Important Neurotransmitters & Their Functions

As mentioned already, about 50 neurotransmitters have been discovered so far. Out of these, a few of
the most important neurotransmitters and their functions are discussed below.
Acetylcholine

This neurotransmitter was discovered in the year 1921, by Otto Loewi. It is mainly responsible for
stimulating muscles. It activates the motor neurons that control the skeletal muscles. It is also
concerned with regulating the activities in certain areas of the brain, which are associated with
attention, arousal, learning, and memory. People with Alzheimer's disease are usually found to have a
substantially low level of acetylcholine.
Dopamine

Dopamine is the neurotransmitter that controls voluntary movements of the body, and is associated
with the reward mechanism of the brain. In other words, dopamine regulates the pleasurable
emotions.

Drugs like cocaine, heroin, nicotine, opium, and even alcohol increase the level of this
neurotransmitter. A significantly low level of dopamine is associated with Parkinson's
disease, while the patients of schizophrenia are usually found to have excess dopamine in
the frontal lobes of their brain.
Serotonin

Serotonin is an important inhibitory neurotransmitter, which can have a profound effect on emotion,
mood, and anxiety. It is involved in regulating sleep, wakefulness, and eating. It plays a role in
perception as well. The hallucinogenic drugs like LSD actually bind to the serotonin receptor sites, and
thereby block the transmission of nerve impulses, in order to alter sensory experiences.

A significantly low level of serotonin is believed to be associated with conditions like depression,
suicidal thoughts, and obsessive compulsive disorder. Many antidepressants work by affecting the
level of this neurotransmitter.
Gamma-aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that slows down the activities of the neurons, in order to
prevent them from getting over excited. When neurons get over excited, it can lead to anxiety. GABA
can thus help prevent anxiety.

GABA is a non-essential amino acid, that is produced by the body from glutamate. A low level of
GABA can have an association with anxiety disorders. Drugs like Valium work by increasing the
level of this neurotransmitter. Alcohol and barbiturates can also influence GABA receptors.
Glutamate

Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter that was discovered in 1907 by Kikunae Ikeda of Tokay
Imperial University. It is the most commonly found neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.
Glutamate is mainly associated with functions like learning and memory. An excess of glutamate is
however, toxic for the neurons. An excessive production of glutamate may be related to the
disease, known as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) or Lou Gehrig's disease.
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

Epinephrine (also known as adrenaline) is an excitatory neurotransmitter, that controls attention,
arousal, cognition, and mental focus. Norepinephrine is also an excitatory neurotransmitter, and it
regulates mood and physical and mental arousal. An increased secretion of norepinephrine
raises the heart rate and blood pressure.
Endorphins

Endorphins are the neurotransmitters that resemble opioid compounds, like opium, morphine, and
heroin in structure. The effects of endorphins on the body are also quite similar to the effects
produced by the opioid compounds. In fact, the name 'endorphin' is actually the short form for
'endogenous morphine'.

Like opioids, endorphins can reduce pain, stress, and promote calmness and serenity. The opioid
drugs produce similar effects by attaching themselves to the endorphin receptor sites. Endorphins
enable some animals to hibernate by slowing down their rate of metabolism, respiration, and heart
rate.
Melatonin

It is the hormone produced by the pineal gland that also acts as a neurotransmitter. It basically
controls the sleep-wake cycle. It is also associated with controlling mood and sexual behavior. The
production of melatonin is dependent on light. Light to the retina inhibits the production of melatonin,
while darkness has a stimulating effect on its production.
Nitric Oxide

It is a gas that acts both as a hormone and neurotransmitter, depending on the specific requirement.
It can cause the blood vessels to dilate, besides preventing the formation of clots. This in turn, can
promote the circulation of blood. Nitric oxide can increase the level of oxygen in the body, and
improve memory, learning, alertness, and concentration. It is also responsible for causing the smooth
gastrointestinal muscles to relax.

