Basic Computer Tutorial

This basic computer tutorial is written for those who do not know very much about computers.
The purpose of this basic computer tutorial is to help the reader better understand how to use
their computer more effectively and safely. It will help the reader understand:
What files and file types are.
How to copy files.
Where your files are stored.
What the parts of your computer are.
What an operating system is.
What a computer program is.
Security and Performance
With the above basic information, this tutorial will explain methods that you can do to make
your system more secure, keep your data safe by backing it up, and avoid most performance
degredation caused to bad applications and SPAM.
How some file types can be used by third parties to gain control of your computer.
How to modify your file view settings so you are not as easily fooled by e-mails
containing viruses.
How to prevent viruses and worms.
How to reduce SPAM.
How to back up your files.
How to reduce or eliminate unwanted programs that could reduce your system
performance.
What to do if you receive a virus or worm.
What to do if you receive an e-mail telling you that an e-mail you sent contained a virus.
Computer Data
To help understand computers it is best to first learn about computer data. Computer data is
information required by the computer to be able to operate. It is used to:
Run programs - This is the actual executable program data that the computer will
execute to run the program such as Microsoft Word.
Store program or system configuration information.
Store information that the computer user needs such as text files or other files that are
associated with the program the computer user is running. A common example of a
program the computer user is running is the Microsoft Office suite of products which
include Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and others. These programs are also known as
applications.
Data Structure
Computer data is in what is called binary format. This means that it is always a 0 or a 1. It only
has these two states and must be in one of them.
There are several fundamental data units which include:
Bit - A data unit which must be in one of the two binary states described above. It is the
smallest data unit that exists.
Byte - 8 bits of data which has a possible value from 0 to 255.
Word - Two bytes or 16 bits of data with a possible unsigned value from 0 to 16535.

Data transmission
Data transmission is the act of sending data from one place to another. Data is transmitted both
inside and outside your computer. There are two fundamental methods of data transmission.
Serial - Data is sent on a single line and one bit is sent at at a time. This is similar to a line
which one item must come one after another.
Parallel - Data is sent on more than one line at a time. This may be any number of bits at
a time, but is usually one word at a time (two bytes) or possibly three bytes at a time.
Computer Hardware
The term computer hardware refers to the various electronic components that are required for
you to use a computer along with the hardware components inside the computer case. As you
know your computer equipment is made of several common components. These include:
The main computer box.
A monitor - Looks like a television screen.
A keyboard.
A mouse.
Speakers.
An optional printer
The main computer box is the main component of the computer. It has computer hardware parts
inside that perform the following functions:
Temporary storage of information (known as data in more technical terms) - This
function is done by memory.
Permanent storage of information - This function is done by a hard disk, floppy disk, or
CD ROM.
Manipulation or processing of data - Used to determine where data is stored and perform
calculations which support operations that the user is doing.
Interfacing to the outside components or to the outside world - This supports the ability
for the user to communicate with the computer and know how the computer is
responding to commands which are done primarily through the monitor, keyboard, and
mouse along with their interface components in the main computer box.
A power supply which provides the electrical power to the components in the computer
box.

The Main Computer Box
The main computer box is made of several computer hardware components and subcomponents
which include:
The case - The outside component which provides protection for the parts inside and
provides a fan and power supply which are used to both cool the working parts inside and
provide power to them.
The motherboard - Hold the following computer hardware subcomponents:
o Memory - Used to provide temporary storage of information as discussed earlier.
o Microprocessor - Used to provide the processing of data function as discussed
earlier.
o Video interface card which is also called the video card - This card is an interface
between the computer monitor and the motherboard and its subcomponents such
as the microprocessor and memory. This card may be included as part of the
motherboard or it may plug into a card slot on the motherboard.
o Sound card is an interface between the computer speakers and the motherboard
and its subcomponents such as the microprocessor and memory. This card may be
included as part of the motherboard or it may plug into a card slot on the
motherboard.
One or more permanent storage devices some of which may be optional:
o Hard disk - Most computers today have a hard disk (sometimes called hard
drives) which is the component most commonly used to provide permanent
storage of data. Hard disks are usually permanantly installed in a computer.
o CD ROM drive or DVD drive - Used to provide permanant storage of data but
this type of drive is used to bring information into the computer more commonly
than it is used to store information from the computer. Sometimes this type of
drive is used to back up data from the hard drive so data is not lost if a hard drive
breaks. A DVD drive holds more data than a CD ROM drive and DVDs have
enough storage capacity that they may be used to play or store movies. The
storage media, the CD ROM or DVD may be removed from the computer.
o Floppy Drive - A low capacity storage device which can be written to as easily as
it is read. The floppy disk may be easily removed from the computer. It is called a
floppy because the part of the media that holds the data is on a material that is not
rigid but it is enclosed in a more rigit case to give it durability.
There are also other minor computer hardware components inside the case which include cables
which may be used to hook other internal parts together along with connecting an interface to the
case for printers and other devices such as a high speed serial bus called USB. (A serial bus
simply refers to the fact that data is sent in a stream which is like sending one bit at a time.
The Case
The drawing below shows a typical case. It may help you understand where your connections for
your monitor, keyboard, mouse, and other devices are if you should need to hook them up. For
more specific information you should refer to your computer owner's manual.

The drawing below shows a typical layout of the components inside your computer case.

