Colegio Cientfico Costarricense

Sede Puntarenas



Astronomy


Jos Fabin Segura Elizondo
Miguel J. Segura Chaves
Josue Enoc Flores











Table of Contends
I. Introduction..I, II
1. Initiating the topic...3, 4
2. Definition of Galaxy...4
3. Types of galaxies5
3.1. Elliptical galaxies.5
3.1.1 Characteristics... 5, 6
3.2. Spirals galaxies.6
3.2.1
Characteristics.6
3.3. Irregular galaxies..7
4.1. System of
Hubble..8
4.2. DDO System (David-Dunlop
Observatory)..8
5. Stars....9, 10, 11,
12
6. Black holes..12, 13
Conclusion.....14
References...15, 16




I. Introduction
Before we can talk about astronomy, you need to know the concept of astronomy,
which according to the dictionary The branch of science that deals with celestial
objects, space, and the physical universe as a whole. It is also important to mention the
origin of this word astronomy (from the Greek words astron (), "star" and -nomy
from nomos (), "law" or "culture") literally means "law of the stars" (or "culture of
the stars" ). Currently known much about astronomy and this contains many forms such as
stars, black holes, planets, galaxies, pulsars, supernovas, moons, nebulae, and more.
However, in this paper we will pay attention mainly to three of these, galaxies, black holes
and stars. Before internalize this topic should know a little of each of these three, and you
cannot talk about something if previously not known the concept of each one of them.(Rica,
2010)
First, what is a galaxy? Set of stars, interstellar dust, gas and particles on a specific
location in space. For example: Sombrero Galaxy, Black Eye Galaxy, Galaxy Par
Concealer, Whirlpool Galaxy, Galaxy Grand Spiral Galaxy Supernova 1987A, to name a
few.
What is a star? Astros or celestial body that shines. Some types of star can cite are
fleeting luminous phenomenon caused by the rapid movement of a rocky body gets really
hot due to friction with the upper layers of the atmosphere. In addition, Polar Star on the
end of the Little Dipper and pointing north. Some stars Alcor and Mizar, Aldebaran, Altair,
Antares, VY Canis Majoris, Rigel
What is a black hole? A black hole is an object with gravity so strong that nothing
can escape it, not even light. The black whole mass is concentrated at a point of almost
infinite density, called a singularity. In the very singularity, gravity is a force almost
infinite, so that annihilates the normal space-time. With increasing distance from the
singularity, its gravitational influence decreases. A certain distance, which depends on the
mass of the singularity, the speed that is required to escape the black hole equals the speed


of light. This distance marks the "horizon" of the black hole, which is like the surface.
Everything that happens on the horizon is trapped inside the black hole. There are different
types of black holes, depending on its mass. Supermassive:
I
What a mass equal to millions of suns and find the center of galaxies shaping
spherical or spiral patterns of the same. Normal: stellar mass. Are formed with masses
about 2.5 times that of the sun and is one of the processes of transformation of a supernova.
Micro: black holes. There is not proven its existence, but in theory would be smaller and
unstable than conventional. Among them would be the primary, originated during the early
moments of the Big Bang and still. They may be classified according to their physical load:
Schwarzschild black hole: Neither broken nor has charge. Black hole Reissner-Nordstrom:
You can have electric charge. Kerr black hole: Tour, but has no load. Black hole Kerr-
Newman: Rota and has electric charge.

















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1. Initiating the topic:
There are about 50 galaxies in the space. The discovery of the nature of galaxies as
distinct from other nebulae (interstellar clouds) was made in the 1920s. The first attempts at
systematic catalogues of galaxies were made in the 1960s the Catalogue of Galaxies and
Clusters of Galaxies listing 29,418 galaxies and galaxy clusters, and with the
Morphological Catalogue of Galaxies, a putatively complete list of galaxies with
photographic magnitude above 15 comprising 30,642 items. In the 1980s, the Lyons
Groups of Galaxies listed 485 galaxy groups with 3,933 member galaxies. Galaxy Zoo is a
project aiming at a more comprehensive list; launched in 2007 it catalogued some 50
million galaxies by 2011 (some 0.03% of the estimated total). There is no universal naming
convention for galaxies, as they are mostly catalogued before it is established whether the
object is or is not a galaxy. Mostly they are identified by their celestial coordinates together
with the name of the observing project (HUDF, SDSS, 3C, CFHQS, NGC/IC, etc.).
Galaxy names come in a bewildering range of forms, from descriptive (Whirlpool
Galaxy, Black Eye Galaxy, and The Eyes), to ones that seem to relate to a constellation
(example: Andromeda Galaxy, Hydra A, Leo I). To ones named after a person (example:
Stephans Quintet, Malin I, Mayalls Object), to letter number combinations (example: the
Messier catalog galaxies such as M33 and M87), to letters number combinations (example:
NGC 3115, DDO 185), to impossible-to-remember stings-with-dashes-dots-and-pluses like
MCG-06-07-001, 4C37.11, and SDSS J002240.91+143110.4.
And sometimes a galaxy has LOTS of different names, such as M87, Virgo A, NGC
4486, Arp 152, 3C274, IRAS 12282+1240, WMAP J123051+1223.
However, of the estimated 100 billion galaxies we could observe, with current
astronomical facilities, only a few million have names, and most of those are unique (i.e.
only one name per galaxy). Of course, almost all the single-name galaxies are little more
than faint smudges in an optical or infrared image and that gives a clue to where the names
come from.