To sum up, neurotransmitters are chemicals that allow the nerves to communicate with each other,
and thus, regulate the various functions of the body. A substantially high or low level of these
chemicals can alter the functions of the entire nervous system.
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Dopamine
Pleasure, Love, and Integration of Thoughts and Feelings
Phenylalanine and tyrosine are precursors to the bodys three fight or flight
neurotransmitters, dopamine, epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine.
Phenylalanineconverts to>Tyrosineconverts to>DOPAconverts to
>Dopamine
Dopamine is widespread in the brain as well as the rest of the nervous system. This
neurotransmitter plays a critical role in the control of movement. It has a stimulating effect on the
heart, the circulation, the rate of metabolism, and is able to mobilize many of the bodys energy
reserves. It helps to modulate brain activity, control coordination and movement, and regulate the
flow of information to different areas of the brain. Dopamine is believed to release chemicals that
allow us to feel pleasure (e.g., endorphins). A massive disturbance of dopamine regulation in the
brain can result in a person no longer being able to respond emotionally or express his or her
feelings in an appropriate way (e.g., schizophrenia).
The main precursor for this neurotransmitter is the nonessential amino acid tyrosine. While tyrosine
is contained in many foods, it is classified as a nonessential amino acids because ordinarily our
bodies can create it. Still, deficiencies in the production of tyrosine can occur, and increased dietary
supplementation may be necessary. Folic acid, niacin, iron, and B
6
are necessary cofactors.
Optimal quantities of Dopamine result in:
Feelings of pleasure
Feelings of attachment/love
Sense of Altruism
Integration of thoughts and feelings
Dopamine Deficiencies result in:
Anhedonia
Lack of ability to feel love, sense attachment to another
Lack of remorse about actions
Distractibility
Supplements required:
L-Phenylalanine
Vitamin B
6

Useful sources of building blocks for dopamine:
Apples
Beets
Blue-green algae
Celery
Chicken
Cucumber
Fish
Green leafy vegetables
Honey
Cheese
Sweet peppers
Tofu
Watermelon
Norepinephrine
Energy, Stimulation, Fight or Flight
Phenylalanine and tyrosineare precursors to norepinephrine and epinephrine.
Phenylalanineconverts to>Tyrosineconverts to>DOPAconverts to
>Dopamine
converts to>Norepinephrineconverts to>Epinephrine
Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, is a neurotransmitter found in the sympathetic
nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system stimulates the heart, blood vessels, sweat glands,
the large internal organs, and the adrenal medulla in the brain. Like dopamine, norepinephrine has a
stimulating effect, fosters alertness, and plays an important regulatory role in long-term memory
and learning. It also protects endorphins from being broken down prematurely. Optimal levels of this
transmitter can stimulate a sense of wellbeing or even create a euphoric effect in stressful
situations. Yet excess norepinephrine can fuel the physiological expressions of fear and anxiety, as
may be the case for people who suffer from anxiety disorders.
The amino acid tyrosine, found in high concentrations in cheese, is converted by specific reactions
into at least two neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine. Norepinephrine is produced
from dopamine, with the help of the amino acids phenylalanine, lysine, and methionine. Vitamins C
and B
6
, magnesium, and manganese are important cofactors.
Norepinepherine Functions in:
Arousal, energy, drive
Stimulation
Fight or Flight
Norepinepherine Deficiencies result in:
Lack of energy
Lack of motivation
First state called depression
Supplement required for norepinephrine:
1-phenylalanine
Vitamin B6
Useful sources of building blocks for norepinephrine:
Almonds
Apples
Avocado
Bananas
Beef liver or kidney
Blue-green algae
Cheese
Fish
Most green vegetables
Lean meat
Nuts
Grains
Pineapple
Poultry
Tofu
Serotonin
Emotional Stability, Calm, Sleep, Appetite Control
5-HTP (5-hydroxytryptophan) is a precursor to serotonin. And serotonin can further
convert to melatonin.
5-HTPconverts to>Serotoninconverts to>Melatonin
Serotonin affects numerous bodily systems. There are 17 known types of serotonin receptors, with
the largest quantity of serotonin being produced in the intestines. Serotonin acts in a variety of ways
and is involved in about one quarter of all the bodys biological processes. Serotonin stimulates
release of a hormone, melatonin within the pineal gland, which regulates the body clock and sleep.
It has also been shown to play a role in the onset of migraine headaches by causing blood vessels to
constrict, affects blood clotting, heartbeat, and mood (it can reduce depression). Alterations of
serotonin activity is a common effect of psychedelic drugs, (e.g., LSD is structurally similar to
serotonin).
Serotonin is synthesized directly from the essential amino acid tryptophan, which must come from
the diet, with the assistance of Vitamin B
6
and carbohydrates. Yet the amount of tryptophan that
gets into the brain depends on the relative amounts of other amino acids in your blood. Because
amino acids are the building blocks of protein, one might think that eating a high-protein meal
would be a good way to get more tryptophan into the brain. But because protein foods typically
contain much smaller amounts of tryptophan than other amino acids, this is not the best strategy. In
contrast, a high-carbohydrate meal changes the odds in favor of tryptophan by increasing insulin,
which pulls competing amino acids out of our blood and into our cells. Even though the actual
amount of tryptophan in the blood hasnt changed, more passes into the brain. This helps to explain
why people often feel comforted after eating carbohydrate-rich foods (e.g., cake) and depressed
people tend to binge on more carbohydrates.
Serotonin Functions in:
Emotional stability
Reduces aggression
Sensory input
Sleep cycle
Appetite control
Serotonin Deficiencies result in:
Irritability
Irrational emotions
Sudden unexplained tears
Sleep disturbances
Supplement required for serotonin:
5HTP or l-tryptophan from food
Calcium, and
Magnesium
Useful sources of building blocks for serotonin:
Bananas
Beets
Blue-green algae
Brown rice
Cheese
Fennel
Figs
Fish
Ham
Legumes
Milk
Nuts
Pasta
Pineapple
Potatoes
Radishes
Spinach
Tomatoes
Turkey
Whole grains
GABA (Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid)
Tension and Stress Control
Glutamine is a precursor to GABA(Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid).
Glutamineconverts to>GABA
When brain experiences an abundance of nervous tension and stress, it can be caused by a surplus
of norepinephrine or epinephrine (adrenaline). To neutralize this extra adrenaline, the brain
produces neurotransmitters, one of which is GABA, that have inhibitory effects upon the nervous
system.
The following diagrams explain how the brain uses GABA to calm excessive nervous tension and
stress. The diagrams will also show the effect barbiturates, benzodiazepines and alcohol can have
on the same brain cells.
Please Note: The two inner rings are receptors for other neurotransmitters that have not yet been
scientifically identified. But scientists have discovered that the two inner rings are sensitive to
external source substances or chemicals, such as benzodiazepines, barbiturates and alcohol.These
external substances attach to the GABA receptor site like neurotransmitters, and can have an effect
on the brain similarly to their respective neurotransmittesrs. However, when an external source
substance is used to take the place of a natural internal substance for an extended period of time,
the body begins to reduce production of those natural chemicals. This can create a deficieny in
these naturally occuring chemicals.
L-Glutamine is an amino acid that in a precursor to GABA. Using a nutritional supplement that
contains L-Glutamine along with a balanced diet can support the natural replenishment of GABA, as
well as other neurotransmitters.
Diagram One: The GABA Receptor Complex