Software and Hardware
Hardware
The term hardware describes the physical parts of your computer which you can physically
touch or see such as your monitor, case, disk drives, microprocessor and other physical parts.
Software
The term software describes the programs that run on your system. This includes your computer
operating system and other computer programs which run. Software is written in a computer
language (such as Basic, C, Java, or others) by programmers. The computer language is in a text
format and can be read by a person although if you do not understand the structure and rules of
the language you may not understand it very well. Once a program is written, an operation is
performed on it which is called compiling. Compiling is the process of changing the textual
written language into a binary language which can be understood by the computer.
Writing these text files and converting them to computer readable files is the way operating
systems and most application programs are created.
BIOS (Basic Input/Output System)
BIOS is a low level program used by your system to interface to computer devices such as your
video card, keyboard, mouse, hard drive, and other devices. What BIOS programs provide in the
computer are very simple function calls or small subprograms which can be used by higher level
programs to perform simple operations on computer devices. For example a BIOS program
would provide the ability to write a character to memory on a video card.

BIOS is normally written in a low level computer language and is permanently or semi-
permanently written into the computer system. This type of computer program is commonly
referred to as firmware since it was historically written permanently into computer systems.
Although BIOS is a program, because of its permanent state, it was not quite considered to be
software so the term firmware is used to describe it.
Historically BIOS programs were written into a type of memory called ROM (read only
memory). This type of memory would not lose its data when the computer lost power thus
ensuring these BIOS programs would always be available. There were different variants of ROM
memory some of which could be written multiple times but this memory could not normally be
changed or re-programmed once the computer system was sold to the customer. Once ROM
memory was written to, it could not be written to again and could only be read when in the
possession of the customer. In more recent years a more flexible form of memory was developed
called flash ROM which allows ROM memory to be written to after the computer system is in
possession of the customer.
What is a Network
The word network can be used to describe a very large and complicated set of equipment. In its
most accurate and simplest definition a network refers to the cables and electronic components
that amplify the signals going through the cables. The amplifying equipment is necessary to
ensure accurate communication and make the signal stronger if it needs to go long distances.
Broader Definition
When many people talk about a network, they are talking about a network using a very broad
concept. For instance if someone cannot get to their email, they may say "the network is down".
Likewise they may say this if they cannot surf the internet or get to their files. They may not
stop to think that in each specific instance there is a single piece of equipment that may provide
the capability which they are trying to use.
Most people who work on a corporate or organizational network think about the network in
component parts. The three main parts are:
The cabling and amplifiers mentioned in the first paragraph.
The workstations which most members of the organization use to access resources.
Higher powered computers called servers - These are the machines that provide what
network administrators call services. Services include the functions that most people try
to use such as email, reading and writing files, printing, and getting to the internet.
Whenever a user is trying to do something on the network, there is a service or machine
providing the capability to do so. This even includes times when someone is trying to get
to network resources from their home.

Services
Services include:
Email service
File service - Allows users to use and share file space on a computer with a lot of file
space.
Print service - Allows printing to printers connected on the network.
Web surfing - Allowing someone to open web pages and see web sites on the internet.
Filtering out undesired sites on the internet.
Allowing someone to access the network from the outside (from home).
Updating virus definitions on workstations.
Allowing someone to log onto the network.
Even giving a workstation an address on the network is a service. If your computer does
not have an address, it cannot access the internet or any other resource on the network.
A Typical Network
A typical corporate or organizational network is shown below:

Of course there are variations on this network layout and some details have been left out for the
sake of simplicity but this drawing should give you some idea about what goes on behind the
scene on the network at your organization. Some servers and server functions have not been
shown here.
The firewall is the device that protects all computers in the network from many attacks. It allows
some types of network traffic into the network from the outside, but usually only for mail or web
services. Usually the internet traffic that that is allowed to come into the network is routed to the
part of the network labeled "DMZ" on the right side of the diagram. DMZ stands for
demilitarized zone and is also called a semi-private network. In this DMZ is a web server which
is used to allow people surfing on the internet to see web pages posted by the organization. A
mail server is also shown in the DMZ but this could be replaced by a mail relay server while the
mail server is placed inside the private network. The mail relay server would forward mail traffic
from the outside to the mail server. This would increase the security of the network since a direct
connection from the internet to the mail server would not be allowed.
The private network is of course the most secure part of the network. There are several servers
on this network including:
A login server (called a domain controller) which controls everyones permissions and
access to the network resources such as files. Without this server, they cannot login to the
network.
An address server (called a DHCP server) which provides addresses to computers on the
network so they can communicate as discussed earlier.
A file server which provides common files and a private folder for users.
A remote access server which allows users to connect to the network by telephone from
the outside.
Also the workstations are part of this network.
What is the Internet
The word internet is used to describe a network of networks which incorporate a very large and
complicated set of equipment. To understand the internet, there are three areas of discussion
which are very helpful. These include the various services provided across the internet, the
functions that enable the internet to work, and the various organizations that are part of the
internet.
Internet Services
The main services used on the internet include:
Web browsing - Supported by the HTTP protocol, this functions allows users to view
web pages using a web browser.
E-mail - Allows people to send and receive electronic messages.
Other lesser used services include telnet (allows remote login to computers), FTP (Allows quick
file transmission to remote computers), and gopher (An early form of text based form of reading
internet documents which is rarely used today).
Internet Functions
The internet provides for the following two functions which support communications. Without
the communications support mentioned below, the internet could not function. These two
functions are provided by internet service providers listed below under the "Internet
Organizations" header.
Physical lines that data is sent across.
Routing of data - There are special machines on the internet called routers, that
determine where data needs to go to get from the sender of the data to the receiver of the
data.

