic, leading to liberation.
6. Vaisheshika : A system of atomistic analysis of the categories
of dharma and their constituent elements.

As the six schools are complementary to each other, they are traditionally viewed as the
six branches of a single tree. All six provide a theoretical explanation of ultimate
Reality and a practical means of emancipation. The oldest are Yoga and Sankhya, the
next being Vaishesika and Nyaya, and the last pair are Purva Mimansa and Vedanta
(sometimes called Uttara Mimansa). The founders of these schools are considered to be
Patanjali of Yoga, Kapila of Sankhya, Kanada of Vaishesika, Gautama of Nyaya,
Jaimini of Purva Mimansa and Vyasa of Vedanta, though the last is also assigned to

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Badarayana. All of them propounded the tenets of their philosophical systems or
schools in the form of short sutras, whose elucidation required and stimulated elaborate
commentaries. Since about 200 C.E., a vast crop of secondary works has emerged
which has generated some significant discussions as well as a welter of scholastic
disputation and didactic controversies, moving far away from praxis into the forests of
theoria, or reducing praxis to rigid codes and theoria to sterile formulas. At the same
time, there has remained a remarkable vitality to most of these schools, owing to their
transmission by long lineages which have included many extraordinary teachers and
exemplars. This cannot be recovered merely through the study of texts, however
systematic and rigorous, in a philosophical tradition which is essentially oral, even
though exceptional powers of accurate recall have been displayed in regard to the texts.

Nyaya and Vaishesika: Nyaya and Vaishesika are schools primarily concerned with
analytic approaches to the objects of knowledge, using carefully tested principles of
logic. The word nyaya suggests that by which the mind reaches a conclusion, and since
the word also means right or just, Nyaya is the science of correct thinking. The
founder of this school, Gautama, lived about 150 B.C.E., and its source-book is the
Nyaya Sutra. Whilst knowledge requires an object, a knowing subject and a state of
knowing, the validity of cognition depends upon pramana, the means of cognition. The
Nyya school accepts four means of obtaining knowledge (prama), viz., Perception,
Inference, Comparison and Word. (1) pratyakshadirect perception or intuitionis
most important. Perception requires the mind, manas, to mediate between the self and
the senses, and perception may be determinate or indeterminate. Determinate
perception reveals the class to which an object of knowledge belongs, its specific
qualities and the union of the two. Indeterminate perception is simple apprehension
without regard to genus or qualities. In the Nyaya school, indeterminate perception is
not knowledge but rather its prerequisite and starting-point. (2) Anumana or inference
is the second pramana or means of cognition. It involves a fivefold syllogism which
includes a universal statement, an illustrative example and an application to the
instance at hand. (3) Upamana is the apt use of analogy, in which the similarities
which make the analogy come alive are essential and not superficial. (4) Shabda, sound
or verbal expression, is the credible testimony of authority, which requires not
uncritical acceptance but the thoughtful consideration of words, meanings and the
modes of reference. As the analytic structure of Nyaya logic suggests, its basic
approach to reality is atomistic, and so the test of claims of truth is often effectiveness
in application, especially in the realm of action. Typically, logical discussion of a
proposition takes the form of a syllogism with five parts: the proposition (pratijna) the
cause (hetu), the exemplification (drishtanta), the recapitulation (upanaya) and the
conclusion (nigamana).

However divergent their views on metaphysics and ethics, all schools accept and use
Nyaya canons of sound reasoning. A thorough training in logic is required not only in
all philosophical reasoning, exposition and disputation, but it is also needed by those
who seek to stress mastery of praxis over a lifetime and thereby become spiritual
exemplars. This at once conveys the enormous strength of an immemorial tradition as
well as the pitiable deficiencies of most professors and pundits, let alone the self-styled
so-called exoteric gurus of the contemporary East. Neither thaumaturgic wonders nor
mass hypnosis can compensate for mental muddles and shallow thinking; indeed, they
become insuperable obstacles to even a good measure of gnosis and noetic theurgy, let
alone authentic enlightenment and self-mastery.


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The VAISHESIKA school complements Nyaya in its distinct pluralism. Its founder,
Kanada, also known as Kanabhaksha, lived around 200 C.E., and its chief work is the
Vaishesika Sutra. Its emphasis on particulars is reflected in its name, since vishesha
means particularity, and it is concerned with properly delineating the categories of
objects of experience. These objects of experience, padarthas, are six: substance
(dravya), quality (guna), and karma or movement and activity (forming the triplicity of
objective existence), and generality (samanya), particularity (vishesha) and samavayi or
inherence (forming a triad of modes of intellectual discernment which require valid
logical inference). A seventh object of experience, non-existence (shunya), was
eventually added to the six as a strictly logical necessity. The Vaishesika point of view
recognizes nine irreducible substances: earth, water, air, fire, aether (akasha), time,
space, self and mind, all of which are distinct from the qualities which inhere in them.
The self is necessarily a substancea substrate of qualitiesbecause consciousness
cannot be a property of the physical body, the sense-organs or the brain-mind.
Although the self as a substance must be everywhere pervasive, its everyday capacity
for feeling, willing and knowing is focussed in the bodily organism.
Since the self experiences the consequences of its own deeds, there is, according to
Vaishesika, a plurality of souls, each of which has its vishesha, individuality or
particularity. What we experience is made up of parts, and is non-eternal, but the
ultimate componentsatomsare eternal. Individuality is formed by imperceptible souls
and certain atoms, which engender the organ of thought. At certain times, during
immense cosmogonic cycles, nothing is visible, as both souls and atoms are asleep, but
when a new cycle of creation begins, these souls reunite with certain atoms. Gautama
asserted that even during incarnated existence, emancipation may be attained through
ascetic detachment and the highest stages of contemplative absorption or samadhi.
Though the Vaishesika school wedded an atomistic standpoint to a strict atheism, over
time thinkers accepted a rationalistic concept of Deity as a prime mover in the universe,
a philosophical requisite acceptable to Nyaya. The two schools or systems were
combined by Kusumanjali of Udayana about 900 C.E. in his proof of the existence of
God. Since then, both schools have been theistic. The Jains claim early parentage for
the Vaishesika system, and this merely illustrates what is very common in the Indian
tradition, that innovators like Gautama and Kanada were reformulating an already
ancient school rather than starting de novo.

PURVA MIMANSA: The Purva Mimansa of Jaimini took as its point of departure
neither knowledge nor the objects of experience, but dharma, duty, as enjoined in the
Vedas and Upanishads. As the accredited sources of dharma, these sacred texts are not
the promulgations of some deity who condescended to step into time and set down
principles of correct conduct. Rather, the wisdom in such texts is eternal and uncreate,
and true rishis have always been able to see them and to translate that clear vision into
mantric sounds and memorable utterances. Hence Mimansa consecrates the mind to
penetrating the words which constitute this sacred transmission. Central to the
Mimansa school is the theory of self-evidencesvata pramana: truth is its own
guarantee and the consecrated practice of faith provides its own validation. Repeated
testings will yield correct results by exposing discrepancies and validating real
cognitions. There is a recognizable consensus amidst the independent visions of great
seers, and each individual must recognize or rediscover this consensus by proper use
and concentrated enactment of mantras and hymns. Every sound in the fifty-two letters
of Sanskrit has a cosmogonic significance and a theurgic effect. Inspired mantras are
exact mathematical combinations of sounds which emanate potent vibrations that can
transform the magnetic sphere around the individual as well as the magnetosphere of

16
the earth. Self-testing without self-deception can become a sacred activity, which is sui
generis.

From the Mimansa perspective, every act is necessarily connected to perceptible
results. One might say that the effects are inherent in the act, just as the fruit of the tree
is in the seed which grew and blossomed. There is no ontological difference between
act and result, for the apparent gap between them is merely the consequence of the
operation of time. Since the fruit of a deed may not follow immediately upon the act, or
even manifest in the same lifetime, the necessary connection between act and result
takes the form of apurva, an unseen force which is the unbreakable link between them.
This testable postulate gives significance to the concept of dharma in all its meanings
duty, path, teaching, religion, natural law, righteousness, accordance
with cosmic harmonybut it cannot by itself secure complete liberation from
conditioned existence. Social duties are important, but spiritual duties are even more
crucial, and the saying To thine own self be true has an array of meanings reaching
up to the highest demands of soul-tendance. In the continual effort to work off past
karma and generate good karma, there is unavoidable tension between different duties,
social and spiritual. The best actions, paradigmatically illustrated in Vedic invocations
and rituals, lead to exalted conditions, even to some heavenly condition or blissful
state. Nonetheless, as the various darshanas interacted and exchanged insights,
Mimansa came to consider the highest action as resulting in a cessation of advances
and retreats on the field of merit, whereby dharma and adharma were swallowed up in a
sublime and transcendental state of unbroken awareness of the divine.

In striving to penetrate the deepest arcane meaning of the sacred texts, Mimansa
thinkers accepted the four pramanas or modes of knowledge set forth in Nyaya, and
added two others: arthapatti or postulation, and abhava or negation and non-existence.
They did this in part because, given their view of the unqualified eternality of the
Vedas, they held that all cognition is valid at some level and to some degree. There can
be no false knowledge; whatever is known is necessarily true. As a consequence, they
saw no reason to prove the truth of any cognition. Rather, they sought to demonstrate
its falsity, for if disproof were successful, it would show that there had been no
cognition at all. The promise of gnosis rests upon the sovereign method of falsifiability
rather than a vain attempt to seek total verification in a public sense. Shifting the onus
of proof in this way can accommodate the uncreate Vedas, which are indubitably true
and which constitute the gold standard against which all other claims to truth are
measured. Mimansa rests upon the presupposition of the supremacy of Divine Wisdom,
the sovereignty of the Revealed Word and the possibility of its repeated realization.
Even among those who cannot accept the liturgical or revelatory validity and adequacy
of the Vedas, the logic of disproof can find powerful and even rigorous application. As
a method, it became important to the philosophers of Vedanta.

VEDANTA (UTTARA MIMANSA) Vedanta, meaning the end or goal of the
Vedas, sometimes also called Uttara Mimansa, addresses the spiritual and
philosophical themes of the Upanishads, which are considered to complete and form
the essence of the Vedas. Badarayanas magisterial Brahma Sutras ordered the
Upanishadic Teachings in a logically coherent sequence which considers the nature of
the supreme brahman, the ultimate Reality, and the question of the embodiment of the
unconditioned Self. Each of the five hundred and fifty-five sutras (literally, threads)
are extremely short and aphoristic, requiring a copious commentary to be understood.
In explaining their meaning, various commentators presented Vedantic doctrines in
different ways. Shankaracharya, the chief of the commentators and perhaps the greatest

17
philosopher in the Indian tradition, espoused the advaita, non-dual, form of Vedanta,
the purest form of monism, which has never been excelled. He asked whether in
human experience there is anything which is impervious to doubt. Noting that every
object of cognitionwhether dependent on the senses, the memory or pure
conceptualizationcan be doubted, he recognized in the doubter that which is beyond
doubt of any kind. Even if one reduces all claims to mere avowalsbare assertions
about what one seems to experiencethere nonetheless remains that which avows. It is
proof of itself, because nothing can disprove it. In this, it is also different from
everything else, and this difference is indicated by the distinction between subject and
object. The experiencing Self is subject; what it experiences is an object. Unlike
objects, nothing can affect it: it is immutable and immortal.

For Shankara, this Self (atman) is sat-chit-ananda, being or existence, consciousness or
cognition, and unqualified bliss. If there were no world, there would be no objects of
experience, and so although the world as it is experienced is not ultimately real, it is
neither abhava, non-existent, nor shunya, void. Ignorance is the result of confusing
atman, the unconditioned subject, with anatman, the external world. From the
standpoint of the cosmos, the world is subject to space, time and causality, but since
these categories arise from nascent experience, they are inherently inadequate save to
point beyond themselves to the absolute, immutable, self-identical brahman, which is
absolute Being (sat). Atman is brahman, for the immutable singularity of the absolute
subject, the Self, is not merely isomorphic, but radically identical with the transcendent
singularity of the ultimate Reality. Individuals who have yet to realize this fundamental
truth, which is in fact the whole Truth, impose out of ignorance various attitudes and
conceptions on the world, like the man who mistakes an old piece of rope discarded on
the trail for a poisonous serpent. He reacts to the serpent, but his responses are
inappropriate and cause him to suffer unnecessarily, because there is no serpent on the
trail to threaten him. Nonetheless, the rope is there. For Shankara, the noumenal world
is real, and when a person realizes its true nature, gaining wisdom thereby, his
responses will be appropriate and cease to cause suffering. He will realize that he is the
atman and that the atman is brahman.

Although brahman is ultimately nirguna, without qualities, the aspirant to supreme
knowledge begins by recognizing that the highest expression of brahman to the finite
mind is Ishvara, which is saguna brahman, Supreme Reality conceived through the
modes of pure logic. Taking Ishvara, which points beyond itself to That (Tat), as his
goal and paradigm, the individual assimilates himself to Ishvara through the triple path
of ethics, knowledge and devotionthe karma, jnana and bhakti yogas of the Bhagavad
Gitauntil moksha, emancipation and self-realization, is attained. For Shankara,
moksha is not the disappearance of the world but the dissolution of avidya, ignorance.

Ramanuja, who lived much later than Shankara, adopted a qualified non-dualism,
Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, by holding that the supreme brahman manifests as selves and
matter. For him, both are dependent on brahman, and so selves, not being identical with
the Ultimate, always retain their separate identity. As a consequence, they are
dependent on brahman, and that dependency expresses itself self-consciously as bhakti
or devotion. In this context, however, the dependence which is manifest as bhakti is
absurd unless brahman is thought to be personal in some degree, and so brahman
cannot be undifferentiated. Emancipation or freedom is not union with the divine, but
rather the irreversible and unwavering intuition of Deity. The Self is not identical with
brahman, but its true nature is this intuition, which is freedom. Faith that brahman
exists is sufficient and individual souls are parts of brahman, who is the creator of

18
universes. Yet brahman does not create anything new; what so appears is merely a
modification of the subtle and the invisible to the gross which we can see and sense.
Because we can commune with this God by prayer, devotion and faith, there is the
possibility of human redemption from ignorance and delusion. The individual is not
effaced when he is redeemed; he maintains his self-identity and enjoys the fruits of his
faith.

About a century and a half after Ramanuja, Madhava promulgated a dualistic (dvaita)
Vedanta, in which he taught that brahman, selves and the world are separate and
eternal, even though the latter two depend forever upon the first. From this standpoint,
brahman directs the world, since all else is dependent, and is therefore both
transcendent and immanent. As that which can free the self, brahman is identified with
Vishnu. Whereas the ultimate Reality or brahman is neither independent (svatantra) nor
dependent (paratantra), God or Vishnu is independent, whereas souls and matter are
dependent. God did not cause the cosmos but is part of it, and by his presence keeps it
in motion. Individual souls are dependent on brahman but are also active agents with
responsibilities which require the recognition of the omnipresence and omnipotence of
God. For the individual self, there exists either the bondage which results from
ignorance and the karma produced through acting ignorantly, or release effected
through the adoration, worship and service of Deity. The self is free when its devotion
is pure and perpetual. Although the later forms of Vedanta lower the sights of human
potentiality from the lofty goal of universal self-consciousness and conscious
immortality taught by Shankaracharya, they all recognize the essential difference
between bondage and freedom. The one is productive of suffering and the other offers
emancipation from it. But whereas for Shankara the means of emancipation is wisdom
(jnana) as the basis of devotion (bhakti) and nishkama karma or disinterested action,
the separation between atman and brahman is crucial for Ramanuja and necessitates
total bhakti, whilst for Madhava there are five distinctions within his dualismbetween
God and soul, God and matter, soul and matter, one form of matter and another, and
especially between one soul and anotherthus requiring from all souls total obeisance
to the omnipresent and omnipotent God.

Suffering is the starting point of the Sankhya darshana which provides the general
conceptual framework of Yoga philosophy. Patanjali set out the Taraka Raja Yoga
system, linking transcendental and self-luminous wisdom (taraka) with the alchemy of
mental transformation, and like the exponents of other schools, he borrowed those
concepts and insights which could best delineate his perspective. Since he found
Sankhya metaphysics useful to understanding, like a sturdy boat used to cross a stream
and then left behind when the opposite bank has been reached, many thinkers have
traditionally presented Sankhya as the theory for which Yoga is the practice. This
approach can aid understanding, providing one recognizes from the first and at all times
that yoga is the path to metaconsciousness, for which no system of concepts and
discursive reasoning, however erudite, rigorous and philosophical, is adequate. More
than any other school or system, Yoga is essentially experiential, in the broadest, fullest
and deepest meaning of that term.

SANKHYA The term Sankhya is ultimately derived from the Sanskrit root khya,
meaning to know, and the prefix san, exact. Exact knowing is most adequately
represented by Sankhya, number, and since the precision of numbers requires
meticulous discernment, Sankhya is that darshana which involves a thorough
discernment of reality and is expressed through the enumeration of diverse categories
of existence. Philosophically, Sankhya is dualistic in its discernment of the Self

19
(purusha) from the non-self (prakriti). In distinguishing sharply between purusha, Self
or Spirit, on the one hand, and prakriti, non-self or matter, on the other, the Sankhya
standpoint requires a rigorous redefinition of numerous terms used by various schools.
Even though later Sankhya freely drew from the Vedic-Upanishadic storehouse of
wisdom which intimates a rich variety of philosophical views, its earliest concern does
not appear to have been philosophical in the sense of delineating a comprehensive
conceptual scheme which describes and explains reality. Early Sankhya asked, What
is real? and only later on added the question, How does it all fit together?

Enumerations of the categories of reality varied with individual thinkers and historical
periods, but the standard classification of twenty-five tattvas or fundamental principles
of reality is useful for a general understanding of the darshana. Simply stated, Sankhya
holds that two radically distinct realities exist: purusha, which can be translated
Spirit, Self or pure consciousness, and mulaprakriti, or pre-cosmic matter,
non-self or materiality. Nothing can be predicated of purusha except as a corrective
negation; no positive attribute, process or intention can be affirmed of it, though it is
behind all the activity of the world. It might be called the Perceiver or the Witness, but,
strictly speaking, no intentionality can be implied by these words, and so purusha
cannot be conceived primarily as a knower. Mulaprakriti, however, can be understood
as pure potential because it undergoes ceaseless transformation at several levels. Thus,
of the twenty-five traditional tattvas, only these two are distinct. The remaining twenty-
three are transformations or modifications of mulaprakriti. Purusha and mulaprakriti
stand outside conceptual cognition, which arises within the flux of the other tattvas.
They abide outside space and time, are simple, independent and inherently unchanging,
and they have no relation to one another apart from their universal, simultaneous and
mutual presence.

Mulaprakriti is characterized by three qualities or gunas: sattva or intelligent and noetic
activity, rajas or passionate and compulsive activity, and tamas or ignorant and
impotent lethargy, represented in the Upanishads by the colors white, red and black. If
mulaprakriti were the only ultimate reality, its qualities would have forever remained in
a homogeneous balance, without undergoing change, evolution or transformation.
Since purusha is co-present with mulaprakriti, the symmetrical homogeneity of
mulaprakriti was disturbed, and this broken symmetry resulted in a progressive
differentiation which became the world of ordinary experience. True knowledge or
pure cognition demands a return to that primordial stillness which marks the utter
disentanglement of Self from non-self. The process which moved the gunas out of their
perfect mutual balance cannot be described or even alluded to through analogies, in
part because the process occurred outside space and time (and gave rise to them), and
in part because no description of what initiated this universal transformation can be
given in the language of logically subsequent and therefore necessarily less universal
change. In other words, all transformation known to the intellect occurs in some
contextminimally that of the intellect itselfwhilst the primordial process of
transformation occurred out of all context, save for the mere co-presence of purusha
and mulaprakriti.

This imbalance gave rise, first of all, logically speaking, to mahat or buddhi. These
terms refer to universal consciousness, primordial consciousness or intellect in the
classical and neo-Platonic sense of the word. Mahat in turn gave rise to ahankara, the
sense of I or egoity. (Ahankara literally means I-making.) Egoity as a principle or
tattva generated a host of offspring or evolutes, the first of which was manas or mind,
which is both the capacity for sensation and the mental ability to act, or intellectual

20
volition. It also produced the five buddhindriyas or capacities for sensation: shrota
(hearing), tvac (touching), chaksus (seeing), rasana (tasting) and ghrana (smelling). In
addition to sensation, ahankara gave rise to their dynamic and material correlates, the
five karmendriyas or capacities for action, and the five tanmatras or subtle elements.
The five karmendriyas are vach (speaking), pani (grasping), pada (moving), payu
(eliminating) and upastha (procreating), whilst the five tanmatras include shabda
(sound), sparsha (touch), rupa (form), rasa (taste) and gandha (smell). The tanmatras
are called subtle because they produce the mahabhutas or gross elements which can
be perceived by ordinary human beings. They are akasha (aether or empirical space),
vayu (air), tejas (fire, and by extension, light), ap (water) and prithivi (earth).

This seemingly elaborate system of the elements of existence (tattvas) is a rigorous
attempt to reduce the kaleidoscope of reality to its simplest comprehensible
components, without either engaging in a reductionism which explains away or denies
what does not fit its classification, or falling prey to a facile monism which avoids a
serious examination of visible and invisible Nature. Throughout the long history of
Sankhya thought, enumerations have varied, but this general classification has held
firm. Whilst some philosophers have suggested alternative orders of evolution, for
instance, making the subtle elements give rise to the capacities for sensation and action,
Ishvarakrishna expressed the classical consensus in offering this classification of
twenty-five tattvas.

Once the fundamental enumeration was understood, Sankhya thinkers arranged the
tattvas by sets to grasp more clearly their relationships to one another. At the most
general level, purusha is neither generated nor generating, whilst mulaprakriti is
ungenerated but generating. Buddhi, ahankara and the tanmatras are both generated and
generating, and manas, the buddhindriyas, karmendriyas and mahabhutas are generated
and do not generate anything in turn. In terms of their mutual relationships, one can
speak of kinds of tattvas and indicate an order of dependence from the standpoint of the
material world.

No matter how subtle and elaborate the analysis, however, one has at best described
ways in which consciousness functions in prakriti, the material world. If one affirms
that purusha and prakriti are radically and fundamentally separate, one cannot avoid the
challenge which vexed Descartes: how can res cogitans, thinking substance, be in any
way connected with res extensa, extended (material) substance? Sankhya avoided the
most fundamental problem of Cartesian dualism by willingly admitting that there can
be no connection, linkage or interaction between purusha and prakriti. Since
consciousness is a fact, this exceptional claim involved a redefinition of consciousness
itself. Consciousness is necessarily transcendent, unconnected with prakriti, and
therefore it can have neither cognitive nor intuitive awareness, since those are activities
which involve some center or egoity and surrounding field from which it separates
itself or with which it identifies. Egoity or perspective requires some mode of action,
and all action involves the gunas, which belong exclusively to prakriti. Consciousness,
purusha, is mere presence, sakshitva, without action, dynamics or content. Awareness,
chittavritti, is therefore a function of prakriti, even though it would not have come into
beingany more than anything would have evolved or the gunas would have become
unstablewithout the universal presence of purusha. Thus it is said that purusha is
unique in that it is neither generated nor generating, whereas all other tattvas are either
generating, generated or both.


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In this view, mind is material. Given its capacity for awareness, it can intuit the
presence of purusha, but it is not that purusha. All mental functions are part of the
complex activity of prakriti. Consciousness is bare subjectivity without a shadow of
objective content, and it cannot be said to have goals, desires or intentions. Purusha can
be said to exist (sat)indeed, it necessarily existsand its essential and sole specifiable
nature is chit, consciousness. Unlike the Vedantin atman, however, it cannot also be
said to be ananda, bliss, for purusha is the pure witness, sakshi, with no causal
connection to or participation in prakriti. Yet it is necessary, for the gunas could not be
said to be active save in the presence of some principle of sentience. Without purusha
there could be no prakriti. This is not the simple idealistic and phenomenological
standpoint summarized in Berkeleys famous dictum, esse est percipi, to be is to be
perceived. Rather, it is closer to the recognition grounded in Newtonian mechanics
that, should the universe achieve a condition of total entropy, it could not be said to
exist, for there would be no possibility of differentiation in it. Nor could its existence be
denied. The presence of purusha, according to Sankhya, is as necessary as is its utter
lack of content.

Given the distinction between unqualified, unmodified subjectivity as true or pure
consciousness, and awareness, which is the qualified appearance of consciousness in
the world, consciousness appears as what it cannot be. It appears to cause and initiate,
but cannot do so, since purusha cannot be said to be active in any sense; it appears to
entertain ideas and chains of thought, but it can in reality do neither. Rather, the action
of the gunas appears as the activity of consciousness until the actual nature of
consciousness is realized. The extreme break with previous understanding resulting
from this realizationthat consciousness has no content and that content is not
consciousis emancipation, the freeing of purusha from false bondage to prakriti. It is
akin to the Vedantin realization of atman free of any taint of maya, and the Buddhist
realization of shunyata. Philosophical conceptualization is incapable of describing this
realization, for pure consciousness can only appear, even to the subtlest cognitive
understanding, as nothing. For Sankhya, purusha is not nothing, but it is nothing that
partakes of prakriti (which all awareness does).

Sankhyas unusual distinction between consciousness and what are ordinarily
considered its functions and contents implies an operational view of purusha. Even
though no properties can be predicated of purusha, the mind or intellect intuits the
necessity of consciousness behind it, as it were. That is, the mind becomes aware that it
is not itself pure consciousness. Since this awareness arises in individual minds,
purusha is recognized by one or another egoity. Without being able to attribute qualities
to purusha, it must therefore be treated philosophically as a plurality. Hence it is said
that there are literally innumerable purushas, none of which have any distinguishing
characteristics. The Leibnizian law of the identity of indiscernibles cannot be applied to
purusha, despite the philosophical temptation to do so, precisely because philosophy
necessarily stops at the limit of prakriti. Purusha is outside space and time, and so is
also beyond space-time identities. Since the minimum requirements of differentiation
involve at least an indirect reference to either space or time, their negation in the
concept of indiscernibility also involves such a reference, and cannot be applied to
purusha. Even though Sankhya affirms a plurality of purushas, this stance is less the
result of metaphysical certitude than of the limitations imposed by consistency of
method. The plurality of purushas is the consequence of the limits of understanding.

Within the enormous and diverse history of Indian thought, the six darshanas viewed
themselves and one another in two ways. Internally, each standpoint sought clarity,

22
completeness and consistency without reference to other darshanas. Since, however, the
darshanas were committed to the proposition that they were six separate and viable
perspectives on the same reality, they readily drew upon one anothers insights and
terminology and forged mutually dependent relationships. They were less concerned
with declaring one another true or false than with understanding the value and
limitations of each in respect to a complete realization of the ultimate and divine nature
of things. Whilst some Western philosophers have pointed to the unprovable Indian
presupposition that the heart of existence is divine, the darshanas reverse this
standpoint by affirming that the core of reality is, almost definitionally, the only basis
for thinking of the divine. In other words, reality is the criterion of the divine, and no
other standard can make philosophical sense of the sacred, much less give it a practical
place in human psychology and ethics. In their later developments, the darshanas
strengthened their internal conceptual structures and ethical architectonics by taking
one anothers positions as foils for self-clarification. Earlier developments were
absorbed into later understanding and exposition. Historically, Sankhya assimilated and
redefined much of what had originally belonged to Nyaya and Vaishesika, and even
Mimansa, only to find much of its terminology and psychology incorporated into
Vedanta, the most trenchantly philosophical of the darshanas. At the same time, later
Sankhya borrowed freely from Vedantin philosophical concepts to rethink its own
philosophical difficulties.