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Most galaxy names come from the catalog, or catalogs, in which they appear. The
catalogs have many sources, but most recent ones have been put together as a key output of
a dedicated survey or mission, and the galaxy name reflects that. So, for example, SDSS
stands for Sloan Digital Sky Survey (one of the most amazing optical/NIR galaxy surveys
of all time), IRAS for InfraRed Astronomy Satellite, DDO for David Dunlap Observatory
(where a catalogue of dwarf galaxies was put together), and for Cambridge survey (a radio
survey). Some of the older catalogs, or lists, were put together from previously known
galaxies, or objects (the Messier list is perhaps the most famous example).





2. Definition of Galaxy:
Gives independent Universes our own galaxy and at great distances, associations of
billions of stars. Our solar system belongs to an association of stars this type; it is the Milky
Way or Camino de Santiago.(Vzquez, n.d.)
The stars attract each other by the gravity and form clusters of billions of stars
called galaxies. Within a galaxy also are gases, dust and heavenly bodies orbiting around
stars. Some galaxies have only old stars while others contain gas and dust. Our solar system
is located in the Milky Way, one of the galaxies large the universe. On a clear night, in
New Moon, away from the lights of the city, you will see a trail of light extends over the
whole sky. That is the Way. The Milky Way measures 100,000 light years in diameter. A
light year is the distance that light travels in a year, or 9.5 billion of miles. This means that
the Milky Way is about 950,000 billion kilometers. According to its shape, the galaxies are
classified into three groups. (Freedman & Zemansky, n.d.)
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Galaxies spirals like the Milky Way, they usually have bulging center where the
stars are. Spiral galaxies can be two types: barred, characterized by having two arms
extending from a bar of stars in the center. The no lenticular spiral arms. Elliptical galaxies
are named for their oval and without arms. Stars of these galaxies instead of spread in a thin
disc, as in the coils, wrap the heart of the galaxy in all directions. Most galaxies the
universe are of this type, and all stars contained in them are old Irregular galaxies have no
way defined or core, or observed symmetry rotation. Many galaxies are of this type because
its shape has changed due to the pull of gravity exerted by other nearby galaxy. Like the
stars, the galaxies clump together and form clumps. A cluster Galactic is a set of galaxies
grouped by the force of gravity. The large galaxies like the Milky Way.(Ciencias, n.d.).

3. Types of galaxies:
In general, we can say that. First galaxies appear in 1923 developed the first Hubble
classification scheme of galaxies. This classification scheme is not temporal evolution. We
distinguish at least three types of galaxies: elliptical, spirals, Irregular.
3.1. Elliptical galaxies:
Elliptical galaxies vary widely in brightness, mass and size, ranging from small
dwarf spheroidal, with characteristics similar to those of a globular cluster, but very rich in
dark matter-or dwarf elliptical galaxies, to large elliptical galaxies present in large galaxy
clusters among which are the largest and brightest galaxies in the Universe.
3.1.1 Characteristics:
Absence or negligible angular momentum, absence or negligible amount of
interstellar matter (gas and dust), no young stars, open clusters absence, composed mainly
of old stars, called Population II.

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Two types square and discoidal, central light concentration: In the "square" there is
a lack of concentration of light in its center while "discoid" have more concentration of
light there.
Stellar populations: While the former are composed of old, stars richer in heavy
elements, in the second there is little or no enrichment of these elements and their stars are
younger. Sources of radio waves: Elliptical galaxies "square" sometimes contain strong
emission sources that produce radio waves; in the discoidal, this is much rarer. Interstellar
medium: the former usually have hot gas can be detected through its X-ray emission,
especially in the largest, in the latter is much rarer to have such gas.