Internet Organizations
ISPs (Internet Service Providers) - They provide the connection to the internet for users
and also provide routers that direct internet traffic.
Corporations or Web hosting providers with mail servers and web servers - They provide
the information posted on the internet and virtual data connections to other mail servers.
There are also other organizations that regulate the internet, providing communication standards
and designing new communication standards for improvements. These communication standards
are also known as protocols.
Summary
So the internet is a collection of organizations that provide equipment that support the internet
functions and services. The internet connects many corporate and organizational private
networks together thus enabling all these organizations to easily communicate.
Accessing the Internet
People use an internet browser to access web pages that are available across the internet. Internet
browsers include Microsoft Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Mozilla, and others.
Web pages are created in a marked up form of text file called HTML (Hyper-Text Markup
Language). The markup within the text indicates document structure showing where paragraphs
begin and end, what items are in a list, headers, tables and other document structure.
When people are browsing of surfing the internet, they usually go from place to place by clicking
on links. These links are locations for specific pages and indicate the three things:
1. Protocol being used such as http or ftp
2. The domain that the web page is found on. This will point to a specific organization's or
company's web server.
3. The location of the page on the server including the directory path and file name.
An example link is "http://www.comptechdoc.org/basics/bastutorial/osintro.html". In this case
http is the protocol being used, the comptechdoc.org domain indicates where the organization's
web server is, and the "/basics/bastutorial/osintro.html" part of the string indicates the folders the
file is in and the name of the file.
These links are sometimes called hyperlinks or URLs (Uniform Resource Locators)









Computer Hardware
This section will talk about computer hardware from the ground up. It is intended for beginners
who don't know what computer hardware components operate inside their computers. In this
section, we will not only analyze and explain the component parts of a computer, but we will
explain how you can buy a computer from component parts, and assemble it. We will guide you
around the pitfalls of your computer purchase to the assembly and installation of your computer
hardware and operating system. When you are done reading this section, most of the mystery
about computer hardware should be clarified.
Disclaimer
We cannot be held liable for any damages resulting from use of any information in this section.
This section is free, and comes with no warranty of any kind. We have tried to make information
in this section as accurate as possible, but we cannot guarantee its accuracy. Also information on
this page may be time sensitive since available computer hardware is changing constantly and so
are the vendors that provide parts. A vendor that was a reliable source of computer hardware
today may change in the future. Other new vendors that have good pricing, selection, and return
policies are started all the time. We cannot guarantee that this section can always reflect these
changes, but we will give you information on how you can make the best decision about who to
buy from.
Terms
bit - A logical data unit which has a possible value of 0 or 1.
byte - A unit of data storage consisting of 8 bits.
cycle - An electrical cycle is basically a sinewave form during which electrical voltage will cycle
from its lowest negative value to its highest positive value and back again.
computer hardware - Refers to the various electronic components that are required for you to
use a computer along with the hardware components inside the computer case
hertz - A unit of frequency describing the number of electrical cycles that occur in a second. One
hertz is one cycle per second. Power is delivered to homes in the United States at 60Hz and in
Europe at 50Hz.
megabyte(Mb) - A unit of data storage consisting of about one million bytes. This is normally
used to refer to the amount of system memory or floppy disk storage.
megahertz(Mhz) - A unit of frequency. It is one million hertz. It describes the clock frequency the
microprocessor runs at. The larger the number, generally the faster the microprocessor, but
there are other factors that affect microprocessor speed.
gigabyte(Gb) - A unit of data storage consisting of about 1000 megabytes. This is normally used
to refer to the amount of capacity a hard drive has.
RAM - Random Access Memory
Computer Components
Computers come in all types and sizes. There are primarily two main sizes of computers. They
are:
Portable
Desktop
The portable computer comes in various sizes and are referred to as laptops, notebooks, and
hand-held computers. These generally denote different sizes, the laptop being the largest, and the
hand-held is the smallest size. This document will mainly talk about the desktop computer
although portable computer issues are also discussed in various areas.
Computer Components:
Computers are made of the following basic components:
1. Case with hardware inside:

1. Power Supply - The power supply comes with the case, but this component is
mentioned separately since there are various types of power supplies. The one you
should get depends on the requirements of your system. This will be discussed in
more detail later
2. Motherboard - This is where the core components of your computer reside
which are listed below. Also the support cards for video, sound, networking and
more are mounted into this board.

1. Microprocessor - This is the brain of your computer. It performs
commands and instructions and controls the operation of the computer.
2. Memory - The RAM in your system is mounted on the motherboard. This
is memory that must be powered on to retain its contents.
3. Drive controllers - The drive controllers control the interface of your
system to your hard drives. The controllers let your hard drives work by
controlling their operation. On most systems, they are included on the
motherboard, however you may add additional controllers for faster or
other types of drives.

3. Hard disk drive(s) - This is where your files are permanently stored on your
computer. Also, normally, your operating system is installed here.
4. CD-ROM drive(s) - This is normally a read only drive where files are
permanently stored. There are now read/write CD-ROM drives that use special
software to allow users to read from and write to these drives.
5. Floppy drive(s) - A floppy is a small disk storage device that today typically has
about 1.4 Megabytes of memory capacity.
6. Other possible file storage devices include DVD devices, Tape backup devices,
and some others.