Despite Sankhyas unique distinction between consciousness and awareness, which
allowed it to preserve its fundamental dualism in the face of monistic argumentsand
thereby avoid the metaphysical problems attending monistic viewsit could not avoid
one fundamental philosophical question: What is it to say that prakriti is dynamic
because of the presence of purusha? To say that prakriti reflects the presence of
purusha, or that purusha is reflected in prakriti, preserves a rigid distinction between the
two, for neither an object reflected in a mirror nor the mirror is affected by the other.
But Sankhya characterizes the ordinary human condition as one of suffering, which is
the manifest expression of the condition of avidya, ignorance. This condition arises
because purusha falsely identifies with prakriti and its evolutes. Liberation, mukti, is
the result of viveka, discrimination, which is the highest knowledge. Even though
viveka might be equated with pure perception as the sakshi or Witness, the process of
attaining it suggests either an intention on the part of purusha or a response on the part
of prakriti, if not both. How then can purusha be said to have no relation, including no
passive relation, to prakriti? Even Ishvarakrishnas enchanting metaphor of the dancer
before the host of spectators does not answer the question, for there is a significant
relationship between performer and audience.

Such questions are worthy of notice but are misplaced from the Sankhya standpoint. If
philosophical understanding is inherently limited to the functions of the mind (which is
an evolute of prakriti), it can encompass neither total awareness (purusha) nor the fact
that both purusha and prakriti exist. This is the supreme and unanswerable mystery of
Sankhya philosophy, the point at which Sankhya declares that questions must have an
end. It is not, however, an unaskable or meaningless question. If its answer cannot be
found in philosophy, that is because it is dissolved in mukti, freedom from ignorance,
through perfect viveka, discrimination. In Sankhya as in Vedanta, philosophy ends
where realization begins. Philosophy does not resolve the ultimate questions, even
though it brings great clarity to cognition. Philosophy prepares, refines and orients the
mind towards a significantly different activity, broadly called meditation, the
rigorous cultivation of clarity of discrimination and concentrated, pellucid insight. The
possibility of this is provided for by Sankhya metaphysics through its stress on the

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asymmetry between purusha and prakriti, despite their co-presence. Prakriti depends on
purusha, but purusha is independent of everything; purusha is pure consciousness,
whilst prakriti is unself-conscious. Prakriti continues to evolve because individual
selves in it do not realize that they are really purusha and, therefore, can separate
themselves from prakriti, whilst there can never be complete annihilation of everything
or of primordial matter.

Whereas Yoga accepted the postulates of Sankhya and also utilized its categories and
classifications, all these being in accord with the experiences of developed yogins,
there are significant divergences between Yoga and Sankhya. The oldest Yoga could
have been agnostic in the sense implicit in the Rig Veda Hymn to Creation, but
Patanjalis Yoga is distinctly theistic, diverging in this way from atheistic Sankhya.
Whilst Sankhya is a speculative system, or at least a conceptual framework, Yoga is
explicitly experiential and therefore linked to an established as well as evolving
consensus among advanced yogins. This is both illustrated and reinforced by the fact
that whereas Sankhya maps out the inner world of disciplined ideation in terms of
thirteen evolutesbuddhi, ahankara, manas and the ten indriyasPatanjalis Yoga
subsumes all these under chitta or consciousness, which is resilient, elastic and
dynamic, including the known, the conceivable, the cosmic as well as the unknown.
Whereas Sankhya is one of the most self-sufficient or closed systems, Yoga retains, as
a term and in its philosophy, a conspicuously open texture which characterizes all
Indian thought at its best. From the Vedic hymns to even contemporary discourse, it is
always open-ended in reference to cosmic and human evolution, degrees of adeptship
and levels of initiatory illumination. It is ever seeing, reaching and aspiring, beyond the
boundaries of the highest thought, volition and feeling; beyond worlds and rationalist
systems and doctrinaire theologies; beyond the limits of inspired utterance as well as all
languages and all possible modes of creative expression. Philosophy and mathematics,
poetry and myth, idea and icon, are all invaluable aids to the image-making faculty, but
they all must point beyond themselves, whilst they coalesce and collapse in the
unfathomable depths of the Ineffable, before which the best minds and hearts must
whisper neti neti, not this, not that. There is only the Soundless Sound, the ceaseless
AUM in Boundless Space and Eternal Duration.

YOGA Almost nothing is known about the sage [Patanjali] who wrote the Yoga
Sutras. The dating of his life has varied widely between the fourth century B.C.E. and
the sixth century C.E., but the fourth century B.C.E. is the period noted for the
appearance of aphoristic literature. Traditional Indian literature, especially the Padma
Purana, includes brief references to Patanjali, indicating that he was born in Illavrita
Varsha. Bharata Varsha is the ancient designation of Greater India as an integral part of
Jambudvipa, the world as conceived in classical topography, but Illavrita Varsha is not
one of its subdivisions. It is an exalted realm inhabited by the gods and enlightened
beings who have transcended even the rarefied celestial regions encompassed by the
sevenfold Jambudvipa. Patanjali is said to be the son of Angira and Sati, to have
married Lolupa, whom he discovered in the hollow of a tree on the northern slope of
Mount Sumeru, and to have reduced the degenerate denizens of Bhotabhandra to ashes
with fire from his mouth. Such legendary details conceal more than they reveal and
suggest that Patanjali was a great Rishi who descended to earth in order to share the
fruits of his wisdom with those who were ready to receive it.

Some commentators identify the author of the Yoga Sutras with the Patanjali who
wrote the Mahabhashya or Great Commentary on Paninis famous treatise on Sanskrit
grammar sometime between the third and first centuries B.C.E. Although several

24
scholars have contended that internal evidence contradicts such an identification, others
have not found this reasoning conclusive. King Bhoja, who wrote a well-known
commentary in the tenth century, was inclined to ascribe both works to a single author,
perhaps partly as a reaction to others who placed Patanjali several centuries C.E. owing
to his alleged implicit criticisms of late Buddhist doctrines. A more venerable tradition,
however, rejects this identification altogether and holds that the author of the Yoga
Sutras lived long before the commentator on Panini. In this view, oblique references to
Buddhist doctrines are actually allusions to modes of thought found in some
Upanishads.

In addition to our lack of definite knowledge about Patanjalis life, confusion arises
from contrasting appraisals of the Yoga Sutras itself. There is a strong consensus that
the Yoga Sutras represents a masterly compendium of various Yoga practices which
can be traced back through the Upanishads to the Vedas. Many forms of Yoga existed
by the time this treatise was written, and Patanjali came at the end of a long and ancient
line of yogins. In accord with the free-thinking tradition of shramanas, forest recluses
and wandering mendicants, the ultimate vindication of the Yoga system is to be found
in the lifelong experiences of its ardent votaries and exemplars. The Yoga Sutras
constitutes a practitioners manual, and has long been cherished as the pristine
expression of Raja Yoga. The basic texts of Raja Yoga are Patanjalis Yoga Sutras, the
Yogabhashya of Vyasa and the Tattvavaisharadi of Vachaspati Mishra. Hatha Yoga
was formulated by Gorakshanatha, who lived around 1200 C.E. The main texts of this
school are the Goraksha Sutaka, the Nathayoga Pradipika of Yogindra of the fifteenth
century, and the later Shivasamhita. Whereas Hatha Yoga stresses breath regulation and
bodily discipline, Raja Yoga is essentially concerned with mind control, meditation and
self-study.

The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is universal in the manner of the Bhagavad Gita, including
a diversity of standpoints whilst fusing Sankhya metaphysics with bhakti or self-
surrender. There is room for differences of emphasis, but every diligent user of
Patanjalis aphorisms is enabled to refine aspirations, clarify thoughts, strengthen
efforts, and sharpen focus on essentials in spiritual self-discipline. Accommodating a
variety of exercisesmind control, visualization, breath, posture, moral training
Patanjali brings together the best in differing approaches, providing an integrated
discipline marked by moderation, flexibility and balance, as well as degrees of depth in
meditative absorption. The text eludes any simple classification within the vast
resources of Indian sacred literature and a fortiori among the manifold scriptures of the
world. Although it does not resist philosophical analysis in the way many mystical
treatises do, it is primarily a practical aid to the quest for spiritual freedom, which
transcends the concerns of theoretical clarification. Yet like any arcane science which
necessarily pushes beyond the shifting boundaries of sensory experience, beyond
conventional concepts of inductive reasoning and mundane reality, it reaffirms at every
point its vital connection with the universal search for meaning and deliverance from
bondage to shared illusions. It is a summons to systematic self-mastery which can
aspire to the summits of gnosis.

The actual text as it has come down to the present may not be exactly what Patanjali
penned. Perhaps he reformulated in terse aphoristic language crucial insights found in
time-honoured but long-forgotten texts. Perhaps he borrowed terms and phrases from
diverse schools of thought and training. References to breath control, pranayama, can
be found in the oldest Upanishads, and the lineaments of systems of Yoga may be
discerned in the Maitrayana, Shvetashvatara and Katha Upanishads, and veiled

25
instructions are given in the Yoga UpanishadsYogatattva, Dhyanabindu, Hamsa,
Amritanada, Shandilya, Varaha, Mandala Brahmana, Nadabindu and Yogakundali
though a leaning towards Sankhya metaphysics occurs only in the Maitrayana. The
Mahabharata mentions the Sankhya and the Yoga as ancient systems of thought.
Hiranyagarbha is traditionally regarded as the propounder of Yoga, just as Kapila is
known as the original expounder of Sankhya. The Ahirbudhnya states that
Hiranyagarbha disclosed the entire science of Yoga in two textsthe Nirodha Samhita
and the Karma Samhita. The former treatise has been called the Yoganushasanam, and
Patanjali also begins his work with the same term. He also stresses nirodha in the first
section of his work.

In general, the affinities of the Yoga Sutras with the texts of Hiranyagarbha suggest that
Patanjali was an adherent of the Hiranyagarbha school of Yoga, and yet his own
manner of treatment of the subject is distinctive. His reliance upon the fundamental
principles of Sankhya entitle him to be considered as also belonging to the Sankhya
Yoga school. On the other hand, the significant variations of the later Sankhya of
Ishvarakrishna from older traditions of proto-Sankhya point to the advantage of not
subsuming the Yoga Sutras under broader systems. The author of Yuktidipika stresses
that for Patanjali there are twelve capacities, unlike Ishvarakrishnas thirteen, that
egoity is not a separate principle for Patanjali but is bound up with intellect and
volition. Furthermore, Patanjali held that the subtle body is created anew with each
embodiment and lasts only as long as a particular embodiment, and also that the
capacities can only function from within. Altogether, Patanjalis work provides a
unique synthesis of standpoints and is backed by the testimony of the accumulated
wisdom derived from the experiences of many practitioners and earlier lineages of
teachers.

Some scholars and commentators have speculated that Patanjali wrote only the first
three padas of the Yoga Sutras, whilst the exceptionally short fourth pada was added
later. Indeed, as early as the writings of King Bhoja, one verse in the fourth pada (IV.
16) was recognized as a line interpolated from Vyasas seventh commentary in which
he dissented from Vijnanavadin Buddhists. Other interpolations may have occurred
even in the first three padas, such as III.22, which some classical commentators
questioned. The fact that the third pada ends with the word iti (thus, so, usually
indicating the end of a text), as it does at the end of the fourth pada, might suggest that
the original contained only three books. However, the philosophical significance of the
fourth pada is such that the coherence of the entire text need not be questioned on the
basis of inconclusive speculations.

Al-Biruni translated into Arabic a book he called Kitab Patanjal (The Book of
Patanjali), which he said was famous throughout India. Although his text has an aim
similar to the Yoga Sutras and uses many of the same concepts, it is more theistic in its
content and even has a slightly Sufi tone. It is not the text now known as the Yoga
Sutras, but it may be a kind of paraphrase popular at the time, rather like the
Dnyaneshwari, which stands both as an independent work and a helpful restatement of
the Bhagavad Gita. The Kitab translated by al-Biruni illustrates the pervasive influence
of Patanjalis work throughout the Indian subcontinent.

For the practical aspirant to inner tranquillity and spiritual realization, the recurring
speculations of scholars and commentators, stimulated by the lack of exact historical
information about the author and the text, are of secondary value. Whatever the precise
details regarding the composition of the treatise as it has come down through the

26
centuries, it is clearly an integrated whole, every verse of which is helpful not only for
theoretical understanding but also for sustained practice. The Yoga Sutras constitutes a
complete text on meditation and is invaluable in that every sutra demands deep
reflection and repeated application. Patanjali advocated less a doctrinaire method than a
generous framework with which one can make experiments with truth, grow in
comprehension and initiate progressive awakenings to the supernal reality of the Logos
in the cosmos.

The word yoga is derived from the Sanskrit verbal root yuj, to yoke or to join,
related to the Latin jungere, to join, to unite. In its broadest usages it can mean
addition in arithmetic; in astronomy it refers to the conjunction of stars and planets; in
grammar it is the joining of letters and words. In Mimamsa philosophy it indicates the
force of a sentence made up of united words, whilst in Nyaya logic it signifies the
power of the parts taken together. In medicine it denotes the compounding of herbs and
other substances. In general, yoga and viyoga pertain to the processes of synthesis and
analysis in both theoretical and applied sciences. Panini distinguishes between the root
yuj in the sense of concentration (samadhi) and yujir in the sense of joining or
connecting. Buddhists have used the term yoga to designate the withdrawal of the mind
from all mental and sensory objects. Vaishesika philosophy means by yoga the
concentrated attention to a single subject through mental abstraction from all contexts.
Whereas the followers of Ramanuja use the term to depict the fervent aspiration to join
ones ishtadeva or chosen deity, Vedanta chiefly uses the term to characterize the
complete union of the human soul with the divine spirit, a connotation compatible with
its use in Yoga philosophy. In addition, Patanjali uses the term yoga to refer to the
deliberate cessation of all mental modifications.

Every method of self-mastery, the systematic removal of ignorance and the progressive
realization of Truth, can be called yoga, but in its deepest sense it signifies the union of
ones apparent and fugitive self with ones essential nature and true being, or the
conscious union of the embodied self with the Supreme Spirit. The Maitrayana
Upanishad states: Carried along by the waves of the qualities darkened in his
imagination, unstable, fickle, crippled, full of desires, vacillating, he enters into belief,
believing I am he, this is mine, and he binds his self by his self as a bird with a net.
Therefore a man, being possessed of will, imagination and belief, is a slave, but he who
is the opposite is free. For this reason let a man stand free from will, imagination and
belief. This is the sign of liberty, this is the path that leads to brahman, this is the
opening of the door, and through it he will go to the other shore of darkness.

Thus, yoga refers to the removal of bondage and the consequent attainment of true
spiritual freedom. Whenever yoga goes beyond this and actually implies the fusion of
an individual with his ideal, whether viewed as his real nature, his true self or the
universal spirit, it is gnostic self-realization and universal self-consciousness, a self-
sustaining state of serene enlightenment. Patanjalis metaphysical and epistemological
debt to Sankhya is crucial to a proper comprehension of the Yoga Sutras, but his
distinct stress on praxis rather than theoria shows a deep insight of his own into the
phases and problems that are encountered by earnest practitioners of Yoga. His chief
concern was to show how and by what means the spirit, trammelled in the world of
matter, can withdraw completely from it and attain total emancipation by transforming
matter into its original state and thus realize its own pristine nature. This applies at all
levels of self-awakening, from the initial cessation of mental modifications, through
degrees of meditative absorption, to the climactic experience of spiritual freedom.


27
Patanjali organized the Yoga Sutras into four padas or books which suggest his
architectonic intent. Samadhi Pada, the first book, deals with concentration of mind
(samadhi), without which no serious practice of Yoga is possible. Since samadhi is
necessarily experiential, this pada explores the hindrances to and the practical steps
needed to achieve alert quietude. Both restraint of the senses and of the discursive
intellect are essential for samadhi. Having set forth what must be done to attain and
maintain meditative absorption, the second book, Sadhana Pada, provides the method
or means required to establish full concentration. Any effort to subdue the tendency of
the mind to become diffuse, fragmented or agitated demands a resolute, consistent and
continuous practice of self-imposed, steadfast restraint, tapas, which cannot become
stable without a commensurate disinterest in all phenomena. This relaxed
disinterestedness, vairagya, has nothing to do with passive indifference, positive
disgust, inert apathy or feeble-minded ennui as often experienced in the midst of
desperation and tension in daily affairs. Those are really the self-protective responses of
one who is captive to the pleasure-pain principle and is deeply vulnerable to the flux of
events and the vicissitudes of fortune. Vairagya implies a conscious transcendence of
the pleasure-pain principle through a radical reappraisal of expectations, memories and
habits. The pleasure-pain principle, dependent upon passivity, ignorance and servility
for its operation, is replaced by a reality principle rooted in an active, noetic
apprehension of psycho-spiritual causation. Only when this impersonal perspective is
gained can the yogin safely begin to alter significantly his psycho-physical nature
through breath control, pranayama, and other exercises.

The third book, Vibhuti Pada, considers complete meditative absorption, sanyama, its
characteristics and consequences. Once calm, continuous attention is mastered, one can
discover an even more transcendent mode of meditation which has no object of
cognition whatsoever. Since levels of consciousness correspond to planes of being, to
step behind the uttermost veil of consciousness is also to rise above all manifestations
of matter. From that wholly transcendent standpoint beyond the ever-changing contrast
between spirit and matter, one may choose any conceivable state of consciousness and,
by implication, any possible material condition. Now the yogin becomes capable of
tapping all the siddhis or theurgic powers. These prodigious mental and moral feats are
indeed magical, although there is nothing miraculous or even supernatural about them.
They represent the refined capacities and exalted abilities of the perfected human being.
Just as any person who has achieved proficiency in some specialized skill or knowledge
should be careful to use it wisely and precisely, so too the yogin whose spiritual and
mental powers may seem practically unlimited must not waste his energy or misuse his
hard-won gifts. If he were to do so, he would risk getting entangled in worldly concerns
in the myriad ways from which he had sought to free himself. Instead, the mind must
be merged into the inmost spirit, the result of which is kaivalya, steadfast isolation or
eventual emancipation from the bonds of illusion and the meretricious glamour of
terrestrial existence.

In Kaivalya Pada, the fourth book which crowns the Yoga Sutras, Patanjali conveys the
true nature of isolation or supreme spiritual freedom insofar as it is possible to do so in
words. Since kaivalya is the term used for the sublime state of consciousness in which
the enlightened soul has gone beyond the differentiating sense of I am, it cannot be
characterized in the conceptual languages that are dependent on the subject-object
distinction. Isolation is not nothingness, nor is it a static condition. Patanjali throws
light on this state of gnosis by providing a metaphysical and metapsychological
explanation of cosmic and human intellection, the operation of karma and the deep-
seated persistence of the tendency of self-limitation. By showing how the suppression

28
of modifications of consciousness can enable it to realize its true nature as pure
potential and master the lessons of manifested Nature, he intimates the immense
potency of the highest meditations and the inscrutable purpose of cosmic selfhood.

The metapsychology of the Yoga Sutras bridges complex metaphysics and compelling
ethics, creative transcendence and critical immanence, in an original, inspiring and
penetrating style, whilst its aphoristic method leaves much unsaid, throwing aspirants
back upon themselves with a powerful stimulus to self-testing and self-discovery.
Despite his sophisticated use of Sankhya concepts and presuppositions, Patanjalis text
has a universal appeal for all ardent aspirants to Raja Yoga. He conveys the vast
spectrum of consciousness, diagnoses the common predicament of human bondage to
mental ailments, and offers practical guidance on the arduous pathway of lifelong
contemplation that could lead to the summit of self-mastery and spiritual freedom.

THE PRE-MODERN PERIOD (C.15001757 CE)
Alongside the development of Hindu traditions, most widespread
in the South, was the rise of Islam in the North as a religious and
political force in India. The new religion of Islam reached Indian
shores around the 8th century, via traders plying the Arabian Sea
and the Muslim armies which conquered the northwest provinces.

Muslim political power began with the Turkish Sultanate around
1200 CE and culminated in the Mughul Empire (from 1526).
Akbar (15421605) was a liberal emperor and allowed Hindus to
practice freely. However, his great grandson, Aurangzeb (1618
1707), destroyed many temples and restricted Hindu practice.

During this period we have further developments in devotional
religion (bhakti). The Sant tradition in the North, mainly in
Maharashtra and the Punjab, expressed devotion in poetry to both
a god without qualities (nirguna) and to a god with qualities
(saguna) such as parental love of his devotees.

The Sant tradition combines elements of bhakti, meditation or
yoga, and Islamic mysticism. Even today the poetry of the
princess Mirabai, and other saints such as Tukaram, Surdas and
Dadu are popular.

BRITISH PERIOD (17571947 CE)
Robert Clive's victory at the Battle of Plassey (1757) heralded the
end of the Mughul Empire and the rise of British supremacy in
India.

29

At first, the British did not interfere with the religion and culture
of the Indian people, allowing Hindus to practice their religion
unimpeded. Later, however, missionaries arrived preaching
Christianity. Shortly after, the first scholars stepped ashore, and
though initially sympathetic, were often motivated by a desire to
westernise the local population. Chairs of Indology were
established in Oxford and other universities in Europe.

Hindu reformers
The nineteenth century saw the development of the 'Hindu
Renaissance' with reformers such as Ram Mohan Roy (1772
1833) presenting Hinduism as a rational, ethical religion and
founding the Brahmo Samaj to promote these ideas.

Another reformer, Dayananda Sarasvati (182483), advocated a
return to vedic religion which emphasised an eternal, omnipotent
and impersonal God. He wanted to return to the 'eternal law' or
sanatana dharma of Hinduism before the Puranas and Epics
through his society, the Arya Samaj.

Both of these reformers wished to rid Hinduism of what they
regarded as superstition. These groups were instrumental in
sowing the seeds of Indian nationalism and Hindu missionary
movements that later journeyed to the West.

Another important figure was Paramahamsa Ramakrishna (1836-
86), who declared the unity of all religions. His disciple
Vivekananda (18631902) developed his ideas and linked them
to a political vision of a united India.

These ideas were developed by Gandhi (18691948), who was
instrumental in establishing an independent India. Gandhi, holy
man and politician, is probably the best known Indian of the
twentieth century. He helped negotiate independence, but was
bitterly disappointed by the partition of his country. He was
assassinated in 1948.


30
Gandhi drew much of his strength and conviction from the Hindu
teachings, such as the notion of ahimsa (non-violence), and
propounded a patriotism that was broad-minded and
magnanimous.

Hindutva: During the resistance to colonial rule, the term 'Hindu'
became charged with cultural and political meaning. One central
idea was hindutva (hindu-ness), coined by V.D. Savarkar to refer
to a socio-political force that could unite Hindus against
'threatening others'. Cultural organisations such as the RSS
(Rashtriya Svayam-Sevak Sangh) and VHP (Vishva Hindu
Parishad) have embraced and developed this ideal, which found
political expression in the BJP (Bharatiya Janata Party). These
sectarian ideas continued after independence.

INDEPENDENT INDIA (1947 CEpresent)
The partition of India in 1947, and the resultant bloodshed
reinforced nationalistic tendencies and specifically notions of
India as 'a Hindu country', and of Hinduism as 'an Indian
religion'.

These tendencies have continued and, since then, communal
violence has frequently erupted. In 1992, Hindus were incited to
tear down the Babri mosque in Ayodhya, which they believe was
deliberately and provocatively built over the site of Rama's birth.
Tensions have been exacerbated by attempts to covert Hindus to
other religions and reactions by the continuing hindutva
movement.

Identity in the Hindu diaspora: However, the post-war Hindu
movements imported into the west, and wide migration of
Hindus, raised questions about the exact nature of Hindu identity.
From the 1960s onwards, many Indians migrated to Britain and
Northern America. Gurus travelled to the West to nurture the
fledgling Hindu communities, sometimes starting missionary
movements that attracted Western interest.

In the late 1960s, Transcendental Meditation achieved worldwide
popularity, attracting the attention of celebrities such as the

31
Beatles. Perhaps the most conspicuous was the Hare Krishna
movement, whose male followers sported shaved heads and
saffron robes.

Many such Western adherents, and casual practitioners of yoga
also, were attracted to the non-sectarian spiritual aspects of
Hinduism. Many Hindu youth in the diaspora have similarly
preferred these universal aspects of Hinduism, standing in tension
with its more political and sectarian elements.

At the end of the millennium, the Hindu communities became
well established abroad, excelling socially, economically and
academically. They built many magnificent temples, such has the
Swaminarayan Temple in London.

Hindus in diaspora were particularly concerned about the
perpetuation of their tradition and felt obliged to respond to
Hindu youth, who sought a rational basis for practices previously
passed down by family custom. They are now particularly
concerned about how to deal with contentious issues such as
caste, intermarriage and the position of women. In many ways,
Hindus in the West are turning back to their roots.

BASIC CONCEPTS:
Atman
Atman means 'eternal self'. The atman refers to the real self
beyond ego or false self. It is often referred to as 'spirit' or 'soul'
and indicates our true self or essence which underlies our
existence.
There are many interesting perspectives on the self in Hinduism
ranging from the self as eternal servant of God to the self as
being identified with God. The understanding of the self as
eternal supports the idea of reincarnation in that the same eternal
being can inhabit temporary bodies.
The idea of atman entails the idea of the self as a spiritual rather
than material being and thus there is a strong dimension of
Hinduism which emphasises detachment from the material world
and promotes practices such as asceticism. Thus it could be said
that in this world, a spiritual being, the atman, has a human

32
experience rather than a human being having a spiritual
experience.

Dharma
Dharma is an important term in Indian religions. In Hinduism it
means 'duty', 'virtue', 'morality', even 'religion' and it refers to the
power which upholds the universe and society. Hindus generally
believe that dharma was revealed in the Vedas although a more
common word there for 'universal law' or 'righteousness' is rita.
Dharma is the power that maintains society, it makes the grass
grow, the sun shine, and makes us moral people or rather gives
humans the opportunity to act virtuously.
But acting virtuously does not mean precisely the same for
everyone; different people have different obligations and duties
according to their age, gender, and social position. Dharma is
universal but it is also particular and operates within concrete
circumstances. Each person therefore has their own dharma
known as sva-dharma. What is correct for a woman might not be
for a man or what is correct for an adult might not be for a child.
The importance of sva-dharma is illustrated well by the
Bhagavad Gita. This text, set before the great battle of the
Mahabharata, depicts the hero Arjuna riding in his chariot driven
by his charioteer Krishna between the great armies. The warrior
Arjuna questions Krishna about why he should fight in the battle.
Surely, he asks, killing one's relatives and teachers is wrong and
so he refuses to fight.
Krishna assures him that this particular battle is righteous and he
must fight as his duty or dharma as a warrior. Arjuna's sva-
dharma was to fight in the battle because he was a warrior, but he
must fight with detachment from the results of his actions and
within the rules of the warriors' dharma. Indeed, not to act
according to one's own dharma is wrong and called adharma.
Correct action in accordance with dharma is also understood as
service to humanity and to God. The idea of what has become
known as sanatana dharma can be traced back to the puranas -
texts of antiquity. Those who adhere to this idea of one's eternal
dharma or constitution, claim that it transcends other mundane
dharmas - that it is the para dharma, the ultimate dharma of the

33
self. It is often associated with bhakti movements, who link an
attitude of eternal service to a personal deity.

