Cooperative Problem-Solving:

What it means in theory and practice

Henry Tam
Faculty of Education
University of Cambridge
Forum for Youth Participation & Democracy
#CoopPS
2012 Henry Benedict Tam
IT!"#UCTI"
!er the year"# e$ementary "choo$ "tudent"% education ha" "tre""ed the importance of
cooperati!e $earnin& for the chi$dren%" de!e$opment' Cooperati!e $earnin&# in!o$!e" chi$dren in the
acti!e e(chan&e of idea" rather than pa"i!e $earnin&' )e"earch ha" demon"trated the potentia$ of
cooperati!e pro*$em "o$!in& for enhancin& chi$dren%" co&niti!e de!o$epment# creati!ity and
$earnin&'
+ritin& in# Science for ,$$ ,merican"# )utherford and ,h$&ren# in their di"cu""ion of
effecti!e teachin& and $earnin& of "cience# mathematic" and techno$o&y "ay-
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The coo$a*orati!e nature of "cientific and techno$o&ica$ .or/ "hou$d *e "tron&$y reinforced
*y fru0uent &roup acti!ity in the c$a""room' Scienti"t and en&ineer" .or/ mo"t$y in &roup" and
$e"" often i"o$ated in!e"ti&ator"' Smi$iar$y # "tudent" "hou$d a&ain e(perience "harin&
re"pon"i*i$ity for $earnin& .ith each other' 1n the proce"" of comin& to common under"tandin&"#
"tudent" in a &roup mu"t fre0uent$y inform each other a*out procedure" and meanin&"# ar&ue
o!er findin&"# and a""e"" ho. the ta"/ i" pro&re""in&' 1n the conte(t of team re"pon"i*i$ity#
feed*ac/ and communication *ecome more rea$i"tic and of a character !ery diffrent from the
u"ua$ indi!ua$i"tic te(t*oo/2home.or/2recitation approach'
Cooperati!e pro*$em "o$!in& i" $i/e$y to *e effecti!e if chi$dren "hare a &oa$# and ha!e
differin& perpecti!e" on the *e"t .ay of attainin& it' Thi" "harin& of differin& point" of !ie. in the
attempt to achie!e a common &oa$ re"u$t" in co&niti!e and creati!e ad!ance' Cooperati!e pro*$em
"o$!in& often occur" in c$a""room"2for e(amp$e# .hen t.o chi$dren attempt to ride on ".in& at
the "ame tim
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'
e
$%$ T&e Cooperative 'pproac& to Solving Problems
+hene!er there i" a pro*$em *eyond the capa*i$ity of indi!idua$" on their o.n to dea$
.ith# or the re"pon"e of one cou$d cau"e conf$ict .ith that of another# it may "eem
appropriate to "u&&e"t that tho"e concerned .ith the pro*$em "hou$d cooperate .ith
each other to find a "ati"factory "o$ution' ne .ou$d e(pect that .ith he$p offered
and reciprocated on an e0ua$ *a"i"# there .ou$d *e *etter outcome" for a$$ in!o$!ed
.ithout anyone *ein& e(p$oited' Ho.e!er# "uch an approach ha" to contend .ith
fi!e type" of critici"m# .hich in their different .ay" oppo"e it" recommendation'
Fir"t# there i" the ar&ument that it i" unrea$i"tic' Cooperation# *eyond the *a"ic
e(chan&e of a""i"tance under the mo"t "trai&htfor.ard circum"tance# i" re&arded *y
"ome a" inherent$y at odd" .ith the "e$f2centred nature of human *ein&"# not to
mention the $on&2"tandin& tradition" of hierarchica$ "ociety'
Second$y# the recommendation for a cooperati!e approach to pro*$em2"o$!in& i"
di"mi""ed a" nothin& more than a p$atitudinou" a"piration# offerin& nothin&
"u*"tantia$ or coherent a" a &uidin& phi$o"ophy for ho. .e "hou$d &o a*out dea$in&
.ith the di!er"e comp$e( pro*$em" .e ha!e to face'
Third$y# it can *e critici"ed for not *ein& "ufficient$y di"tinct# particu$ar$y .hen
ad!ocate" of po$icie"# .hich a&&ra!ate "ocia$ di!i"ion" rather than promote
reciproca$ interaction"# a$"o dre"" their idea" up in the $an&ua&e of 3cooperation% and
3mutua$ity%' +ithout ro*u"t criteria to identify &enuine cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in&#
"uperficia$ ta$/ of cooperatin& to&ether may actua$$y ma"/ condition" that e(p$oit the
contri*ution" of many for the *enefit of a pri!i$e&ed fe.'
Fourth$y# it can *e undermined *y the char&e that a$thou&h it may "ound po"iti!e to
&et e!eryone concerned to cooperate .ith each other in a reciproca$ manner# in
practice it .ou$d a$$ too often $ead to de$ay" in "o$!in& pro*$em"# and in many ca"e"#
far *etter re"u$t" cou$d *e "ecured *y either $ettin& an authoritati!e fi&ure or *ody to
ta/e comp$ete char&e of the pro*$em# or $ea!in& indi!idua$" to "ort thin&" out on their
o.n .ithout any pre"umption they "hou$d enter into any forma$ cooperati!e
arran&ement'
Fina$$y# e!en if a$$ the other ar&ument" can *e dea$t .ith# the fact remain" that there
are too many po.erfu$ !e"ted intere"t" .hich are decided$y a&ain"t mo!in& a.ay
from their fa!oured arran&ement" to.ard" much more e&a$itarian form" of
cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in&' To promote the $atter .ou$d on$y *reed fa$"e hope and
"tir up fru"tration and an&er .hen peop$e .ou$d *e *etter off re"i&nin& them"e$!e" to
the hierarchica$ "tatu" 0uo'
The purpo"e of thi" paper i" to di"pe$ each of the"e critici"m"# and in "o doin&#
demon"trate .hy there i" a di"tinct and !a$ua*$e cooperati!e approach to pro*$em2
"o$!in& .hich "hou$d *e adopted at a$$ $e!e$" of human interaction"# from "choo$" and
the .or/p$ace to in"titution" operatin& $oca$$y# nationa$$y and &$o*a$$y'
$%( T&e Cooperative #isposition: For and 'gainst
1f a ca"e can *e made for the c$aim that it i" unrea$i"tic to e(pect human *ein&" to *e
cooperati!e$y di"po"ed# it may pre"ent u" .ith a "eriou" o*"tac$e' ,mon&"t po$itica$
ad!ocate" and "ocia$ commentator"# there i" no "horta&e of tho"e .ho in"i"t that
"ociety can on$y function proper$y if peop$e .ere di"cip$ined *y "trict authoritarian
ru$e# or tho"e .ho a$.ay" .ant to "ee pro*$em" $eft to indi!idua$" to find their *e"t of
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a$$ po""i*$e $i!e" in a .or$d of $ai""e4 faire 5or a" the p$utocratic2minded .ou$d prefer#
"trict di"cip$ine for the poor and tota$ freedom for the rich6' For them# any pu"h for
more effecti!e condition" to faci$itate cooperation i" na7!e and a di!er"ion from ho.