3.2. Spirals galaxies:
Spiral galaxies are named for the luminous arms with star formation within the disk
extending roughly logarithmically-from the central core. Although sometimes difficult to
perceive, distinguish these arms of lenticular galaxies, which have a disc structure but no
spiral arms. The disk of spiral galaxies usually surrounded by large halos spheroids
Population II stars, many of which are concentrated in globular clusters orbiting the galactic
center. This is known as halo. Our galaxy, the Milky Way, is a spiral, with a classification
Sbc Hubble sequence.
The first studies on the formation of the spiral arms are Bertil Lindblad. He realized
that the stars could not be organized in a spiral shape permanently. Since the speed of
rotation of the galactic disk varies with distance from the center of the galaxy, a radial arm
would be bent to quickly rotate the galaxy. The arm, after a few rotations, increase the
curvature winding increasingly Galaxy.
3.2.1. Characteristics:
It has a rotating flat disk made of stars and interstellar matter are often start-ups. See
Tully-Fisher relationship. Is composed of a concentration of star center (bulb) surrounded
by a disk.
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The disc is flat (with chance of warping) and consists of interstellar matter (gas and
dust), young stars of Population I (high metallicity) and open clusters. The bulb is similar to
an elliptical galaxy, containing many old stars, called Population II and low metallicity, and
usually a supermassive black hole in the center.

3.3. Irregular galaxies:
An irregular galaxy is a galaxy that does not fit into any classification of galaxies in
the Hubble sequence. Galaxies are not spiral, elliptical or lenticular. Some small irregular
galaxies are spiral galaxies distorted by the gravity of a much larger neighbor.
The irregular galaxies do not have a particular shape. They are among the smaller
galaxies are full of gas and dust. Having a large amount of gas and dust, means that these
galaxies are a lot of star formation taking place inside them. This can make them very
bright. The Large Magellan Cloud and Small, are examples of irregular galaxies. They are
two small galaxies orbiting traveling in our own galaxy, the Milky Way. About 20% of all
galaxies are irregular.









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4.1 System of Hubble:
Elliptical, In: E0 circular, elongated E7, n = 10 (1-b / a), where b / Is
a the axial ratio.
These galaxies are generally triaxial with a b c
Galaxy

Lenticular, S0: S01 (no frame), S02, S03 (with Eenvolvente).
Spirals, Sa, Sb and Sc and barred SBa, SBb and SBc
- Sandage later subdivided the Sc in Sc, Scd, Sd, Sdm, Sm and Im
- Also Sandage added several symbols:
r: the presence of an inner ring
R: presence of an outer ring
S: spiral arm starts at the end of the bar, or continue to the center of galaxy
Irregular: The rest
(Morgan, n.d.)
4.2 DDO System (David-Dunlop Observatory)
Complementary to the first system, developed by van den Berg:
Adds a Bright Classification, tries to draw a parallel with the system of stellar
evolution.- Supergiant galaxies with bars and arms are well developed I - Galaxies small,
low surface brightness irregular have a V. The system assumes that galaxies with well
developed arms are also the most luminous. Shapley-Ames Catalog (1300 brightest
galaxies). Example: Galaxy NGC 1097 is classified as RSBbc (rs) I-II (example Galaxy
Barred spiral, very large with outer and inner ring, and spiral arms begin at the end of the
bar.
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5. Stars:
Our galaxy is the Milky Way , there is a good chance that its center is a massive
black hole, and surrounds a grand spiral disc formed by more than 200 billion stars, a
multitude stellar orbits the galactic center. The Sun is one of those stars with your own
family of planets, is beyond almost two-thirds of distance from the galactic center. We see
the galaxy and the universe starting from the third planet from the Sun. This star and his
two companions are our neighbors more forthcoming: Alpha Centauri: a just over four
light-year away and the next is called Barnard star, a red dwarf located just under six light-
year away.(History Channel, n.d.)
Sirius is 8.6 light years away, a light year is the distance light travels in a year. From
Arturo light takes 37 years to reach us, even though it travels 300,000 kilometers per
second. The light of the double star Capella is on its way to us for 43 years. Castor to 52
light years away , are three pairs of stars that orbit each other.Mizar , a double star 59 light
years from Earth , near it is Algol is 95 light years, is an eclipsing binary star. Live Beta,
which is 300 light years away in her two stars gas, are extracted right through the space. In
spite of the great distance that separates these stars are our neighbors in the vastness of the
Milky Way.
From the outside, we can realize the scale of our own galaxy, about 20 thousand
light years in thickness and about 100,000 light years long. In the galaxy M 83 which is
similar to the Milky Way, are distinguished in pink spirals areas where stars are born, in our
own galaxy and we find a region in the Orion Nebula. There hot newborn stars they shine
the surrounding gas, Hydrogen would like daycare with clouds collapse under their own
weight raising its pressure and its temperature.