Varna
An important idea that developed in classical Hinduism is that
dharma refers especially to a person's responsibility regarding
class (varna) and stage of life (ashrama). This is called
varnashrama-dharma. In Hindu history the highest class, the
Brahmins, adhered to this doctrine. The class system is a model
or ideal of social order that first occurs in the oldest Hindu text,
the Rig Veda and the present-day caste (jati) system may be
rooted in this. The four classes are:
Brahmans or Brahmins - the intellectuals and the priestly class
who perform religious rituals
Kshatriya (nobles or warriors) - who traditionally had power
Vaishyas (commoners or merchants) - ordinary people who
produce, farm, trade and earn a living
Shudras (workers) - who traditionally served the higher classes,
including labourers, artists, musicians, and clerks
People in the top three classes are known as 'twice born' because
they have been born from the womb and secondly through
initiation in which boys receive a sacred thread as a symbol of
their high status. Although usually considered an initiation for
males it must be noted that there are examples of exceptions to
this rule, where females receive this initiation.
The twice born traditionally could go through four stages of life
or ashramas. The ashrama system is as follows:
Brahmacarya - 'celibate student' stage in which males
learned the Veda
Grihastha - 'householder' in which the twice born male
can experience the human purposes (purushartha) of
responsibility, wealth, and sexual pleasure
Vanaprastha - 'hermit' or 'wilderness dweller' in which the
twice born male retires from life in the world to take up
pilgrimage and religious observances along with his wife
Samnyasa - 'renunciation' in which the twice born gives
up the world, takes on a saffron robe or, in some sects,

34
goes naked, with a bowl and a staff to seek moksha
(liberation) or develop devotion

Correct action in accordance with dharma is also understood as
service to humanity and to God. The idea of what has become
known as sanatana dharma can be traced back to the puranas.
Those who adhere to this idea, addressing ones eternal dharma
or constitution, claim that it transcends other mundane dharmas
that it is the para dharma, the ultimate dharma. It is often
associated with bhakti movements, who propose that we are all
eternal servants of a personal Deity, thus advocating each act,
word, and deed to be acts of devotion. In the 19th Century the
concept of sanatana dharma was used by some groups to
advocate a unified view of Hinduism.

Karma and Samsara
Karma is a Sanskrit word whose literal meaning is 'action'. It
refers to the law that every action has an equal reaction either
immediately or at some point in the future. Good or virtuous
actions, actions in harmony with dharma, will have good
reactions or responses and bad actions, actions against dharma,
will have the opposite effect.
In Hinduism karma operates not only in this lifetime but across
lifetimes: the results of an action might only be experienced after
the present life in a new life.
Hindus believe that human beings can create good or bad
consequences for their actions and might reap the rewards of
action in this life, in a future human rebirth or reap the rewards of
action in a heavenly or hell realm in which the self is reborn for a
period of time.
This process of reincarnation is called samsara, a continuous
cycle in which the soul is reborn over and over again according to
the law of action and reaction. At death many Hindus believe the
soul is carried by a subtle body into a new physical body which
can be a human or non-human form (an animal or divine being).
The goal of liberation (moksha) is to make us free from this cycle
of action and reaction, and from rebirth.



35
Purushartha
Hinduism developed a doctrine that life has different goals
according to a person's stage of life and position. These goals
became codified in the 'goals of a person' or 'human goals', the
purusharthas, especially in sacred texts about dharma called
'dharma shastras' of which the 'Laws of Manu' is the most
famous. In these texts three goals of life are expressed, namely
virtuous living or dharma, profit or worldly success, and pleasure,
especially sexual pleasure as a married householder and more
broadly aesthetic pleasure. A fourth goal of liberation (moksha)
was added at a later date. The purusharthas express an
understanding of human nature, that people have different desires
and purposes which are all legitimate in their context.
Over the centuries there has been discussion about which goal
was most important. Towards the end of the Mahabharata
(Shantiparvan 12.167) there is a discussion about the relative
importance of the three goals of dharma, profit and pleasure
between the Pandava brothers and the wise sage Vidura. Vidura
claims that dharma is most important because through it the sages
enter the absolute reality, on dharma the universe rests, and
through dharma wealth is acquired. One of the brothers, Arjuna,
disagrees, claiming that dharma and pleasure rest on profit.
Another brother, Bhima, argues for pleasure or desire being the
most important goal, as only through desire have the sages
attained liberation. This discussion recognises the complexity and
varied nature of human purposes and meanings in life.


Brahman and God
Brahman is a Sanskrit word which refers to a transcendent power
beyond the universe. As such, it is sometimes translated as 'God'
although the two concepts are not identical. Brahman is the
power which upholds and supports everything. According to
some Hindus this power is identified with the self (atman) while
others regard it as distinct from the self.
Most Hindus agree that Brahman pervades everything although
they do not worship Brahman. Some Hindus regard a particular
deity or deities as manifestations of Brahman.
God

36
Most Hindus believe in God but what this means varies in
different traditions. The Sanskrit words Bhagavan and Ishvara
mean 'Lord' or 'God' and indicate an absolute reality who creates,
sustains and destroys the universe over and over again. It is too
simplistic to define Hinduism as belief in many gods or
'polytheism'. Most Hindus believe in a Supreme God, whose
qualities and forms are represented by the multitude of deities
which emanate from him. God, being unlimited, can have
unlimited forms and expressions.
God can be approached in a number of ways and a devoted
person can relate to God as a majestic king, as a parent figure, as
a friend, as a child, as a beautiful woman, or even as a ferocious
Goddess. Each person can relate to God in a particular form, the
ishta devata or desired form of God. Thus, one person might be
drawn towards Shiva, another towards Krishna, and another
towards Kali. Many Hindus believe that all the different deities
are aspects of a single, transcendent power.

In the history of Hinduism, God is conceptualised in different
ways, as an all knowing and all pervading spirit, as the creator
and force within all beings, their 'inner controller' (antaryamin)
and as wholly transcendent. There are two main ideas about
Bhagavan or Ishvara:
Bhagavan is an impersonal energy. Ultimately God is beyond
language and anything that can be said about God cannot capture
the reality. Followers of the Advaita Vedanta tradition (based on
the teachings of Adi Shankara) maintain that the soul and God
are ultimately identical and liberation is achieved once this has
been realised. This teaching is called non-dualism or advaita
because it claims there is no distinction between the soul and the
ultimate reality.
Bhagavan is a person. God can be understood as a supreme
person with qualities of love and compassion towards creatures.
On this theistic view the soul remains distinct from the Lord even
in liberation. The supreme Lord expresses himself through the
many gods and goddesses. The theologian Ramanuja (also in the
wider Vedanta tradition as Shankara) makes a distinction
between the essence of God and his energies. We can know the

37
energies of God but not his essence. Devotion (bhakti) is the best
way to understand God in this teaching.
For convenience Hindus are often classified into the three most
popular Hindu denominations, called paramparas in Sanskrit.
These paramparas are defined by their attraction to a particular
form of God (called ishta or devata).

Vaishnavas focus on Vishnu and his incarnations (avatara,
avatars). The Vaishanavas believe that God incarnates into the
world in different forms such as Krishna and Rama in order to
restore dharma. This is considered to be the most popular Hindu
denomination.
Shaivas focus on Shiva, particularly in his form of the linga
although other forms such as the dancing Shiva are also
worshipped. The Shaiva Siddhanta tradition believes that Shiva
performs five acts of creation, maintenance, destruction,
concealing himself, revealing himself through grace.
Shaktas focus on the Goddess in her gentle forms such as
Lakshmi, Parvati, and Sarasvati, or in her ferocious forms such
as Durga and Kali.


Guru
The terms guru and acharya refer to a teacher or master of a
tradition. The basic meaning is of a teacher who teaches through
example and conveys knowledge and wisdom to his disciples.
The disciple in turn might become a teacher and so the lineage
continues through the generations. One story that captures the
spirit of the teacher is that a mother asks the teacher to stop her
son eating sugar for he eats too much of it. The master tells her to
come back in a week. She returns and he tells the child to do as
his mother says and the child obeys. Asked by the mother why he
delayed for a week, he replied 'a week ago I had not stopped
eating sugar!'
Gurus are generally very highly revered and can become the
focus of devotion (bhakti) in some traditions. A fundamentally
important teaching is that spiritual understanding is conveyed
from teacher to disciple through a lineage and when one guru
passes away he or she is usually replaced by a successor. One

38
guru could have more than one successor which leads to a
multiplication of traditions.


SACRED TEXTS
1
:
1. The Vedas
These are the most ancient religious texts which define truth for
Hindus.
They got their present form between 1200-200 BCE and were
introduced to India by the Aryans.
Hindus believe that the texts were received by scholars direct
from God and passed on to the next generations by word of
mouth.
Vedic texts are sometimes called shruti, which means hearing.
For hundreds, maybe even thousands of years, the texts were
passed on orally.
Contents of the Vedas: The Vedas are made up of four
compositions, and each veda in turn has four parts which are
arranged chronologically.
The Samhitas are the most ancient part of the Vedas, consisting
of hymns of praise to God.
The Brahmanas are rituals and prayers to guide the priests in
their duties.
The Aranyakas concern worship and meditation.
The Upanishads consist of the mystical and philosophical
teachings of Hinduism.
The Samhitas
Rig-Veda Samhita (c. 1200 BCE) is the oldest of the four vedas
and consists of 1028 hymns praising the ancient gods.
Yajur-Veda Samhita is used as a handbook by priests
performing the vedic sacrifices.
Sama-Veda Samhita consists of chants and tunes for singing at
the sacrifices.

1
http://hinduism.about.com/

39
Atharva-Veda Samhita (c. 900 BCE) preserves many traditions
which pre-date the Aryan influence and consists of spells, charms
and magical formulae.
The Vedas are considered the earliest literary record of Indo-Aryan civilization, and the
most sacred books of India. They are the original scriptures of Hindu teachings, and
contain spiritual knowledge encompassing all aspects of our life. Vedic literature with
its philosophical maxims has stood the test of time and is the highest religious authority
for all sections of Hindus in particular and for mankind in general.

Veda means wisdom, knowledge or vision, and it manifests the language of the gods
in human speech. The laws of the Vedas regulate the social, legal, domestic and
religious customs of the Hindus to the present day. All the obligatory duties of the
Hindus at birth, marriage, death etc. owe their allegiance to the Vedic ritual. They draw
forth the thought of successive generation of thinkers, and so contain within it the
different strata of thought.

Origin of the Vedas: The Vedas are probably the earliest documents of the human mind
and is indeed difficult to say when the earliest portions of the Vedas came into
existence. As the ancient Hindus seldom kept any historical record of their religious,
literary and political realization, it is difficult to determine the period of the Vedas with
precision. Historians provide us many guesses but none of them is free from ambiguity.

Who wrote the Vedas? It is believed that humans did not compose the revered
compositions of the Vedas, which were handed down through generations by the word
of mouth from time immemorial. The general assumption is that the Vedic hymns were
either taught by God to the sages or that they were revealed themselves to the sages
who were the seers or mantradrasta of the hymns. The Vedas were mainly compiled
by Vyasa Krishna Dwaipayana around the time of Lord Krishna (c. 1500 BC)

Classification of the Vedas: The Vedas are four: The Rig-Veda, the Sama Veda, the
Yajur Veda and the Atharva Veda, the Rig Veda being the main. The four Vedas are
collectively known as Chathurveda, of which the first three Vedas viz., Rig Veda,
Sama Veda and Yajur Veda agree in form, language and content.

Structure of the Vedas: Each Veda consists of four parts the Samhitas (hymns), the
Brahmanas (rituals), the Aranyakas (theologies) and the Upanishads (philosophies).
The collection of mantras or hymns is called the Samhita. The Brahmanas are ritualistic
texts and include precepts and religious duties. Each Veda has several Brahmanas
attached to it. The Upanishads form the concluding portions of the Veda and therefore
called the Vedanta or the end of the Veda and contains the essence of Vedic
teachings. The Upanishads and the Aranyakas are the concluding portions of the
Brahmanas, which discuss philosophical problems. The Aryanyakas (forest texts)
intend to serve as objects of meditation for ascetics who live in forests and deal with
mysticism and symbolism.

The Mother of All Scriptures: Although the Vedas are seldom read or understood
today, even by the devout, they no doubt form the bedrock of the universal religion or
Sanatana Dharma that all Hindus follow. The Vedas have guided our religious
direction for ages and will continue to do so for generations to come. And they will
forever remain the most comprehensive and universal of all ancient scriptures.


40
The Rig Veda: The Book of Mantra: The Rig Veda is a collection of inspired songs or
hymns and is a main source of information on the Rig Vedic civilization. It is the oldest
book in any Indo-European language and contains the earliest form of all Sanskrit
mantras that date back to 1500 B.C. - 1000 B.C. Some scholars date the Rig Veda as
early as 12000 BC - 4000 B.C. The Rig-Vedic samhita or collection of mantras
consists of 1,017 hymns or suktas, covering about 10,600 stanzas, divided into eight
astakas each having eight adhayayas or chapters, which are sub-divided into various
groups. The hymns are the work of many authors or seers called rishis. There are
seven primary seers identified: Atri, Kanwa,Vashistha, Vishwamitra, Jamadagni,
Gotama and Bharadwaja. The rig Veda accounts in detail the social, religious, political
and economic background of the Rig-Vedic civilization. Even though monotheism
characterizes some of the hymns of Rig Veda, naturalistic polytheism and monism can
be discerned in the religion of the hymns of Rig Veda.

The Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda were compiled after the age of the Rig
Veda and are ascribed to the Vedic period.

The Sama Veda: The Book of Song: The Sama Veda is purely a liturgical collection of
melodies (saman). The hymns in the Sama Veda, used as musical notes, were almost
completely drawn from the Rig Veda and have no distinctive lessons of their own.
Hence, its text is a reduced version of the Rig Veda. As Vedic Scholar David Frawley
puts it, if the Rig Veda is the word, Sama Veda is the song or the meaning, if Rig Veda
is the knowledge, Sama Veda is its realization, if Rig Veda is the wife, the Sama Veda
is her husband.
The Yajur Veda: The Book of Ritual: The Yajur Veda is also a liturgical collection and
was made to meet the demands of a ceremonial religion. The Yajur Veda practically
served as a guidebook for the priests who execute sacrificial acts muttering
simultaneously the prose prayers and the sacrificial formulae (yajus). It is similar to
ancient Egypts Book of the Dead. There are no less than six complete recessions of
Yajur Veda - Madyandina, Kanva, Taittiriya, Kathaka, Maitrayani and Kapishthala.

The Atharva Veda: The Book of Spellsx: The last of the Vedas, this is completely
different from the other three Vedas and is next in importance to Rig-Veda with regard
to history and sociology. A different spirit pervades this Veda. Its hymns are of a more
diverse character than the Rig Veda and are also simpler in language. In fact, many
scholars do not consider it part of the Vedas at all. The Atharva Veda consists of spells
and charms prevalent at its time, and portrays a clearer picture of the Vedic society.
Click for Text of Atharva Veda

2. The Upanishads: The Upanishads were so called because
they were taught to those who sat down beside their teachers.
(upa=near, ni=down, shad=sit).
These texts developed from the Vedic tradition, but largely
reshaped Hinduism by providing believers with philosophical
knowledge.
The major Upanishads were largely composed between 800-200
BCE and are partly prose, partly verse.

41
Later Upanishads continued to be composed right down to the
16th century. Originally they were in oral form.
The early Upanishads are concerned with understanding the
sacrificial rites.
Central to the Upanishads is the concept of brahman; the sacred
power which informs reality.
Whilst the priests (brahmins) had previously been the ones who,
through ritual and sacrifice, had restricted access to the divine,
now the knowledge of the universe was open to those of the high
and middle castes willing to learn from a teacher.
The Upanishads form the core of Indian philosophy. They are an amazing collection of
writings from original oral transmissions, which have been aptly described by Shri
Aurobindo as "the supreme work of the Indian mind". It is here that we find all the
fundamental teachings that are central to Hinduism the concepts of 'karma' (action),
'samsara' (reincarnation), 'moksha' (nirvana), the 'atman' (soul), and the 'Brahman'
(Absolute Almighty). They also set forth the prime Vedic doctrines of self-realization,
yoga and meditation. The Upanishads are summits of thought on mankind and the
universe, designed to push human ideas to their very limit and beyond. They give us
both spiritual vision and philosophical argument, and it is by a strictly personal effort
that one can reach the truth.
Meaning of 'Upanishad'
The term 'Upanishad' literally means, "sitting down near" or "sitting close to", and
implies listening closely to the mystic doctrines of a guru or a spiritual teacher, who has
cognized the fundamental truths of the universe. It points to a period in time when
groups of pupils sat near the teacher and learnt from him the secret teachings in the
quietude of forest 'ashrams' or hermitages. In another sense of the term, 'Upanishad'
means 'brahma-knowledge' by which ignorance is annihilated. Some other possible
meanings of the compound word 'Upanishad' are "placing side by side" (equivalence or
correlation), a "near approach" (to the Absolute Being), "secret wisdom" or even
"sitting near the enlightened".
Time of Composition
Historians and Indologists have put the date of composition of the Upanishads from
around 800 - 400 B.C., though many of the verse versions may have been written much
later. In fact, they were written over a very long period of time and do not represent a
coherent body of information or one particular system of belief. However, there is a
commonality of thought and approach.
The Main Books
Although there are more than 200 Upanishads, only thirteen have been identified out as
presenting the core teachings. They are the Chandogya, Kena, Aitareya, Kaushitaki,
Katha, Mundaka, Taittriyaka, Brihadaranyaka, Svetasvatara, Isa, Prasna, Mandukya
and the Maitri Upanishads. One of the oldest and longest of the Upanishads, the
Brihadaranyaka says:
"From the unreal lead me to the real!
From darkness lead me to light!
From death lead me to immortality!"
The crux of the Upanishads is that this can be achieved by meditating with the
awareness that one's soul ('atman') is one with all things, and that 'one' is 'Brahman',
which becomes the 'all'.

42
Who wrote the Upanishads? The authors of the Upanishads were many, but they were
not solely from the priestly caste. They were poets prone to flashes of spiritual wisdom,
and their aim was to guide a few chosen pupils to the point of liberation, which they
themselves had attained. According to some scholars, the main figure in the
Upanishads is Yajnavalkya, the great sage who propounded the doctrine of 'neti-neti',
the view that "truth can be found only through the negation of all thoughts about it".
Other important Upanishadic sages are Uddalaka Aruni, Shwetaketu, Shandilya,
Aitareya, Pippalada, Sanat Kumara. Many earlier Vedic teachers like Manu, Brihaspati,
Ayasya and Narada are also found in the Upanishads.
The human being is the central mystery of the universe holding the key to all other
mysteries. Indeed, human beings are our own greatest enigma. As the famous physicist
Niels Bohr once said, "We are both spectators and actors in the great drama of
existence." Hence the importance of developing of what is known as the "science of
human possibilities." It was such a science that India sought and found in the
Upanishads in an attempt to unravel the mystery of human beings.
Science of the Self: Today, we see a growing urge in everyone to realize the 'true self'.
We are keenly feeling the need to make our knowledge flower into wisdom. A strange
yearning to know about the infinite and the eternal disturbs us. It is against this
background of modern thought and aspirations that the contributions of the Upanishads
to the human cultural legacy become significant.
The purpose of the Vedas was to ensure the true welfare of all beings, worldly as well
as spiritually. Before such a synthesis could be achieved, there was a need to penetrate
the inner worlds to its depth. This is what the Upanishads did with precision and gave
us the science of the self, which helps man leave behind the body, the senses, the ego
and all other non-self elements, which are perishable. The Upanishads tell us the great
saga of this discovery of the divine in the heart of man.
The Heart of Man: Very early in the development of the Indian civilization, man
became aware of a strange new field of human experience the within of nature as
revealed in man, and in his consciousness and his ego. It gathered volume and power as
years rolled on until in the Upanishads it became a deluge issuing in a systematic,
objective and scientific pursuit of truth in the depth of experience. It conveys to us an
impression of the tremendous fascination that this new field of inquiry held for the
contemporary mind.
These Indian thinkers were not satisfied with their intellectual speculations. They
discovered that the universe remained a mystery and the mystery only deepened with
the advance of such knowledge, and one of the important components of that deepening
mystery is the mystery of man himself. The Upanishads became aware of this truth,
which modern science now emphasizes.
In the Upanishads we get a glimpse into the workings of the minds of the great Indian
thinkers who were unhampered by the tyranny of religious dogma, political authority,
pressure of public opinion, seeking truth with single-minded devotion, rare in the
history of thought. As Max Muller has pointed out, "None of our philosophers, not
accepting Heraclitus, Plato, Kant, or Hegel has ventured to erect such a spire, never
frightened by storm or lightnings."
Bertrand Russell rightly said: "Unless men increase in wisdom as much as in
knowledge, increase in knowledge will be increase in sorrow." While the Greeks and
the others specialized in the subject of man in society, India specialized in man in
depth, man as the individual, as Swami Ranganathananda puts it. This was one ruling
passion of the Indo-Aryans in the Upanishads. The great sages of the Upanishads were
concerned with man above and beyond his political or social dimensions. It was an
inquiry, which challenged not only life but also death and resulted in the discovery of
the immortal and the divine self of man.

43
Shaping the Indian Culture: The Upanishads gave a permanent orientation to Indian
culture by their emphasis on inner penetration and their wholehearted advocacy of what
the Greeks later formulated in the dictum "man, know thyself." All subsequent
developments of Indian culture were powerfully conditioned by this Upanishadic
legacy.
The Upanishads reveal an age characterized by a remarkable fervent of thought and
inspiration. The physical and mental climate that made it possible is the land of plenty
that was India. The entire social milieu of the Indo-Aryans was ripe with great
potentialities. They had found leisure to think and ask questions. They had the choice to
utilize the leisure either to conquer the outer world or the inner. With their mental gifts,
they had turned their mental energies to the conquest of the inner world rather than of
the world of matter and life at the sensate level.
Universal & Impersonal: The Upanishads have given us a body of insights that have a
universal quality about them and this universality derives from their impersonality. The
sages who discovered them had depersonalized themselves in the search for truth. They
wanted to go beyond nature and realize the transcendental nature of man. They dared to
take up this challenge and the Upanishads are the unique record of the methods they
adopted, the struggles they undertook and the victory they achieved in this astonishing
adventure of human spirit. And this is conveyed to us in passages of great power and
poetic charm. In seeking the immortal, the sages conferred the immortality upon the
literature that conveyed it.
In the Upanishads we can study the graceful conflict of thought with thought, the
emergence of more satisfactory thought and the rejection of inadequate ideas.
Hypotheses were advanced and rejected on the touchstone of experience and not at the
dictate of a creed. Thus thought forged ahead to unravel the mystery of the world in
which we live. Let's have a quick look at the 13 principal Upanishads:
Chandogya Upanishad: The Chandogya Upanishad is the Upanishad that belongs to
the followers of the Sama Veda. It is actually the last eight chapters of the ten-chapter
Chandogya Brahmana, and it emphasizes the importance of chanting the sacred Aum,
and recommends a religious life, which constitutes sacrifice, austerity, charity, and the
study of the Vedas, while living in the house of a guru. This Upanishad contains the
doctrine of reincarnation as an ethical consequence of karma. It also lists and explains
the value of human attributes like speech, will, thought, meditation, understanding,
strength memory and hope.
Kena Upanishad: The Kena Upanishad derives its name from the word 'Kena',
meaning 'by whom'. It has four sections, the first two in verse and the other two in
prose. The metrical portion deals with the Supreme Unqualified Brahman, the absolute
principle underlying the world of phenomenon, and the prose part deals with the
Supreme as God, 'Isvara'. The Kena Upanishad concludes, as Sandersen Beck puts it,
that austerity, restraint, and work are the foundation of the mystical doctrine; the Vedas
are its limbs, and truth is its home. The one who knows it strikes off evil and becomes
established in the most excellent, infinite, heavenly world.
Aitareya Upanishad: The Aitareya Upanishad belongs to the Rig Veda. It is the
purpose of this Upanishad to lead the mind of the sacrificer away from the outer
ceremonial to its inner meaning. It deals with the genesis of the universe and the
creation of life, the senses, the organs and the organisms. It also tries to delve into the
identity of the intelligence that allows us to see, speak, smell, hear and know.
Kaushitaki Upanishad: The Kaushitaki Upanishad explores the question whether
there is an end to the cycle of reincarnation, and upholds the supremacy of the soul
('atman'), which is ultimately responsible for everything it experiences.
Katha Upanishad: Katha Upanishad, which belongs to the Yajur Veda, consists of
two chapters, each of which has three sections. It employs an ancient story from the Rig

44
Veda about a father who gives his son to death (Yama), while bringing out some of the
highest teachings of mystical spirituality. There are some passages common to the Gita
and Katha Upanishad. Psychology is explained here by using the analogy of a chariot.
The soul is the lord of the chariot, which is the body; the intuition is the chariot-driver,
the mind the reins, the senses the horses, and the objects of the senses the paths. Those
whose minds are undisciplined never reach their goal, and go on to reincarnate. The
wise and the disciplined, it says, obtain their goal and are freed from the cycle of
rebirth.
Mundaka Upanishad: The Mundaka Upanishad belongs to the Atharva Veda and has
three chapters, each of which has two sections. The name is derived from the root
'mund' (to shave) as he that comprehends the teaching of the Upanishad is shaved or
liberated from error and ignorance. The Upanishad clearly states the distinction
between the higher knowledge of the Supreme Brahman and the lower knowledge of
the empirical world the six 'Vedangas' of phonetics, ritual, grammar, definition,
metrics, and astrology. It is by this higher wisdom and not by sacrifices or worship,
which are here considered 'unsafe boats', that one can reach the Brahman. Like the
Katha, the Mundaka Upanishad warns against "the ignorance of thinking oneself
learned and going around deluded like the blind leading the blind". Only an ascetic
('sanyasi') who has given up everything can obtain the highest knowledge.
Taittiriya Upanishad: The Taittiriya Upanishad is also part of the Yajur Veda. It is
divided into three sections: The first deals with the science of phonetics and
pronunciation, the second and the third deal with the knowledge of the Supreme Self
('Paramatmajnana'). Once again, here, Aum is emphasized as peace of the soul, and the
prayers end with Aum and the chanting of peace ('Shanti') thrice, often preceded by the
thought, "May we never hate." There is a debate regarding the relative importance of
seeking the truth, going through austerity and studying the Vedas. One teacher says
truth is first, another austerity, and a third claims that study and teaching of the Veda is
first, because it includes austerity and discipline. Finally, it says that the highest goal is
to know the Brahman, for that is truth.
The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Svetasvatara Upanishad, Isavasya Upanishad, Prashna
Upanishad, Mandukya Upanishad and the Maitri Upanishad are the other important and
well known books of the Upanishads.
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad: The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, which is generally
recognized to be the most important of the Upanishads, consists of three sections
('Kandas'), the Madhu Kanda which expounds the teachings of the basic identity of the
individual and the Universal Self, the Muni Kanda which provides the philosophical
justification of the teaching and the Khila Kanda, which deals with certain modes of
worship and meditation, ('upasana'), hearing the 'upadesha' or the teaching ('sravana'),
logical reflection ('manana'), and contemplative meditation ('nididhyasana').
TS Eliot's landmark work The Waste Land ends with the reiteration of the three
cardinal virtues from this Upanishad: 'Damyata' (restraint), 'Datta' (charity) and
'Dayadhvam' (compassion) followed by the blessing 'Shantih shantih shantih', that Eliot
himself translated as "the peace that passeth understanding."
Svetasvatara Upanishad: The Svetasvatara Upanishad derives its name from the sage
who taught it. It is theistic in character and identifies the Supreme Brahman with Rudra
(Shiva) who is conceived as the author of the world, its protector and guide. The
emphasis is not on Brahman the Absolute, whose complete perfection does not admit of
any change or evolution, but on the personal 'Isvara', omniscient and omnipotent who is
the manifested Brahma. This Upanishad teaches the unity of the souls and world in the
one Supreme Reality. It is an attempt to reconcile the different philosophical and
religious views, which prevailed at the time of its composition.