human affair" "hou$d *e arran&ed'
Thi" char&e of mi"&uided idea$i"m doe" not in fact "0uare .ith the e!idence' To
*e&in .ith# anthropo$o&ica$ "tudie" ha!e found that human *ein&" in the mo"t
primiti!e "tate .ere a$ready inc$ined to.ard" cooperatin& on e0ua$ term" .ith each
other on the *road under"tandin& that other" .ou$d reciprocate' +hi$e
uncooperati!e indi!idua$" on their o.n and "ocia$ unit" that di"inte&rated throu&h
$ac/ of mutua$ tru"t and "upport fe$$ *y the .ay"ide# cooperati!e &roup" de!e$oped
an e!o$utionary ad!anta&e and thri!ed
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' Far from *ein& in"tincti!e$y di"po"ed
to.ard" $oo/in& after their o.n per"ona$ intere"t" and actin& .ithout due re&ard of
the con"e0uence" for other"# tri*e" e(emp$ified their mem*er"% readine"" to $oo/ out
for one another' 1nter2tri*e conf$ict" "ometime" aro"e from $ac/ of mutua$
under"tandin&# *ut .here tru"t had mana&ed to ta/e root# tri*e" often cooperated
informa$$y or e!en mer&ed to form $ar&er cohe"i!e "ocia$ unit"'
1t i" undenia*$e that after near$y 200#000 year" of cooperati!e e(i"tence# from around
8#000 BC on# $ar&e "ca$e a&ricu$tura$ ci!i$i"ation" *e&an to emer&e around the .or$d#
and .ith thi" de!e$opment came the "harp hierarchica$ di!i"ion" *et.een ru$er and
"u*9ect"# ma"ter" and "er!ant" 5e!en "$a!e"6# men and .omen# pri!i$e&ed ari"tocrat"
and e!eryday .or/er"# the rich and the poor' But thi" doe" not mean that human
*ein&"% "en"e of ho. they ou&ht to *eha!e to.ard" one another under.ent a
comp$ete chan&e' n the contrary# the &ro.in& threat a&ain"t the cooperati!e mode
of interaction fue$$ed deeper mora$ ref$ection" that $ed to the critica$ refinement and
articu$ation of the :o$den )u$e in a$$ ci!i$i"ed "ocietie"- peop$e .ere to treat other" a"
they .ou$d ha!e other" treat them' 1n the mid"t of di!er"e re$i&iou" doctrine" and
cu$tura$ code"# the :o$den )u$e .a" adopted e!ery.here a" the core ethica$ &uide'
Contemporary de!e$opmenta$ p"ycho$o&y ha" found that it i" the much $on&er
"tandin& cooperati!e mind"et# rather than the di!i"i!e hierarchica$ menta$ity# .hich
remain" firm$y em*edded in human di"po"ition' +ithout the need for in"truction# offer
of re.ard# or threat of puni"hment# chi$dren from the ear$ie"t a&e e(hi*it a
con"i"tent$y cooperati!e mode of *eha!iour
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' 1nfant" are "o natura$$y he$pfu$ to
other" .hi$e e(pectin& other" to *e he$pfu$ to them# that to protect them from
potentia$ predatory adu$t"# chi$dren ha!e to *e e(p$icit$y to$d not to tru"t comp$ete
"tran&er"' Su"picion that "omeone may not reciprocate one%" he$pfu$ne"" may $ead
one to ho$din& *ac/ from cooperation' ,nd the factor" .hich cou$d &i!e ri"e to that
"u"picion may he$p to e(p$ain .hy cooperation can *rea/do.n in practice'
Fir"t# one can *e i&norant of the intention" of another per"on# or of the $i/e$y effect"
of the comp$e( arran&ement" *ein& propo"ed# e"pecia$$y if they .ou$d in!o$!e a $ar&e
&roup of peop$e inc$udin& many .ho are re$ati!e "tran&er"' Second$y# throu&h
trauma or in"ti$$ed pre9udice# one can *ecome mora$$y in"en"iti!e to.ard" one or
more &roup" of peop$e ; cea"in& to "ee them a" one%" fe$$o. human *ein&"' 1t i" a
"ad fact that .hen a chi$d%" readine"" to he$p other" i" repeated$y or random$y met
.ith indifference# ne&$ect# or e!en a&&re""ion# that chi$d i" at ri"/ of *ecomin&
di"po"ed to adopt a "imi$ar "tance to.ard" other peop$e# inc$udin& tho"e .ho try to
*e he$pfu$ to them' Third$y# po.er ine0ua$ity can $ea!e tho"e in di"ad!anta&ed
po"ition" to thin/# not .ithout rea"on *a"ed on their e(perience# that their effort" to
1 For e(amp$e# Bo.$e"# S' & :inti"# H'# A Cooperative Species: human reciprocity and its
evolution# Princeton- Princeton <ni!er"ity Pre""# 2011'
2 Toma"e$$o# ='# Why We Cooperate# Cam*rid&e 5=,6- =1T Pre""# 200>'
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he$p other" .ou$d not *e accorded e0ua$ re"pect or proper$y reciprocated' They may
ha!e to do .hat they are a"/ed to do *ecau"e the threat of force or de"titution
$ea!e" them $itt$e choice# *ut they .ou$d not *e actin& in a "pirit of cooperation'
+hen re$ati!e$y "imp$e "ocia$ &roup" .ere mer&ed into the e(pandin& comp$e(
hierarchie" do.n to around ?00 BC# the chan&e" a&&ra!ated a$$ three factor"' +ith
ne. method" of food production and $ar&er "ca$e" of "ocia$ or&ani"ation# more
po""i*i$itie" of human interaction pre"ented peop$e .ith more un/no.n"' @ac/ of
/no.$ed&e a" to .hat mi&ht or mi&ht not *e &enuine cooperati!e partner"hip" $ed to
uncertainty' ,t the "ame time# the com*ination of "ett$ement" &ro.in& "u*"tantia$$y
in "i4e .ith ne. di!i"ion" pro$iferatin& throu&h a !ariety of "tatu" criteria meant that
ri!a$ry *red pre9udice"# and .ithout the"e *ein& more readi$y corrected *y the fami$iar
dai$y e(chan&e" more typica$ in "ma$$ &roup"# they cou$d *re. into to(ic in"en"iti!ity
to.ard" particu$ar &roup" 5the poor# the en"$a!ed# .omen# forei&ner"6'
But .hi$e the"e t.o trend" cou$d o!er time *e *a$anced re"pecti!e$y *y the impro!in&
capacity for /no.$ed&e ac0ui"ition and the "pread of a co"mopo$itan out$oo/ "purred
*y increa"ed interaction" .ith di!er"e peop$e# they .ere often e(acer*ated *y the
acce$erated tran"formation re$atin& to the third factor' Po.er ine0ua$ity .idened .ith
the ri"e of citie" and empire"' Tho"e .ho .ie$ded arm" to protect a&ricu$tura$
communitie" from e(terna$ raider" "oon di"co!ered the "ame po.er cou$d *e u"ed to
impo"e "u*mi""ion on tho"e .ithin the *oundarie" they contro$$ed' By incorporatin&
prie"t$yA"cho$a"tic e(pert" into their "er!ice# mem*er" of the ru$in& e$ite .ere a$"o
a*$e to promote cu$tura$ norm" and *e$ief" that pre"ented them a" .orthy of
o*edience# .hi$e channe$$in& di"&runt$ement amon&"t the popu$ace to.ard"
!u$nera*$e "cape&oat"' ,*o!e a$$# they cou$d for*id attempt" to 0ue"tion their
fa!oured *e$ief "y"tem a" "acri$e&iou"# and under the ha$o of their o.n contri!ed
$e&itimacy "anctified the antithe"i" of the :o$den )u$e- do unto other" a" they p$ea"e
.ithout e!er .orryin& .hat other" mi&ht do in return'
Ho.e!er# hierarchica$ e(p$oitation cou$d not e(tin&ui"h the em*er" of cooperati!e
di"po"ition# *ecau"e u$timate$y the in0ui"iti!e human mind .i$$ "ooner or $ater
di"co!er that a mutua$$y "upportin& &roup of e0ua$" can come up .ith *etter an".er"
than a fe. .ho "ee/ to dictate to other" ho. they "hou$d $i!e' 1f the in"titution of
democracy in ,then" and the ad!ocacy for e&a$itarian mutua$i"m *y =ohi"t
phi$o"opher" in China# did not $a"t $on& *eyond the fifth and fourth centurie" BC# the
re"ur&ence of the cooperati!e etho" in cha$$en&in& i&norance# mora$ in"en"iti!ity and
po.er ine0ua$ity .a" fu$$y re2i&nited *y the 1B
th
and 18
th
centurie"' Do&matic
pronouncement" .ere di"p$aced *y "cientific re"earch "u"tained *y cooperati!e
en0uirer"C conf$ictin& re$i&iou" in9unction" .ere "uper"eded *y a rene.ed mora$
focu" on the :o$den )u$e of reciprocityC and the unaccounta*$e re&ime" "er!in& their
pri!i$e&ed e$ite .ere cha$$en&ed *y democrat" .ho demanded an e0ua$ "ay *y a$$ in
determinin& .ho "hou$d &o!ern'
+hi$e it too/ near$y 2#000 year" for the cooperati!e "tru&&$e to *e re/ind$ed# it too/
under 200 year" for the re!i!a$ to reach e!ery form of human a""ociation' By the
midd$e of the 20
th
century not on$y .a" there a .or$d.ide momentum to.ard"
democratic &o!ernance *y peop$e a" e0ua$ citi4en"# chi$dren .ere *e&innin& to *e
re"pected a" $earnin& partner" in pro&re""i!e education# cooperati!e enterpri"e"
f$ouri"hed# income ine0ua$itie" .ere *ein& "i&nificant$y *rou&ht do.n# and
deco$oni"ation &athered pace .ith the <nited Dation" pro!idin& a &$o*a$ p$atform for
democratic interaction" *et.een nation"' 1t .a" far from unrea$i"tic to e(pect
E
pro*$em" at any $e!e$ of "ociety to *e addre""ed throu&h the cooperati!e
participation of tho"e concerned
E
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$%) T&e Communitarian P&ilosop&y of Cooperation
The a"cendancy of cooperation in democrati"in& po.er re$ation" and *ui$din& mutua$
tru"t did not $a"t $on&' Be&innin& in the 1>80"# hierarchica$ domination .a" on the
ri"e a&ain' 1n"tead of donnin& an o$d ari"tocratic &ui"e# ho.e!er# it no. appeared in
a fu$$y2f$ed&ed p$utocratic form' The po.er to ma/e profit" out of tran"action" under
mar/et condition" "tructured to fa!our profiteerin& .a" to trump a$$ other po.er"' 1t
.ou$d ho$d a" a$$ie" tho"e $e&a$# media# po$itica$# re$i&iou"# and mi$itary a&ent" .ho
.ere prepared to "er!e it" intere"t" ; from defendin& the freedom of profit2ma/er" to
act .ithout con"traint# to di!ertin& pu*$ic fru"tration to !u$nera*$e "cape&oat"' 1t"
under$yin& tactic" .ere not that different from tho"e u"ed *y ru$in& e$ite" of the pa"t#
*ut *y it" re$ent$e"" focu" on .ea$th accumu$ation# it" in"idiou" "u*9u&ation of
!irtua$$y a$$ ma9or human acti!itie" to financia$ contro$# and it" u"e of information
techno$o&y on a &$o*a$ "ca$e to ma&nify the po.er of money a&ain"t pu*$ic "crutiny#
it rapid$y e"ta*$i"hed it"e$f a" a he&emonic force' From it" *a"e in Britain and
,merica# p$utocracy "pread in the 1>>0" and 2000" to the re"t of the .or$d'
Durin& the"e decade" the "pirit of cooperation .a" increa"in&$y "tif$ed *y the dri!e to
dere&u$ate *u"ine""e"# ma/e .or/er" and con"umer" increa"in&$y po.er$e"" to