2. Monitor - This device which operates like a TV set lets the user see how the computer is
responding to their commands.
3. Keyboard - This is where the user enters text commands into the computer.
4. Mouse - A point and click interface for entering commands which works well in
graphical environments.
Computer Cases
There are two basic styles of cases the computer may come assembled in. They are basically
tower and desktop style cases. Desktop style is in the shape of a rectangular box, that sets flat on
a desk. Usually the computer monitor is placed on top of it. A tower case, looks similar to a
tower as the name says. These computers will be placed off to the side of the keyboard and
monitor. The tower case is the most popular style of desktop computer today. It is also
recommended by some microprocessor manufacturers since it can be designed for better heat
dissipation. Tower cases come in several sizes which are:
Mini-tower - The smallest.
Mid-tower - The standard size, recommended for most applications including standard
desktop systems and some servers.
Full-tower - The largest. Usually this is a very tall case and you may have a difficult time
fitting it where overhead is limited. This case is usually used for high powered servers.
Looking at the front of your computer, you see the front panel:




The exact locations of many of these items vary somewhat from computer to computer, but the
overall layout is generally the same. Types of cases come to fit AT and ATX sizes. If you want a
modern computer, you will want, or should have an ATX case. The AT or ATX version refers to
the type of motherboard the case is designed to fit. The AT case is for the old type of
motherboards such as for the 80486 microprocessor based computers.
Definitions
Pin - A part of a connector that extends outward to extend into and make contact with a
socket. Referred to as the male side of a connector.
Socket - a part of a connector that contains an internal contact to receive the extended
side (pin) of a connector. Referred to as the female side of a connector.
Jack - A receptacle where power of signal connectors may be plugged into. These are
usually on the case of a computer or the motherboard and are made to receive plugs from
devices such as keyboards.
Plug - The part that connects with the jack, which comes from a keyboard, mouse,
monitor or other device. This is the side associated with a cable.
The Back Panel
The back panel includes two power connectors. One is to connect your computer to the wall
outlet, and the other can be used to connect the monitor power to operate from the socket on the
back of the case. Usually the power connector for the monitor is not used since many use a
power strip or a surge protector to control the power to all devices.
The keyboard and mouse connectors are both normally PS2 connectors on new computers. There
are two sizes of PS2 connectors, Normally with today's equipment you will want the smaller PS2
connector on your keyboard. Mice don't come with the larger PS2 connector. There are adapters
made to allow smaller connectors to adjust to a larger sockets and vice-versa. A PS2 connector is
a round connector with 6 pins and a plastic key. The keyboard always uses the PS2 connector,
however the mouse may be a serial mouse and may plug into the serial cable on your computer.
With modern computers, normally a PS2 mouse will be used.
Near the keyboard and mouse connectors is normally a connector for a parallel printer. This is
what is called a parallel device, meaning that more than one line carries data in one direction at a
time. This is the connector you will plug your parallel printer into. See your computers
motherboard or owner's manual for exact placement of these connectors.
Usually a little below the parallel printer connector are two serial connectors. There are two
types of serial connectors, which are called DB9 and DB25. One type, DB9 contains 9 pins or
sockets and the other contains 25 pins or sockets. You may have any combination of the 9 or 25
pin connectors. Also some are female style connectors, and others are male. You will need to
make sure your connectors match for their given types. The serial cables are normally used to
connect a serial mouse, an external modem, or some other device to your computer.
Below the parallel and serial connectors are a series of slots which are covered by a metal plate.
This is where additional cards are plugged into your system. These cards are usually a video
card, a sound card, internal modem, and one or more network cards. Your monitor connector
would plug into a connector on your video card, and your speakers will plug into a connector on
your sound card. See your sound card and video card manual for exact placement of these
connectors on the card. These cards are plugged into the motherboard and you must open your
case up to remove or add one of these cards.
Inside the Computer
Opening the case
Warning! Before deciding to open your computer case and touch or remove any parts inside,
you should be aware that your body can contain static electricity that may be discharged to the
circuits inside your computer. A static discharge can damage or ruin your computer. Therefore
prior to doing any work inside your computer, you should get a grounding strap. A grounding
strap can be attached to one of your wrists and be plugged into the wall (if it is the type made for
a wall outlet). If you don't have the ground strap made for the wall outlet, you may need to

attach your ground strap to a cold water pipe. A ground strap grounds your body using the earth
ground in the wall outlet or from a cold water pipe. A grounding strap should cost less than
twenty dollars and should be available at an electrical equipment store. You should always wear
a ground strap when working inside your computer case. Especially when working with the
microprocessor, memory, motherboard, or other plug in boards.

Warning! Hazard! Prior to opening your computer case, be sure it is turned off and unplugged.
110 volts can cause injury or death! Also working on your computer while it is plugged in can
damage or destroy it.

To open the computer case, depending on the type of case you may need to follow one of the
following sets of instructions.
For the less expensive cases normally you need to:
1. Remove 4 or 5 screws in the back of the case. Be sure these screws hold the case
and not some other component like the power supply.
2. Slide the case foreword on its slots and remove it.
For higher quality cases
1. Remove one thumbscrew or one or two phillips head screws from the back of
your case that may hold one or more panels.
2. Remove the top panel and/or one or more necessary side panels.
Once you have opened the case, lay it on its side so you can look at the inside components. You
should see some variation of the following picture.