45
Isavasya Upanishad: The Isavasya Upanishad derives its name from the opening
word of the text 'Isavasya' or 'Isa', meaning 'Lord' that encloses all that moves in the
world. Greatly revered, this short Upanishad is often put at the beginning of the
Upanishads, and marks the trend toward monotheism in the Upanishads. Its main
purpose is to teach the essential unity of God and the world, being and becoming. It is
interested not so much in the Absolute in itself ('Parabrahman') as in the Absolute in
relation to the world ('Paramesvara'). It says that renouncing the world and not coveting
the possessions of others can bring joy. The Isha Upanishad concludes with a prayer to
Surya (sun) and Agni (fire).
Prasna Upanishad: The Prashna Upanishad belongs to the Atharva Veda and has six
sections dealing with six questions or 'Prashna' put to a sage by his disciples. The
questions are: From where are all the creatures born? How many angels support and
illumine a creature and which is supreme? What is the relationship between the life-
breath and the soul? What are sleep, waking, and dreams? What is the result of
meditating on the word Aum? What are the sixteen parts of the Spirit? This Upanishad
answers all these six vital questions.
Mandukya Upanishad: The Mandukya Upanishad belongs to the Atharva Veda and
is an exposition of the principle of Aum as consisting of three elements, a, u, m, which
may be used to experience the soul itself. It contains twelve verses that delineate four
levels of consciousness: waking, dreaming, deep sleep, and a fourth mystical state of
being one with the soul. This Upanishad by itself, it is said, is enough to lead one to
liberation.
Maitri Upanishad: The Maitri Upanishad is the last of what are known as the
principal Upanishads. It recommends meditation upon the soul ('atman') and life
('prana'). It says that the body is like a chariot without intelligence but it is driven by an
intelligent being, who is pure, tranquil, breathless, selfless, undying, unborn, steadfast,
independent and endless. The charioteer is the mind, the reins are the five organs of
perception, the horses are the organs of action, and the soul is unmanifest,
imperceptible, incomprehensible, selfless, steadfast, stainless and self-abiding. It also
tells the story of a king, Brihadratha, who realized that his body is not eternal, and went
into the forest to practice austerity, and sought liberation from reincarnating existence.
3. Bhagavad Gita: The Bhagavad Gita, or "Song of the Lord" is
part of the sixth book of the Mahabharata, the world's longest
poem.
Composed between 500 BCE and 100 CE, the Mahabharata is an
account of the wars of the house of Bharata. It is one of the most
popular Hindu texts and is known as a smriti text (the
remembered tradition).
The Bhagavad-Gita is known as one of the most fundamental texts that form the basis
of Hinduism, which has become one of the world's great religions. At the same time,
however, the idea of Hinduism as a religion is a bit of a misnomer. As the Gita
suggests, Hinduism is a way of live -- a philosophy -- that parents are expected to teach
their children, creating an oral tradition, supported by the passing of the Vedic texts
from generation to generation. (Indeed, many Hindus say that you cannot 'convert' to
Hinduism. That you are simply born a Hindu or you are not.)
The central tenet at the core of Hinduism is the idea of karma, or debt created by action.
Through one's life, one is constantly performing action that takes us towards self-
realization or away from it. If we are moving towards self-realization, then we are
working off our karma -- or debt from past lives. If we are moving away from self-

46
realization, then we are simply accumulating karmic debt which will have to be worked
off in subsequent lives. Practically speaking, many Hindus refer to a moment in life
where the switch literally 'flips' -- where they go from accumulating karmic debt to the
long journey of working it off. Hinduism believes that karmic debt usually cannot be
worked off entirely in one lifetime. That one has to be constantly reborn in the samsaric
cycle of birth and death in order to ultimately dissolve all karma and be freed from
earthly life -- that is, to achieve moksha, or liberation.
Hinduism and Buddhism both share in common principles of living attributed to the
teachings of the Buddha -- often referred to as Siddhartha, who found enlightenment
through casting off worldly possessions and attachments in order to find nirvana. But
Hinduism evolved to preach not asceticism or renunciation, but rather a more
complicated form of enlightenment - namely yoga. Whereas Buddhism has spawned
movements such as 'Zen,' encouraging the cessation of action to find mindfulness,
Hinduism asks its followers to be 'yogis,' or 'skillful in action.' What Hinduism says is
that by practicing meditation and being mindful during everyday actions, eventually we
can find meditation no matter what we do -- we can meditatively work at the office, we
can meditatively play basketball, we can meditatively survive morning rush hour. We'll
come to live in the present, free from the distractions of the mind, without the fear of
having to give up the world and its attachments.
Krishna, one of the central figures of polytheistic Hinduism which encourages the
worship of many gods, is front and center in the Gita. Krishna is technically an avatar
of Vishnu, one of the trinity of Hindu deities (with Brahma and Siva), but in the Gita he
assumes complete omnipotence. What Krishna best represents in Hinduism is the idea
of 'lila,' or life as a form of God's play. Having Krishna engage in conversation with
Arjuna is suited for the Gita because Krishna can best convey the metaphor of man as
God's puppet. We are here to fulfill our duty in God's larger plan -- our dharma, as
Hindus term it -- and we cannot resist it, we should not despite it, and we will
eventually, no matter how many lifetimes it takes, come to love it.
Our ultimate goal, and one that we will likely never reach is not just nirvana, but
Darshan, as Hindus call it -- which is the literal beholding of the divine. Arjuna has this
rare, perhaps impossible moment, when Krishna reveals his full powers, but Darshan
remains a step beyond self-realization, offered perhaps only to those who achieve
moksha in their lifetime.
SUMMARY: The blind King Dhritarashtra asks Sanjaya to recount to him what
happened when his family the Kauravas gathered to fight the Pandavas for control of
Hastinapura. His family isn't the rightful heir to the kingdom, but they have assumed
control, and Dhritarashtra is trying to preserve it for his son Duryodhana. Sanjaya tells
of Arjuna, who has come as leader of the Pandavas to take back his kingdom, with Sri
Krishna as his charioteer. The Gita is the conversation between Krishna and Arjuna
leading up to the battle.
Arjuna doesn't want to fight. He doesn't understand why he has to shed his family's
blood for a kingdom that he doesn't even necessarily want. In his eyes, killing his evil
and killing his family is the greatest sin of all. He casts down his weapons and tells
Krishna he will not fight. Krishna, then, begins the systematic process of explaining
why it is Arjuna's dharmic duty to fight and how he must fight in order to restore his
karma.
Krishna first explains the samsaric cycle of birth and death. He says there is no true
death of the soul -- simply a sloughing of the body at the end of each round of birth and
death. The purpose of this cycle is to allow a person to work off their karma,
accumulated through lifetimes of action. If a person completes action selflessly, in
service to God, then they can work off their karma, eventually leading to a dissolution
of the soul, the achievement of enlightenment and vijnana, and an end to the samsaric

47
cycle. If they act selfishly, then they keep accumulating debt, putting them further and
further into karmic debt.
Krishna presents three main concepts for achieving this dissolution of the soul --
renunciation, selfless service, and meditation. All three are elements for achieving
'yoga,' or skill in action. Krishna says that the truly divine human does not renounce all
worldly possessions or simply give up action, but rather finds peace in completing
action in the highest service to God. As a result, a person must avoid the respective
traps of the three gunas: rajas (anger, ego), tamas (ignorance, darkness), and saatva
(harmony, purity).

The highest form of meditation comes when a person not only can free themselves
from selfish action, but also focus entirely on the divine in their actions. In other words,
Krishna says that he who achieves divine union with him in meditation will ultimately
find freedom from the endless cycle of rebirth and death. He who truly finds union with
God will find him even at the moment of death.

Arjuna stills seem to need evidence of Krishna's divine powers, so Arjuna appears to
him in his powerful, most divine form, with the "power of one thousand suns." Seeing
Krishna in his divine state, Arjuna suddenly realizes what enlightenment can bring him
in union, and he now completely has faith in the yogic path. He goes on to ask Krishna
how he can receive the love of God, and Krishna reveals that love comes from a
person's selfless devotion to the divine, in addition to an understanding that the body is
simply ephemeral -- a product of prakriti, emerging from purusha, and is subject to
endless rebirth. A person must let go of their body's cravings and temptations and
aversions to find freedom.

The Gita ends with Krishna telling Arjuna he must choose the path of good or evil, as it
his his duty to fight the Kauravas for his kingdom. In that, he is correcting the balance
of good and evil, fulfilling his dharma, and offering the deepest form of selfless service.
Arjuna understands and, with that, proceeds into battle.

4. The Ramayana: Composed in the same period, the
Ramayana is one of India's best known tales. It tells the story of
Prince Rama who was sent into exile in the forest with his wife,
Sita, and his brother, Lakshamana. Sita was abducted by the
evil demon Ravana but ultimately rescued by Prince Rama with
the help of the Monkey God, Hanuman. The story is written in
24,000 couplets. The symbolism of the story has been widely
interpreted but basically is the story of good overcoming evil.
Many people have said that it is a story about dharma or duty.
The Mahabaratha and Ramayana Epics are complex narratives centered on the struggle
for world order. In the Mahabharata, two branches of a royal family vie for the
rulership of India (Bharat). The Ramayana is the story of Lord Rama, who must
conquer the demon Ravana to restore peace to the world. In both epics, the preservation
of order depends on the gods who take physical form and enter the mortal world; the
tales recount Gods actions in human history. They also provide accounts of divine
instruction about the proper way for people to live their lives. Material from these epics
appears in modern discussions of Hindu identity, religious reform, social reform, and

48
Indian nationalism. So, although these narratives are approximately two thousand years
old, they still resonate with the present-day concerns of the Hindu world.
The script for the televised Ramayana drew on the rich diversity of Hindu traditions to
create a modern, pan-Indian version of the epic. The oldest rendition of the story is the
classical Sanskrit poem compiled between approximately 200 B.C.E. and 200 C.E. 1
Later, vernacular renditions were composed such as the Tamil version by Kampan (9th-
12th c.) and a Hindi version called the Ramcharitmanas, composed by Tulsi Das in the
sixteenth century. Pocket versions of this medieval text have been among the
bestselling books in India for much of the twentieth century. It is Tulsi Dass work that
provides the script for the Ramnagar Ram Lila, a grand lila, or performance, held every
year in the city of Benaras. All through India there are street theater performances and
recitations by professional storytellers that make the epic accessible to all, regardless of
literacy.
Festival dramas based on the Ramayana or Mahabharata are religious events; in Hindu
devotion the theatrical performance is part of the higher reality of the gods. When the
Ram Lila is performed, the deity becomes present in the world for the duration of the
performance, just as he did in the story being reenacted. Those who take part in the
drama, as performers and viewers, have an immediate interaction with the divine. In the
same way, the actors who took part in the television series were revered as
embodiments of the gods, and the director found it necessary to require religiously pure
behavior of the film crew. He himself gave up tobacco and alcohol, and he made the
entire crew adhere to a vegetarian diet. Once, the actress who played Sita, the wife of
Rama in the Ramayana, was seen smoking a cigarette in a public place. Several people
who had seen her on T.V. chastised her, telling her that Sita, the model of decorous
female behavior, must not smoke. In the minds of the audience, the performers were
identified with their charactersthe gods of the epics had once more appeared in the
world to enact their drama for the sake of all people.
In 1987 and 1988, serialized versions of the great Indian epics, the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata, were shown on television every Sunday morning in India. The
tremendous popularity of the televised epics shows the vitality of Hinduism. No
modern novel or film has evoked a comparable response. But this new electronic
medium for mythology also tells much about the place of Hinduism in the modern
world. Old traditions are adapted to new times and new mediums. People from different
cultural regions could share viewership of a single dramatic performance.

Religious Sects
However much one may be tempted to reduce Hinduism to a
unity, it is impossible to pass over the phenomenon of the
religious sects. In some ways the sect is the reality of Hinduism
and shapes its history. The remainder is generalization.

It is not necessarily a question of exclusive groups, much less in general of hostile
groups. First of all, there are the very comprehensive denominations, those by which
Hindus are divided into Vaishnavites (Vaiavas) and Shaivites (aivas); ktas, the

49
third large branch, can be treated as a subdivision of the Shaivites. Sects commence
within this global classification. Even the Smrtas (the followers of Smti or
"Unrevealed Tradition"), who are supposedly free of sectarian tendencies, have adopted
discriminating features. The temptation to form a group is great in India. The scale of
sects is the religious counterpart of the system of castes, with this remarkable
difference that while theoretically castes include the entire society, sects have never
constituted more than islands of relatively slight numerical significance within
Hinduism as a whole.

A sect adheres to a specific part of tradition: it recognizes a special basic text as its
own; it adopts a particular speculative system; but it neither isolates itself from the
totality of the system nor rejects the common postulates. Such, at least, is the general
situation. We might consider as sectarian those people who elaborate and refine select
values borrowed from the treasury of beliefs; or those who reject a part of recognized
usages; or those who manifest exclusivity in their recruitment and a certain element of
defiance. At one extreme are the Mahnubhvas of Mahrra who do not accept the
Veda and preserve very few of the positive data of Hinduism. The prototypes of these
semiheresies (it is quite difficult in India to be completely heretical) are Buddhism and
Jainism. These are movements which have always remained separate from Hinduism,
although in time they have been impregnated by many influences from Hindu forces
surrounding them. Since the appearance of these very old sects, such schisms have
never taken place again.

In a certain sense sects are clerical organizations. They often tend to distinguish
between the laity and the religious, a distinction generally unknown to common
Hinduism. We have exact information regarding religious orders in only a small
number of cases. In the ninth century, for instance, we find a case of ten fraternities
which were supposed to have been founded by akara; their supreme head was called
"Preceptor of the World." Monastic communities are frequently mentioned in the
literature. We are well informed about their structure in southern India, especially from
the thirteenth century on. In modern times the Order of Ramakrishna, founded in 1899,
was inspired by Western monastic rule.

The deciding factor for the creation of a sect is naturally the initiative of a master who
preaches and explains the scriptures. The type of these founders is repeated throughout
history as if by historical law. Under the influence of enlightenment, a man breaks with
his past, starts preaching a new doctrine, and after many ordeals succeeds in gathering
around himself a body of disciples from among whom shall be found his successor.
After his disappearance, his biography is shrouded with legends: here lies the great
influence of a guru on the Indian mind.

Many of these movements tend to become reform movements. In contrast with popular
Hinduism, which became a little stagnant and stale, the sect has become an instrument
of progress. Reforms are of different kinds: sometimes strictness in the performance of
religious practices is recommended; sometimes protest is registered against social
scales and prohibitions in order that every man may have easy access to the religious
life. The India of the sects differs, therefore, in its aspirations toward uniformity of
belief from the India of the stras ("Normative Treatises") which advocates social
divisiveness. It is perhaps because of this tendency toward unanimity, which was
destined later to be established in the sects, that ever since the proto-historical period
the Dravidians subscribed to Hinduism and joined the Brahmanical system; and that, at
a later date, a Brahmanical corps was formed in Cambodia. On the linguistic level, the

50
sects have helped in the propagation of the vernacular, while learned India remained
anchored to the Sanskritic tradition.

It is difficult to say when the sects came into being. One is tempted to trace their
origins to that period of intense fermentation and theological controversy which in the
fourth or fifth century B.C. marked the beginning of Buddhism and Jainism as well as
the development of the Upaniads. One might imagine perhaps that the Buddhism of
the Hnayna (Small Vehicle) furnished the impetus for this fragmentation of
Hinduism: but this remains hypothetical. We must rather come down to the beginnings
of the Christian era, when we find a Greek ambassador, Heliodorus, referring to
Bhgavatas as a class of devotees who worship the "Lordly" form of Viu. Some
episodes in the Epics mention a few names of the sects, notably those of Pupatas.
But the fact is that we know few precise details about the history of the sects before the
end of the ninth century. At the beginning and until the eleventh century the domination
of Shaivism was noteworthy; then Viuism came to the fore and seems to have
preserved its supremacy until modern times except in those territories still loyal to a
certain Shaivite primitivism and in Bengal where ktas have preserved a powerful
stronghold. It is Shaivism as well which set foot in southeast Asia around the seventh
century and gave place later to Viuism (at least in Cambodia): a replica of the ebb
and flow in continental India.

Thanks to what we know about sects we can attempt to trace in
broad outlines the evolution of Hinduism. The descriptions by the
Greek Megasthenes in the fourth century B.C. testify to a state of
confusion. Actually, we are prevented from observing the true
extent of Hinduism at that period by the patronage accorded to
Buddhism by the Mauryas and much later by many Indo-Greek
sovereigns and by many Kuas who were inclined to constitute
a state religion. Hinduism was given official patronage only in
the fourth century A.D. with the Guptas, the first of the great
indigenous dynasties. This resulted in what has been called the
"renaissance of Hinduism," which was characterized also by the
restoration of Vedic ceremonies. But this notion of renaissance
is exaggerated, for there is nothing to indicate that in the prior
period Hinduism had been deeply encroached upon by Buddhism
or that it had undergone any internal degeneration. It is, however,
with the first centuries of our era that the great speculative
orientation of Hinduism developed.

Toward the end of the Guptas period could be placed the
constitution of the kta doctrines (with the kti cult) and the
beginnings of Tntrism. Philosophical controversy sprang forth in
the eighth century, a period which marks the final decline of
Buddhism in India and the diffusion of bhakti. It was perhaps on

51
Dravidian soil that bhakti received its decisive impetus and was
nourished by the religious enthusiasm of the lvrs and the
Nayanrs. In the north of India, Viuism became the privileged
vehicle by virtue of its sentimental effusions (sometimes colored
by eroticism), to which the "edifying" stories woven around
Ka lent themselves.

The Muslim conquest, which was progressive and partial, did not
modify the general aspect of Hinduism; at most, we note the
appearance of some mixed movements such as Sfism. To the
credit of Islam should be assigned, indirectly, the acceleration in
the growth of sectarian groups, whose maximum vitality can be
found between the thirteenth and the middle of the sixteenth
centuries. The salient events are the teachings of Kabr and the
syncretism represented by them, and the appear ance of what
have, been called "the reformed sects," such as the military
theocracy of the Sikhs (15th-16th centuries), which borrowed
many elements from doctrines which are fundamentally Hindu,
like those of Kabr and, beyond Kabr, of Rmnanda. In the
seventeenth century Tulsds presided over the consolidation of
the live forces of devotion in the whole of northern India; his
name evoked the establishment of new sectarian groups based on
the name of Rma.

In more recent times, sects appeared to be gradually declining
and Hinduism tended to assume its old form. In this way perhaps
the ground was well prepared for the "revival" of Hinduism, as it
is generally recognized, with the beginning of the nineteenth
century. This revival coincided with the study in Europe of the
sacred texts of Ancient India and, above all, with the gradual
growth of Indian national sentiment. A necessarily Indian
phenomenon, Hinduism could not fail to display both the virtues
and the excesses of any nationalism.
A series of enterprising men, some of them extremely gifted,
became apostles of a Hinduism which had been rethought,
purified and liberated of its fantasies while at the same time they
consolidated its connection with a humanistic interpretation of
the Vednta. Among these modern personalities the only
common element is their dynamism; their differences are

52
remarkable. Many demonstrate the conscious or unconscious
influence of Christianity ( Rmmohun Roy, Keshab Chandra
Sen) or more generally of Western culture (Tagore). Some of
them insist on a return to the Veda (Daynanda), but it is a Veda
flexible to the needs of our times; others restrict themselves to
mysticism (Rmakrishna), to explanation (Aurobindo) or to
theosophical propagation (Viveknanda); many are inclined
toward social (Rnade) or political (Tilak, Gndh) problems. The
old formula of ramas, or "hermitages," has been revived,
ranging from the phalanstery to a semimonastic brotherhood.
Hinduism can be conceived as faithful to its scriptures (for almost
everyone the Bhagavad-gt remains the Book par excellence),
while at the same time it is the very type of universalizing belief.
All religions are true, we are told, but Hinduism condenses them
all by preserving such of their characteristics as may be
acceptable to all. Thus there is no more question of mythology or
ritual: an outline of general ethics is drawn up, and though not
permitting any real concessions as regards the essential, an
attempt is made to approach "similar souls" beyond the frontiers
of India. The Hinduism which is "exported," one might say,
paradoxically elevates a predominantly ethnic faith to the rank of
a panhumanistic religion.

The Indian mass is hardly touched by these movements, at least
on the religious plane, although social and, above all, political
events have left a profound mark on it. It is because of this fact
that there has been a cleavage and that concepts free from
aggressive overtones have been able to flourish in India.


Hinduism lacks any unified system of beliefs and ideas. It is a
phenomenon and represents a broad spectrum of beliefs and
practices which on one hand are akin to paganism, pantheism and
the like, and on the other very profound, abstract, metaphysical
ideas.

THE HINDU WAY OF LIFE:
Since religion and culture are nearly interchangeable terms in
Hinduism, emotive expressions like 'bhakti' (devotion) or

53
'dharma' (what is right) and 'yoga' (discipline) are used to depict
essential aspects of the religion.

Hinduism believes in idol worship, reincarnation, karma, dharma
and moksha. Some moral ideals in Hinduism include non-
violence, truthfulness, friendship, compassion, fortitude, self-
control, purity and generosity.

Human life is divided into four stages, and there are defined rites
and rituals for each stage from birth till death.

Traditional Hinduism has two life-long dharmas that one can
follow: Grihastha Dharma (Domestic Religion) and Sannyasin
Dharma (Ascetic Religion). The Grihastha Dharma has four
goals: kma (sensual pleasure), artha (wealth and prosperity),
dharma (the laws of life), and moksha (liberation from the
cycle of births). The Sannyasin Dharma recognizes moksha as
its ultimate goal

What are the main principles of the Hindu way of life? And
what are the 10 commandments of Sanatana Dharma? As
summarized by Dr. Gangadhar Choudhury:
FIVE PRINCIPLES
1. God Exists: One Absolute OM.
One Trinity: Brahma, Vishnu, Maheshwara (Shiva). Several
divine forms
2. All human beings are divine
3. Unity of existence through love
4. Religious harmony
5. Knowledge of 3 Gs: Ganga (sacred river), Gita (sacred script),
Gayatri (sacred mantra)

TEN DISCIPLINES
1. Satya (Truth)
2. Ahimsa (Non-violence)
3. Brahmacharya (Celibacy, non-adultery)
4. Asteya (No desire to possess or steal)
5. Aparighara (Non-corrupt)
6. Shaucha (Cleanliness)

54
7. Santosh (Contentment)
8. Swadhyaya (Reading of scriptures)
9. Tapas (Austerity, perseverance, penance)
10. Ishwarpranidhan (Regular prayers)

BASIC RITES AND RITUALS

The ritual world of Hinduism, manifestations of which differ
greatly among regions, villages, and individuals, offers a number
of common features that link all Hindus into a greater Indian
religious system and influence other religions as well.
The most notable feature in religious ritual is the division
between purity and pollution. Religious acts presuppose some
degree of impurity or defilement for the practitioner, which must
be overcome or neutralized before or during ritual procedures.
Purification, usually with water, is thus a typical feature of most
religious action. Avoidance of the impure--taking animal life,
eating flesh, associating with dead things, or body fluids--is
another feature of Hindu ritual and is important for repressing
pollution.
In a social context, those individuals or groups who manage to
avoid the impure are accorded increased respect. Still another
feature is a belief in the efficacy of sacrifice, including survivals
of Vedic sacrifice. Thus, sacrifices may include the performance
of offerings in a regulated manner, with the preparation of sacred
space, recitation of texts, and manipulation of objects.
A third feature is the concept of merit, gained through the
performance of charity or good works, that will accumulate over
time and reduce sufferings in the next world.

Domestic Worship

The home is the place where most Hindus conduct their worship
and religious rituals. The most important times of day for
performance of household rituals are dawn and dusk, although
especially devout families may engage in devotion more often.
For many households, the day begins when the women in the
house draw auspicious geometric designs in chalk or rice flour on
the floor or the doorstep.

55
For orthodox Hindus, dawn and dusk are greeted with recitation
from the Rig Veda of the Gayatri Mantra for the sun--for many
people, the only Sanskrit prayer they know. After a bath, there is
personal worship of the gods at a family shrine, which typically
includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the
images, while prayers in Sanskrit or a regional language are
recited. In the evenings, especially in rural areas, mostly female
devotees may gather together for long sessions of singing hymns
in praise of one or more of the gods. Minor acts of charity
punctuate the day. During daily baths, there are offerings of a
little water in memory of the ancestors. At each meal, families
may set aside a handful of grain to be donated to beggars or
needy persons, and daily gifts of small amounts of grain to birds
or other animals serve to accumulate merit for the family through
their self-sacrifice.

WORSHIP OF PERSONAL GODS
For the vast majority of Hindus, the most important religious path
is bhakti (devotion) to personal gods. There is a wide variety of
gods to choose from, and although sectarian adherence to
particular deities is often strong, there is a widespread acceptance
of choice in the desired god (ishta devata) as the most
appropriate focus for any particular person. Most devotees
worship all or part of the vast pantheon of deities, some of whom
have come down from Vedic times. In practice, a worshiper tends
to concentrate prayers on one deity or on a small group of deities
with whom there is a close personal relationship.

The 'Puja' or Worship

Puja (worship) of the gods consists of a range of ritual offerings
and prayers typically performed either daily or on special days
before an image of the deity, which may be in the form of a
person or a symbol of the sacred presence. In its more developed
forms, puja consists of a series of ritual stages beginning with
personal purification and invocation of the god, followed by
offerings of flowers, food, or other objects such as clothing,
accompanied by fervent prayers.

56
Some dedicated worshipers perform these ceremonies daily at
their home shrines; others travel to one or more temples to
perform puja, alone or with the aid of temple priests who receive
offerings and present these offerings to the gods. The gifts given
to the gods become sacred through contact with their images or
with their shrines, and may be received and used by worshipers
as the grace (prasada) of the divine.
Sacred ash or saffron powder, for example, is often distributed
after puja and smeared on the foreheads of devotees. In the
absence of any of these ritual objects, however, puja may take the
form of a simple prayer sent toward the image of the divine, and
it is common to see people stop for a moment before roadside
shrines to fold their hands and offer short invocations to the gods.

Gurus & Saints

Since at least the seventh century A.D., the devotional path has
spread from the south throughout India through the literary and
musical activities of saints who have been some of the most
important representatives of regional languages and traditions.
The hymns of these saints and their successors, mostly in
vernacular forms, are memorized and performed at all levels of
society. Every state in India has its own bhakti tradition and poets
who are studied and revered.
In Tamil Nadu, groups called Nayanmars (devotees of Shiva) and
Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) were composing beautiful poetry in
the Tamil language as early as the sixth century.
In Bengal one of the greatest poets was Chaitanya (1485-1536),
who spent much of his life in a state of mystical ecstasy. One of
the greatest North Indian saints was Kabir (ca. 1440-1518), a
common leatherworker who stressed faith in God without
devotion to images, rituals, or scriptures. Among female poets,
Princess Mirabai (ca. 1498-1546) from Rajasthan stands out as
one whose love for Krishna was so intense that she suffered
persecution for her public singing and dancing for the lord.
A recurring motif that emerges from the poetry and the
hagiographies of these saints is the equality of all men and
women before God and the ability of people from all castes and
occupations to find their way to union with God if they have

57
enough faith and devotion. In this sense, the bhakti tradition
serves as one of the equalizing forces in Indian society and
culture.

LIFE CYCLE RITUALS
A detailed series of life-cycle rituals (samskara) mark major
transitions in the life of the individual. Especially orthodox Hindu
families may invite Brahman priests to their homes to officiate at
these rituals, complete with sacred fire and recitations of mantras.

Most of these rituals, however, do not occur in the presence of
such priests, and among many groups who do not revere the
Vedas or respect Brahmans, there may be other officiants or
variations in the rites.

Pregnancy, Birth, Infancy: Ceremonies may be performed during
pregnancy to ensure the health of the mother and growing child.
The father may part the hair of the mother three times upward
from the front to the back, to assure the ripening of the embryo.
Charms may serve to ward off the evil eye and witches or
demons.

At birth, before the umbilical cord is severed, the father may
touch the baby's lips with a gold spoon or ring dipped in honey,
curds, and ghee. The word vak (speech) is whispered three times
into the right ear, and mantras are chanted to ensure a long life.

A number of rituals for the infant include the first visit outside to
a temple, the first feeding with solid food (usually cooked rice),
an ear-piercing ceremony, and the first haircut (shaving the head)
that often occurs at a temple or during a festival when the hair is
offered to a deity.

Upanayana: The Thread Ceremony A crucial event in the life of
the orthodox, upper-caste Hindu male is an initiation
(upanayana) ceremony, which takes place for some young males
between the ages of six and twelve to mark the transition to
awareness and adult religious responsibilities.