conte"t corporate deci"ion"# redi"tri*ute re"ource" from the poor to the rich#
demutua$i"e friend$y "ocietie"# .iden the income &ap# e(acer*ate the p$i&ht of the
poor *y cuttin& do.n co$$ecti!e "upport# and undermine the mutua$ "ecurity
&uaranteed *y the pu*$ic "ector *y pri!ati"in& more and more of it to profit2ma/er"
unencum*ered *y any duty to the common &ood' Pro!o/ed *y the dama&e" inf$icted
*y the"e chan&e"# a critica$ phi$o"ophy emer&ed to cha$$en&e the p$utocratic
.or$d!ie. and the mar/et indi!idua$i"m it promoted a" it" 9u"tification'
To under"tand thi" communitarian phi$o"ophy# .hich ar&ue" for un9u"t form" of
po.er re$ation" to *e rep$aced *y "tructure" of human a""ociation "upported *y the
cooperati!e participation of a$$ concerned# it i" e""entia$ to di"tin&ui"h it from the
mot$ey co$$ection of inchoate !ie." a*out community $ife that are "ometime" $umped
to&ether under the $a*e$ 3communitarian% 9u"t *ecau"e they feature term" "uch a"
3re"pon"i*i$ity%# 3ci!ic participation%# 3common !a$ue"%# and of cour"e# 3community%'
Three mar/er" "hou$d he$p to "ift out p"eudo2communitarian idea"- ,' they e(hi*it a
no"ta$&ic attachment to traditiona$ communitie"# !ie.in& them in a romantici"ed
!er"ion of the 3&ood o$d day"%' B' they are "i$ent on the need to chec/ the
de"ta*i$i"ation of interper"ona$ re$ation"hip" *y corporate po.er" and the importance
of redi"tri*utin& po.er in fa!our of the !u$nera*$e' C' their author" ne!er de"cri*e
them"e$!e" or their idea" a" 3communitarian%'
By contra"t# .hat unite" communitarian thin/er" 5e'&'# Fonathan Bo".e$$# Char$e"
Der*er# ,mitai Gt4ioni# Phi$ip Se$4nic/# Henry Tam6 i" a critica$ ana$y"i" of .hy
contemporary "ociety need" to mo!e for.ard to a more democratica$$y mature "tate
.here peop$e can de$i*erate to&ether and "hape their co$$ecti!e .e$$*ein& much
E For an e(tended treatment of the hi"torica$ de!e$opment of democracy and cooperation in
the face of hierarchica$ domination# "ee# Harman# C'# A Peoples History of the World#
@ondon- Her"o# 2008C and Tam# H'# Against Power Inequalities: reflections on the struggle for
inclusive communities# @ondon- Bir/*ec/# 2010#
http-AA...'e0ua$itytru"t'or&'u/Are"ource"Aa&ain"t2po.er2ine0ua$itie"'
I
more a" e0ua$ partner"
I
' Their dia&no"i" find" the centra$ pro*$em of uncooperati!e
interaction" in &eo&raphica$ and or&ani"ationa$ communitie"# not in the fadin& of
deference to ar*itrary cu"tom" or doctrine" 5.hich .a" to *e .e$come6# *ut in the
di"empo.erment of peop$e *y "ocio2economic "tructure" that increa"in&$y
mar&ina$i"ed them' +hi$e a "ma$$ e$ite ama""ed more po.er to "hape deci"ion" to
fa!our them"e$!e"# often at the e(pen"e of other"# a &ro.in& ma9ority .ere $o"in&
their 9o* "ecurity and fami$y "ta*i$ity 5*ecau"e of the inten"ifyin& demand for &reater
$a*our f$e(i*i$ity6' The $atter found that e!en .hen their producti!ity .ent up# their
"hare of nationa$ income dimini"hed' Corporate irre"pon"i*i$ity threatened their
hea$th# their pen"ion"# and their en!ironment' ,t the "ame time# their &o!ernment
.hich ha" pre!iou"$y 5throu&h the De. Dea$ or the foundin& of the .e$fare "tate6
*e&un the proce"" of reducin& &ro"" ine0ua$itie" and &i!in& a$$ citi4en" a decent
"tandard of protection# "hifted it" prioritie" more and more to.ard" the concern" of
the financia$ mar/et"# and the demand" of nationa$ and &$o*a$ *u"ine"" intere"t"'
The communitarian pre"cription i" for the "ocia$ *ond" of cooperation to *e re2
connected throu&h the de!e$opment of more inc$u"i!e form" of community $ife in
e!ery "phere of human interaction' The three &uidin& princip$e" for thi" de!e$opment
are cooperati!e en0uiry# mutua$ re"pon"i*i$ity# and citi4en participation
?
' Gach i"
de!i"ed to counter re"pecti!e$y the three o*"tac$e" to reciproca$ a""ociation-
i&norance# mora$ in"en"iti!ity# and po.er ine0ua$ity'
he principle of cooperative enquiry
The princip$e of cooperati!e en0uiry re0uire" anyone ma/in& an a""ertion to *e
9ud&ed .ith reference to the e(tent to .hich informed participant" de$i*eratin& under
condition" of thou&htfu$ and uncoerced e(chan&e" .ou$d concur' ,ny pro!i"iona$
con"en"u" reached *y one &roup of indi!idua$" mu"t in turn *e open to po""i*$e
re!i"ion" "u*9ect to e(amination" carried out .ith input from other &roup"' The
u$timate "tren&th of any truth c$aim re"t" .ith the $i/e$ihood of that c$aim "ur!i!in& the
critica$ de$i*eration" of e!er e(pandin& circ$e" of en0uirer"'
1f peop$e .ere not a.are that *y cooperatin& in a certain .ay they cou$d he$p each
other# they mi&ht .e$$ dec$ine any re0ue"t to enter into that mode of cooperation'
Thi" *ecome" e!en more pro*$ematic .hen the co$$a*orati!e arran&ement" and their
cau"a$ impact are too comp$e( or opa0ue' Potentia$ cooperator" can *e put off *y
uncertaintie" o!er the efficacy of .hat they are *ein& a"/ed to do' For e(amp$e# a
mutua$ in"urance "cheme may in princip$e ma/e "en"e# *ut if the c$aim" and
a""e""ment proce"" i" too difficu$t to fo$$o. it cou$d $ea!e peop$e thin/in& that it
.ou$d not de$i!er the a""urance .orthy of the re"ource" they ha!e to commit to it'
," i&norance can ari"e out of count$e"" "ituation"# it cannot *e countered .ith
reference to a "in&$e "ource of /no.$ed&e co!erin& a$$ matter"' 1t can on$y *e
curtai$ed re$ia*$y throu&h cooperati!e en0uiry' Peop$e in po.erfu$ po"ition" may at
any time on the &round" of re$i&ion# corporate confidentia$ity# nationa$ "ecurity# or
"ome other 3un0ue"tiona*$e% edifice# "ee/ to dec$are .hat i" /no.n or a$$o.ed to *e
/no.n on a &i!en i""ue' 1t i" e""entia$ that the !eracity of their c$aim" can *e
e(amined in the $i&ht of chan&in& e!idence' For thi" to happen# .e need the
I For an critica$ ana$y"i" of the difference" *et.een !ariou" !ie." de"cri*ed a"
3communitarian% *y media commentator"# and the actua$ idea" of communitarian thin/er"# "ee
Ha$e# Sarah# !lairs Community: Communitarian hought and "ew #a$our# =anche"ter
<ni!er"ity Pre""# 200J'
? Tam# H'# Communitarianism: a new agenda for politics and citi%enship# Ba"in&"to/e-
=acmi$ an# 1>>8'
?
cu$ti!ation of citi4en"% de$i*erati!e "/i$$" and in"titutiona$ "afe&uard" for open and
critica$ di"cu""ion" to ta/e p$ace'
he principle of mutual responsi$ility
The princip$e of mutua$ re"pon"i*i$ity re0uire" a$$ mem*er" of any community to ta/e
re"pon"i*i$ity for ena*$in& each other to pur"ue tho"e !a$ue" .hich "tand up to the
te"t of reciprocity' +hat an indi!idua$ may !a$ue cannot e(pect to command the
re"pect from other" if it" pur"uit i" incompati*$e .ith the rea$i"ation of &oa$" !a$ued
*y other"' The ran&e of mutua$ re"pon"i*i$itie" .ou$d e(pand o!er time to co!er
direct and indirect care for dependent"# he$p to tho"e .ho .ou$d other.i"e *e
ne&$ected# "afe&uard" for !erifia*$e e!idence and coherent rea"onin&# and cu$ti!ation
of per"ona$ a*i$itie" not inimica$ to tho"e of other"' mi""ion to "upport# a" .e$$ a"
action to harm# .ou$d *e deemed a *reach of the re"pon"i*i$ity o.ed to each other'
nce hierarchica$ di!i"ion" aro"e in hi"tory# pre9udicia$ !ie." a*out .omen#
forei&ner"# the poor# the di"a*$ed# tho"e .ith different re$i&iou" *e$ief" or "e(ua$
di"po"ition" are formed and pa""ed do.n the &eneration"' +here the"e pre9udice"
are em*edded in the youn&# they .ou$d &ro. up to di"count any potentia$ reciproca$
cooperation .ith anyone *e$on&in& to the"e &roup" a" irre$e!ant' Their natura$
"en"iti!ity to the 9oy and "ufferin& of other peop$e i" di"p$aced in "uch ca"e" *y a
co$d indifference or in "ome in"tance" a !i"cera$ ho"ti$ity'
1n"tead of acceptin& "uch di"ruption" to mora$ "en"iti!ity a" the prero&ati!e of
autonomou" indi!idua$" or &roup"# they need to *e treated a" a/in to the in9uriou"
"u"pen"ion of a norma$ human facu$ty# .hich .e come acro"" .hen !ictim" of
a*u"e# "ufferer" of *rain dama&e# or tar&et" of p"ycho$o&ica$ conditionin&# $o"e the
a*i$ity to "ee other" a" e0ua$$y human a" them"e$!e"' Their empathy need" to *e
re"tored "o they cou$d !ie. other" a" potentia$ partner" .ith .hom they can en&a&e
in reciproca$ and hence mutua$$y *eneficia$ cooperation'
he principle of citi%en participation
The princip$e of citi4en participation re0uire" that tho"e affected *y any &i!en po.er
"tructure are a*$e to participate a" e0ua$ citi4en" in determinin& ho. the po.er in
0ue"tion i" to *e e(erci"ed' ,$$ tho"e "u*9ect to potentia$$y *indin& command"
"hou$d *e entit$ed to $earn a*out# re!ie.# and ha!e an e0ua$ "ay in the deci"ion2
ma/in& proce""' Thi" app$ie" to not on$y &o!ernment in"titution"# *ut a$"o
*u"ine""e"# "choo$" and community or&ani4ation"' 1t fo$$o." that po.er re$ation"
"hou$d not retain "tructura$ or cu$tura$ *arrier" .hich ho$d peop$e *ac/ from
acce""in& information# puttin& for.ard their "u&&e"tion"# 0ue"tionin& propo"a$"# or
"harin& in deci"ion2ma/in&'
Since e0ua$ participation .ou$d *e difficu$t to achie!e .hen "ome in "ociety ha!e
much more po.er a" a re"u$t of their .ea$th# "tatu"# or the coerci!e force" they
command# .hi$e other" are p$aced in a di"ad!anta&ed po"ition# po.er ine0ua$ity ha"
to *e "u*"tantia$$y reduced'
Peop$e .ith $e"" po.er cannot ma/e their !oice" count' They mi&ht fear they .ou$d
*e pena$i"ed# or they "imp$y cannot afford to purcha"e the additiona$ "upport the e$ite
can direct at their preferred outcome"' By contra"t# a cooperati!e deci"ion2ma/in&