In the picture, the front of the computer is at the bottom and the rear is at the top. At the front
(bottom of the picture) are normally two metal bays made to enclose hard drives, floppy drives,
and CD-ROM drives. There is a 5.25 inch and a 3.5 inch set of bays. Most hard drives will
mount into the smaller 3.5 inch bays with the CD-ROMS mounting in the 5.25 inch bays. The
hard floppy, and CD-ROM drives are mounted to their enclosures with screws on their left and
right sides. The power supply is on the top right side of the picture which when the computer is
in its normal standing position is the top rear. At this location it will draw the warm air that
naturally rises to the top of the case to the outside.
Cables
Between the hard, floppy, and CD-ROM drive bays you will see some thin flat grey cables going
to the floppy and hard drive connectors on the motherboard. These are data/control cables used
by the system to control the drives and get and send data from and to them. On one side of the
grey cable should be a red stripe going along the cable. This red stripe should always be placed
on the pin 1 side of the connector. You will need to look closely at the connectors on your hard
and floppy drives to determine which is the pin 1 side or read your manual. On hard drives and
most CD-ROMs pin 1 is on the side closest to the power supply connector.
Cables running between the power supply are colored black, red, and yellow. There is one going
to each hard drive, floppy drive, CD-ROM drive and any other drive the system is using such as
a mass storage device. There is also a multicolored power supply cable with about 12 wires
going between the power supply and the motherboard. The wires are colored black, red, yellow,
orange, and there is one that is blue. The connector on this cable should be keyed so it cannot be
inserted the wrong way. Also some of the data cables are keyed, but others are not. It varies a
little from system to system.
The power supply
The primary rating on the power supply that you should be concerned about is wattage. Most are
standard in the range from 230 through 300 watts. I recommend 250 watts for most standard
systems today. If you are buying a high powered system with a microprocessor that uses a lot of
power such as an AMD Athlon, you will need to buy a case that has a power supply capable of
providing 300 watts.
The following sections talk about the motherboard and associated components such as memory,
the microprocessor, and the expansion cards.
Motherboard
The Memory Slots
Yes, the motherboard is the mother of all boards on your computer. The motherboard may have
a form factor of AT or ATX. We recommend you use ATX motherboards with ATX cases since
this is the newer alternative and most modern microprocessors run on ATX motherboards. The
motherboard holds the microprocessor, the memory, and several card slots. The memory may be
SIMM sockets or DIMM sockets. The current standard is DIMM socketed memory. This is
usually 168 pin 3 volt unbuffered synchronous DRAM memory. PC100 or PC133 memory is
the current memory of choice. Most boards have 3 or 4 memory slots, which may, depending on
the size of DIMM used, allow up or beyond 1 Gb total system memory. Most boards commonly
allow 384 to 512 Mb of system RAM.
The expansion bus
The card slots are used to put additional cards such as video cards, sound cards, internal
modems, or network cards into. Some motherboards today include video and sound without the
addition of a extra card. These cards slots today are mostly PCI type card slots. When talking
about cards that are plugged into a PC you are talking about the expansion bus. The expansion
bus is a means of a microprocessor extending its communication ability further into the outside
world. It is a data exchange means between add on cards and the microprocessor and the
motherboard. There have been several types of expansion buses.
ISA - Industry Standard Architecture. Used when the original 8088 8bit microprocessor
based personal computers were produced.