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When the core of a cloud becomes hot enough, it starts the process of nuclear fusion
and a star is born. We can find another stellar incubator in Eagle Nebula with its famous
columns of creation. These columns have four light years high, a finger of dense molecular
hydrogen bathed in ultraviolet newly born stars. Radiation while the column slowly wears
new stars are generated in the denser interior lobes. The Rosette Nebula their youngest and
brightest stars are clearing the center.
Here the new star blowing a bubble has formed 400 light years in diameter. Only
the stellar wind from a hot young star has been necessary to form the Bubble Nebula. A
dark wrapper in constellation of Scorpio has been hollowed by powerful winds emanating
from newly born stars. The oldest star clusters also cleanse your environment pushing the
gas and dust into the interstellar medium. The Pleiades are young stars are still ridding of
the faint nebula of gas that enveloped. Comes from the word cloud nebula. Stars are born in
nebulae, from Red Dwarf to the Super Giants, the more massive the star the greater its
hunger and reduced the duration of his life. Our Sun is a medium sized star with a life
expectancy of 10 billion years, and not burning, as some believe.(History Channel, n.d.)
Actually, in a nuclear reactor core is continually becoming the hydrogen into helium
through this reaction to nearly 15 million degrees disintegrating nuclear fusion 4 million
tons of very every second of it and focuses the energy that makes the sun shine. However,
one day when the core hydrogen runs out the sun change color and will turn red -orange
tone, called a Red Giant: is a dying star. Once consumed the hydrogen in its core the star
expands to 100 times its original size expelling large quantities of gas.
The Elise Nebula is a good example. Those with a ring are called planetary nebulae
because right through a small telescope appear planets around a star. Within five billion
years, this will be the fate of the Sun: when hydrogen runs out of its core, the Sun will lose
stability and will grow.


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First covering Mercury and then Venus. In the depths of his inner helium to produce
carbon, merged, large gas capable convulsively will be thrown into space; the sun will be a
Giant Red. The earth will survive but perhaps was fully embraced, finally able to expel
their outer appear the collapsed core of a dying sun Rescoldo a white dwarf. A modest star
like our Sun has a long duration when compared with a one star more massive.
For example, a star a few times larger than the Sun: A Giant Star also began his life
converting hydrogen into helium. When the hydrogen is just helium -carbon melts reaching
100 million degrees, is the fast and main source of energy in the intense life of a Giant Star
and will die to be a white dwarf. Only the Super Giants have a different ending, like the
lower mass stars also begin converting hydrogen into helium, when the hydrogen is also
just carbon reacts by producing helium.
However, after carbon is fused to give rise to neon and magnesium as these are
depleted are generated increasingly heavy elements to more than 3 billion degrees when
fused iron finally ends the game? The blast is of type Super Nova , can be as bright as an
entire galaxy, a brilliant expulsion of stellar debris, deeper inside however is a remnant that
still radiated emission , compacted in less than 20 km in diameter, a grain of this material
weighs 1 million tons. The core of the Super Giant has become a neutron star, a Pulsar that
spins very fast around its axis.
The Chinese observed the Crab Nebula, the outbreak that occurred in 1054, in the
heart of the matter Crab rings still emanate from neutron star as slings, spluttering form a
ring around him like a donut. The ordinary star matter can be absorbed by Neutron star ,
colliding with the surface material of this is causing huge eruptions that release more
energy in three hours than the Sun in 100 years. The study has revealed that such
explosions are neutron stars that spin hundreds of times per second. Our galaxy is full of
wonder as Karina and close Nebula is one of the biggest stars we know: Eta Karine with a
mass that is 100 times the Sun.


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The star is ejecting material a budding Super Nova but this time the colossal
explosion compress its core beyond mere Neutron Star and become a Black Hole. The
Super Novas are the lifeblood of our Galaxy remains and shock waves help create stars
like the Sun its chemical elements are in every planet and every one of us. Galaxy Our
Milky Way is just one among 50 million galaxies populating the universe.