"tructure .ou$d minimi"e the &u$f *et.een the "tron& and the !u$nera*$e# and en"ure
that any remainin& po.er difference" are /ept in chec/ "o that any irre"pon"i*$e
attempt to e(p$oit that difference can *e readi$y detected and he$d to account'
J
1t i" "ometime" ar&ued that ine0ua$itie" are nece""ary *ecau"e "uperior re.ard" are
needed to moti!ate the hi&h achie!er" .ho .ou$d end up *enefitin& e!eryone# and
there ha!e to *e pena$tie" to dea$ .ith tho"e .ho do not contri*ute a" much a"
other"' Ho.e!er# reciproca$ cooperation doe" not re0uire comp$ete e0ua$ity in a$$
a"pect" of $ife' Some peop$e can earn more than other" .here a rea"ona*$e de&ree
of differentiation .ou$d rea$$y aid moti!ation' Some de"er!e to *e pena$i"ed if they
ha!e committed offence a&ain"t other" in the $i&ht of a 9u"t and tran"parent $e&a$
code' But ho. the di"tri*ution of re"ource" and authority# .hich con"titute po.er in
human interaction"# i" to *e carried out mu"t it"e$f *e "haped *y the participation of
citi4en" on e0ua$ term" if it i" not to *ecome an ar*itrary and oppre""i!e "tructure
contro$$in& ho. .e $i!e to&ether'
Communitarian development of cooperative communities
+hat the communitarian phi$o"ophy demand" i" the pro&re""i!e de!e$opment of
citi4en"# in"titution" and po$icie"# in $ine .ith the three princip$e" out$ined a*o!e' The
e(tent to .hich the character and *eha!iour of indi!idua$" and &roup" he$p or hinder
human interaction" in re$ation to the condition" ad!ocated *y tho"e princip$e"
pro!ide" the reference point for 9ud&in& their accepta*i$ity' :i!en that the term
3communitarian% ori&inated from 1>
th
century de"cription of the cooperati!e idea" and
practice" in"pired *y )o*ert .en 5.hen the"e .ere introduced in ,merica6# it i" not
"urpri"in& that the communitarian !i"ion for "ocia$ tran"formation i" focu"ed on the
nurturin& and em*eddin& of cooperati!e interaction" in a$$ form" of human
a""ociation' Far from *ein& !a&ue or no"ta$&ic# it po"e" a radica$ cha$$en&e to
rep$acin& di!i"i!e hierarchie" *y pro*$em2"o$!in& co$$a*oration *a"ed on 9oint
de$i*eration" and e0ua$ re"pect# that .i$$ he$p to re"o$!e per"i"tent conf$ict"# he$p
rea$i"e our re"pecti!e potentia$# and e(pand our "hared hori4on'
1n practice# thi" mean" that for any &i!en community# nei&h*ourhood# or
or&ani"ation# a$$ tho"e connected .ith them "hou$d *e &i!en the confidence# "/i$$"#
"upport and opportunitie" to en&a&e in "hared de$i*eration" re&ardin& .hat they
thin/ are pro*$ematic# .hat they ma/e of the a!ai$a*$e e!idence and te"timony# .hat
"u&&e"tion" for chan&e are to *e put for.ard# ho. conf$ictin& !ie." and prioritie" are
to *e re"o$!ed# and .hat conc$u"ion" are to *e dra.n from their o.n e(perience and
a!ai$a*$e data a*out the impact of the "e$ected action"'
$%* T&e C&aracteristics of Cooperative Problem-Solving
Di"tin&ui"hin& the communitarian phi$o"ophy of cooperation from mot$ey remar/"
ar*itrari$y $a*e$$ed 3communitarian% he$p" to articu$ate a c$ear a$ternati!e to the
p$utocratic conception of hierarchica$ "ocia$ "tructure' But on thi" foundation .e "ti$$
need to "et out .hat .ou$d actua$$y *rin& a*out cooperati!e interaction"' Thi" ta"/ i"
made more difficu$t *y the many !a&ue# and "ometime di"in&enuou"# dep$oyment of
term" $i/e 3cooperati!e%# 3mutua$ity%# or 3co2production%' 1t i" not "urpri"in& that "ome
po$itician"# "en"in& the po"iti!e a""ociation the"e term" po""e""# "hou$d try to u"e
them to co!er up their under$yin& po$icie" to po$ari"e "ociety e!en further *et.een
the rich and the poor' 1t ma/e" it a$$ the more critica$ to e(p$ain .hat .ou$d tru$y
count a" cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in&'
,$$ form" of hierarchica$ domination re$y on pre"entin& $imited option" for re"pondin&
to non2reciproca$ demand" a" 3cooperation%' From emperor" .ho a"/ their "u*9ect"
to $a*our in har"h condition" to *ui$d pa$ace" in return for not *ein& *eatenC *o""e"
.ho increa"e their o.n "a$arie" *y &ettin& .or/er" to do more for $e"" pay in return
for not *ein& made redundantC $ar&e companie" .ho con!ince their "ma$$ "upp$ier" to
"i&n contract" .ith the mo"t unfa!oura*$e term" in return for not *ein& pu"hed into
B
*an/ruptcyC the "ame pattern ha" recurred .hen po.er im*a$ance ha" &i!en ri"e to
ini0uitou" pre""ure" .hich fe. .ou$d dare defy' Com*ined .ith the tar&eted
cu$ti!ation of i&norance and mora$ in"en"iti!ity# the po.erfu$ can /eep other" in a
re$ati!e$y doci$e "tate of comp$iance indefinite$y'
The cyc$e of oppre""i!e contro$ can on$y *e *ro/en .hen the condition" for human
interaction" are radica$$y reformed' Dra.in& from the e(perience of mo!ement"
directed at di"p$acin& oppre""i!e e(p$oitation *y &enuine cooperation ; pre""in&
&o!ernment" to &i!e an e0ua$ !ote to e!ery citi4enC $ea!in& autocratic firm" *ehind to
"et up *u"ine""e" .here a$$ .or/er" ha!e an e0ua$ "ayC ho$din& "er!ice
admini"trator" to account *y empo.erin& u"er" to !oice their concern"# not a"
"upp$icant"# *ut on an e0ua$ footin& ; .e can de$ineate the /ey e$ement" .hich need
to *e "ecured *y any effecti!e reform'
Peop$e can *e "aid to *e en&a&ed to&ether in cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in& if their
interaction" contain a$$ the fo$$o.in& four e$ement"' Fir"t# they "hare a readine"" to
e(p$ore ho. a "pecific pro*$em of concern to a$$ of them can *e "o$!ed' 1mp$icit$y
5.here they ha!e .or/ed to&ether effecti!e$y a" e0ua$ partner" o!er time6 or
e(p$icit$y 5.here it i" $i/e$y a competent faci$itator i" needed to en"ure no one cou$d
e(ert any po.er ad!anta&e o!er other" throu&h the u"e of threat# coercion# *ri*ery#
or any other form of corrupt inf$uence6# they fo$$o. &round ru$e" that re0uire re"pect
for a$$ tho"e in!o$!ed# &i!e e!eryone an appropriate amount of time to e(pre"" their
thou&ht" and fee$in&" .ithout a$$o.in& any undue monopo$i"in& of the di"cu""ion" *y
one or more indi!idua$"# and e(c$ude a*u"e and ma$iciou" di"ruption'
Second$y# once the initia$ emotion" and !ie." ha!e *een open$y "hared#
con"ideration i" "y"tematica$$y &i!en to the input from any re$e!ant .itne""# e(pert#
and tho"e .ith re$ated re"pon"i*i$ity to e(p$ain to the participant" .hat po""i*$e
"o$ution" there mi&ht *e' ,fter $i"tenin& to the pro" and con" of &oin& a$on& .ith
different option"# and .hat con"traint" there mi&ht *e to ta/in& other cour"e" of
action# the participant" are a*$e to a"/ each other and in!ited "pecia$i"t" any re$e!ant
0ue"tion to ad!ance their under"tandin& of ho. their "hared pro*$em may *e
tac/$ed' The proce"" i" "tructured "o a" to pre!ent anyone u"in& their "tatu"#
re"ource"# or acce"" to too$" for manipu$atin& opinion"# to intimidate or mi"$ead
other"'
Third$y# participant" are encoura&ed to contri*ute any "u&&e"tion of their o.n# and
0ue"tion tho"e formu$ated *y other"# *efore con"iderin& ho. tho"e .hich con!ince
them a" the mo"t promi"in& are to *e ran/ed in order of priority' ,t thi" "ta&e#
participant" ha!e the opportunity to $earn from one another .hat additiona$
imp$ication" they mi&ht ha!e to dea$ .ith if particu$ar option" .ere cho"en' 1n"tead
of indi!idua$" "imp$y !otin& for .hate!er they thin/ .ou$d "uit them"e$!e" per"ona$$y
mo"t# they are to &i!e due con"ideration to .hat other" mi&ht &ain or endure *efore
&i!in& their "upport for any &i!en option' +herea" under e(p$oitati!e pre""ure"# to
compromi"e i" often to concede a" a re"u$t of one%" .ea/ *ar&ainin& po"ition# to
compromi"e .ith other" .ho ha!e an e0ua$ "ay i" to en&a&e in reciproca$ &i!e2and2
ta/e that i" at the heart of authentic cooperation'
Fourth$y# on the *a"i" of the option" "hort$i"ted# participant" u"e the "e$ection
proce"" they ha!e a&reed to 5*y ma9ority !ote# entru"tin& to de$e&ate"# or unanimou"
!ote ; .hich method to u"e for different "ituation" can it"e$f *e addre""ed *y
cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in&6 to choo"e .hich "o$ution they *ac/# a&ree to the
re"pon"i*i$itie" each ha" to ta/e on# and p$an ahead for re!ie.in& ho. .e$$ the
"o$ution .or/" in practice' The on2&oin& feed*ac/ .i$$ then &uide future a""e""ment
on .hether the adopted "o$ution i" to *e retained or re!i"ed'
8
The"e &eneric feature" of .hat .e ha!e termed 3cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in&% are
.hat underpin o*9ecti!e "cientific in!e"ti&ation# democratic deci"ion2ma/in&#
community de!e$opment# and cooperati!e enterpri"e' +ithout them# in"tead of
reachin& a free and informed con"en"u" of .hat are 9u"tifia*$e c$aim"# "ociety .ou$d
end up either mired in do&matic a""ertion" or perpetua$$y he$d up in a "tate of
"u"pended *e$ief' Simi$ar$y# e$ectora$ proce""e" .ithout the"e e$ement" are often
reduced to a per"ona$ity conte"t or a competition in propa&anda output' ,nd many
re"ident" fee$ they ha!e no "ay o!er their $oca$ity *ecau"e no one ta/e" their
concern" "eriou"$y# .hi$e mo"t .or/er" are fami$iar .ith *ein& treated a" a mere co&
.hen their emp$oyer" do not re&ard them a" ha!in& a "hare in the *u"ine""
J
'
Pu*$ic po$icie" and pri!ate action" can *oth *e 9ud&ed in term" of ho. far they
promote or hinder the condition" for faci$itatin& cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in&' For
e(amp$e# Con"en"u" Conference" ha!e *een run *y the Dani"h Board of
Techno$o&y to incorporate the con"idered !ie." of citi4en" in it" a""e""ment of ne.