58
At the ceremony itself, the family priest invests the boy with a
sacred thread to be worn always over the left shoulder, and the
parents instruct him in pronouncing the Gayatri Mantra. The
initiation ceremony is seen as a new birth; those groups entitled
to wear the sacred thread are called the twice-born.

In the ancient categorization of society associated with the Vedas,
only the three highest groups - Brahman, warrior (Kshatriya), and
commoner or merchant (Vaishya) - were allowed to wear the
thread, to make them distinct from the fourth group of servants
(Shudra).

Many individuals and groups who are only hazily associated with
the old "twice-born" elites perform the upanayana ceremony and
claim the higher status it bestows. For young Hindu women in
South India, a different ritual and celebration occurs at the first
menses.

The next important transition in life is marriage. For most people
in India, the betrothal of the young couple and the exact date and
time of the wedding are matters decided by the parents in
consultation with astrologers.

At Hindu weddings, the bride and bridegroom represent the god
and the goddess, although there is a parallel tradition that sees the
groom as a prince coming to wed his princess. The groom,
decked in all his finery, often travels to the wedding site on a
caparisoned white horse or in an open limousine, accompanied by
a procession of relatives, musicians, and bearers of ornate
electrified lamps.

The actual ceremonies in many cases become extremely
elaborate, but orthodox Hindu marriages typically have at their
center the recitation of mantras by priests. In a crucial rite, the
new couple takes seven steps northward from a sacred household
fire, turn, and make offerings into the flames.

Independent traditions in regional languages and among different
caste groups support wide variations in ritual.

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After the death of a family member, the relatives become
involved in ceremonies for preparation of the body and a
procession to the burning or burial ground.

For most Hindus, cremation is the ideal method for dealing with
the dead, although many groups practice burial instead; infants
are buried rather than cremated. At the funeral site, in the
presence of the male mourners, the closest relative of the
deceased (usually the eldest son) takes charge of the final rite
and, if it is cremation, lights the funeral pyre.

After a cremation, ashes and fragments of bone are collected and
eventually immersed in a holy river. After a funeral, everyone
undergoes a purifying bath. The immediate family remains in a
state of intense pollution for a set number of days (sometimes ten,
eleven, or thirteen).

At the end of that period, close family members meet for a
ceremonial meal and often give gifts to the poor or to charities.

A particular feature of the Hindu ritual is the preparation of rice
balls (pinda) offered to the spirit of the dead person during
memorial services. In part these ceremonies are seen as
contributing to the merit of the deceased, but they also pacify the
soul so that it will not linger in this world as a ghost but will pass
through the realm of Yama, the god of death.

HINDU RITES OF PASSAGE

Samskaras Hindu rites of passage, according to the ancient sage
Panini, are the ornaments that decorate one's personality. They
mark the important stages of one's life and enable one to live a
fulfilling life complete with happiness and contentment. They
pave the way for one's physical and spiritual journey through this
life. It is believed that the various Hindu samskaras meticulously
leads to a purification of one's sins, vices, faults, and even
correction of physical deformities. The Upanishads mention
samskaras as a means to grow and prosper in all four aspects of

60
human pursuit - Dharma (righteousness), Artha (wealth), Karma
and Kama (work and pleasure), and Moksha (salvation).

How Many Samskaras do Hindus have? The detailed
explanation about samskaras is found in the ancient Hindu
scriptures - the Smritis and Grihasutras. However, all the
different Grihasutras differ on both the names and numbers of
samskaras. While the sage Aswalayana lays down 11 customs,
Bauddhayana, Paraskar, and Varaha explain 13. Sage Vaikhana
has 18 and Maharishi Gautam talks of 40 samskaras and 8 self
qualities. However, the 16 samskaras that Rishi Veda Vyas
propounded are considered the most important rites of passage in
a Hindu's life.
What are the 16 Major Hindu Samskaras?
1. Garbhadhana is the conception ritual for having healthy children. Lord
Brahma or Prajapati is appeased by this ritual.
2. Punswana is the fertilization ritual performed on the third month of
pregnancy asking for life and safety of the fetus. Once again Lord Brahma is
prayed to in this ceremony.
3. Seemantonnayana ritual is observed in the penultimate month of pregnancy
for safe and assured delivery of the baby. This is a prayer to the Hindu God
Dhata.
4. Jatkarma is birth ceremony of the new-born baby. On this occasion, a prayer
is observed for goddess Savita.
5. Namkarana is the naming ceremony of the baby, which is observed 11 days
after its birth. This gives the new-born an identity with which he or she will
be associated all his life.
6. Niskramana is the act of taking the four-month-old child out for the first time
into the open to sunbathe. The Sun God Surya is worshiped.
7. Annaprashana is the elaborate ceremony conducted when the child is fed
cereal for the first time at the age of six months.
8. Chudakarma or Keshanta karma is the ceremonious tonsuring of the head and
Lord Brahma or Prajapati is prayed and offerings made to him. The baby's
head is shaved off and the hair is ceremonially immersed in the river.
9. Karnavedha is the ritual of having the ear pierced. These days it is mostly
girls who have their ears pierced.
10. Upanayana aka thread ceremony is the investiture ceremony of the sacred
thread where Brahmin boys are adorned with a sacred thread hung from one
shoulder and passed around their front and back. This day, Lord Indra is
invoked and offerings are made to him.
11. Vedarambha or Vidyarambha is observed when the child is initiated into
study. In ancient times, boys were sent to live with their gurus in a 'gurugriha'
or hermitage to study. Devotees pray to the Hindu God Apawaka on this
occasion.
12. Samavartana is the convocation or the commencement to the study of the
Vedas.

61
13. Vivaha is the lavish nuptial ceremony. After marriage, the individual enters
the life of a 'grihastha' or conjugal life - the life of a householder. Lord
Brahma is the deity of the day in the wedding ceremony
2
.
14. Awasthyadhana or Vivahagni Parigraha is a ceremony where the marrying
couple encircles the sacred fire seven times. It is also known as 'Saptapadi.'
15. Tretagnisangraha is the auspicious ritual that starts the couple on their
domestic life.
16. Antyeshti is the final rite of passage or Hindu funeral rites that is performed
after death.

The 8 Rites of Passage or Ashtasamskara


2
There are eight types of marriage described in the ancient Hindu text of
Manusmriti (Laws of Manu) or "Manava Dharma Shastra":
Rite of Brahmana (Brahma) - where the father of the bride invites a man
learned in the Vedas and a good conduct, and gives his daughter in marriage to
him after decking her with jewels and costly garments.
Rite of the Gods (Daiva) - where the daughter is groomed with ornaments
and given to a priest who duly officiates at a sacrifice during the course of its
performance of this rite.
Rite of the Rishis (Arsha) - when the father gives away his daughter after
receiving a cow and a bull from the brightgroom.
Rite of the Prajapati - (Prajapatya) where the father gives away his daugher
after blessing the couple with the text "May both of you perform together your
duties"
Rite of the Asuras (Demons) - when the bridegroom receives a maiden after
bestowing wealth to the kinsmen and to the bride according to his own will.
Rite of the Gandharva - the voluntary union of a maiden and her lover,
which arises from desire and sexual intercourse for its purpose.
Rite of the Rakshasa - forcible abduction of a maiden from her home after
her kinsmen have been slain or wounded and their houses broken open.
Rite of the Pisaka - when a man by stealth seduces a girl who is sleeping or
intoxicated or is mentally disbalanced or handicapped.

62
Most of the above 16 samskaras, which originated thousands of years ago, are practiced
by most Hindus even to this day. However, there are eight rites that are considered
essential. These are known as 'Ashtasamskaras', and they are as follows:

1. Namakarana - Naming ceremony
2. Anna Prasana - Beginning of solid food
3. Karnavedha - Ear piercing
4. Chudakarma or Chudakarana - Head Shaving
5. Vidyarambha - Beginning of Education
6. Upanayana - Sacred Thread Ceremony
7. Vivaha - Marriage
8. Antyeshti - Funeral or Last Rites

The Importance of Samskaras in Life

These samskaras bind an individual to the community that nurture the feeling of
brotherhood. A person whose actions are connected to the others around him would
definitely think twice before committing a sin. Lack of samskaras give rise to indulging
in individual physical pleasures and fanning one's animal instincts. The inner demon is
aroused that leads to the degeneration of oneself and the society as a whole. When a
person is not aware of his moorings in society he runs his own selfish race against the
world and the greed to pitch himself over others leads to destruction of not only his self
but the entire human community. So, the samskaras act as a moral code of conduct for
the society.

Ten Benefits of Hindu Samskaras

1. Samskaras provide sound mental and physical health and the confidence to
face life's challenges
2. They are believed to purify blood and increase blood circulation, sending
more oxygen to every organ
3. Samskaras can energizes the body and revitalizes it
4. They can increase physical strength and stamina to work for longer period of
time
5. They rejuvenate the mind and enhance concentration and intellectual capacity
6. Samskaras give a sense of belonging, culture, and refined sensibilities
7. They direct energy to humanitarian causes thereby building a strong character
8. Samskaras kill vices, such as pride, ego, selfishness, wrath, envy,
covetousness, gluttony, sloth, lechery, greed and fear
9. They bestow moral and physical balance throughout life
10. Samskaras give the confidence to face death bravely owing to a contented
and righteous life

GODS AND GODDESSES
Hinduism is generally associated with a multiplicity of Gods, and
does not advocate the worship of one particular deity. The gods
and goddesses of Hinduism amount to thousands or even
millions, all representing the many aspects of only one supreme
Absolute called Brahman.

63

Therefore, to believe that the multiplicity of deities in Hinduism
makes it polytheistic is erroneous. The Rig Veda says: Ekam
sath, Vipraah bahudhaa vadanti (The Truth is one). However, to
equate Brahman with God is imprecise. It is neither the old
man in the sky concept, nor the idea of something capable of
being vengeful or fearful.

The doctrine of Spiritual Competence (Adhikaara) and that of the
Chosen Deity (Ishhta Devata) in Hinduism recommend that the
spiritual practices prescribed to a person should correspond to his
or her spiritual competence and that a person should have the
freedom to choose (or invent) a form of Brahman that satisfies
his spiritual cravings and to make it the object of his worship.

Thus, Hindus have a multitude of gods and goddesses. Deities are
represented by a complexity of images and idols symbolizing
divine powers. Many of these idols are housed within ornate
temples of unparalleled beauty and grandeur. Hindus also
worship spirits, trees, animals and even planets.

The most fundamental of Hindu deities, is the Trinity of Brahma,
Vishnu and Shiva - creator, preserver and destroyer respectively
3
.
Other popular deities include Ganesha, Krishna, Hanuman and a
number of Goddesses.

3
Shiva and Vishnu are regarded as Mahdevas ("great gods" ) due to their
central positions in worship and scriptures. These two along with Brahma are
considered the TRIMURTIthe three aspects of the universal supreme God.
These three aspects symbolize the entire circle of samsara in Hinduism:
Brahma as creator, Vishnu as preserver or protector, and Shiva as destroyer or
judge. The TRIDEVI or triplet goddesses of Hinduism have equal importance
as the trimurti. Brahma is creator, so he needs knowledge or goddess Saraswati
(Vaak) to create. Vishnu is preserver, so he needs the goddess of wealth and
prosperity, goddess Lakshmi (Shri). Finally, Shiva is destroyer and re-creator,
so he needs goddess Parvati, Durga, or Kali for power. They are the various
manifestations of Goddess, Shakti.


64

Hindus acknowledge that, at the most fundamental level, God is
the One without a second the absolute, formless, and only
Reality known as Brahman, the Supreme, Universal Soul.
Brahman is the universe and everything in it. Brahman has no
form and no limits; it is Reality and Truth.

Thus Hinduism is a pantheistic religion: It equates God with the
universe. Yet Hindu religion is also polytheistic: populated with
myriad gods and goddesses who personify aspects of the one true
God, allowing individuals an infinite number of ways to worship
based on family tradition, community and regional practices, and
other considerations.

Here are just some of the many Hindu gods and goddesses
4
:

1. Brahma, the Creator: Brahma is the first member of
the Hindu Trinity and is the Creator because he
periodically creates everything in the universe. (The word
periodically here refers to the Hindu belief that time is
cyclical; everything in the universe except for
Brahman and certain Hindu scriptures is created,
maintained for a certain amount of time, and then
destroyed in order to be renewed in ideal form again.)

2. Vishnu, the Preserver: Vishnu is the second member of
the Hindu Trinity. He maintains the order and harmony of
the universe, which is periodically created by Brahma and
periodically destroyed by Shiva to prepare for the next
creation. Vishnu is worshipped in many forms and in
several avatars (incarnations). Vishnu is an important,
somewhat mysterious god. Less visible than nature gods
that preside over elements (such as fire and rain), Vishnu
is the pervader the divine essence that pervades the

4
http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/hindu-gods-and-goddesses.html

65
universe. He is usually worshipped in the form of an
avatar (see below).

3. Shiva, the Destroyer: Shiva is the third member of the
Hindu Trinity, tasked with destroying the universe in
order to prepare for its renewal at the end of each cycle of
time. Shivas destructive power is regenerative: Its the
necessary step that makes renewal possible. Hindus
customarily invoke Shiva before the beginning of any
religious or spiritual endeavor; they believe that any bad
vibrations in the immediate vicinity of worship are
eliminated by the mere utterance of his praise or name.

4. Ganapati, the Remover of Obstacles: Ganapati, also
known as Ganesha, is Shivas first son. Lord Ganapati,
who has an elephant head, occupies a very special place
in the hearts of Hindus because they consider him the
Remover of Obstacles. Most Hindu households have a
picture or statue of this godhead, and its not uncommon
to see small replicas of Ganapati hanging from rearview
mirrors of cars and trucks!

Avatars of Vishnu: The literal meaning of the word avatar is
descent, and its usually understood to mean divine descent.
Avatars are savior forms of a god that descend to earth to
intervene whenever help is needed to restore dharma (moral
order) and peace. Two of Vishnus ten avatars are Rama and
Krishna.

Rama: Rama is one of the most beloved Hindu gods and
is the hero of the Hindu epic called the Ramayana. He is
portrayed as an ideal son, brother, husband, and king and
as a strict adherent to dharma. Millions of Hindus derive
satisfaction from reading and recalling Ramas trials and
tribulations as a young prince who was exiled from his
kingdom for 14 years.

Krishna: If one Hindu gods name is known and
recognized throughout the world, it is Krishna. Hindus

66
identify Krishna as the teacher of the sacred scripture
called the Bhagavad Gita and as the friend and mentor of
prince Arjuna in the epic the Mahabharata. For his
devotees, Krishna is a delight, full of playful pranks. But
most of all, Lord Krishnas promise to humanity that he
will manifest himself and descend to earth whenever
dharma declines has sustained Hindu belief in the
Supreme Being over thousands of years.

Saraswati, the Goddess of Learning: Saraswati is the
consort of Brahma the Creator and is worshipped as the
goddess of learning, wisdom, speech, and music. Hindus
offer prayer to Saraswati before beginning any intellectual
pursuit, and Hindu students are encouraged to offer
prayers to her during the school/college term and
especially before and during examinations.

Lakshmi: Lakshmi is the goddess of good fortune,
wealth, and well-being. As the consort of Vishnu, she
plays a role in every incarnation. (She is Sita, wife of
Rama; Rukmini, wife of Krishna; and Dharani, wife of
Parashu Rama, another avatar of Vishnu.)

Durga Devi: Durga Devi is a powerful, even frightening
goddess who fights fiercely in order to restore dharma
(moral order). Yet, while Durga is terrifying to her
adversaries, she is full of compassion and love for her
devotees.

Indra, the King of Heaven and lord of the gods: Indra
wields a thunderbolt and is a protector and provider of
rain.

Surya, the sun: Surya (or Soorya) is a golden warrior
arriving on a chariot pulled by seven white horses.

Agni, the fire god: Agni holds a special place in Hindu
fire ritual to this day as the sacrificer (the priest who

67
performs the ceremony); the sacrifice (the ritual fire and
the offerings made into it); and the witness to all rites.

Hanuman, the monkey king and devoted servant:
Hanuman is featured in the great Hindu epic the
Ramayana. He earned his path to deification by
performing feats of strength, devotion, and courage while
helping Rama (an avatar of Vishnu) in countless exciting
incidents.


HINDU CULTURE
Each of the religions of the world has its own culture, with many
customs, traditions and refined qualities. The Hindu culture is a culture
of love, respect, honoring others and humbling one's own ego so that
the inner nature, which is naturally pure and modest, will shine forth.
Some of the important faith and behaviors of Hindu community would
be.
RESPECT AND REVERENCE
1. RESPECT FOR ELDERS: Respect for elders is a keystone of Hindu
culture. This genuine acknowledgment of seniority is demonstrated
through endearing customs, such as sitting to the left of elders, bringing
gifts on special occasions, not sitting while they are standing, not
speaking excessively, not yawning or stretching, not putting one's
opinions forward strongly, not contradicting or arguing, seeking their
advice and blessings, giving them first choice in all matters, even
serving their food first.
2. NAME PROTOCOL: Younger never uses the proper name of their
elders. In the Tamil tradition, a younger brother, for example, refers to
his brother as annan, or periannan (older brother), not by name. The
elder, however, may use the name of the younger. Children are trained
to refer to all adults as auntie or uncle. Only people of the same age
will address each other by first name. A Hindu wife never speaks the
name of her husband. When referring to him she uses terms such as
"my husband," "him" or, for example, "Athan, Mama, etc.,".

68
3. TOUCHING FEET IN RESPECT: One touches the feet of holy men
and women in recognition of their great humility and inner attainment.
A dancer or a musician touches the feet of his or her teacher before and
after each lesson. Children prostrate and touch the feet of their mother
and father at festivals and at special times, such as birthdays and before
departing on a journey.
4. DARSHAN (darshana): "Vision, sight." Seeing the Divine.
Beholding, with inner or outer vision, a temple image, Deity, holy
person or place, with the desire to inwardly contact and receive the
grace and blessings of the venerated being or beings.
5. DAKSHINA: It is tradition to provide dakshina, a monetary fee or
gift to a priest given at the completion of any rite. Dakshina is also
given to gurus as a token of respect for their spiritual blessings.
PURITY
Purity and its opposite, pollution, are vitally important in Hindu
culture. Purity is of three forms -- purity in mind, speech and body, or
thought, word and deed. Purity is the pristine and natural state of the
soul. Impurity, or pollution, is the obscuring of this state by
adulterating experience and beclouding conceptions.
In daily life, the Hindu strives to protect this innate purity by wise
living, following the codes of dharma. This includes harnessing the
sexual energies, associating with other virtuous Hindu devotees, never
using harsh, angered or indecent language, and keeping a clean and
healthy physical body. Here are several ways purity is preserved in
Hindu culture.
1.PURITY AND FOOD: Purity is central to food and nutrition, as the
nature of one's nourishment deeply affects the entire physical, mental
and emotional nature. One cooking food for others would never taste of
the dish from a spoon and then put the spoon back in the pot. If food is
to be tasted while cooking, a small portion is placed in the right hand.
Similarly, one would not touch the lips to a water vessel that is also
used by others. Nor would one offer something to another from which
one has taken a bite or a sip.

69
2. FLOWER OFFERINGS: One does not sniff flowers picked for
offering to the Deities; even the smell is for the Gods, not for us.
Flowers that fall to the ground should not be offered.
3. OFFERINGS: Offerings, such as an archana basket, flowers or
garlands, are carried with both hands on the right side of the body, so as
to not be breathed on. All items are washed in preparation and, if
carried more than a short distance, wrapped or covered.
4. THE LEFT HAND: In Hindu culture the left hand is considered
impure because it is used (with water) in the place of toilet paper for
personal hygiene after answering the call of nature. Handing another
person anything with the left hand may be considered a subtle insult.
5. SHOES: Shoes are considered impure. The cultured Hindu never
wears shoes or sandals inside a temple or shrine, nor in his home or the
homes of other Hindus. Carrying shoes in the hands from one part of
the premises to another is also avoided. An ultimate insult is to be
struck with a shoe.
6. CAUTION WITH FOOTWEAR: It is very important to apologize
immediately if one touches someone with his or her shoe or sandal.
This is done by touching the right hand to where the foot touched the
other person and then touching one's right hand lightly to his own left
eye and then the right. This same remedy applies to inadvertently
hitting someone with the hand or foot or bumping into him or her.
EXCHANGE OF PRANA
1. GIVING AND RECEIVING WITH BOTH HANDS: Giving and
accepting things from one to another, presenting offerings to the Deity,
etc., is most properly done with both hands. The reason for this is that
with the gift, prana is also given through both hands, thus endowing
more energy to the object. The recipient of the gift receives it with both
hands along with the prana from the gracious giver. It is known that
this exchange of energies is vital for friendship, harmony and the total
release of the gift to the recipient. Hindus never accept gifts from
strangers or unknown persons.
2. Hugging and Embracing: Hugging and embracing is found in Hindu
culture; but it is restricted to close relatives, Guru/disciples and

70
associates that too in a private place. In Mahabharatha and Ramayana
we find this very often. Hugging and Embracing improves pranic
energy and this practice is not allowed with strangers.
3. NOT POINTING THE FINGER: Pointing with the forefinger of the
right hand or shaking the forefinger in emphasis while talking is never
done. This is because the right hand possesses a powerful, aggressive
pranic force, and an energy that moves the forces of the world. Pointing
the index finger channels that force into a single stream. The harshness
of this energy would be severely felt in the nerve system of the
recipient. More properly, rather than pointing or shaking the index
finger to give direction or emphasize a verbal statement, the entire hand
is used as a pointer, with the palm up and the thumb held alongside the
forefinger.
4. SHAKING HANDS: The traditional way that Hindu men greet one
another is with the anjali mudra, then, with palms still held together,
extending their hands to one another, in a two-handed handshake, in a
deliberate transfer of prana. The hands of one man, usually the less
senior, are gently clasped between the other's. Each looks smilingly
into the other's face while bowing slightly in humility. This handshake
is not firm, but relaxed and gentle.
5. NOT THROWING THINGS: Throwing any object on another
person is considered extremely improper, even if the persons know
each other very well. Cultured Hindus consider this crude and even
mildly violent, even if done in efficiency or jest.
6. CARE IN SITTING: It is improper to sit with one's legs outstretched
toward a temple, shrine or altar, or even toward another person. This is
a grave insult. Crossing one leg over the knee when sitting in a chair
should be avoided, though crossing at the ankles is permitted. One must
always try to follow the example of traditional elders. Worshiping,
meditating or sitting in the kneeling pose is not acceptable among
Hindus.
7. DOORWAYS: Conversations are not held inside or through
doorways. This is considered inauspicious. Similarly, to exchange or
give or lend an object, one-steps inside the room first, or the recipient
steps out of the room so that both parties are in the same room.
MODESTY

71
1.MODESTY: Interaction in public between men and women is much
more restrained in Hindu culture than in Western culture. In Hindu
culture, for the most part, men socialize with men, and women with
women. Men never touch women in public unless the lady is very
elderly or infirm.
2.DISPLAYING AFFECTION: Married Hindu couples do not hug,
hold hands or kiss in public. Even embracing at airports and train
stations is considered not wise. Men, however, frequently walk hand in
hand.
THE ROLE OF WOMEN
In traditional Hindu culture, women are held in the highest regard -- far
more respected, in truth, than in the West. But this does not imply the
kind of equality or participation in public interactions that are common
in the West. The qualities traditionally most admired in a Hindu woman
are modesty of manner, shyness and self-effacement. Self-assertive or
bold tendencies are regarded with circumspection. Feminine
refinements are expressed and protected in many customs, including
the following:
1. WOMANLY RESERVE: In mixed company especially in the
presence of strangers, a Hindu woman will keep modestly in the
background and not participate freely in conversation. This, of course,
does not apply to situations among family and close associates.
2. WALKING BEHIND ONE'S HUSBAND: The wife walks a step or
two behind her husband, or if walking by his side, a step or two back,
always giving him the lead. In the West, the reverse of this is often true.
3. SERVING AT MEALS: At meals women follow the custom of
serving the men first before enjoying their own meal.
4. CHAPERONING: It is customary for a woman to always be
accompanied when she leaves the home. Living alone, too, is unusual.
5. WOMEN IN PUBLIC: Generally it is improper for women to speak
with strangers on the street and especially to strike up a casual
conversation. Similarly, drinking alcohol or smoking in public, no

72
matter how innocent, are interpreted as a sign of moral laxity and are
not acceptable.

GUESTS IN THE HOME
1. HOME VISITS: Close friends can visit one another anytime without
being announced or making arrangements first. When they drop in, at
least a refreshing drink is always served.
2. HOSTING GUESTS: Children generally leave the room, with a
smile, when guests enter. The mother remains close by to serve as
needs arise. The father, if present, will speak with the guest. If he is not
present, the mother and a mature son will fulfill this role; and if no son
is present, the mother may act as hostess, but only with the
accompaniment of someone close to the family.
3. WIFE HOME ALONE: If the lady of the house is in home alone and
a male visitor comes to see her husband, it is not proper for her to invite
him in, nor for him to expect to enter. Rather, he will leave a message
and depart.
4. GIVING GIFTS: Gifts are always given when one visits a home or
stays overnight as a guest. The value of the gift varies greatly,
depending upon circumstances. It is proper to give a separate gift for
the wife and the husband. The wife is given the nicest item.
BODY LANGUAGE
All Hindus know that "Life is meant to be lived joyously!" All is God,
and God is everywhere and in all things. This understanding and
appreciation is exemplified in every aspect of Hindu deportment.
1. KINDLY WORDS AND COUNTENANCE: Hindus strive to keep a
pleasant expression on their face, a gentle smile and a kind word for
everyone they meet through the day. They know in their heart of hearts
that God is everywhere and that all in the universe is perfect at every
point in time. This knowledge gives them strength and courage to face
their daily karmas positively and graciously.

73
2. REFINED GESTURES: Hindus know that every movement of the
body, the face, hands, eyes, mouth, head, etc., has a meaning. Youth are
taught to be sensitive to the thoughts and feelings of others in their
body language.
3. EYES: Eyes are also a primary means of communicating, and the
meanings are fairly straightforward. They usually indicate degrees of
interest in what the speaker is saying. Smiling with your eyes as well as
your mouth conveys sincerity. There are three levels of smiling (and
infinite shades and degrees in between). Having the eyes open only
slightly indicates mild interest. Eyes more open and a bigger smile
indicates more interest and enthusiasm. Having the eyes open wide
with a big smile or nod, possibly accompanied by some verbal
expression, indicates greater interest or great happiness.


BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Shattuck, Hinduism (London 1999).
R.C. Zaehner, Hinduism (Oxford
2
1966).
K. Knott, Hinduism:A Very Short Introduction (New York
1998)
Encyclopedia of Hinduism and Indic Religions in 18 volumes - a
project of the India Heritage Research Foundation (forthcoming).
A. Hiltebeitel, "Hinduism" in: M. Eliade (ed.) Encyclopedia of
Religion New York: Macmillan, 1987) VI, 633-60,
N. Chaudhuri, Hinduism: A Religion to Live By ( Oxford 1979).
T. N. Madan (ed.), Religion in India (Delhi1991)
A. Rambachan, The Hindu Vision (Delhi 1992).
K. M. Sen, Hinduism (Harmondsworth, UK 1961).
A. Sharma , Hinduism for Our Times (Delhi 1996).
G. Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism ( Cambridge 1996).
K. Klostermaier , A Survey of Hinduism ( New York 1989)



74
BUDDHISM

Buddhism is a spiritual tradition that focuses on personal spiritual
development and the attainment of a deep insight into the true
nature of life. There are 376 million followers worldwide.
Buddhists seek to reach a state of nirvana (nibbana), following
the path of Siddhartha Gautama, who went on a quest for
Enlightenment around the sixth century BC and became the
Buddha (the Enlightened One).

There is no belief in a personal god. Buddhists believe that
nothing is fixed or permanent and that change is always possible.
The path to Enlightenment is through the practice and
development of morality, meditation and wisdom.