6. Black holes:

To understand what a black hole let's start with a star like the Sun The Sun has a
diameter of 1,390,000 kilometers and a mass 330,000 times that of Earth. Taking into
account the mass and the distance from the surface to the center shows that any object
placed on the surface of the sun would be subject to gravitational attraction 28 times greater
than the earth's gravity at the surface. A current star retains its normal size by balancing
between a high core temperature, which tends to expand the stellar substance and the
gravitational gigantic, which tends to collapse it and squeeze.(Susskind, n.d.)
If at any time the internal temperature falls, gravitation will be master of the
situation. The star begins to contract and throughout the process inside the atomic structure
disintegrates. Instead of atoms, will now electrons, protons and neutrons loose. Star
continues to contract until the moment that the mutual repulsion of the electrons
counteracts any further contraction. The star is now a " white dwarf ." If a star like the Sun
suffered the collapse that leads to the white dwarf state , all its mass would be reduced to an
area of about 16,000 km in diameter , and its surface gravity ( with the same mass but at a
much shorter distance from the center ) would be 210,000 times that of the Earth.(Kaku,
n.d.)



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Under certain conditions, the gravitational pull becomes too strong to be countered
by the electronic repulsion. The star contracts again, forcing the electrons and protons
combine to form neutrons and forcing the latter to queue in close contact. The neutron
structure counteracts any further contraction and then what we have is a neutron star "
which could house the whole mass of our sun into a sphere just 16 miles across. The
surface gravity would be 210 billion times that we have on Earth. Under certain conditions,
gravity can overcome even the neutron structure strength. In that case, there is nothing that
can oppose the collapse. The star can shrink to zero volume and surface gravity increase to
infinity.(Kaku, n.d.) According to the theory of relativity, light emitted by a star loses some
of its energy to move against the gravitational field of the star. The stronger the field, the
greater the energy loss, which has been verified experimentally in space and in the
laboratory. The light emitted by an ordinary star like the Sun loses very little energy. The
emitted by a white dwarf, something more and that emitted by a neutron star even more.
Throughout the process of collapse of the neutron star comes a time when the light
emanating from the surface loses its energy and cannot escape.

An object subject to a compression greater than that of neutron stars have a
gravitational field so intense that anything approximating to it would be trapped and could
not get back out. It is as if the object had fallen trapped infinitely deep hole and never cease
to fall. Moreover, since not even light can escape, the compressed object will be black.
Literally, a "black hole". Today, astronomers are finding evidence for the existence of black
holes in different parts of the universe.(Ernst Gobel, Ian Mills, n.d.)




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4. Conclusion:
Astronomy is a branch of science, which is essential to know about our outdoor
space and its components that found in the universe in which we find ourselves, as we can
raise doubt as what lies beyond from what we know? These types of questions we can ask
in relation to this topic in addition to many unknowns that we can imagine but these can
only respond with advances in the field of astronomy. As is currently done multiple
investigations for example you are trying to colonize other planets which could have the
potential to function as a home for humans, since they have the potential to be inhabited by
humans because they have conditions such as the existence of the body is essential as water
and oxygen.
It is important to have a basic knowledge in astronomy is because it allows us to
clarify ideas or explain certain phenomena observed in our outside. Without a previous
study simply would know that certain phenomena occur in our exterior but happen because
if the study this discipline can understand why there are things like nebulae, stars, galaxies
and even the little stardust mentioned because today we know that this dust is a result of an
explosion which was released this out of control.
In today's society it is very important to know about astronomy and besides be
important is a very interesting and entertaining to know the wonders that exist in our
universe countless example comets, stars and galaxies of different shapes striking, so you
could say that astronomy is a very fun to research and develop.





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5. References:

1) Ciencias, L. de. (n.d.). Qu son las estrellas y las galaxias?, 4249.
2) Ernst Gobel, Ian Mills, A. W. (n.d.). A concise summary of the
International System of Units, the.
3) Freedman, Y., & Zemansky, S. (n.d.). Fsica universitaria.
4) History Channel. (n.d.). la via lactea la vida de las estrellas. youtube.
Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BrOY4IPgy4k
5) Kaku, M. (n.d.). Universos paralelos.
6) Latina, U., Rica, D. C., & Barrantes, I. J. C. (n.d.). Te Act of Teaching
Writing A literary review on this skill.
7) Morgan, M. (n.d.). Galaxias, 17.
8) Rica, U. D. C. (2010). Estilo apa 2010.
9) Susskind, L. (n.d.). Los agujeros negros y la paradoja de la informaci on,
18.
10) Vzquez, M. (n.d.). Y Adems de las estrellas que(III)? LAS
GALAXIAS, EL GRUPO LOCAL, EL SUPERCUMULO LOCAL, EL
GRAN ATRACTOR:, (Iii), 110.
11) Galaxia elptica. (2013, 1 de julio). Wikipedia, La enciclopedia libre.
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12) Galaxia espiral. (2013, 13 de octubre). Wikipedia, La enciclopedia libre.

13) Galaxia irregular. (2013, 22 de junio). Wikipedia, La enciclopedia libre.


















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