EISA - Extended ISA used when the 80286 through 80486 series microprocessors were
being produced. This bus is still used but is being phased out and is almost gone today.
MCI - Microchannel architecture by IBM and used mainly on IBM brand computers.
PCI - Peripheral Component Interconnect. The popular expansion bus of choice. It is
significantly faster than EISA.
AGP - Accelerated Graphics Port. This bus is developed for fast video cards. It is
currently up to 4X mode speed.
The current popular expansion bus is the PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) bus for all
cards except the graphics cards. For graphics cards, the bus of choice is AGP. Most
motherboards today have one AGP slot and several PCI slots. Your expansion cards will plug
into these card slots. Be sure you get cards that match the available type of slots on your
motherboard.
My microprocessor runs at 500Mhz and my memory runs at 100Mhz. Why?
As PC technology grew, eventually the access speed of the memory could no longer keep pace
with the increased speed of the microprocessors. At this point, an I/O cache was placed on the
microprocessor to be a buffer between the external memory on the motherboard and the internal
processor registers. The memory was set to run at a different "side bus" speed which is some
fraction of the microprocessor speed. Therefore when the speed of the microprocessor is set, it is
set to some multiple of the side bus speed. In the case of a 500Mhz processor and 100Mhz
PC100 capable memory, that multiple is 5. Sometimes this multiple and the sidebus frequency is
set using jumpers on the motherboard, or it may be set with auto detection and the BIOS. You
will need to consult your motherboard manual to determine how to set these parameters.
Other motherboard items
Other items on your motherboard that you should be aware of are the small pin connectors that
are used to connect the following controls and indicatory to your motherboard.
Power supply switch.
Reset switch
The power on indicator.
Hard drive activity indicator.
In the case speaker connector.
You will need to consult your motherboard manual to see which connectors are used for which
item and how to hook them up. There should be a bundle of cables near the front of the case
(inside) which have labels on the connectors for these items.
Chipset and BIOS
One issue that will affect the operation of the motherboard is the chipset it uses and its BIOS it
uses. The chipset is used to control the interface between the microprocessor and most of the
devices and memory on the computer. The chipset used can have a significant affect on the
performance of your system as can the overall design of the motherboard. The way to determine
the best chipsets and motherboards is to read reviews and articles at various technical websites.
Your system's BIOS is a computer program that allows your system to begin running and
provides a small library fo function that your system will use to interface to various devices such
as your hard drive. Some BIOS programs can limit the location on your hard drive where you
can install bootable operating systems. The BIOS resides in a chip on the motherboard called a
ROM chip. Usually part of this ROM can be reset or re programmed with updates. ROM that can
be electrically re-written this way is called "flash" ROM.
Microprocessor
The microprocessor is the center of your computer. It processes instructions and communicates
with outside devices, controlling most of the operation of the computer. The microprocessor
usually has a large heat sink attached to it. Some microprocessors come in a package with a heat
sink and a fan included as a part of the package. Other microprocessors require you to install the
heat sink and fan separately. This is not a difficult problem, but can be a bit daunting when the
buyer wants to make sure they get the correct parts to fit their microprocessor. Also the buyer
needs to make sure they will get the motherboard that their microprocessor will work with. This
section will explain some of the differences in microprocessors and ways to be sure your parts
match.
Microprocessors and Mounting
The mounting method refers to the type of connection the microprocessor makes with the
motherboard. The following table lists the various mounting packages and some of the well
known microprocessors that are mounted for that package.
Socket 7 - AMD K5, K6, Intel Pentium 75-200Mhz, IBM
Socket 370 - Some Intel Celerons
Slot 1 - Intel Pentium II, Pentium III, Some Celeron 266-533
Slot II - Intel Xeon
Slot A - AMD Athlon
The Socket 7 processors are becoming less popular. We recommend socket 370, through slot A
microprocessors at the current time. The prices on Socket 370 microprocessors are currently very
low considering the performance of the systems. I recently bought a Celeron 500Mhz
microprocessor with 66Mhz sidebus for under $120 with a motherboard for $84. When buying a
microprocessor, make sure you get the type of socket you think since some processors are made
for different sockets such as the Celeron. Be sure of one of the following.
1. The socket type is stated at the vendors website.
2. There is a microprocessor part number stated at the vendors website that can be traced to
the manufacturers website which specifies the mounting package you want.
It would be no fun to get a Slot 1 motherboard and a socket 370 Microprocessor.
Microprocessor heat sinks and fans.
Being sure you get the correct heat sink and fan for your microprocessor can be a bit daunting.
Who wants to get a $300 microprocessor, and risk it with an incorrect mounting of a heatsink or
fan? Who wants to find out that they have purchased the wrong heatsink for their processor and
spend days or weeks trying to sort it out? My solution is to purchase the microprocessor with the
heatsink in the same package. Usually you get a better warranty and return policy this way and
you don't need to worry about whether the two are compatible. I do not believe you can save
enough money buying the heatsink and fan from anyone other then the vendor selling the
microprocessor because of the time it takes for the additional research required and the potential
trouble. The best solution to this problem is simply to buy a slot1, slot II or slot A
microprocessor with the package that includes the fan and heatsink. These would be one of the
Pentium II, Pentium III, Athlon, or Xeon packages. All that is required in this case is to slide the
microprocessor carefully into its slot. With the exception of processors such as the Athlon which
have a larger heat sink, requiring an extra plastic clip mechanism to help stabilize the heatsink, it
is easier to install one of these processors than it is to install the computer's RAM memory or a
hard drive.
Computer Memory
Packaging
Memory chips are called DIPs which stands for Dual Inline Packages. They are black chips with
pins on both sides. Some say they look like black bugs. To make memory installation easier than
it was in the past, these DIP chips were places on modules. There are two main module types
that memory comes packaged on today.
1. SIMM - Single Inline Memory Module. They may have DIPs on one or both sides and
will have 30 or 72 pins. Today, they normally are available in the 72 pin size which
supports a 32 bit data transfer between the microprocessor and the memory.
2. DIMM - Double Inline Memory Module. The modules have 168 pins and support a 64
bit data transfer between the microprocessor and the memory. Synchronous Dynamic
Access Memory (SDRAM) is the type of memory that is found on DIMM packages. The
term SDRAM describes the memory type, and the term DIMM describes the package.
These modules are available in 3.3 or 5 volt types and buffered or unbuffered memory.
This allows four choices of DIMM types. You should check your motherboard manual to
determine the type of memory required. You should be able to find this information on
the motherboard manufacturers website before buying the motherboard. The most
common choice for todays motherboards is 3.3 volt unbuffered DIMMs.
To install these packages, you press them into the socket on the motherboard and latch them in
with a plastic latch on both sides. Normally as the memory module is pressed into place the
latch will automatically latch the module in place. This is the essential knowledge required to

understand enough to buy and install memory on your motherboard. The following sections give
further technical details.
DRAM Access
DRAM memory is is accessed in chunks called cells. Every cell contains a certain number of
bits or bytes. A row, column scheme is used to specify the section being accessed. The cells are
arranged similar to the following table.
ROW 1, COL 1 ROW 1, COL 2 ROW 1, COL 3 ROW 1, COL 4
ROW 2, COL 1 ROW 2, COL 2 ROW 2, COL 3 ROW 2, COL 4
ROW 3, COL 1 ROW 3, COL 2 ROW 3, COL 3 ROW 3, COL 4
ROW 4, COL 1 ROW 4, COL 2 ROW 4, COL 3 ROW 4, COL 4
When the DRAM is accessed, the row, then the column address is specified. A page in memory
is considered to be the memory available in the row.
Types of DRAM
The term DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. There are three common types
of DRAM today.
1. FPM DRAM - Fast Page Mode DRAM. When the first memory access is done, the row
or page of the memory is specified. Once this is done, FPO DRAM allows any other row
of memory to be accessed without specifying the row number. This speeds up access
time.
2. EDO DRAM - Extended Data Out DRAM. This works like FPO DRAM but it holds the
data valid even after strobe signals have gone inactive. This allows the microprocessor to
request memory, and it does not need to wait for the memory to become valid. It can do
other tasking, then come back later to get the data.
3. SDRAM - Synchronized DRAM inputs and outputs its data synchronized to a clock that
runs at some fraction of the microprocessor speed. SDRAM is the fastest of these three
types of DRAM. There is a new SDRAM called DDR (Double Data Rate) SDRAM
which allows data reads on both the rising and falling edge of the synchronized clock.
Another new type of DRAM is called RDRAM developed by Rambus, Inc. It uses a high
bandwidth channel to transmit data at very high rates. It attempts to eliminate the time it takes to
access memory. Synclink DRAM (SLDRAM) competes with RDRAM and uses 16 bank
architecture rather than 4 along with other performance enhancing improvements.
Cache Memory
Cache memory is special memory that operates much faster than SDRAM memory. It is also
more expensive. It would be impractical to use this memory for the entire system both for
reasons of expense and physical board and bus channel design requirements. Cache memory lies
between the microprocessor and the system RAM. It is used as a buffer to reduce the time of
memory access. There are two levels to this memory called L1 (level 1) and L2 (level 2). The
level 1 memory is a part of the microprocessor, and the level 2 memory is just outside the
microprocessor.