Buddhists believe that life is both endless and subject to
impermanence, suffering and uncertainty. The three
characteristics are anicca (impermanence), Dukkha(suffering)
and Anatta(non-self).
These states are called the tilakhana, or the three signs of
existence.

THE LIFE OF GAUTAMA, WHO BECAME LORD BUDDHA
Traditional belief is that he was born a prince in Lumbin, Nepal
in the Terai lowlands near the foothills of the Himalayas.
(However, considerable archeological evidence now shows that
he may have been born in Kalinga -- now Orissa in India.) He
was a member of the akyas clan. His father, Suddhodana, was
king of the clan. His mother was named Maya. He may have been
born into the second of the four Indian castes -- the aristocratic
warrior caste called Katriyas.

There is no consensus on the date of his birth. Modern Buddhists
of the Theravada tradition suggest he was born in 623 or 624
BCE. Until recently, many religious historians have preferred
birth dates ranging from 567 to 487 BCE. Various modern
scholars have suggested dates from 420 to 502 BCE.


75
In common with many other great religious leaders, many
miraculous stories were associated with his birth. He emerged
from his mother's side without causing her any pain. The earth
shook as he was born. As a newborn, he was miraculously
showered with water. He stood up, took seven steps, announced
that he would be the "chief of the world." He also stated that this
would be his last reincarnation.

He was given the name Siddhartha Gautama. Siddhartha means
"one who has achieved his aim." Gautama was his clan name. He
was sometimes referred to as akyamuni which means "the sage
of the akyas."

His early life in the palace: akyamuni was raised as a Hindu.
His parents assumed that he would succeed his father later in his
life. His parents were concerned about a prophecy that
astrologers gave at the time of his birth. They predicted that he
would become either a universal monarch or a monk who would
be a great religious teacher. His parents raised him in a state of
luxury in the hope that he would become attached to earthly
things and to pleasure. This would make it less likely that he
choose the religious life.

At the age of 16, he was married to his wife Yaodhara. When he
was 29, his wife had a son, Rahula. Shortly after his son's birth,
some sources say that he took four journeys by chariot. Other
sources say he had four visions. During the first trip/vision he
was deeply disturbed by seeing an elderly, helpless, frail man. On
the second, he saw an emaciated and depressed man suffering
from an advanced disease. On the third, he spotted a grieving
family carrying the corpse of one of their own to a cremation site.
He reflected deeply upon the suffering brought about by old age,
illness and death. On his fourth trip/vision, he saw a religious
mendicant -- a ramaa -- who led a reclusive life of meditation,
and was calm and serene. The four encounters motivated him to
follow the path of the mendicant and find a spiritual solution to
the problems brought about by human suffering. He left his wife,
child, luxurious lifestyle, and future role as a leader of his people

76
in order to seek truth. It was an accepted practice at the time for
some men to leave their family and lead the life of an ascetic.

Seeking the solution to human suffering: He first tried
meditation, which he learned from two teachers. He felt that these
were valuable skills. However, meditation could not be extended
forever, He eventually had to return to normal waking
consciousness and face the unsolved problems relating to birth,
sickness, old age and death.

He then joined a group of similarly-minded students of
Brahmanism in a forest where he practiced breath control and
fasted intensely for six years. He is said to have brought himself
to the brink of death by only eating a few grains of rice each day.
Some sources say that he consumed only a spoonful of bean soup
per day. This technique produced a series of physical
discomforts. Ultimately, he rejected this path as well. He realized
that neither the extremes of the mortification of the flesh or of
hedonism would lead to enlightenment. He determined that a
better path to achieve the state of Nirvana -- a state of liberation
and freedom from suffering -- was to pursue a "Middle Way."
This way was largely defined by moderation and meditation.

Attaining enlightenment: One night in 535 BCE, at the age of 35,
he was seated underneath a large tree -- later known as the Bodhi
tree (Peepal or ficus religiosus). He began to experience some
major spiritual breakthroughs:
During the first watch of the night, he developed the
ability to recall the events of his previous reincarnations
in detail.
During the second watch, he was able to see how the good
and bad deeds that many living entities performed during
their lifetimes led to the nature of their subsequent
reincarnation into their next life.
During the third watch, he learned that he had progressed
beyond "spiritual defilements," craving, desire, hatred,
hunger, thirst, exhaustion, fear, doubt, and delusions. He

77
had attained nirvana. He would never again be
reincarnated into a future life.

He had attained enlightenment! "He became a savior, deliverer,
and redeemer." The events under the Bodhi tree are often
described in mythological terms in Buddhist literature and art.
His experiences are portrayed as a battle with Mara, the Buddhist
equivalent of the Judeo-Christian-Islamic Satan.

After his enlightenment: He is referred to as the Lord Buddha
(one who has awakened; the one who has attained enlightenment
by himself). For seven days, he puzzled over his future: whether
to withdraw from the world and live a life of seclusion, or
whether to reenter the world and teach his Middle Way. He
decided on the latter course: to proclaim his Dharma (teachings)
to other humans so that they could also attain enlightenment.

He located five of his fellow seekers with whom he had earlier
fasted, and rejoined them near Benares. They quickly became
aware of the changes brought about by his enlightenment. It was
to them that he preached his first sermon. It contained the
essential teachings of Buddhism. All five accepted his teachings
and were ordained as monks. After the Buddha's second sermon,
all five achieved enlightenment. They are referred to as Arhants
(saints).

The Buddha's later life: He wandered around Northeast India for
decades, teaching all who would listen. He covered a territory
some 150 miles long by 250 miles wide, (an area somewhat
smaller than Ireland). He had tens of thousands of disciples and
accumulated a large public following. He later established an
order of monks and a corresponding order of nuns. His wife
Yaodhara became the first nun.

His health began to fail when he was in this late 70s. After forty-
five years of teaching, he died in a small town named
Kuinagara, at the age of 80, apparently of natural causes. His
final words were: "Decay is inherent in all things. Be sure to
strive with clarity of mind" for Nirvana. The traditional date of

78
his death used by Theravadin Buddhists is 544 or 543 BCE.
However, dates have been suggested from 544 to 380 BCE.

He did not choose a successor. He felt that the Dharma -- his
teachings -- plus the Vinaya -- his code of rules for the monks
and nuns -- would be a sufficient guide. Two and a half centuries
later, a council of Buddhist monks collected his teachings and the
oral traditions of the faith into written form, called the Tripitaka.
This included a very large collection of commentaries and
traditions; most are called Sutras (discourses).

Spread of Buddhism: Buddhists follow three main traditions.
There are those who adhere to the Theravada or Southern
tradition, those who adhere to the Mahayana or Northern
tradition and those who adhere to the Vajrayana or Tibetan
tradition.

Long ago, Buddhism began to spread southwards from its place
of origin in northern India to Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Indo-
China and other South East Asian countries. It also moved
northwards into the Himalayan kingdoms (Sikkim, Bhutan,
Nepal), Tibet, Mongolia and other parts of Central Asia, and also
into China, Korea and Japan.

This was a fortunate development because Buddhism all but died
out in India after the Moslem incursions of the 11th Century CE.
In more modern times, the spread of Communism has also
virtually obliterated Buddhism from various other countries
where it was once strongly established (e.g. China, Vietnam,
Tibet, etc.). There is now a resurgence of Buddhism in these
countries. Nowadays, however, Buddhism is attracting an
increasing following in Europe and the Americas. In Asia, it is
thriving in countries like Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Korea and
Japan.


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Schools of Buddhism
5
: There are numerous different schools or
sects of Buddhism. The two largest are Theravada Buddhism,
which is most popular in Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos
and Burma (Myanmar), and Mahayana Buddhism, which is
strongest in Tibet, China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, and Mongolia.
Besides these two main schools, there are
Vajrayana: This is the kind of Buddhism predominant in the
Himalayan nations of Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, and also Mongolia. It
is known as Vajrayana because of the ritual use of the vajra, a
symbol of imperishable diamond, of thunder and lightning. At the
center of Tibetan Buddhism is the religious figure called the
lama, Tibetan for "guru"," source of another of its names,
Lamaism. Several major lineages of lamas developed, beginning
in the ninth century with the Nyingma-pa. Two centuries later,
Sarma-pa divided into the Sakya-pa and the Kagyu-pa. Three
hundred years later, one of Tibet's revered lamas, Tsong-kha-pa,
founded the reforming Gelug-pa.
Tibetan Buddhist Lineages: (a) Nyingma-pa Tracing its origin to
the Indian adept, Guru Padma-sambhava, who came to Tibet in
817 C.E. at the invitation of King Trisong Detsen (742-797) in
order to subdue the evil forces then impeding the spread of
Buddhism. This lineage emphasizes the move towards more
advance stages of enlightenment through "preliminary practice"
that comprises the beliefs and practices of Buddhism before the
advent of Tantra, and through the "higher practices," which
involve the attainment of enlightenment through the chanting of
magical spells, special hand gestures and mystical diagrams. (b)
Sakya-pa The lineage has descended intact up to the present time
from Khon Knchok Gyelpo(1034-1102), founder of the Sakya
tradition. From the doctrinal point of view the tradition traces its
origins to the Indian Yogin Virupa through Gayadhara. The
central teaching and practice of the Sakya-pa, called Lam-dre
(Lam-bras), the Path and Its Fruit, ultimately leads a practitioner
to the state of Hevajra. The Path and Its Fruit is a synthesis of the
entire paths and fruits of both the exoteric and esoteric classes of

5
Cf. http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/schools.htm

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teachings. (c) Kagyu-pa The lineages of the Kagyu school of
Tibetan Buddhism derive primarily from two sources: Marpa
Chkyi Lodro (1012-1099) and Khyungpo Nyaljor (978-1079).
The unique feature of Kagyu tradition, can be explained
according to interpretations of sutra and tantra. Both aspects of
the teachings are aimed at direct understanding of the real nature
of the mind. The approach to Mahamudra, which differs slightly
within each Kagyu school, generally follows through the stages
of foundation, path and fruit. Tantric practices unique to Kagyu
tradition are the Six Yogas of Naropa, Chakrasambhava and
Mahakala. In the context of tantric practice, the application of
Mahamudra becomes much more profound and sophisticated.
(d) Gelug-pa Founded by Tsong-kha-pa (1357-1419) as a reform
movement within Tibetan Buddhism, followers acclaimed the
third teacher as an incarnation of the bodhisattva
Avalokiteshvara, thus inaugurating the line of the Dalai Lama,
the fourteenth and most recent of whom was born in 1935.
Emphasis in this lineage is on a strict monastic discipline and on
the conviction that the bodhisattva, a Buddha who has foregone
final nirvana out of compassion for all sentient beings, is
continually present. This tradition remains dynamic even after
coming into exile. The major Gelug monasteries, Sera, Drepung,
Ganden, and Tashi Lhunpo monasteries and Gyumey Tantric
College have been re-established in various Tibetan settlements
in Karnataka, and Gyut Tantric College has been re-established
in Bomdila, Arunachal Pradesh, all in India. (e) Tendai (T'ien
Tai, Chinese): Founded in Japan by Saicho (d. 822 C.E.), this
lineage quickly rose to prominence as the most important lineage
in Japanese Buddhism. The basic doctrine of this lineage and the
Chinese T'ien Tai are the same, as in their reverence for the Lotus
Sutra, but Tendai differs in its emphasis on the mystical and
esoteric aspects of Buddhism. The four primary categories of this
lineage are morality, monastic discipline, esoteric practices, and
meditation. (f) Shingon: Founded by Kukai (d. 835 C.E), this
lineage grew to rival the Tendai lineage as early as the late ninth
century. The Shingon belief system was tantric and taught that
through mantras (short, repetitive incantations), meditation and
the performance of hand gesture one can gain access to the power
of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas. (g) Jodo or Pure Land: Began

81
at the time of the publication of the treatise of Honen (d. 1212
C.E) entitled Senchaku-shu, this lineage traces its scriptural
heritage to the Pure Land Sutra (Sukhavati Vyuha), which
prescribes loving devotion to the Buddha Amida as a means of
being reborn in the Pure Land, or the paradise over which he
presides. Pure Land prayer centres on the repetition on the phrase
namu amida butsu ("Homage to Amida Buddha") and became
one of the most popular forms of Buddhism in Japan. (h) Joho
Shinshu or True Pure Land: Founded by Shinran (d. 1262 C.E),
this lineage takes Pure Land teaching one step further, claiming
that humility and faith in Amida's love are in themselves true
signs that the redeeming grace of the Buddha has already been
bestowed. Amida Buddha seeks and saves without first requiring
faith and good works. These spring up spontaneously from
Amida's spiritual presence in the heart. (i) Nichiren: Named
after its founder Nichiren (d. 1282 C.E), this lineage was founded
on the Lotus Sutra and taught that the mere repetition of the title
of that sutra Nam-myoho-renge-kyo ("Homage to the Lotus
Sutra") was sufficient to gain one access to paradise. (j) Zen
(Soto and Rinzai Sects): The monk Eisai (d. 1215 C.E) is usually
considered the first proponent of Zen in Japan, although Ch'an
had existed since the early sixth century and probably existed
also in Japan before Eisai's time. The earliest forms of Zen
generally avoided intellectualism and de-emphasized scriptures,
doctrines and ceremonial. Eisai, whose form of Zen took on the
name of Rinzai (Lin-chi, Ch.) affirmed the authority of the
traditional Buddhist scriptures and used the koan or meditational
riddle as a means of transcending linear thinking. Soto Zen
(Ts'ao-tung, Ch.), tracing its roots back to Dogen (d. 1253 C.E),
also affirmed the validity of the Buddhist scriptures but de-
emphasized the use of koans and focused solely on extended,
silent meditation.

The Ten Schools of Chinese Buddhism: 1. Reality School or
Kosa School or Abhidharma School.
2. Satysiddhi School or Cheng-se School. 3. Three Sastra School
or San-lun School. 4. The Lotus School or T'ien-t'ai School
(absorb the Nirvana school). 5. The Garland School or Hua-yen
School or Avatamsaka School. (This absorbs the Dasab-humika

82
School and the Samparigraha-sastra school). 6. Intuitive School
or Ch'an School or Dhyana School. 7. Discipline School or Lu
School or Vinaya School. 8. Esoteric School or Chen-yien School
or Mantra School. 9. Dharmalaksana School or Ch'u-en School or
Fa-siang School.
10. Pure-land School or Sukhavati School or Ching-t'u School.


THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

"I teach suffering, its origin, cessation and path. That's all I
teach", declared the Buddha 2500 years ago.

The Four Noble Truths contain the essence of the Buddha's
teachings. It was these four principles that the Buddha came to
understand during his meditation under the bodhi tree.

1. The truth of suffering (Dukkha)
2. The truth of the origin of suffering (Samudya)
3. The truth of the cessation of suffering (Nirodha)
4. The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering (Magga)

The Buddha is often compared to a physician. In the first two
Noble Truths he diagnosed the problem (suffering) and identified
its cause. The third Noble Truth is the realisation that there is a
cure. The fourth Noble Truth, in which the Buddha set out the
Eightfold Path, is the prescription, the way to achieve a release
from suffering.

The First Noble Truth: Suffering (Dukkha) comes in many
forms. Three obvious kinds of suffering correspond to the first
three sights the Buddha saw on his first journey outside his
palace: old age, sickness and death. Dukkha has been classified
further into their aspects for better understanding. They are 1.
Dukkhao Dukkha Intrinsic suffering 2. Viparinama dukkha-
suffering in change. 3. Samkhara dukkha- suffering due to
formation. 1. Bodily and mentally painful feelings are called
intrinsic suffering because of their individual essence 2. Bodily
and mental pleasant feelings are called suffering in change

83
because they cause for suffering, when they change. 3. The
feeling of equanimity and the remaining formations of three
planes Uppada, Vaya, Bhanga are called suffering due to
formation
6
. Samkhara dukkha.
Suffering or unsatisfactoriness(dukkha) as described in the Pli
sutta has a wider meaning. At the first sermon
Dhammachakhakapavattana sutta which was addressed to the
five mendicants the Buddha continued to explain the noble truth
of suffering. And this monks is the noble truth of suffering,
birth is suffering decay is suffering, death is suffering,
Association, with what is not dear suffering. Separation of what
is dear is suffering. Not getting what one want is suffering. In
short the five aggregates of grasping are suffering. This is a
precise statement full of meaning with all areas of human life,
which explains the influence of suffering in many aspects.
Fortunately the Buddha's teachings do not end with suffering;
rather, they go on to tell us what we can do about it and how to
end it.

The Second Noble Truth: The Origin of suffering (Samudya):
Our day-to-day troubles may seem to have easily identifiable
causes: thirst, pain from an injury, sadness from the loss of a
loved one. In the second of his Noble Truths, though, the Buddha

6
whatever is born must die (uppada vaya dhammino). This realistic view of
the transience of all compound things is best illustrated in the tragic story of
the young mother Kisa Gotami which is found in the commentary to the
Anguttara Nikaya . Almost demented at the loss of her first-born baby boy, she
ran along the streets of Savatthi crying, Give me medicine for my son. A
kindly person directed her to the Buddha, who sensing the spiritual maturity in
her, sent her on a mission to fetch a few grains of mustard from any house
where no one had ever died. She failed to obtain the grains of mustard in the
manner instructed by the Buddha. While returning to the Buddha, it suddenly
dawned upon her that her son was not the only one that death has overcome,
and that that was a law common to all mankind. She then took her dead child
to the charnel ground. When she stood before the Buddha, he gently asked
her, Gotami, did you get the tiny grains of mustard seed? Done, Reverend
Sir, is the business of the mustard seed. She had gained the knowledge of
Stream-entry.

84
claimed to have found the cause of all suffering - and it is much
more deeply rooted than our immediate worries. The Buddha
taught that the root of all suffering is desire, tanh
7
. This comes
in three forms, which he described as the Three Roots of Evil, or
the Three Fires, or the Three Poisons.

These are the three ultimate causes of suffering:
1. Greed and desire, represented in art by a rooster
2. Ignorance or delusion, represented by a pig
3. Hatred and destructive urges, represented by a snake

The Buddha taught more about suffering in the Fire Sermon,
delivered to a thousand bhikkus (Buddhist monks). Bhikkhus,
all is burning. And what is the all that is burning? The eye is
burning, forms are burning, eye-consciousness is burning, eye-
contact is burning, also whatever is felt as pleasant or painful or
neither-painful-nor-pleasant that arises with eye-contact for its
indispensable condition, that too is burning. Burning with what?
Burning with the fire of lust, with the fire of hate, with the fire of
delusion. I say it is burning with birth, aging and death, with
sorrows, with lamentations, with pains, with griefs, with
despairs. The Buddha went on to say the same of the other four
senses, and the mind, showing that attachment to positive,
negative and neutral sensations and thoughts is the cause of
suffering.

The Third Noble Truth: Cessation of suffering (Nirodha). The
Buddha taught that the way to extinguish desire, which causes
suffering, is to liberate oneself from attachment. This is the third
Noble Truth - the possibility of liberation. The Buddha was a
living example that this is possible in a human lifetime.


7
Tanh is a term in Pali, the language of the Buddhist scriptures, that
specifically means craving or misplaced desire. Buddhists recognise that there
can be positive desires, such as desire for enlightenment and good wishes for
others. A neutral term for such desires is chanda.

85
Bhikkhus, when a noble follower who has heard (the truth) sees
thus, he finds estrangement in the eye, finds estrangement in
forms, finds estrangement in eye-consciousness, finds
estrangement in eye-contact, and whatever is felt as pleasant or
painful or neither-painful- nor-pleasant that arises with eye-
contact for its indispensable condition, in that too he finds
estrangement. "Estrangement" here means disenchantment: a
Buddhist aims to know sense conditions clearly as they are
without becoming enchanted or misled by them.

Nirvana means extinguishing. Attaining nirvana - reaching
enlightenment - means extinguishing the three fires of greed,
delusion and hatred. Someone who reaches nirvana does not
immediately disappear to a heavenly realm. Nirvana is better
understood as a state of mind that humans can reach. It is a state
of profound spiritual joy, without negative emotions and fears.
Someone who has attained enlightenment is filled with
compassion for all living things. When he finds estrangement,
passion fades out. With the fading of passion, he is liberated.
When liberated, there is knowledge that he is liberated. He
understands: 'Birth is exhausted, the holy life has been lived out,
what can be done is done, of this there is no more beyond.'
After death an enlightened person is liberated from the cycle of
rebirth, but Buddhism gives no definite answers as to what
happens next. The Buddha discouraged his followers from
asking too many questions about nirvana. He wanted them to
concentrate on the task at hand, which was freeing themselves
from the cycle of suffering. Asking questions is like quibbling
with the doctor who is trying to save your life.

The Fourth Noble Truth: Path to the cessation of suffering
(Magga). The final Noble Truth is the Buddha's prescription for
the end of suffering. This is a set of principles called the
Eightfold Path. The Eightfold Path is also called the Middle
Way: it avoids both indulgence and severe asceticism, neither of
which the Buddha had found helpful in his search for
enlightenment. The eight stages are not to be taken in order, but
rather support and reinforce each other:


86
1. Right Understanding - Samm ditthi. Accepting Buddhist
teachings. (The Buddha never intended his followers to
believe his teachings blindly, but to practise them and
judge for themselves whether they were true.)
2. Right Intention - Samm san kappa A commitment to
cultivate the right attitudes.
3. Right Speech - Samm vc - Speaking truthfully,
avoiding slander, gossip and abusive speech.
4. Right Action - Samm kammanta - Behaving peacefully
and harmoniously; refraining from stealing, killing and
overindulgence in sensual pleasure.
5. Right Livelihood - Samm jva - Avoiding making a
living in ways that cause harm, such as exploiting people
or killing animals, or trading in intoxicants or weapons.
6. Right Effort - Samm vyma - Cultivating positive states
of mind; freeing oneself from evil and unwholesome
states and preventing them arising in future.
7. Right Mindfulness - Samm sati - Developing awareness
of the body, sensations, feelings and states of mind.
8. Right Concentration - Samm samdhi - Developing the
mental focus necessary for this awareness.
The eight stages can be grouped into Wisdom (right
understanding and intention), Ethical Conduct (right speech,
action and livelihood) and Meditation (right effort, mindfulness
and concentration).

The Buddha described the Eightfold Path as a means to
enlightenment, like a raft for crossing a river. Once one has
reached the opposite shore, one no longer needs the raft and can
leave it behind.

BUDDHIST CUSTOMS

Venerating the Buddha: The Buddhist tradition has developed
many different customs and practices in different parts of the
world. This may take the form of meditating on the qualities of
Buddha, and honouring the Buddha or Buddha-figure. A person
could honour the Buddha by making offerings to relics or images
of the Buddha.

87

In the Theravada tradition, Buddhist laypersons often give gifts to
Buddhist monks especially food (dhana) but giving is also
encouraged more generally, to one another and to good causes.
In Theravada Buddhism, monks are considered to embody the
fruits of Buddhist practice. Monks' responsibility is to share these
with lay Buddhists through their example and teaching. Giving
to monks is also thought to benefit lay people and to win them
merit.

Pilgrimage
8
: Four main centres of pilgrimage sprung up within
the first couple of hundred years after Buddha's death which
marked key locations in the Buddha's life. In answer to
Venerable Anandas concern that the monks would no longer be
able to see the Buddha and pay their respects after His
Mahaparinibbana, Lord Buddha mentioned four places which a
pious disciple should visit and look upon with feelings of
reverence. What are the four?
a) Lumbini: Here the Tathagata was born! This, Ananda, is a
place that a pious man should visit and look upon with feelings of
reverence.
b) Buddhagaya: Here the Tathagata became fully enlightened, in
unsurpassed, Supreme Enlightenment! This, Ananda, is a place
that a pious man should visit and look upon with feelings of
reverence.
c) Sarnath: Here the Tathagata set rolling the unexcelled Wheel
of the Law! This, Ananda, is a place that a pious man should visit
and look upon with feelings of reverence.
d) Kusinara: Here the Tathagata passed away into Nibbana
wherein the elements of clinging do not arise! This, Ananda, is a
place that a pious man should visit and look upon with feelings of
reverence.

8
The names of some of the places mentioned in the Pali scriptures are no
longer used in India. Their modern names are in parentheses: Buddhagaya
(Bodhgaya), Kusinara (Kushinagar), Rajagaha (Rajgir), Savatthi (Sravasti) and
Vesali (Vaishali).

88
And whosoever, Ananda, should die on such a pilgrimage, with
his heart established in faith, he at the breaking up of the body,
after death, will be reborn in a realm of heavenly happiness.
Mahaparinibbana Sutta
The four other sacred sites are the places sanctified by the
Buddha and scenes of four principal miracles that He performed,
namely:
e) Savatthi, where the Buddha performed the Twin Miracle to
silence the heretics, after which He ascended to Tavatimsa
Heaven to preach to His mother.
f) Sankasia, where the Buddha descended from Tavatimsa
Heaven accompanied by Brahma and Sakka, after preaching to
His mother and the devas for three months.
g) Rajagaha, where the Buddha tamed the drunken elephant,
Nalagiri.
h) Vesali, where a band of monkeys dug a pond for the Buddhas
use and offered Him a bowl of honey.
Together, they make the eight great places of Buddhist
pilgrimage. Of the eight, seven are in India while the eighth, the
Buddhas birthplace, Lumbini, is in Nepal. According to the
Buddhavamsa Commentary (Pages 188, 428), for all Buddhas
there are four places that do not vary or are unalterable, namely:
(i) the seat of Enlightenment (Bodhi pallanka) at Bodhgaya,
(ii) the turning of the wheel of Dhamma in Deer Park, Isipatana
at Sarnath,
(iii) the placing of the first footstep at the gate of the city of
Sankasia at the Descent from Heaven,
(iv) the placement of the four legs of the bed in the Perfumed
Chamber (Gandhakuti) at Jetavana in Savatthi.