and often contro!er"ia$ "cientific and techno$o&ica$ de!e$opment"' Such conference"
ha!e $ed the Dani"h Par$iament to e(c$ude tran"&enic anima$" from the fir"t
&o!ernmenta$ *iotechno$o&y re"earch and de!e$opment pro&ramme
B
'
De$i*erati!e pinion Po$$"# de!i"ed *y Fame" Fi"h/in# ha!e *een u"ed in ,merica
and other countrie" to pro!ide ci!ic deci"ion ma/er" a "ource of information *a"ed
on .hat peop$e thin/# not a" i"o$ated indi!idua$" .ithout any re$e!ant /no.$ed&e# *ut
a" citi4en" de$i*eratin& to&ether in $i&ht of the /ey e!idence and te"timony
8
' The
Hea$thy Communitie" 1nitiati!e ha" "pread from Canada and a num*er of Guropean
citie" .ith the he$p of +H 5+or$d Hea$th r&ani"ation6' The Co$orado Communitie"
Hea$th 1nitiati!e# for e(amp$e# *rou&ht citi4en" to&ether throu&h a "tate2.ide counci$
to "teer $e&i"$ator" on the priority i""ue" to addre"" and pro9ect" to "upport 5ran&in&
from $and u"e# teen i""ue"# "upport for e$der$y peop$e6
>
' Since the 1>>0"#
Participatory )ura$ ,pprai"a$ ha" *een u"ed in o!er 100 countrie" acro"" @atin
,merica# ,frica# ,"ia and Gurope# .here*y peop$e .ho are meant to *enefit from
de!e$opment pro&ramme" &et to p$ay a centra$ and informed ro$e in "hapin& the
de"i&n and de$i!ery of tho"e pro&ramme"
10
'
Pro!ided they retain the /ey e$ement" out$ined a*o!e# cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in& in
different form" can *rin& peop$e to&ether to find out .hat .ou$d rea$$y *e to their
common intere"t# reconci$e contra"tin& !ie.point" and e!en ho"ti$ity# and pro!ide a
$e!e$ p$ayin& fie$d for inc$u"i!e and de$i*erati!e e(chan&e"'
$%+ T&e Effectiveness of Cooperative Problem-Solving
De"pite the appea$ of fe$$o. human *ein&" arri!in& at "hared "o$ution" throu&h open
and mutua$$y re"pectfu$ de$i*eration"# cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in& i" "ti$$ on$y
>
adopted in a minority of ca"e"' ne of the mo"t fre0uent$y dep$oyed o*9ection" i"
that it" co"t" in time# re"ource" and di"ruption to e"ta*$i"hed po.er re$ation"#
out.ei&h .hat *enefit" it mi&ht *rin&' Thi" can *e $oo/ed at in &enera$ and "pecific
term"'
1n &enera$ term"# it ha" *een o*"er!ed that the approach of reciproca$ cooperation
de$i!er" the *e"t o!era$$ re"u$t" in di!er"e form" of human interaction' :ame theory
ana$y"t" u"in& too$" "uch a" the 3Pri"oner"% Di$emma% te"t" ha!e *een a*$e to
demon"trate that a cooperati!e "trate&y ; a$.ay" *ein& ready to he$p other"# and
continuin& to pro!ide that he$p "o $on& a" other" reciprocate .ith commen"ura*$e
he$p in return ; tend to produce the mo"t *eneficia$ re"u$t" for the participant"
11
' For
tho"e attemptin& to e(p$oit other" *y not reciprocatin&# they may &ain a re$ati!e
ad!anta&e in the "hort term# *ut they "ti$$ $o"e out .hen .hat they mana&e to "ecure
i" u$timate$y $e"" than .hat they cou$d ha!e o*tained *y cooperatin& .ith other"'
The"e findin&" are further confirmed .ith the he$p of computer mode$"# trac/in& the
&ain" in term" of *ein& he$ped *y other" and $o""e" in term" of *ein& i&nored or
pena$i"ed *y other" in re$ation to one%" readine"" to he$p or pena$i"e other" o!er
!aryin& $en&th" of interaction"' =o"t peop$e are inc$ined to fo$$o. the cooperati!e
"trate&y and "ecure the &reate"t mutua$ *enefit"' , minority# ho.e!er# prefer to re$y
on acceptin& he$p from other" .hi$e con"tant$y "ee/in& to a!oid &i!in& he$p in return#
and they are the one" .ho routine$y perform the .or"t in term" of actua$$y "ecurin&
the $ea"t *enefit" for them"e$!e"'
1f the &ame theory ana$y"i" i" too a*"tract in the &enera$ c$aim" it ma/e"# .e can
$oo/ at more "pecific area" .here the effecti!ene"" of cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in&
ha" *een .ide$y reco&ni"ed in re$ation to a$ternati!e approache"' @et u" ta/e fi!e
type" of e(amp$e from education# enterpri"e# re&eneration & de!e$opment# to "er!ice
prioriti"ation & impro!ement# and conf$ict re"o$ution'
&ducation
Student" and teacher" &ain from a $earnin& en!ironment .here /ey i""ue" are
addre""ed throu&h cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in&' )e"earch commi""ioned *y the
G"mee Fair*airn Foundation and the Carne&ie <K Tru"t into the impact of "tudent
participation in "choo$" and co$$e&e" found that
12
-
"tudent" in more democratic "choo$" .ere happier and fe$t more in contro$ of their
$earnin&C
.here "tudent" &a!e feed*ac/ on teachin&# it had the t.in effect of teacher"%
practice impro!in& and "tudent" &ainin& in a.arene"" of the $earnin& proce""C
participation enhanced "/i$$" of communication and competence a" a $earnerC
di"rupti!e *eha!iour in c$a"" .a" reduced'
Thi" ha" *een reinforced *y mem*er" of ,T@ 5,""ociation of Teacher" and
@ecturer"6 .ho ha!e confirmed that .e$$2"tructured participation .hich &enuine$y
&i!e" !oice to "tudent" $ead" to increa"ed "e$f2confidence and fee$in&" of
empo.erment# and a &reater "en"e of re"pon"i*i$ity' They point to chi$drenL" in"i&ht
into the .ay" they $earn *e"t# and the idea" they ha!e for chan&e" to $e""on content
or "ty$e# and to the $ife of the "choo$# in order to meet their need"' =any a$"o identify
10
a po"iti!e impact of "tudent participation on their o.n .or/' Furthermore# "tudent
in!o$!ement in deci"ion2ma/in& i" con"idered .e$come in re$ation to re"ource" and
e0uipment# "choo$ ru$e"# timeta*$in& and uniform# a" .e$$ a" e(tra2curricu$ar acti!itie"
and pa"tora$ i""ue"# "uch a" *eha!iour po$icie" and practice'
r&ani"ation" "uch a" Pupi$ Hoice in +a$e" ha!e re!ie.ed e(i"tin& re"earch and
conc$uded that "tudent in!o$!ement in deci"ion2ma/in& i" $i/e$y to $ead to *etter
re$ation"hip"# more re$e!ant and effecti!e po$icie"# and *etter $earnin&' The *enefit"
e(tend to interaction" .ith the .ider community# .hi$e fami$iari"ation .ith democratic
de$i*eration" impro!e" "/i$$" and confidence for ci!ic en&a&ement'
1n hi&her education# there i" a$"o &ro.in& e(pectation that uni!er"itie" need to
en&a&e the .ider pu*$ic in "hared de$i*erati!e proce""e" to impro!e the
under"tandin& of re"earcher" and citi4en" more &enera$$y' ,cademic" .ho produce
their findin&" in i"o$ation are $i/e$y to encounter pa""i!e di"intere"t or e!en "tron&
di"tru"t from other" .ho ha!e had no in!o$!ement in their re"earch a&enda'
Ho.e!er# "y"tematic in!o$!ement of the pu*$ic in di"cu""in& the pro*$em" re"earch
i" *ein& de"i&ned to addre"" and ho. a "o$ution may *e reached# can tran"form a
deep "en"e of pu*$ic remotene"" to.ard" incomprehen"i*$e 3e(pert"% into a mutua$$y
re.ardin& $earnin& e(perience
1E
'
&nterprise
,$thou&h many *u"ine"" $eader" "ti$$ *eha!e $i/e monarchica$ ru$er" of the pa"t in
in"i"tin& that they cannot concede to the 3anarchic% demand" of &rantin& e!eryone
in!o$!ed in their *u"ine"" an e0ua$ "ay# cooperati!e and other form" of .or/er2$ed
enterpri"e ha!e "ho.n that democratica$$y run or&ani"ation" function *etter *oth
"ocia$$y and economica$$y' Dot on$y ha!e cooperati!e" $i/e =ondra&on in Spain# and
other" in 1ta$y# France# and the <K "teadi$y &ro.n for decade"# they ha!e .eathered
the "e!ere economic do.nturn *etter than their undemocratic counterpart"
1I
'
+or/er" .ho are re"pected a" an e0ua$ mem*er of a firm are .i$$in& and a*$e to
de$i*erate .ith other" in &uidin& the direction of their *u"ine""' 1n"tead of "hort term
profit for "hareho$der" con"tant$y threatenin& to ta/e their money e$"e.here 5thu"
cuttin& in!e"tment for the *u"ine""6# .or/er" are prepared to *ui$d up $on& term
capita$# not on$y for them"e$!e"# *ut for other cooperati!e *u"ine""e" .hich may
*ecome important "upp$ier" andAor cu"tomer" in the future' They are ready to
e(tend the app$ication of cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in& to federation and con"ortia
"tructure" .hich promote .ider cooperation and "o$idarity .ith other cooperati!e"#
thu" .idenin& the poo$ of &ood.i$$# ad!ice and direct "upport'
Semco in Bra4i$ ha" demon"trated "ince 1>8E ho. entru"tin& .or/er" .ith an e0ua$
"ay impro!e" mora$e# producti!ity# adapta*i$ity and the $on& term "ucce"" of the
*u"ine""
1?