Hard Drive(s)
Construction
Hard drives consist of a series of round metal plates called platters, also called cylinders. They
are coated with an electromagnetic material which can support magnetic states that are capable
of being electrically altered. This means some type of electrical signal can alter the magnetic
polarization of various areas of the plates. The state of these polarized areas can also be sensed.
Each platter can hold large amounts of data. There are several platters mounted on a hard drive.
Between each platter is a head which is used to sense and modify the states of the platter. There

are two heads on each platter.

Each platter has data stored on it in a specific pattern for read and write access. The data is
organized into tracks which are rings around the platter. The distance the head moves into the
platter will determine which track is read. A sector is a section of data in the cylinder. Different
hard drives have different numbers of sectors, tracks, and platters. The total storage space on the
hard drive is traditionally equal to:
Sector size times sectors/track times tracks/cylinder times the number of cylinders.
With more modern drives, however, to increase storage space, some drives have more sectors on
the outer tracks than the inner tracks. This is because there is more physical room for data on the
outer tracks. Therefore this method of calculating hard drive capacity may not be effective in the
future.

Controller Interface Types
A hard drive is a mass storage device where your operation system is installed along with many
data files. There are two types of hard drives with regard to the controller:
1. IDE - Integrated Drive Electronics. A controller based interface. If your primary concern
is low price with reasonable performance IDE is a good choice. It is still the most popular
controller interface because of price.
2. SCSI - SCSI uses a separate bus hooked to the system bus using a host adapter. It is a
more expensive system than IDE, but is better built and has a great deal of flexibility. If
you are considering running a server or high performance system, this is the best way to
go. There are several types of SCSI interface, the primary characteristic being the width
of the data transfer (how many data bits are carried over the cable at a time). The
important item is to be sure you get compatible controllers with your SCSI device such as
your hard drive or CD-ROM drive.
Most hard drives have three characteristics of main importance for performance.
1. Size - The size of the hard drive is expressed in terms of Gigabytes which is roughly
1000 Megabytes. It is difficult to buy a drive less than 4 Gb today. Typical size are 8
through 20 Gb.
2. Speed - The data output of a hard drive is primary limited by the amount of time it takes
for the electromagnetic head to reach the data at specific locations on the drive. The
primary factor of limitation is hard drive rotation speed. Common speeds today are 5400
RPM (revolutions per minute), 7200 RPM, and 10000 RPM. Considering price and
performance, we currently recommend 7200 RPM hard drives.
3. Reliability - The other performance factor that is worth considering is reliability. This is
expressed as mean time between failure (MTBF) The higher the number, the better. Look
for this specification on the manufacturer's specification sheets for each product.
Terms
ATA - AT Attachment. This term refers to the type of IDE drive. Others are
Microchannel (MCA IDE) and XT IDE. The ATA interface was used in the early 80386
based computers.
ATA-2 - Refers to Enhanced IDE or EIDE.
CD-ROM
The storage capacity of most CD-ROMs is about 650Mb of data. Originally CD-ROMS were
read only devices, but now read/write technology has been developed.
Interface
Many CD-ROMs are interface to the computer using the ATAPI interface. This is ATA Packet
Interface which is a IDE interface. This is designed for extra drives like CD-ROM's and tape
drives that connect to an ATA connector. The ATAPI interface is the standard interface for IDE
controlled CD-ROMS. If your CD-ROM uses an a ATAPI interface, it should be supported by
all available software. If you are using a SCSI controller, you should probably use a SCSI CD-
ROM. There are two primary types of CD-ROMs today.
1. Read only
2. Read and Write CD-ROM
These are primarily available as an internally mounted drive, but can also be purchased as an
external device. There are some CD-ROM drives that interface through the parallel printer port.
Speed
The primary performance concern of CD-ROM drives is their speed. Speeds are expressed in
terms of 1X, 2X, 4X, which is the number of times the drive is than the standard CD-ROM
reader. Of the read only type, speeds have exceeded 50X. CD-ROMS of up to 40X speeds and
beyond can be purchased today for a reasonably low price.
The read/write type of CD-ROM speeds are expressed with three values. They are read, write,
and rewrite. Current speeds of these devices are 32X, 10X, 4X. Currently 32X by 8X by 4X are
priced reasonably at around $220. This compares to a 40X read CD-ROM drive at around $30-
40. Therefore we recommend you do not rely upon your read/write CD-ROM drive for reading
normal CDs especially where playing games in concerned. You could wear out your expensive
CD-ROM performing read operations which costs a great deal more than a read only CD-ROM!
Other storage devices
Other storage devices include:
DVD Drive - DVD stands for Digital Video Disk. Most DVD drives use the ATAPI
interface. They are available as internal or external devices. They can operate at up to
16X speeds but 8X is more common. They are primarily used for video storage but they
can be used to hold audio and computer data. DVD is categorized into DVD-Video and
DVD-ROM devices. The DVD-ROM device is for computer data storage.
Zip drives - A removable cartridge storage device that may be used to store compressed
data as a data back up method. A zip drive has between a 100Mb to 2G storage capacity.
Cost is usually between $45 and $350. Some zip drives can also be used to read standard
3.5 inch floppy diskettes.
Tape drive backup kits - Their capacity 3G to 40G. The cost range is from $200 to $1000.
More about DVD-ROM
There are five recordable versions of DVD-ROM. They can all can read DVD-ROM and DVD-
Video discs, but different type of disc is used by each one for recording.
1. DVD-R/authoring - Can record data once.
2. DVD-R/general, - Can record data once. The capacity is 3.95 Gb or 4.7 Gb.
3. DVD-RAM - It is not compatible with current drives. It has a storage capacity of 2.58 Gb
It can be rewritten about 100,000 times The discs are expected to hold data for 30 years
or more.
4. DVD-RW - The capacity is 4.7 Gb. It can be rewritten about 1,000 times.
5. DVD+RW - It will become available in early 2001.
Monitor
Monitors are used to view your data on a computer. The characteristics of your monitor are very
important for your system performance since the quality of your video will significantly affect