In Sri Lanka, there is what is called the solosmasthana which are
places of pilgrimage in Sri Lanka: Anuradhapura (the
Atamasthana or 'eight places'), Mihintale, Polonnaruwa, the
Temple of the Tooth (Kandy), Sri Pada
1. Abhayagiri Dagoba is situated in Anuradhapura, Sri
Lanka. It is one of the most extensive ruins in the world
and one of the most Sacred Buddhist pilgrimage sites.
Historically it was a great monastic centre as well as a

89
royal capital, with magnificent monasteries rising to many
stories, roofed with gilt bronze.
2. Dighavapi was according to the Dipawansa sanctified by
the Buddha during his third visit to Sri Lanka and is one
of the sixteen sacred places. The name Dighavapi literally
means long reservoir although it is probably a derivative
of Dighayu.
3. Divaguhawa (Batathota Lena) Batathota cave. It is
believed that these sacred precincts were established by
King Valagambahu, to whom most cave temples are
attributed. There is also a further belief that Divaguhawa
or Bhagawalena, associated with the Lord Buddhas visit
to Lanka, referred to this place.
4. Jetavanaramaya Dagoba is located in the ruins of
Jethawana Monastery in the sacred world heritage city of
Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. King Mahasena (273-301 AD)
initiated the construction of the stupa following the
destruction of Mahavihara, his son Meghavana.
5. Kelaniya is a small town near Colombo, Sri Lanka. It is
also a religious centre for veneration of the figure
Vibishana.
6. Kiri Vehera: Many Sinhala Buddhists of Sri Lanka
believe that Katharagama Deviyo is a guardian deity of
Buddhism and he is the presiding deity of Katharagama
temple. Katharagama is also one of the 16 principal places
of Buddhist pilgrimage to be visited in Sri Lanka.
7. Mahiyangana Raja Maha Vihara is an ancient Buddhist
temple in Sri Lanka. It is believed to be the site of
Gautama Buddha's first visit to the country, and is one of
the Solosmasthana, the 16 sacred religious locations in Sri
Lanka.
8. Mirisaweti Dagoba is cited in the ancient city of
Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. King Dutugemunu built the
Mirisaweti Dagoba after defeating King Elara. Placing the
Buddha relics in the sceptre, he had gone to Tisa Wewa
for a bath leaving the sceptre. After the bath he returned

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to the place where the sceptre was placed, and it is said
that it could not be moved. The Dagoba was built in the
place where the sceptre stood and it is also said that he
remembered that he partook a chilly curry without
offering it to the Sangha. In order to make reparation he
built the Mirisaweti Dagoba.
9. Mutiyangana Raja Maha Viharaya lies in the midst of the
city of Badulla in the Uva province. The History of this
temple goes back to the time of Buddha but this area
around Badulla (especially Uva Province) goes way back
in to the time of 19th - 18th century BCE. ...
10. Nagadipa Nainativ is one of the smallest inhabited
islands in the Gulf of Mannar and is only about 35 miles
from India. Merchants have long come here and the
surrounding islands to buy the conch shells that are
harvested in the warm shallow waters in the Gulf. The
conch shell is of course essential for certain Hindu and
Buddhist rites
11. Ruwanweliseya Dagoba is considered a marvel for its
architectural qualities and sacred to Buddhists all over the
world. It was built by King Dutugemunu, who united Sri
Lanka after defeating Chola King Elara. This Dagoba was
known as Mahathupa, Swarnamali Chaitya, Swarnamali
Mahaceti (in Pali) ...
12. Sri Maha Bodhiya, Anuradhapura, is the oldest living tree
in documented history of the world. Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi
is a Sacred Fig tree in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is a
sapling from the historical Bodhi tree under which
Buddha enlightened. It was planted in 288 BCE, (date
debated) and is the oldest living human-planted tree in the
world with a known planting date.
13. Sri Pada: An ancient pilgrimage, which has long attracted
thousands of pilgrims from perhaps all faiths, is the
pilgrimage to the sacred mountain, Sri Pada, popularly
known in English as Adam's Peak. It is a conical
mountain 7,360 feet (2,243 meters) high, soaring clear
above the surrounding mountain ranges.
14. Sela Chetiya got its name as it was built on a rock
(Shaila). This has been identified as the Maha Seya of the

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Mihintale complex. It was built by King Mahadathika
Mahanaga (7-9 AD) also known as Makalantissa,
enshrining the Buddhas ...
15. Thuparama is a Dagoba in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is
one of the Buddhist sacred places of veneration in
Anuradhapura. Thera Mahinda, an envoy sent by King
Ashoka himself introduced Theravada Buddhism and also
Chetiya worship to Sri Lanka. ...
16. Tissamaharamaya The beautiful man-made tank
(reservoir) in Tissa, Tissa Wewa with its remarkable bird
life provides the scenic backdrop to the town. Tissa was
the sanctuary in the Deep South, where Sinhalese patriots
fled to rally


Ordination: Admission to the monastic sangha involves two rites
of passage: (a) Renunciation of the secular life; Acceptance of
monasticism as a novice (b) Acceptance as a monk could not be
made before the age of 20, the two rites could be separated by
many years.

Ordination is an important ceremony in all traditions. In the
Theravada, for example, ordination means becoming a monk. To
become a Theravadin monk a postulant shaves his head and beard
and adopts the yellow robes of the monk. Various vows are
exchanged, including the repetition of the Ten Precepts. Then the
postulant is questioned about past behaviour and their suitability
for the position. If satisfied, the officiating abbot admits the
postulant.



MEDITATION
Meditation is a mental and physical course of action that a person
uses to separate themselves from their thoughts and feelings in
order to become fully aware. It plays a part in virtually all
religions although some don't use the word 'meditation' to
describe their particular meditative or contemplative practice.
Meditation does not always have a religious element. Successful

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meditation means simply being - not judging, not thinking, just
being aware, at peace and living each moment as it unfolds.

What is Buddhist meditation? In Buddhism the person
meditating is not trying to get into a hypnotic state or contact
angels or any other supernatural entity. Meditation involves the
body and the mind. For Buddhists this is particularly important as
they want to avoid what they call 'duality' and so their way of
meditating must involve the body and the mind as a single entity.
In the most general definition, meditation is a way of taking
control of the mind so that it becomes peaceful and focused, and
the meditator becomes more aware.

The purpose of meditation is to stop the mind rushing about in an
aimless (or even a purposeful) stream of thoughts. People often
say that the aim of meditation is to still the mind.

There are a number of methods of meditating - methods which
have been used for a long time and have been shown to work.
People can meditate on their own or in groups.

Working with the mind: All that we are is the result of what we
have thought: it is founded on our thoughts, it is made up of our
thoughts. Dhammapada Chapter 1:1-2 suggest that the mental
states we experience are the key to everything in our lives. If
we are consumed by craving or aversion, we will experience the
world very differently from the way we will experience it if we
are overflowing with generosity and kindness. Buddhist
meditation is an invitation to turn one's awareness away from the
world of activity that usually preoccupies us to the inner
experience of thoughts, feelings and perceptions. For Buddhists,
the realm of meditation comprises mental states such as calm,
concentration and one-pointedness (which comprises the six
forces: hearing, pondering, mindfulness, awareness, effort and
intimacy). The practice of meditation is consciously employing
particular techniques that encourage these states to arise.

Methods of meditation: (a) Some classical meditation methods
use the meditator's own breathing. They may just sit and

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concentrate on their breathing... not doing anything to alter the
way they breathe, not worrying about whether they're doing it
right or wrong, not even thinking about breathing; just 'following'
the breathing and 'becoming one' with the breathing. It is
important not to think: "I am breathing". When a person does that
they separate themselves from the breathing and start thinking of
themselves as separate from what they are doing - the aim is just
to be aware of breathing. (b) A meditation candle: This is more
difficult than it sounds. Some meditators prefer to count breaths,
trying to count up to ten without any distraction at all, and then
starting again at one. If they get distracted they notice the
distraction and go back to counting. (c) There are other methods
of meditation - some involve chanting mantras, some involve
concentrating on a particular thing (such as a candle flame or a
flower). (d) Nor does meditation have to involve keeping still;
walking meditation is a popular Zen way of doing it, and
repetitive movements using beads or prayer wheels are used in
other faiths.

The 'three trainings': In the West, for many of those who want to
explore a spiritual path, meditation is the first thing they
encounter. In Buddhist tradition, meditation is the second part of
the 'threefold path'. There are many formulations of the Buddhist
path to spiritual awakening but the threefold path is generally
seen as the most basic one. The first training, and the
indispensable basis for spiritual development, according to the
Buddha, is ethics (shila). Buddhism does not have laws or
commandments but its five ethical precepts are guidelines for
how to live in a way that avoids harming others or oneself.
Meditation (samadhi) is the second training. Acting ethically
gives rise to a simpler life and a clear conscience, which are a
sound basis for meditation practice. Meditation clarifies and
concentrates the mind in preparation for the third training:
developing wisdom (prajna). The real aim of all Buddhist
practice is to understand the true nature of our lives and
experience.

The four types of meditation: A useful way of understanding the
diversity of meditation practices is to think of the different types

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of meditation. These practices are known as: Concentrative,
Generative, Receptive, Reflective (This isn't a traditional list - it
comes from modern meditation teachers who draw on more than
one Asian Buddhist tradition. Neither are there hard and fast
distinctions.) A particular meditation practice usually includes
elements of all four approaches but with the emphasis on one
particular aspect. Connected with meditation, but not quite the
same as it, is the practice of mindfulness. This, too, is an essential
part of Buddhist practice and means becoming more fully aware
of what one is experiencing in all aspects of one's life.
Mindfulness always plays a part in meditation, but meditation, in
the sense of setting out to become more and more concentrated, is
not necessarily a part of mindfulness.

Concentrative: If you focus your attention on an object it
gradually becomes calmer and more concentrated. The most
common and basic object of concentrative meditation is to focus
on the naturally calming physical process of the breath. In the
'mindfulness of breathing', one settles the mind through attending
to the sensations of breathing. There are many variations on how
this is done. Concentrative meditation practices can lead you into
deeper and deeper states of absorption known as dhyana in
Buddhism.

Generative: An example of a 'generative' practice is the
'development of loving kindness' meditation (metta bhavana).
This helps the person meditating to develop an attitude of loving
kindness using memory, imagination and awareness of bodily
sensations. In the first stage you feel metta for yourself with the
help of an image like golden light or phrases such as 'may I be
well and happy, may I progress.'
In the second stage you think of a good friend and, using an
image, a phrase, or simply the feeling of love, you develop metta
towards them. In the third stage metta is directed towards
someone you do not particularly like or dislike. In the fourth
stage it is directed towards someone you actually dislike.
In the last stage, you feel metta for all four people at once -
yourself, the friend, the neutral person and the enemy. Then you
extend the feeling of love from your heart to everyone in the

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world, to all beings everywhere. As a mother would risk her
life to protect her child, her only child, even so should one
cultivate a limitless heart with regard to all beings. With goodwill
for the entire cosmos cultivate a limitless heart. (Metta Sutta).
Other generative practices in Buddhism include tonglen - the
Tibetan practice of breathing in the suffering of others and
breathing out a purifying white light. This practice is aimed at
cultivating compassion.

Receptive: In the mindfulness of breathing or the metta bhavana
meditation practice, a balance needs to be struck between
consciously guiding attention and being receptive to whatever
experience is arising. This attitude of open receptive attention is
the emphasis of the receptive type of meditation practice.

Reflective: Reflective meditation involves repeatedly turning
your attention to a theme but being open to whatever arises from
the experience. Reflective practices in Buddhism include
meditations on impermanence and interconnectedness as well as
faith enhancing practices such as meditation on the qualities of
the Buddha.

It is a valuable tool for developing self-knowledge, learning to
concentrate and dealing with stress.
In recent years there has been growing interest in using
meditation and mindfulness in palliative care, particularly
learning to cope with chronic pain and preventing relapse into
depression. Within its Buddhist context, meditation is a vital
component of its path to spiritual awakening.

Temples: Buddhist temples come in many shapes. Perhaps the
best known are the pagodas of China and Japan. Another typical
Buddhist building is the Stupa, which is a stone structure built
over what are thought to be relics of the Buddha, or over copies
of the Buddha's teachings. Buddhist temples are designed to
symbolise the five elements:
Fire
Air

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Earth, symbolised by the square base
Water
Wisdom, symbolised by the pinnacle at the top
All Buddhist temples contain an image or a statue of Buddha.

Worship: There are as many forms of Buddhist worship as there
are schools of Buddhism - and there are many of those. Worship
in Mahayana tradition takes the form of devotion to Buddha and
to Bodhisattvas. Worshippers may sit on the floor barefoot
facing an image of Buddha and chanting. They will listen to
monks chanting from religious texts, perhaps accompanied by
instruments, and take part in prayers.

Mantras and prayer: A mantra is a word, a syllable, a phrase or a
short prayer that is spoken once or repeated over and over again
(either aloud or in a person's head) and that is thought to have a
profound spiritual effect on the person. A very well known
mantra is the mantra of Avalokiteshvara: om mani padme hum.
This is sometimes said to mean "Behold! The jewel in the lotus!",
but this translation isn't much help - the phrase isn't really
translatable because of the richness of meaning and symbolism it
contains.

SPREAD OF BUDDHISM
9
:
During the third century BCE, Buddhism was spread by
Ashoka(BCE 270 - BCE 232), the third and the most powerful
Mauryan emperor, who created the first pan-Indian empire. After
the battle of Kalinga, Ashoka felt immense grief due to the huge
loss of lives during the war and thus decided to follow the path of
Buddhism. After this, he began to implement Buddhist principles
in the administration of his kingdom and named the new code of
conduct 'Dhamma'. Here, in order to inform everyone about his
new political and ruling philosophy, he got edicts (proclamation)

9
http://www.buddhist-tourism.com/buddhism-information/spread-of-
buddhism.html

97
inscribed on stone pillars and placed them throughout his
kingdom, which are present even today.

Ashoka not only helped in spreading the religion within India but
outside India as well. The main reason for the spread of
Buddhism into Southeast Asia was the support of the emperor
Ashoka himself. Teams of missionaries were sent by him all over
the Indian sub-continent, i.e. to Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma),
and other neighbouring areas so as to send the message of
Buddhism. The missionaries sent by Ashoka to the other
countries were well received by them and the conversions took
place easily because of the influence and the personal power
Ashoka exercised.


The spread of Buddhism in Sri Lanka: Ashokas most successful
missions were headed by his son Mahindra, who travelled to Sri
Lanka along with four other monks and a novice. This mission
turned out to be so successful that the king of Sri Lanka himself
became a Buddhist, and Mahindra then supervised the translation
of the Theravada canon (written in the Pali language) into
Sinhala, the Sri Lankan script. He also helped in finding a
monastery named Mahavihara, which became the main supporter
of the Theravadin orthodoxy in Sri Lanka for over 1,000 years.


The spread of Buddhism in China: Buddha Statue in Pelkor
Chodi Monastery, Gyantse, ChinaChina recorded contact with
Buddhism with the arrival of a Buddhist scholar, Bodhi Dharma,
who travelled from India to China along with other monks in 475
CE. Bodhi Dharma introduced the teachings of the Buddha to the
Chinese, who were influenced by the teachings. Buddhism and
Chinese Taoism intermingled with one another, thereby resulting
in the Ch'an school of Buddhism in China.

From the Central Asian kingdom of Kusha, in 148 BC, a monk
named An Shih-kao, began translating Indian Buddhist texts into
Chinese in Lo-yang, which later became the capital of the Han
dynasty. During the next three decades, An Shih-kao and a

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number of other monks (mostly from Central Asia) translated
about thirty Buddhist texts.


The spread of Buddhism in Japan and Korea: In the centuries
that followed, Buddhism gained its own identity, and from China,
Buddhism traveled further towards Korea and Japan. As per
Nihonshoki in 552 CE, the Korean state of Paekche sent Buddhist
texts and images to Japan so as to convince the Japanese emperor
to become an ally in its war with the neighboring state of Silla. In
the initial stages, Japanese inclination towards Buddhism was
majorly related to the magical powers of Buddha and Buddhist
monks. But when the emperor Yomei (CE 585 - CE 587) adopted
Buddhism, the Japanese began to travel to China in order to learn
from the Buddhist teachers there, and a number of indigenous
Buddhist schools developed in Japan.

Yomei's son, Prince Shotoku (CE 574 - CE 622) propagated
Buddhism, built various Buddhist temples and sent Japanese
monks to travel to China for further studies on Buddhism.
Besides these, he also wrote commentaries on three Buddhist
texts. Undoubtedly, in later times he was viewed in Japan as an
incarnation of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara.


The spread of Buddhism in Tibet: Tashilhunpo Buddhist
Monastery, Shigatse, TibetThe Indian scholar, Shantarakshita
went to Tibet during the reign of the Tibetan king Trisong Detsen
(CE 740 - CE 798), but due to the opposition from some of the
king's ministers, he had to leave. But before Shantarakshita left,
he persuaded the king to invite the tantric adept Padmasambhava,
who his arrival asserted that Shantarakshita's efforts had been
ruined by the demons of the country. Padmasambhava defeated
all the demons in a personal combat which impressed the king
and his court who then invited Shantarakshita again and the first
monastery in Tibet was built at Samye. This marked the
beginning of the "first dissemination" of Buddhism to Tibet,
which ended when the devout Buddhist king Relbachen (815-
836) was assassinated, which further led to the beginning of an

99
interregnum period for Tibetan Buddhism, which ended in 1042
CE, when Atisha (982 CE - 1054 CE), one of the directors of the
monastic university of Nalanda, traveled to Tibet. Tibetan
historians consider this to be the beginning of the 'second
dissemination' of Buddhism in Tibet. Atisha was so successful in
bringing the dharma to Tibet that Buddhism quickly became the
dominant religious tradition in the country.


The spread of Buddhism in western countries: Buddhism is
acquiring a grip in Western countries today, where a number of
prominent Buddhist teachers have established successful centres
in Europe and North America. The Dalai Lama, Thich Nhat
Hanh, Sogyal Rinpoche, a number of Zen masters (Roshi), and
Theravada meditation teachers have been successful in spreading
Buddhist teachings outside Asia. Besides these, books and
articles on Buddhism are becoming a huge hit with the
westerners, who have a zeal for the Buddhist teachings based on
mediation and purification.



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ISLAM

The word Islam means submission to the will of God. Islam is
the second largest religion in the world with over 1 billion
followers. The 2001 census recorded 1,591,000 Muslims in the
UK, around 2.7% of the population.
Muslims believe that Islam has always existed, but for practical
purposes, date their religion from the time of the migration of
Muhammad. Muslims base their laws on their holy book the
Qur'an, and the Sunnah. Muslims believe the Sunnah is the
practical example of Prophet Muhammad.

There are five basic Pillars of Islam:
Shahadah: sincerely reciting the Muslim profession of
faith
Salat: performing ritual prayers in the proper way five
times each day
Zakat: paying an alms (or charity) tax to benefit the poor
and the needy
10

Sawm: fasting during the month of Ramadan
Hajj: pilgrimage to Mecca

Why are they important?
Carrying out these obligations provides the framework of a
Muslim's life, and weaves their everyday activities and their
beliefs into a single cloth of religious devotion. No matter how
sincerely a person may believe, Islam regards it as pointless to
live life without putting that faith into action and practice.
Carrying out the Five Pillars demonstrates that the Muslim is
putting their faith first, and not just trying to fit it in around their
secular lives.

Muslims have six main beliefs.
1. Belief in Allah as the one and only God

10
The 2.5% rate only applies to cash, gold and silver, and commercial items.
There are other rates for farm and mining produce, and for animals.

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2. Belief in angels
3. Belief in the holy books
4. Belief in the Prophets e.g. Adam, Ibrahim (Abraham),
Musa (Moses), Dawud (David), Isa (Jesus). Muhammad
(peace be upon him) is the final prophet.
5. Belief in the Day of Judgment...The day when the life of
every human being will be assessed to decide whether
they go to heaven or hell.
6. Belief in Predestination...That Allah has the knowledge of
all that will happen. Muslims believe that this doesn't
stop human beings making free choices.

Allah is the name Muslims use for the supreme and unique
God, who created and rules everything. The heart of faith for
all Muslims is obedience to Allah's will. Allah is eternal,
omniscient, and omnipotent...Allah has always existed and
will always exist. Allah knows everything that can be known.
Allah can do anything that can be done. Allah has no shape
or form... Allah can't be seen. Allah can't be heard. Allah is
neither male nor female. Allah is just... Allah rewards and
punishes fairly. But Allah is also merciful. A believer can
approach Allah by praying, and by reciting the Qur'an.
Muslims worship only Allah...because only Allah is worthy
of worship.

JIHAD
11
: The literal meaning of Jihad is struggle or effort, and
it means much more than holy war. Muslims use the word Jihad
to describe three different kinds of struggle:

11
According to a well-known hadith, the Prophet distinguished between the
'lesser' jihad of war against the polytheists and the 'greater' jihad against evil.
At its broadest, the latter was the struggle in which the virtuous Muslim was
engaged throughout his or her life. Despite the lan of the early conquests,
historically it was the 'greater' jihad which sustained the expansion of Islam in
many parts of the world. The dualism of good versus evil, dar al-islam against
dar al-harb, was maintained less by territorial concepts than by legal
observance. Dar al-islam was where the law prevailed. In pre-colonial times,
before the military might of the West erupted into Muslim consciousness, that
law was commensurate with civilization itself. The high culture of Cairo and
Baghdad extended via the trade routes to southern Africa, northern India, and

102
A believer's internal struggle to live out the Muslim faith
as well as possible
The struggle to build a good Muslim society
Holy war: the struggle to defend Islam, with force if
necessary

Many modern writers claim that the main meaning of Jihad is the
internal spiritual struggle, and this is accepted by many Muslims.
However there are so many references to Jihad as a military
struggle in Islamic writings that it is incorrect to claim that the
interpretation of Jihad as holy war is wrong
12
.

MUSLIM WOMEN are required to observe the hijab in front of
any man they could theoretically marry. This means that hijab is
not obligatory in front of the father, brothers, grandfathers, uncles

south-east Asia. The process of expansion was organic and self-directing.
Since there was no church or overarching religious institution, there was no
universal, centrally directed missionary effort. There was, however, the
demonstration effect of Muslims living literate, orderly, and sober lives.
12
A war is not a Jihad if the intention is to: Force people to convert to Islam,
Conquer other nations to colonise them, Take territory for economic gain,
Settle disputes, Demonstrate a leader's power. Although the Prophet engaged
in military action on a number of occasions, these were battles to survive,
rather than conquest, and took place at a time when fighting between tribes
was common.
A military Jihad has to obey very strict rules in order to be legitimate. The
opponent must always have started the fighting. It must not be fought to gain
territory. It must be launched by a religious leader. It must be fought to bring
about good - something that Allah will approve of. Every other way of solving
the problem must be tried before resorting to war. Innocent people should not
be killed. Women, children, or old people should not be killed or hurt.
Women must not be raped. Enemies must be treated with justice. Wounded
enemy soldiers must be treated in exactly the same way as one's own soldiers.
The war must stop as soon as the enemy asks for peace.
Property must not be damaged. Poisoning wells is forbidden. The modern
analogy would be chemical or biological warfare.

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or young children. Modesty rules are open to a wide range of
interpretations. Some Muslim women wear full-body garments
that only expose their eyes. Some cover every part of the body
except their face and hands. Some believe only their hair or their
cleavage is compulsory to hide, and others do not observe any
special dress rules.

SHARIA LAW comes from a combination of sources including
the Qur'an Sharia is a now a familiar term to Muslims and non-
Muslims. It can often be heard in news stories about politics,
crime, feminism, terrorism and civilisation. All aspects of a
Muslim's life are governed by Sharia. Sharia law comes from a
combination of sources including the Qur'an (the Muslim holy
book), the Hadith (sayings and conduct of the prophet
Muhammad) and fatwas (the rulings of Islamic scholars).

How did Sharia start? The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) laid down
the laws - some of them were direct commands stated in the
revelation of the Qur'an; other laws grew up based on the
Prophet's own example and the various rulings he gave to cases
that occurred during his lifetime. These secondary laws are based
on what's called the Sunnah - the Prophet's words, example, and
way of life. So, all the laws of Sharia are based primarily on
Qur'an and then on Sunnah, and after that, if there was no
information in those two sources, judges were free to use their
intelligence to make analogies. As in most legal systems, cases
could then be referred to by later judges.
What, nowadays, is the authoritative source of Sharia? Just as
outlined above. What is important, however, is that judges are
highly educated in Islamic law and jurisprudence.
What are the basic principles of Sharia? These are to see the will
of God done on earth as it is in Heaven. How can we possibly
know this will? By study of the revealed scriptures and by
choosing talented, intelligent and far-sighted merciful people of
excellent character as our judges. The whole principle of God's
will is to bring about compassion, kindness, generosity, justice,
fair play, tolerance, and care in general, as opposed to tyranny,

104
cruelty, selfishness, exploitation etc. All the rules of Sharia are
towards those ends.

The usual criticisms of Sharia - that it is so cruel as regards
execution, flogging and cutting off hands - totally ignore all the
extenuating circumstances that would lead to these penalties not
being applied. They are known as hadd penalties, the extreme
limit of the penalty. Thus, if a person was sentenced to having a
hand cut off, he or she should not be sent to prison and/or be
fined as well. The point is that the cutting of the hand for theft is
a very powerful deterrent - Muslims care less for the callous and
continual thief than they do for the poor souls who are mugged
and robbed and hurt by the thieves.
Adultery: In the west, adultery has become so commonplace
because of sexual freedoms - all the emphasis these days seems
to be on finding sexual satisfaction; in Muslim societies, there is
far less emphasis on sex - it is usually regarded as a weakness
that can lead to all sorts of trouble. Family is far more important;
the notion of a million unborn children per year being aborted,
and single mothers, is abhorrent in Islam.
Murder: Sharia law for murder allows the death penalty, but is
kinder than western law in one respect. After judicial judgement
has been made, appeals are then allowed to the family of the
murdered victims, and they are begged to be merciful. In Islam, it
is always regarded as the height of mercy to forgive a murderer,
even though one may have the right to take his/her life in reprisal.
Individual rights vs needs of society? Basically in Islam the
needs of society always come first, with the proviso that
injustices should always be able to be taken to judges who are not
corrupt. The old Arab system allowed any person, no matter how
humble, to take his/her case to the highest in the land personally.
Islam brings a very strong sense of justice, and care of the
oppressed and exploited.

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THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD

Muslims believe that Islam is a faith that has always existed and
that it was gradually revealed to humanity by a number of
prophets, but the final and complete revelation of the faith was
made through the Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century CE.
Muhammad was born in Mecca in Saudi Arabia in 570. He was a
deeply spiritual man, and often spent time in meditation on
Mount Hira.

The traditional story of the Qur'an tells how one night in 610 he
was meditating in a cave on the mountain when he was visited by
the angel Jibreel who ordered him to recite. Once Jibreel
mentioned the name of Allah, Muhammad began to recite words
which he came to believe were the words of God.

THE QUR'AN: During the rest of his life Muhammad continued
to receive these revelations. The words were remembered and
recorded, and form the text of the Holy Qu'ran, the Muslim
scripture.
Believing that God had chosen him as his messenger Muhammad
began to preach what God had revealed to him.
The simple and clear-cut message of Islam, that there is no God
but Allah, and that life should be lived in complete submission to
the will of Allah, was attractive to many people, and they flocked
to hear it.

THE HIJRAH Muhammad's popularity was seen as threatening
by the people in power in Mecca, and Muhammad took his
followers on a journey from Mecca to Medina in 622. This
journey is called the Hijrah (migration) and the event was seen as
so important for Islam that 622 is the year in which the Islamic
calendar begins.

THE RETURN TO MECCA: Within ten years Muhammad had
gained so many followers that he was able to return and conquer

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Mecca. From this time on he was generally accepted by the
faithful as the true final Prophet of God. Muhammad continued
to lead his community both spiritually and in earthly matters until
his death in 632.


AFTER MOHAMMED
THE EARLY RISE OF ISLAM (632-700): The Muslim
community spread through the Middle East through conquest,
and the resulting growth of the Muslim state provided the ground
in which the recently revealed faith could take root and flourish.
The military conquest was inspired by religion, but it was also
motivated by greed and politics. Men fought for their religion,
the prospect of booty and because their friends and fellow
tribesmen were also doing it. But this mixture of motives
combined to form a process that forged Islamic and Arab ideals
and communities into a fast-growing religious and political
identity.

The real victor in the conquests was not the Arab warlords, but
Islam itself... Simply put, Islam may have sped the conquests, but
it also showed much greater staying power. It is useful to realize
that the power of Islam was separate from much and more
permanent than that of the armies with which it rode.

The Qur'an has a number of passages that support military action
against non-Muslims, for example:But when the forbidden
months are past, then fight and slay the Pagans wherever ye find
them, and seize them, beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them in
every stratagem (of war)... Qur'an 9:5

The political status of Islam, and the role Muhammad had given
it as a political as well as a religious force, was reinforced in the
military conquests. A caliph such as Umar seems to have
regarded himself, first and foremost, as the leader of the Arabs,
and their monotheistic creed as the religious component of their
new political identity.


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THE CONQUEST OF ARABIA After the death of Muhammad
in 632 CE, the young Muslim federation came under strain. Some
of the tribes decided that as their loyalty to Islam had been
primarily to Muhammad himself, his death allowed them to end
their allegiance to Mecca and to Islam. To make things more
difficult, the Prophet had not left clear instructions as to who
should lead the community after his death. Fortunately the
community immediately chose the Prophet's close companion
and father-in-Law Abu Bakr, as his successor. Abu Bakr was
known as the first caliph (from khalifa, the Arabic for successor).

Abu Bakr took swift military action against the communities that
wanted to break away. These campaigns, known as the apostasy
or ridda wars, effectively consolidated Arabia into a single
country under Muslim control within two years.