' 1t i" the .or/er" them"e$!e" .ho de$i*erate to&ether and a&ree on /ey
deci"ion" from pay rate" and pay differentia$"# production arran&ement"# to
"trate&ie" concernin& in!e"tment or de!e$opment into "eparate autonomou" unit"'
1E See# e'&'# 3Ho. en&a&ement enriche" an in"titution%" teachin&# re"earch and $earnin&%#
Dationa$ Coordinatin& Centre for Pu*$ic Gn&a&ement# 2012-
http"-AA...'pu*$icen&a&ement'ac'u/A"ite"Adefau$tAfi$e"AHo.M20PGM20enriche"M20re"earch
#M20teachin&M20andM20$earnin&N0'pdf'
1I :$o*a$ y# the cooperati!e mo!ement ha" *een e"timated to in!o$!e near$y 1 *i$ ion peop$e
5"ee- http-AA2012'coopAenAicaAco2operati!e2fact"2fi&ure"6'
1? http-AA...'"emco'com'*rAenAcontent'a"pOcontentP1
11
1n the <K# the deeper re"i$ience and readine"" to $earn "temmin& from a cu$ture of
cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in& he$ped the cooperati!e "ector to &ro. .hi$e the
economy a" a .ho$e .a" p$ummeted *y p$utocratic po$icie" into a dou*$e2dip
rece""ion' Bet.een 2008 and 2011 the num*er of cooperati!e" &re. *y 2EM to
near$y J#000# .hi$e indi!idua$ mem*er" &re. *y 1>'BM to 1E'? mi$$ion' Durin& that
period# a" the <K economy "hrun/ *y 1'BM# the turno!er of the cooperati!e "ector
e(panded *y 1>'JM to QE?'J *i$$ion
1J
'
The more effecti!e performance of cooperati!e enterpri"e i" &enera$$y attri*uted to
&reater commitment *y .or/er" to &oa$" they he$p to "hapeC po"iti!e attitude" ari"in&
from *ein& re"pected a" an e0ua$C *etter deci"ion2ma/in& $eadin& to enhanced
outcome"C $e"" time and re"ource" re0uired for in"pection and "uper!i"ionC and the
concern for "u"taina*$e emp$oyment and $on& term cu"tomer re$ation" produce
"trate&ie" $e"" !u$nera*$e to "hareho$der"% "hift"'
'egeneration ( development
Po!erty# ne&$ect# and inade0uate infra"tructure ha!e po"ed perennia$ cha$$en&e" to
re&eneration and de!e$opment pro9ect" in rich and poor countrie" a$i/e' 1n many
in"tance" in the pa"t# e(pert" ha!e p$anned "uch pro9ect" .hi$e profe""iona$" are
then entru"ted .ith de$i!erin& them' They are then "urpri"ed to find that .hat they
ha!e put in p$ace fai$ to addre"" $oca$ need"# and 0uic/$y cea"e to pro!ide much
*enefit .ithout the "upport of the peop$e they are "uppo"ed to "er!e'
1nternationa$ de!e$opment ha" "ince the 1>80" come to reco&ni"e that the
cooperati!e participation of tho"e $i!in& in the tar&eted communitie" i" e""entia$ to it"
"ucce""' So $on& a" the en&a&ement i" one that $ead" to the meanin&fu$
in!o$!ement of re"ident" a" e0ua$"# and not &i!e" "ome a pri!i$e&ed "eat .hi$e
interactin& .ith other" 9u"t to/eni"tica$$y# it increa"e" the $i/e$ihood "u*"tantia$$y that
the option" cho"en .ou$d de$i!er .hat $oca$ peop$e rea$$y need' )e"ident" of poor
communitie" under"tand .hat hurt them mo"t# and .hat .ou$d &a$!ani"e peop$e in
*ac/in& chan&e" that .ou$d rea$$y he$p them' Bein& cooperati!e$y in!o$!ed in
de!i"in& the "o$ution" a$"o mean" that they ta/e o.ner"hip of tho"e "o$ution" and
are more prepared to he$p imp$ement them on the &round'
ne of the mo"t fre0uent o*9ection" to openin& up de!e$opment to cooperati!e
pro*$em2"o$!in& i" that it .ou$d add to the co"t" *ecau"e it .ou$d ta/e "o much
$on&er to or&ani"e' Ho.e!er# the +or$d Ban/ and other $eadin& de!e$opment
a&encie" ha!e found that any increa"e to the initia$ p$annin& and mana&ement co"t"
are more than compen"ated *y "a!in&" in the $ater "ta&e" of the pro9ect"'
Furthermore# there are "i&nificant efficiencie" in a!oidin& .a"ta&e of pro9ect fund"
that fai$ to de$i!er# and not ha!in& to ma/e co"t$y correction"
1B
' The F, 5Food and
,&ricu$ture r&ani4ation6 ha" recommended that a&ricu$tura$ co2op" "hou$d *e &i!en
a centra$ ro$e in food "ecurity and po!erty reduction' Dot on$y .ou$d they he$p to
en&a&e communitie" in democratic deci"ion2ma/in&# they are more di"po"ed
to.ard" 9oinin& force" .ith other" in "pea/in& .ith a "in&$e !oice and increa"in& their
communitie"% inf$uence in po$icy ma/in&
18
'
1J Detai$" from Co2operati!e" <K- http-AA...'u/'coopAperformance2co2operati!e2economy
1B See# for e(amp$e# Fac/"on# G'T'# he Strategic Choices of Sta)eholders: &*amining the
+ront &nd Costs and ,ownstream !enefits of Participatory &valuation# paper for the +or$d
Ban/ Conference 1>>>'
18 See http-AA...'thene."'coopAartic$eAfao2ca$ in&2"upport2co2operati!e"'
12
The "ame princip$e" app$y in de!e$oped countrie"# and re&eneration .or/ in the <K#
for e(amp$e# ha" achie!ed hi&her impact and *etter "u"taina*i$ity .here $oca$
communitie" are empo.ered to contri*ute to the de$i*eration" and deci"ion" that
"hape the chan&e" *rou&ht to their area" 5e'&'# reducin& unemp$oyment and
impro!in& the $oca$ en!ironment .ith the he$p of re"ident en&a&ement carried out *y
1nc$ude Dei&h*ourhood )e&eneration in @i!erpoo$# or :reat Yarmouth%"
nei&h*ourhood $e!e$ partner"hip6
1>
'
Service prioritisation ( improvement
Peop$e%" tru"t and "ati"faction in pu*$ic "er!ice" are corre$ated .ith ho. e(ten"i!e$y
they ha!e *een en&a&ed in cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in& a" partner" of the pu*$ic
*odie" in 0ue"tion' n top of thi"# effecti!e participation impro!e" prioriti"ation and
reduce" .a"ta&e' The Dationa$ ,udit ffice "tated that Rcommunity participation i"
!ita$ in en"urin& !a$ue money in pu*$ic "er!ice"' Ser!ice" de"i&ned and de$i!ered
.ithout community input ri"/ .a"tin& pu*$ic money *ecau"e they .i$$ *e unu"ed or
underu"ed if they are not .hat peop$e need' @oca$ peop$e mu"t ha!e the
opportunitie" to identify their need" and contri*ute to findin& "o$ution"# rather than
fee$ po.er$e"" in the face of pu*$ic authoritie" that de$i!er "er!ice" on their *eha$f'S
20
Participatory Bud&etin&# ori&inatin& in Bra4i$ a" to a too$ to ena*$e peop$e $i!in& in
poor area" to ha!e a rea$ "ay o!er ho. pu*$ic fund" are to *e "pent to meet their
need"# ha" *een adopted in the <K *y many $oca$ authoritie"' Dot on$y do peop$e
&ain a &reater "en"e of o.ner"hip and "ati"faction .ith the "pendin& prioritie" they
he$p to "hape# feed*ac/ ha" con"i"tent$y "ho.n that the participatory proce"" ha"
en&endered a ne. "en"e of "o$idarity amon&"t tho"e in!o$!ed
21
' Far from peop$e
.ith contra"tin& characteri"tic" refu"in& to $i"ten to each other# youn& peop$e .ere
found to "u&&e"t ".itchin& pro!i"iona$ a$$ocation" to pro9ect" for e$der$y peop$eC
.hite" and ,"ian" offered "upport for one another%" propo"a$" after hearin& .hy they
.ere needed'
The u"e of 3,udit to ,ction% techni0ue# in!o$!in& *rin&in& po$ice and e$ected
counci$$or" to&ether .ith the re"ident" of the area" *ein& po$iced to di"cu"" crime
reduction prioritie" and option"# ha" in many part" of the <K $ed to c$o"er
co$$a*oration *et.een pu*$ic officia$" and citi4en"# and "i&nificant$y reduced crime
and the fear of crime' 1n Be($ey# @ondon# for e(amp$e# crime fe$$ acro"" the *oard
.hi$e the percenta&e of re"ident" of the nei&h*ourhood in 0ue"tion fee$in& "afe after
dar/ .ent up from 9u"t 22M to >EM' 1n Birmin&ham# it" dep$oyment in fi!e tar&eted
.ard" o!er a fifteen month period reduced crime acro"" tho"e area" *y an a!era&e
of 1IM# t.ice that of other comparator area"# and cut d.e$$in& hou"e *ur&$ary *y
I1M# o!er three time" the rate in other part" of the city
22
'
The 0ue"tion i" no $on&er if citi4en" "hou$d *e ena*$ed to participate in cooperati!e
pro*$em2"o$!in& .ith pu*$ic po$icy ma/er"# *ut .hich participatory techni0ue "hou$d
*e u"ed in each "ituation to faci$itate it' The Commi""ion for Hea$thcare ,udit and
1n"pection re!ie.ed the e!idence and conc$uded that there i" Ra remar/a*$e
con"en"u" amon& patient"# the pu*$ic and TDHSU tru"t" on the *enefit" of effecti!e
1> , u"efu$ "ummary of <K2.ide ca"e" can *e found in 3)e!ie. of he impact of community
en&a&ement .ithin re&eneration%# the Scotti"h :o!ernment# 2010-
http-AA...'"cot$and'&o!'u/APu*$ication"A2010A0IA2>1E02IEAE