your computing experience.
Components
Most monitors today consist of a picture tube and electronic control circuitry which are used to
transfer the signal to the screen. There are some monitors that do not use a picture tube, but use
electronics to display information. These monitors are more expensive and are not usually very
large, but are primarily used for smaller computers such as notebooks and laptop computers. We
will not discuss the flat video displays in this section at this point in time.
The primary and most expensive component in a standard monitor is its picture tube. The most
important characteristics of a monitor generally refer to picture tube specifications although
other circuitry can also be important in providing picture clarity. A picture tube is basically a
large vacuum tube with a phosphorescent coating on the front of it. At the back of the picture
tube is a large electron gun ( actually 3 guns ) which shoot(s) electrons onto the phosphorescent
coating at the front of the tube. When the electrons strike the coating, the coating glows. The
coating provides the primary colors which are green, red, and blue. These component colors and
their combinations can be used to make every other possible color combination. There is other
circuitry which works with the gun to direct the electron gun to the proper color at the correct
time, and to direct the gun to the correct location on the screen depending on the phase of the
video signal that is being sent to the monitor. There is magnetic circuitry which is used to bend
the electron beam to strike the appropriate area on the screen. This is referred to as deflection.

The yoke is an electromagnetic coil used to guide the beam to its intended location. The color
pattern on the phosphorous appears like the three colored circles shown on the left side of the
drawing below. There are many of these color patterns on the screen. The closer the groups of
these three patterns are, the better the resolution of the monitor can be. Monitor resolutions
refers to the number of lines per inch that can be seen on the screen. It is rated in vertical (up
and down the screen) and horizontal (left and right) terms.

Important Specifications
Some of the most important specifications on the monitor are:
1. Screen size - Expressed in inches, it is the approximate size of the picture tube when
measured from the lower left corner to the upper right corner.
2. Spacing - Expressed in dot pitch. This is the description of how close the three color
patterns are spaced apart in the screen. The smaller number, the better.
3. Maximum resolution at a specific frequency. This refers to the amount of pixel
resolution viewable on the screen at a specific scan frequency. The higher the pixel
resolution at a higher given scan frequency, the better the monitor is. Generally I look
for 19 inch monitors that will support 1200X1600 pixel video resolution at 80Hz.
Currently a good monitor for the price is the LG Electronics 995E for under $300.00 at
pcnation.com.
How dot pitch spacing can be deceiving
Different manufacturers and vendors rate dot pitch different ways. There are actually three
characteristics of dot pitch. They are:
1. Horizontal
2. Vertical
3. Diagonal

As you can see depending on how the dot pitch is measured, you may get different numbers. You
will need to carefully check manufacturer's specifications to be sure the monitor you buy has the
spacing you think it has. I was once interested in purchasing a monitor that according to the
article I read had a dot pitch spacing of .22 mm. When I looked at the vendor website for that
model, it stated .26 mm. I went to the manufacturer's website and it stated .22mm horizontal and
.22mm vertical. So I did the math.
.22 squared +.22 squared = .26 squared
Also read the reviews on the monitors to see which ones have the best performance.
Keyboard and Mouse
If you would really like to get any use on your computer, you would probably like a keyboard
and a mouse.
Keyboard
Keyboards can range in cost from about $10 to $100. I generally stay with less expensive
keyboards, but I try to avoid buying a keyboard with the large type PS/2 connector as mentioned
in an earlier section. There are keyboards with a different feel or sound when key pressing is
done. Some people are particular about the feel and sound. If you are, you may want to spend a
little more for your keyboard. You may even want to buy it from a retail store so you can test the
feel of it. There are special keyboards with extra functions on them for such things as surfing the
internet.
Mouse
The mouse interface of choice is the PS/2 interface rather than the older serial interface. Using a
PS/2 interface will not require the use of a serial port on your computer. There are a few types of
mice available. The main choices are between:
1. Two or three buttons
2. Center sprocket wheel
The choice of two or three buttons depends on your preference and whether the software you run
on your computer will support a three button mouse. If it does not support three buttons, it just
means that you will not be able to use the third button. Many mice today have a sprocket wheel
in the center which will allow the user to scroll up and down documents on the screen by turning
the wheel. Also some mice are "ergonomic". I'm sure I misspelled that word.
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