EXPANSION IN THE MIDDLE EAST Abu Bakr died in 634
and was succeeded by Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second caliph,
who ruled until 644. Umar found himself the ruler of a large
unified state, with an organised army, and he used this as a tool to
spread Islam further in the Middle East. Umar's early campaigns
were against the Byzantine Empire. Following the decisive Battle
of Yarmouk in 636, the former Byzantine states of Syria,
Palestine, and Lebanon were conquered by the Muslim armies.
Shortly afterwards the Muslim army attacked the Sassanid
Empire in Iraq, gaining a massive victory in 637 at the Battle of
Qadasiya, and gradually conquering more and more of Iraq over
the next dozen years. This conquest was made much easier by
the weakness of the Sassanid Empire, which was wounded by
internal conflicts and a lengthy war with the Byzantine Empire.
Within a few years the Muslims had also conquered parts of
Egypt to the South and Anatolia and Armenia to the North.


ISLAMIC SPAIN (711-1492) In 711 Muslim forces invaded and
in seven years conquered the Iberian peninsula. It became one of
the great Muslim civilisations; reaching its summit with the
Umayyad caliphate of Cordovain the tenth century. Muslim rule
declined after that and ended in 1492 when Granada was

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conquered. The heartland of Muslim rule was Southern Spain or
Andulusia.

Muslim Spain was not a single period, but a succession of
different rules.
- The Dependent Emirate (711-756)
- The Independent Emirate (756-929)
- The Caliphate (929-1031)
- The Almoravid Era (1031-1130)
- Decline (1130-1492)

The conquest:

The traditional story is that in the year 711, an oppressed
Christian chief, Julian, went to Musa ibn Nusair, the governor of
North Africa, with a plea for help against the tyrannical Visigoth
ruler of Spain, Roderick. Musa responded by sending the young
general Tariq bin Ziyad with an army of 7000 troops. The name
Gibraltar is derived from Jabal At-Tariq which is Arabic for
'Rock of Tariq' named after the place where the Muslim army
landed.

The story of the appeal for help is not universally accepted. There
is no doubt that Tariq invaded Spain, but the reason for it may
have more to do with the Muslim drive to enlarge their territory.
The Muslim army defeated the Visigoth army easily, and
Roderick was killed in battle.

After the first victory, the Muslims conquered most of Spain and
Portugal with little difficulty, and in fact with little opposition.
By 720 Spain was largely under Muslim (or Moorish, as it was
called) control.

One reason for the rapid Muslim success was the generous
surrender terms that they offered the people, which contrasted
with the harsh conditions imposed by the previous Visigoth
rulers.


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The ruling Islamic forces were made up of different nationalities,
and many of the forces were converts with uncertain motivation,
so the establishment of a coherent Muslim state was not easy.
The heartland of Muslim rule was Southern Spain or Andulusia.
The name Andalusia comes from the term Al-Andalus used by
the Arabs, derived from the Vandals who had been settled in the
region.

Stability in Muslim Spain came with the establishment of the
Andalusian Umayyad dynasty, which lasted from 756 to 1031.
The credit goes to Amir Abd al-Rahman, who founded the
Emirate of Cordoba, and was able to get the various different
Muslim groups who had conquered Spain to pull together in
ruling it.

The Golden Age: The Muslim period in Spain is often described
as a golden age of learning where libraries, colleges, public
baths were established and literature, poetry and architecture
flourished. Both Muslims and non-Muslims made major
contributions to this flowering of culture.

A Golden Age of religious tolerance? Islamic Spain is
sometimes described as a golden age of religious and ethnic
tolerance and interfaith harmony between Muslims, Christians
and Jews. Some historians believe this idea of a golden age is
false and might lead modern readers to believe, wrongly, that
Muslim Spain was tolerant by the standards of 21st century
Britain. The true position is more complicated. The distinguished
historian Bernard Lewis wrote that the status of non-Muslims in
Islamic Spain was a sort of second-class citizenship but he went
on to say: Second-class citizenship, though second class, is a
kind of citizenship. It involves some rights, though not all, and is
surely better than no rights at all......A recognized status, albeit
one of inferiority to the dominant group, which is established by
law, recognized by tradition, and confirmed by popular assent, is
not to be despised.

Jews and Christians did retain some freedom under Muslim rule,
providing they obeyed certain rules. Although these rules would

110
now be considered completely unacceptable, they were not much
of a burden by the standards of the time, and in many ways the
non-Muslims of Islamic Spain (at least before 1050) were treated
better than conquered peoples might have expected during that
period of history. They were not forced to live in ghettoes or
other special locations;
they were not slaves; they were not prevented from following
their faith; they were not forced to convert or die under Muslim
rule; they were not banned from any particular ways of earning a
living; they often took on jobs shunned by Muslims; these
included unpleasant work such as tanning and butchery; but also
pleasant jobs such as banking and dealing in gold and silver;
they could work in the civil service of the Islamic rulers; Jews
and Christians were able to contribute to society and culture.
The alternative view to the Golden Age of Tolerance is that Jews
and Christians were severely restricted in Muslim Spain, by being
forced to live in a state of dhimmitude. (A dhimmi is a non-
Muslim living in an Islamic state who is not a slave, but does not
have the same rights as a Muslim living in the same state.)

In Islamic Spain, Jews and Christians were tolerated if they:
acknowledged Islamic superiority
accepted Islamic power, paid a tax called Jizya to the Muslim
rulers and sometimes paid higher rates of other taxes, avoided
blasphemy, did not try to convert Muslims, complied with the
rules laid down by the authorities. These rules included
restrictions on clothing and the need to wear a special badge,
restrictions on building synagogues and churches, could not
receive an inheritance from a Muslim, a dhimmi man could not
marry a Muslim woman (but the reverse was acceptable); a
dhimmi could not give evidence in an Islamic court; dhimmis
would get lower compensation than Muslims for the same injury.
At times there were restrictions on practicing one's faith too
obviously. Bell-ringing or chanting too loudly were frowned on
and public processions were restricted.

Many Christians in Spain assimilated parts of the Muslim culture.
Some learned Arabic, some adopted the same clothes as their
rulers (some Christian women even started wearing the veil);

111
some took Arabic names. Christians who did this were known as
Mozarabs.

Society was sharply divided along ethnic and religious lines, with
the Arab tribes at the top of the hierarchy, followed by the
Berbers who were never recognized as equals, despite their
Islamization; lower in the scale came the mullawadun converts
and, at the very bottom, the dhimmi Christians and Jews.

Oppression in later Islamic Spain: Not all the Muslim rulers of
Spain were tolerant. Almanzor looted churches and imposed
strict restrictions. The position of non-Muslims in Spain
deteriorated substantially from the middle of the 11th century as
the rulers became more strict and Islam came under greater
pressure from outside. Christians were not allowed taller houses
than Muslims, could not employ Muslim servants, and had to
give way to Muslims on the street. Christians could not display
any sign of their faith outside, not even carrying a Bible. There
were persecutions and executions. One notorious event was a
pogrom in Granada in 1066, and this was followed by further
violence and discrimination as the Islamic empire itself came
under pressure.

As the Islamic empire declined, and more territory was taken
back by Christian rulers, Muslims in Christian areas found
themselves facing similar restrictions to those they had formerly
imposed on others. But, on the whole, the lot of minority faith
groups was to become worse after Islam was replaced in Spain by
Christianity. The mosque at Cordoba, now converted to a
cathedral is still, somewhat ironically, known as La Mezquita or
literally, the mosque.

The mosque was begun at the end of the 8th century by the
Ummayyad prince Abd al Rahman ibn Muawiyah. Under the
reign of Abd al Rahman III (r. 912-961) Spanish Islam reached
its greatest power as, every May, campaigns were launched
towards the Christian frontier, this was also the cultural peak of
Islamic civilisation in Spain.


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In the 10th century, Cordoba, the capital of Umayyad Spain, was
unrivalled in both East and the West for its wealth and
civilisation. In Cordoba, there were half a million inhabitants,
living in 113,000 houses. There were 700 mosques and 300
public baths spread throughout the city and its twenty-one
suburbs. The streets were paved and lit. There were bookshops
and more than seventy libraries. Muslim scholars served as a
major link in bringing Greek philosophy, of which the Muslims
had previously been the main custodians, to Western Europe.

There were interchanges and alliances between Muslim and
Christian rulers such as the legendary Spanish warrior El-Cid,
who fought both against and alongside Muslims.

The collapse of Islamic rule in Spain was due not only to
increasing aggression on the part of Christian states, but to
divisions among the Muslim rulers. The rot came from both the
centre and the extremities. Early in the eleventh century, the
single Islamic Caliphate had shattered into a score of small
kingdoms, ripe for picking-off. The first big Islamic centre to fall
to Christianity was Toledo in 1085. The Muslims replied with
forces from Africa which under the general Yusuf bin Tashfin
defeated the Christians resoundingly in 1086, and by 1102 had
recaptured most of Andalusia. The general was able to reunite
much of Muslim Spain.

The revival did not last. Yusuf died in 1106, and, as one
historian puts it, the "rulers of Muslim states began cutting each
other's throats again". Internal rebellions in 1144 and 1145
further shattered Islamic unity, and despite intermittent military
successes, Islam's domination of Spain was ended for good. The
Muslims finally lost all power in Spain in 1492. By 1502 the
Christian rulers issued an order requiring all Muslims to convert
to Christianity, and when this didn't work, they imposed brutal
restrictions on the remaining Spanish Muslims.

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE was the one of the largest and
longest lasting Empires in history. It was an empire inspired and
sustained by Islam, and Islamic institutions. It replaced the

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Byzantine Empire as the major power in the Eastern
Mediterranean. The Ottoman Empire reached its height under
Suleiman the Magnificent (reigned 1520-66), when it expanded
to cover the Balkans and Hungary, and reached the gates of
Vienna.

The Empire began to decline after being defeated at the Battle of
Lepanto (1571) and losing almost its entire navy. It declined
further during the next centuries, and was effectively finished off
by the First World War and the Balkan Wars.

One legacy of the Islamic Ottoman Empire is the robust
secularism of modern Turkey. At its peak it included: Turkey,
Egypt, Greece, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Hungary, Palestine, Jordan,
Lebanon, Syria, Parts of Arabia, and much of the coastal strip of
North Africa.

There were many reasons why the Ottoman Empire was so
successful:

- Highly centralized. Power was always transferred to a
single person, and not split between rival princes The
Ottoman Empire was successfully ruled by a single family
for 7 centuries.
- State-run education system
- Religion was incorporated in the state structure, and the
Sultan was regarded as "the protector of Islam".
- State-run judicial system
- Ruthless in dealing with local leaders
- Promotion to positions of power largely depended on
merit
- Created alliances across political and racial groups
- United by Islamic ideology
- United by Islamic warrior code with ideal of increasing
Muslim territory through Jihad
- United by Islamic organisational and administrative
structures

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- Highly pragmatic, taking the best ideas from other
cultures and making them their own
- Encouraged loyalty from other faith groups
- Private power and wealth were controlled
- Very strong military
- Strong slave-based army
- Expert in developing gunpowder as a military tool
- Military ethos pervaded whole administration

THE SAFAVID EMPIRE (1501-1722) was based in what is
today Iran. The Empire was founded by the Safavids, a Sufi
order that goes back to Safi al-Din (1252-1334). Safi al-Din
converted to Shi'ism and was a Persian nationalist. The Safavid
brotherhood was originally a religious group. Over the following
centuries the brotherhood became stronger, by attracting local
warlords and by political marriages. It became a military group as
well as a religious one in the 15th century.

- The Safavid Empire lasted from 1501-1722
- It covered all of Iran, and parts of Turkey and Georgia
- The Safavid Empire was a theocracy
- The state religion was Shi'a Islam
- All other religions, and forms of Islam were suppressed
- The Empire's economic strength came from its location on
the trade routes
- The Empire made Iran a centre of art, architecture, poetry
and philosophy
- The capital, Isfahan, is one of the most beautiful cities in
the world
- The key figures in the Empire were: Isma'il I, Abbas I
The Empire declined when it became complacent and corrupt

BRANCHES
SUFISM: Sufis are emphatic that Islamic knowledge should be
learned from teachers and not exclusively from books. Tariqas
can trace their teachers back through the generations to the
Prophet himself. Modelling themselves on their teachers, students
hope that they too will glean something of the Prophetic

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character. Although Sufis are relatively few in number they have
shaped Islamic thought and history. Through the centuries Sufis
contributed hugely to Islamic literature for example Rumi, Omar
Khayym and Al-Ghazali's influence extended beyond Muslim
lands to be quoted by Western philosophers, writers and
theologians. Sufis were influential in spreading Islam particularly
to the furthest outposts of the Muslim world in Africa, India and
the Far East.

SUNNI AND SHI'A: The words Sunni and Shi'a appear
regularly in stories about the Muslim world but few people know
what they really mean. The division between Sunnis and Shi'as is
the largest and oldest in the history of Islam. They both agree on
the fundamentals of Islam and share the same Holy Book (The
Qur'an), but there are differences mostly derived from their
different historical experiences, political and social
developments, as well as ethnic composition. These differences
originate from the question of who would succeed the Prophet
Muhammad as leader of the emerging Muslim community after
his death. To understand them, we need to know a bit about the
Prophet's life and political and spiritual legacy.

When the Prophet died in the early 7th century he left not only
the religion of Islam but also a community of about one hundred
thousand Muslims organised as an Islamic state on the Arabian
Peninsula. It was the question of who should succeed the Prophet
and lead the fledgling Islamic state that created the divide.

The larger group of Muslims chose Abu Bakr, a close
Companion of the Prophet, as the Caliph (politico-social leader)
and he was accepted as such by much of the community which
saw the succession in political and not spiritual terms. However
another smaller group, which also included some of the senior
Companions, believed that the Prophet's son-in-law and cousin,
Ali, should be Caliph. They understood that the Prophet had
appointed him as the sole interpreter of his legacy, in both
political and spiritual terms. In the end Abu Bakr was appointed
First Caliph.


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Muslims who believe that Abu Bakr should have been the
Prophet's successor have come to be known as Sunni Muslims.
Those who believe Ali should have been the Prophet's successor
are now known as Shi'a Muslims. It was only later that these
terms came into use. Sunni means 'one who follows the Sunnah'
(what the Prophet said, did, agreed to or condemned). Shi'a is a
contraction of the phrase 'Shiat Ali', meaning 'partisans of Ali'.

The use of the word "successor" should not be confused to mean
that those leaders that came after the Prophet Muhammad were
also prophets - both Shi'a and Sunni agree that Muhammad was
the final prophet.


Seeds of division: Ali did not initially pledge allegiance to Abu
Bakr. A few months later, and according to both Sunni and Shi'a
belief, Ali changed his mind and accepted Abu Bakr, in order to
safeguard the cohesion of the new Islamic State.

The Second Caliph, Umar ibn al-Khattab, was appointed by Abu
Bakr on his death, followed by the third Caliph, Uthman ibn
'Affan, who was chosen from six candidates nominated by Umar.

Ali was eventually chosen as the fourth Caliph following the
murder of Uthman. He moved the capital of the Islamic state
from Medina to Kufa in Iraq. However, his Caliphate was
opposed by Aisha, the favoured wife of the Prophet and daughter
of Abu Bakr, who accused Ali of being lax in bringing Uthman's
killers to justice. In 656 CE this dispute led to the Battle of the
Camel in Basra in Southern Iraq, where Aisha was defeated.
Aisha later apologised to Ali but the clash had already created a
divide in the community.

Islam's dominion had already spread to Syria by the time of Ali's
caliphate. The governor of Damascus, Mu'awiya, angry with Ali
for not bringing the killers of his kinsman Uthman to justice,
challenged Ali for the caliphate. The famous Battle of Siffin in
657 demonstrates the religious fervour of the time when

117
Mu'awiya's soldiers flagged the ends of their spears with verses
from the Qur'an.

Ali and his supporters felt morally unable to fight their Muslim
brothers and the Battle of Siffin proved indecisive. Ali and
Mu'awiya agreed to settle the dispute with outside arbitrators.
However this solution of human arbitration was unacceptable to a
group of Ali's followers who used the slogan "Rule belongs only
to Allah", justified by the Qur'anic verse: The decision is for
Allah only. He telleth the truth and He is the Best of Deciders

This group, known as the Kharijites, formed their own sect that
opposed all contenders for the caliphate. In 661 the Kharijites
killed Ali while he was praying in the mosque of Kufa, Iraq. In
the years that followed, the Kharijites were defeated in a series of
uprisings. Around 500,000 descendents of the Kharijites survive
to this day in North Africa, Oman and Zanzibar as a sub-sect of
Islam known as the Ibadiyah.

Shortly after the death of Ali, Mu'awiya, assumed the Caliphate
of the Islamic state, moving the capital from Kufa to Damascus.
Unlike his predecessors who maintained a high level of
egalitarianism in the Islamic state, Mu'awiya's Caliphate was
monarchical. This set the tone for the fledgling Ummayad
dynasty (c.670-750 CE) and in 680 on the death of Mu'awiya, the
Caliphate succeeded to his son Yazid.

About the same time, Hussein, Ali's youngest son from his
marriage to Fatima, the daughter of the Prophet Muhammad, and
the third Shi'a Imam, was invited by the people of Kufa in Iraq to
become their leader. Hussein set off for Kufa from his home in
Medina with his followers and family, but was met by Yazid's
forces in Karbala before reaching his destination.

Despite being hopelessly outnumbered, Hussein and his small
number of companions refused to pay allegiance to Yazid and
were killed in the ensuing battle. Hussein is said to have fought
heroically and to have sacrificed his life for the survival of Shi'a
Islam.

118

The Battle of Karbala is one of the most significant events in
Shi'a history, from which Shi'a Islam draws its strong theme of
martyrdom. It is central to Shi'a identity even today and is
commemorated every year on the Day of Ashura. Millions of
pilgrims visit the Imam Hussein mosque and shrine in Karbala
and many Shi'a communities participate in symbolic acts of self-
flagellation.


Sunni and Shi'a expansion: As Islam expanded from the deserts
of the Arabian Peninsula into the complex and urban societies of
the once Roman and Persian empires, Muslims encountered new
ethical dilemmas that demanded the authority of religious
answers.

Sunni expansion and leadership: Sunni Islam responded with the
emergence of four popular schools of thought on religious
jurisprudence (fiqh). These were set down in the 7th and 8th
centuries CE by the scholars of the Hanbali, Hanafi, Maliki and
Shaafii schools. Their teachings were formulated to find Islamic
solutions to all sorts of moral and religious questions in any
society, regardless of time or place and are still used to this day.

The Ummayad dynasty was followed by the Abbasid dynasty (c.
758-1258 CE): In these times the Caliphs, in contrast to the first
four, were temporal leaders only, deferring to religious scholars
(or uleama) for religious issues.

Sunni Islam continued through the Umayyad and Abbasid
dynasties to the powerful Mughal and Ottoman empires of the
15th to 20th centuries. It spread east through central Asia and the
Indian sub-continent as far as the Indonesian archipelago, and
west towards Africa and the periphery of Europe. The Sunnis
emerged as the most populous group and today they make up
around 85% of the one billion Muslims worldwide.

Shi'a expansion and leadership: Meanwhile, the leadership of the
Shi'a community continued with 'Imams' believed to be divinely

119
appointed from the Prophet's Family. Unlike the Sunni Caliphs,
the Shi'a Imams generally lived in the shadow of the state and
were independent of it. The largest sect of Shi'a Islam is known
as The Twelvers, because of their belief that twelve divinely
appointed Imams descended from the Prophet in the line of Ali
and Hussein, led the community until the 9th century CE.

Muhammad al-Muntazar al-Mahdi was the Twelfth Imam. The
Shi'a believe that as a young boy, he was hidden in a cave under
his father's house in Samarra to avoid persecution. He
disappeared from view, and according to Shi'a belief, has been
hidden by God until he returns at the end of time. This is what
Shi'as call the Major Occultation. The Shi'a believe this Twelfth
Imam, or Mahdi or Messiah, is not dead and will return to revive
the true message of Islam. His disappearance marked the end of
the leadership of the direct descendants of the Prophet.

(Note: While the information provided is the position of the
largest Shi'a subdivision, that of The Twelvers, other Shi'a
groups, such as the Ismailis, hold differing views. So also
allawis
13
)

13
The Alawites are a sect of Shi'ite Islam prominent in Syria. The Alawites
take their name from Imam Ali, cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, also the
4th and last "rightly guided Caliph" of Islam. Historically, the Alawites have
been called Nusayrs, Nasiriyya, and Ansariyya. The term Nusayriyya became
one of insult, and they themselves preferred to be called Alawiyya to show
their reverence for Ali. According to some sources, they were originally
Nusayrya, a sect that was an off-shoot of Twelver Shiites in the 9th century.
The Alawites themselves trace their origins to the eleventh Shia Imam, Hasan
al Askari (d.873), and his pupil Ibn Nusayr (d.868). Ibn Nusayr proclaimed
himself the Bb, "Door" (representative) of the 11th Imam in 857. The sect
seems to have been organised by a follower of Ibn Nusayr's, known as al-
Khasibi, who died in Aleppo in about 969. Al-Khasibi's grandson, al-Tabarani,
moved to Latakia on the Syrian coast. There he refined the Alawite religion
and, with his pupils, converted much of the local population.
The French recognized the term "Alaw" when they occupied Syria in 1920.
The French gave autonomy to Alawites and other minority groups and
accepted Alawites into their colonial troops. Syria became independent in
1946. Following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, Syria endured a succession of

120

military coups in 1949, the rise of the Ba'th Party, and unification of the
country with Egypt in the United Arab Republic in 1958. The UAR lasted for
three years and broke apart in 1961 , when a group of army officers seized
power and declared Syria independent again; a further succession of coups
ensued until a secretive military committee, which included a number of
disgruntled Alawite officers, including Hafez al-Assad and Salah Jadid, helped
the Ba'th Party take power in 1963. In 1966, Alawite-oriented military officers
successfully rebelled and expelled the old Ba'ath that had looked to the
Christian Michel Aflaq and the Sunni Muslim Salah al-Din al-Bitar for
leadership. They promoted Zaki al-Arsuzi as the "Socrates" of their
reconstituted Ba'ath Party.
Beliefs of the Alawites: Alawites practise religious secrecy. They generally
claim they are Muslims, which may be especially the case of the non-initiated.
They consider themselves to be moderate Shi'ites, not much different from the
Twelvers." The Alawite sect is a somewhat Gnostic version of Shia islam.
The Alawites believe Imam Ali is the true Successor of Muhammad as well as
in esoteric reading of the Qur'an. Alawites regard Imam Ai as the purpose of
life and the divine knowledge of the prophet Muhammad.
Alawites do not accept converts or openly publish their texts, which are passed
down from scholar to scholar. The vast majority of Alawites (the "Ammah")
know little about the contents of their sacred texts or theology, which are
guarded by a small class of male initiates (the "Khassah"). Several sources
suggest that Alawism is a syncretic sect and has affinities with Christianity,
Zoroastrianism, and ancient Phoenician paganism, but these claims are hard to
verify, due to the secret nature of the sect. They are believed to celebrate
Christian festivals such as Christmas, Easter, and Epiphany, as well as the
Zoroastrian new year, Nawruz, along with regular Shiite festivals.
Alawites also keep to themselves, and like Ali, they say that they too "worship
God in private and not for show". Although Alawites recognize the five pillars
of Islam, they do not believe that anyone has the privilege of practicing them
because they are too pure to be performed by "any" soul. Alawites believe that
there is no back door entrance to the gates of heaven (i.e. follow the five
pillars and you receive the keys to heaven). Instead they believe that one
should devote his life the way that the prophet Muhammed would have
permitted by following the example of Ali. The insistence on conformism has
brought rich political rewardsAlawites enjoy all the rights of Muslims in
Syria.
Today they can be found almost entirely in Syria, where they number around
1,350,000 and constitute Syria's largest religious minority. For a long time the

121

In the absence of the Mahdi, the rightful successor to the Prophet,
the Shi'a community was led, as it is today, by living scholars
usually known by the honourable title Ayatollah, who act as the
representatives of the Hidden Imam on earth. Shi'a Muslims have
always maintained that the Prophet's family are the rightful
leaders of the Islamic world.

There are significant differences between scholars of Shi'a Islam
on the role and power of these representatives. A minority
believe the role of the representative is absolute, generally known
as Wilayat Faqih. The majority of Shi'a scholars, however,
believe their power is relative and confined to religious and
spiritual matters.

Although the Shi'a have never ruled the majority of Muslims,
they have had their moments of glory. The 9th century Fatimid
Ismaili dynasty in Egypt and North Africa, when Cairo's
prestigious Al-Azhar University was founded and the 16th
century CE Safavid Dynasty which engulfed the former Persian
Empire and made Shi'a Islam the official religion.

Significant numbers of Shi'as are now found in many countries
including Iraq, Pakistan, Albania and Yemen. They make up 90%
of the population of Iran which is the political face of Shi'a Islam
today.


How do Sunnis and Shi'as differ theologically?

Hadith and Sunnah

ethnic minority group which comprises the Alawis held to pre-Islamic beliefs,
but after years of Isma'ili influence they gradually moved closer to Islam. Yet
they also added in Christian elements to their developing religious beliefs
through the influence of the Byzantines and Crusades. For example, Alawis
celebrate Christmas, Easter, and Epiphany, and use sacramental wine in some
ceremonies

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Initially the difference between Sunni and Shi'a was merely a
question of who should lead the Muslim community. As time
went on, however, the Shi'a began to show a preference for
particular Hadith and Sunnah literature.

Interpretation of the Hadith and Sunnah is an Islamic academic
science. The Shi'a gave preference to those credited to the
Prophet's family and close associates. The Sunnis consider all
Hadith and Sunnah narrated by any of twelve thousand
companions to be equally valid. Shi'as recognise these as useful
texts relating to Islamic jurisprudence, but subject them to close
scrutiny. Ultimately this difference of emphasis led to different
understandings of the laws and practices of Islam.

The Mahdi

The concept of the Mahdi is a central tenet of Shi'a theology, but
many Sunni Muslims also believe in the coming of a Mahdi, or
rightly guided one, at the end of time to spread justice and peace.
He will also be called Muhammad and be a descendant of the
Prophet in the line of his daughter Fatima (Ali's wife). The idea
has been popular with grassroots Muslims due to the preaching of
several Sufi or mystical trends in Islam.

Over the centuries a number of individuals have declared
themselves the Mahdi come to regenerate the Muslim world, but
none has been accepted by the majority of the Sunni community.
However, some more Orthodox Sunni Muslims dispute the
concept of the Mahdi because there is no mention of it in the
Qur'an or Sunnah.

Shrines

The Wahabi movement within Sunni Islam views the Shi'a
practice of visiting and venerating shrines to the Imams of the
Prophet's Family and other saints and scholars as heretical. Most
mainstream Sunni Muslims have no objections. Some Sufi
movements, which often provide a bridge between Shi'a and

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Sunni theologies, help to unite Muslims of both traditions and
encourage visiting and venerating these shrines.

Practical differences

Prayer

All Muslims are required to pray five times a day. However, Shi'a
practice permits combining some prayers into three daily prayer
times. A Shi'a at prayer can often be identified by a small tablet
of clay from a holy place (often Karbala), on which they place
their forehead whilst prostrating.

Leadership

Today there are significant differences in the structures and
organisation of religious leadership in the Sunni and the Shi'a
communities. There is a hierarchy to the Shi'a clergy and political
and religious authority is vested in the most learned who emerge
as spiritual leaders. These leaders are transnational and religious
institutions are funded by religious taxes called Khums (20% of
annual excess income) and Zakat (2.5%). Shi'a institutions abroad
are also funded this way.

There is no such hierarchy of the clergy in Sunni Islam. Most
religious and social institutions in Sunni Muslim states are
funded by the state. Only Zakat is applicable. In the West most
Sunni Muslim institutions are funded by charitable donations
from the community at home and abroad.


BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Ruthven, Islam: A Very Short Introduction (New York
1997).
C.S. Yaran, Understanding Islam (Edinburgh 2007)
J.L. Esposito (Ed.), The Oxford History of Islam ( New York
1999).


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