20 -etting Citi%ens Involved# D, report# 200I'
21 , "e$ection of ca"e "tudie" ha" *een compi$ed *y the Participatory Bud&etin& <nit-
http-AA...'participatory*ud&etin&'or&'u/Aca"e2"tudie"Aca"e2"tudie"
22 http-AA...'pu*$ication"'par$iament'u/ApaAcm200I0?Acm"e$ectAcmhaffA80A80.eEE'htm
1E
en&a&ement 2 peop$e and communitie" fee$ !a$ued and hea$th "er!ice" pro!ide
*etter care'S
2E
Thi" important o*"er!ation i" *a"ica$$y true of a$$ pu*$ic "er!ice" ;
from tenant in!o$!ement in hou"in& mana&ement to re"ident participation in
nei&h*ourhood impro!ement
2I
'
Conflict resolution
,$thou&h it i" "ometime" "u&&e"ted that cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in& on$y .or/" .ith
peop$e .ho are not di!ided *y "eriou" difference"# it actua$$y ha" an e(ce$$ent trac/
record in ena*$in& peop$e to re"o$!e their difference"' For e(amp$e# the techni0ue of
3P$annin& for )ea$% 5de!i"ed *y the Dei&h*ourhood 1nitiati!e" Foundation6 ha" *een
fre0uent$y u"ed to dea$ .ith di!i"i!e p$annin& i""ue" affectin& nei&h*ourhood"'
)e"ident" and *u"ine""e"# .ho cannot at the out"et a&ree on .hat they .ant or
oppo"e in draft p$an" put for.ard# are in!ited *y P$annin& for )ea$ faci$itator" to *ui$d
and u"e a E2D mode$ of their nei&h*ourhood a" a foca$ point to e(chan&e idea" on
their preference"# their rea"on"# and "cope for re!i"ion"' The re"u$t i" a reciproca$#
informed &i!e2and2ta/e that &radua$$y ena*$e" peop$e .ho had at the out"et ta/en
0uite different po"ition" to "i&n up to a re!i"ed p$an
2?
'
1n ca"e" .here the difference" ha!e manife"ted them"e$!e" in heated di"pute"# the
techni0ue of Community Conferencin& 5pioneered *y the Thame" Ha$$ey Po$ice6 ha"
*een dep$oyed .ith the he$p of a trained po$ice faci$itator &oin& into an area .here
re"ident" in a nei&h*ourhood ha!e had "eriou" di"a&reement .ith each other' The
faci$itated di"cu""ion" ena*$e a$$ concerned to e(p$ore po""i*$e "o$ution"# con"ider
their imp$ication"# and try out mutua$ commitment" to find a .ay for.ard
2J
' 1n mo"t
ca"e" the ori&ina$ di"pute i" di"p$aced *y ca$mer re$ation"' Thame" Ha$$ey Po$ice
in!e"ted in the u"e of the techni0ue *ecau"e it .a" far more effecti!e and $e"" co"t$y
than a$ternati!e" "uch a" repeated$y "endin& po$ice in to pre!ent ten"ion from
eruptin& into !io$ent di"order'
G!en .here difference" ha!e pa""ed into deep2"eated ho"ti$ity# cooperati!e pro*$em2
"o$!in& ha" pro!en to offer a .ay *ac/ for the affected partie"' For e(amp$e# .ith the
he$p of )e"torati!e Fu"tice# pupi$" .ho ha!e committed harmfu$ act" a&ain"t other" in
a "choo$ ha!e *een *rou&ht to&ether *y a faci$itator .ith tho"e .ho fear or re"ent
them' They di"cu"" the pro*$em of the dama&e .hich ha" *een done and e(p$ore
ho. re$ation"hip" can *e re"tored' Both the perpetrator" and !ictim" ha!e a chance
to offer "o$ution"' )e"earch found that >EM of the"e faci$itated "e""ion" $ed to an
a&reement on .hat chan&ed *eha!iour "hou$d *e adhered to# and in >JM of the
ca"e" the a&reement .ere /ept
2B
' The pro*$em2"o$!in& efficacy of thi" approach i"
"u*"tantia$$y hi&her than the con!entiona$ techni0ue" of "tandard puni"hment "uch
a" detention# e(c$u"ion from "choo$# or the crude in"i"tence that the perpetrator i" to
i""ue an apo$o&y' ffence" are "e$dom repeated# and the confidence of a$$
concerned in more re$a(ed and re"pectfu$ re$ation" in the future i" enhanced'
2E "ational Study of how well healthcare organisations engage local people in planning and
improving their services# the Commi""ion for Hea$thcare ,udit and 1n"pection# 200>'
2I See# e'&'# "eigh$ourhood .anagement: an overview of the /001 and /002 'ound 3
Pathfinder Household Surveys# DC@:# 200J'
2? For more information# "ee http-AA...'p$annin&forrea$'or&'u/A.hat2.e2doA.hat2"et"2u"2
apartA
2J 3=endin& Fence"%# a paper on community conferencin&# *y the Thame" Ha$ ey Partner"hip#
2002- ...'thame"!a$ eypartner"hip'or&A.p2contentAup$oad"Amendin&'pdf
2B )e"earch conducted *y the Youth Fu"tice Board in "choo$" .hich had adopted the practice
520012200I6
1I
$%, -earning to "vercome t&e "bstacles to Cooperation
+e ha!e e"ta*$i"hed that it i" not unrea$i"tic to pur"ue cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in&
"ince it i" in fact a mode of human interaction em*edded in our e!o$utionary &ro.th#
and endor"ed *y mora$ ref$ection" in a$$ cu$ture"' Far from *ein& an a*"tract
a"piration# it ha" *een de!e$oped into a critica$ communitarian phi$o"ophy .hich "et"
out .hat .ou$d *e re0uired for the propo"ed form of reciproca$ cooperation to *e
rea$i"ed' 1t" practica$ characteri"tic"# *a"ed on it" app$ication in di!er"e fie$d"# ha!e
*een identified and pro!ide a &uide for ho. it can *e promoted and in"tituted' 1t"
effecti!ene"" and *enefit" ha!e *een .ide$y "tudied and recorded' The one
o*9ection# .hich may "ti$$ remain# i" that the mo"t "eriou" *$oc/a&e to cooperati!e
pro*$em2"o$!in& ; name$y# the p$utocratic tendency to fue$ .idenin& po.er &ap" to
ena*$e e(p$oitati!e re$ation" to trump cooperation ; i" not &oin& to di"appear'
Some amon&"t the rich and po.erfu$ may ha!e the fore"i&ht and mora$ appreciation
to "ee that the corro"i!e$y di!i"i!e hierarchica$ arran&ement" *efore u" need to *e
dra"tica$$y a$tered' Yet the ma9ority appear to fa!our the "tatu" 0uo# .hich i" not a
"tatic po"ition# *ut a re$ent$e"" dri!e to ama"" more po.er for the corporate e$ite "o
that the re"t of the .or$d ha!e to $i!e and .or/ on the term" they "et' Their
imp$aca*$e oppo"ition to any ma9or redi"tri*ution of po.er may "tri/e "ome a" an
in"upera*$e *arrier' n ref$ection# ho.e!er# it i" the depth of thi" reca$citrance that
$ea!e" no dou*t that it i" nece""ary to pre"" for cooperati!e reform" re"o$ute$y'
Throu&hout hi"tory# peop$e .ho champion pro&re""i!e chan&e" dra. on the
under"tandin& and determination they ha!e de!e$oped to ad!ance the frontier" of
cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in&' ,nyone .ith an educati!e ro$e in teachin&# trainin&# or
"harin& idea" and practice" on reciproca$ cooperation ha"# therefore# a !ita$
re"pon"i*i$ity to inform and moti!ate other" in-
Bui$din& fami$iarity and confidence .ith the cooperati!e cu$ture
r&ani"in& for po.er redi"tri*ution
=aintainin& !i&i$ance
!uilding familiarity and confidence with the cooperative culture
The $earnin& en!ironment in "choo$"# uni!er"itie"# or $ife$on& education
e"ta*$i"hment" "hou$d offer re&u$ar and .e$$2faci$itated opportunitie" for participant"
to e(perience cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in&' =o"t of the techni0ue" that ha!e *een
mentioned can *e app$ied or adapted "o that teacher2$earner interaction" can he$p to
fami$iari"e tho"e in!o$!ed .ith ho. cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in& .or/" and the
impact it ha"' To achie!e thi"# tho"e in char&e of educationa$ in"titution" need to
"ho. that they are them"e$!e" committed to re$atin& to the teachin& "taff a" .e$$ a"
their "tudent" in thi" manner'
1n"titution" .ith a re"earch function need to en&a&e .ith tho"e .ho "ee/ to $earn
from their findin&" "o that the $atter can contri*ute a" a cooperati!e en0uirer' The &u$f
*et.een comp$e( modern $ife and .hat .e are "uppo"ed to *e$ie!e .ithout 0ue"tion
ha" &ro.n "o $ar&e that tru"t in e"ta*$i"hed authority ha" *een eroded *y a ri"e of
"ceptici"m a&ain"t 3e(pert"% in po$itic"# ad!anced techno$o&y# and or&ani"ationa$
mana&ement' Thi" trend can on$y *e re!er"ed *y e(perti"e *ecomin& underpinned
*y the cooperati!e in!o$!ement of tho"e it i" "uppo"ed to &uide'
1n para$$e$ .ith tac/$in& "ceptici"m a*out e(pert findin&"# it i" a$"o nece""ary to "teer
the media a.ay from *eha!iour .hich *reed" cynica$ di"tru"t# and to.ard" more
open and tran"parent communication .ith the pu*$ic' )e&u$ation of 9ourna$i"m#
ad!erti"in&# pu*$ic re$ation"# art and entertainment .i$$ a$.ay" *e a "en"iti!e i""ue'
1?