Think of the GABA receptor complex as a round object, like a donut, consisting of three rings, and a
center.
Center Opening: Chloride Channel
Chloride neutralizes norepinephrine, thereby calming stress and nervousness. If
any two of the rings fill with their respective chemicals, they will cause the donut
to tighten, widening the chloride channel to allow more chloride into the brain to
neutralize the adrenaline.
Outer Ring: GABA Sensitive Ring
As the brain produces GABA, the molecules attach to the GABA Ring
Second Neurotransmitter Ring: Also sensitive to benzodiazepines
Other neurotransmitters and benzodiazepine molecules attach to the middle ring,
which can also assist in opening the chloride channel.
Third Neurotransmitter Ring: Also sensitive to barbiturates and alcohol
Other neurotransmitters, barbiturate and alcohol molecules attach to the inner
ring, which can also assist in opening the chloride channel.
GABA
The Chloride Channel
Diagram Two: GABA and The Chloride Channel
As the GABA Sensitive Ring and either the Second or Third Neurotransmitter rings begin to fill with
their respective molecules, they tighten the whole GABA complex, thereby widening the chloride
channel to allow more chloride to enter. Since chloride neutralizes norepinephrine, this process can
calm excessive nervousness, tension, and stress.
Since the Second and Third Neurotransmitter Rings are sensitive to external source substances such
as benzodiazepines, barbiturates and alcohol, these external substances can cause the Chloride
Channel to open, thereby assisting in the neutralizing of additional adrenaline.
However, prolonged use of any external substances that cause the GABA complex to widen without
the natural production of GABA, can eventually send the message to the brain that GABA is no
longer needed. The brain doesnt produce neurotransmitters to store, rather it produces them for
immediate use. Therefore, if the brain continues to receive the message that GABA is not needed to
widen the chloride channel, the brain may finally slow down the GABA production, thereby creating
a deficiency.
It takes at least two of the rings filling with molecules to tighten the whole complex. The amino acid
L-Glutamine is a precursor to GABA. Therefore, an amino acid supplement containing L-
Glutamine can nutritionally support the natural production of GABA.


GABA Receptors
Diagram Three: Benzodiazepines and Barbiturates
If the second and third ring are filled with an abundance of external source substances such as
benzodiazepines, barbiturates and alcohol, a dangerous thing can happen. The Chloride Channel can
be opened wide enough to allow enough chloride to enter to substantially neutralize the
norepinephrine in the brain.
Since norepinephrine is a necessary transmitter that the brain uses to control the vital organs, which
are involuntary muscles, there must be norepinephrine available for the brain to keep these muscles
operating. Without any norepinephrine at all, the heart, lungs, and other vital organs can stop
working.