But it i" no different from reco&ni"in&# for e(amp$e# that doctor" or en&ineer" "hou$d
*e pre!ented from# and if nece""ary# pena$i"ed for# pa""in& on un.arranted
information# e"pecia$$y .ith a !ie. to per"uade other" to act in .hat on the e!idence
.ou$d *e detrimenta$ to them' 1t i" not on$y po""i*$e to identify# *ut a$"o appropriate
to cen"ure# f$a&rant$y fa$"e or harmfu$$y mi"$eadin& information' ,nd in"tead of
in!o/in& "ome un$imited freedom to decei!e# the cu$ture of the media ha" to "hift to a
much &reater .i$$in&ne"" to "crutini"e and# .here 9u"tified# ha$t the di""emination of
$ie" and di"tortion" .hich# particu$ar$y .hen *ac/ed *y the riche"t corporate
machine"# can render attempt" to find an".er" cooperati!e$y !irtua$$y impo""i*$e'
4rganising for power redistri$ution
," .e ha!e "een# cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in& re0uire" an inc$u"i!e "tructure .hich
accord" a$$ tho"e in!o$!ed e0ua$ re"pect' =any "ocia$ and or&ani"ation" "y"tem" do
not po""e"" "uch a "tructure and .i$$ per"i"t in tyin& peop$e do.n to !aryin& $e!e$" of
mar&ina$i"ation .ithin their ri&id hierarchie"' 1f thi" i" to chan&e# tho"e .ho are
committed to cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in& "hou$d he$p other" $earn ho. to de!i"e
campai&n"# "trate&ie" and mo!ement" to reform undemocratic in"titution" or "et up
ne. one" .ith far $e"" di!i"i!e and e(c$u"ionary arran&ement"'
Gffort" to democrati"e &o!ernment *odie" often tai$ off after the *a"ic demand for
one per"onAone !ote ha" *een "ecured' But many citi4en &roup" ha!e increa"in&$y
come to "ee that forma$ e$ection" "eparated *y $on& inter!a$" actua$$y &i!e peop$e
!ery $itt$e rea$ inf$uence o!er the de!e$opment of po$icie" that affect their $i!e"'
:o!ernment *odie" at the nationa$ and $oca$ $e!e$" "hou$d *e pre""ed into &i!in&
citi4en" meanin&fu$ participatory opportunitie" "o that cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in&
can proceed' Furthermore# *eyond the democratic "tate# on$y a minority of
or&ani"ation" "uch a" .or/er cooperati!e" and partner"hip" ha!e comp$ied .ith the
princip$e of one per"onAone !ote'
The *a"i" for conferrin& re.ard" or authority# decidin& ho. much &reater they are to
*e compared .ith .hat other" .i$$ ha!e# and curtai$in& them "hou$d circum"tance"
chan&e# mu"t *e critica$$y con"idered and uni!er"a$$y app$ied' ,nd there ha" to *e a
cei$in& other.i"e un$imited "uperiority .i$$ $ead to corruption and di"tortion of
re$ation"hip" ma/in& &enuine mutua$ re"pect and cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in&
impo""i*$e'
G0ua$$y a &uaranteed f$oor $e!e$ or "afety net ha" to *e "et to pre!ent tho"e .ith the
$ea"t in "ociety or in an or&ani"ation "in/in& to a $e!e$ .here they are dependent on
the mercy of other" that they ha!e neither the capacity or confidence to en&a&e .ith
an independent mind in con"iderin& .hat "hou$d *e pur"ued for the common &ood'
Contrary to the mi"&uided ar&ument that the "afety net "hou$d *e re$ent$e""$y
$o.ered to ma/e peop$e .or/ harder# .hat .ou$d ma/e peop$e .or/ harder are rea$
opportunitie" to "ecure *etter condition" of $ife' Since po.er i" a re$ati!e force# the
more re"ource" and inf$uence are to *e at the di"po"a$ of tho"e hi&her up in a*"o$ute
term"# the "afety net ha" to *e re$ati!e$y $ifted to a!oid it *ecomin& a to/en &e"ture'
+ith the he$p of or&ani"ed effort" to pre"" for .e$$2defined reform"# more inc$u"i!e
deci"ion2ma/in& "tructure" can *e *rou&ht in "o that e!eryone can a&ree the *a"i" of
different re.ard" and pena$tie"# tru"t in the con"i"tency of their app$ication# and
dedicate them"e$!e" to promotin& co$$ecti!e "ucce"" .ith .hich they can identify
their per"ona$ intere"t"' )e"i"tance from tho"e .ho .ant to pre"er!e their pri!i$e&ed
po"ition i" to *e e(pected# *ut that i" .hy indi!idua$" mu"t $earn to or&ani"e
them"e$!e" into a common front in demandin& the condition" for reciproca$
cooperation'
1J
.aintaining vigilance
+ithout a democratic po.er "tructure# it can *e difficu$t to en&ender cooperation'
But .ithout on2&oin& effort" to ma/e "ure the "tructure operate" fair$y and open$y#
cooperation .i$$ not *e "u"tained' There ha!e *een too many e(amp$e" of citi4en"
$o"in& intere"t in !otin& *ecau"e po$itica$ repre"entati!e" ha!e $o"t touch .ith themC
democratic e$ection" *ein& e(p$oited *y anti2democratic &roup"C mutua$ enterpri"e"
"urrenderin& their core princip$e" .hen their mem*er" are *ou&ht off .ith a *onu"C or
community or&ani"ation" $o"in& impetu" .hen they fai$ to "u"tain en&a&ement .ith
their acti!itie"' The participation in informed de$i*eration" mu"t *e !i&i$ant$y
maintained' ," "oon a" peop$e o!er$oo/ ho. deci"ion" affectin& them are made
.ithout their in!o$!ement# the ri"/ of tho"e deci"ion" &oin& a&ain"t them e"ca$ate"'
Citi4en" "hou$d $earn to .atch con"tant$y for any "i&n that the condition" for
reciproca$ cooperation are *ein& undermined' The "i&n" may come from indi!idua$
.hi"t$e2*$o.er" or acti!i"t in!e"ti&ator"# .ho need to *e &i!en encoura&ement and
protection to "hare their findin&"' There "hou$d *e readi$y acce""i*$e co$$ecti!e
re"ource" to en"ure tho"e .ith po.er cannot perpetrate and hide any attempt to ta/e
unfair ad!anta&e of other" in any form'
Detection in turn ha" to *e *ac/ed *y the appropriate re"pon"e to "ecure redre""
and deterrence' Thi" i" re$e!ant to the crimina$ and ci!i$ $a.# *ut a$"o to $oca$ *y$a."#
company ru$e"# and "tandard" and procedure" e"ta*$i"hed *y $ar&e federation" or
nei&h*ourhood &roup"' Cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in& "hou$d *e app$ied to *oth the
proce"" for determinin& .hat in &enera$ .ou$d con"titute an offence and .hat .ou$d
*e a "uita*$e pena$ty# and that for 9ud&in& the c$aim" and counter2c$aim" re$atin& to
any "pecific ca"e' By it" !ery nature# there can *e no a priori cooperati!e &uide to
.hat $a." and ru$e" there "hou$d *e in a$$ different circum"tance"' +hat i" re0uired
i" a !i&i$ant re!ie. of the e(tent to .hich e(i"tin& or propo"ed proce""e" re"pect the
core re0uirement" of cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in&'
$%. Toget&er /e Can
+hen "ociety i" con"tant$y po$ari"ed *y the a&&randi"ement of the p$utocratic e$ite#
the po$itic" of defiance i" not enou&h' Prote"t and di"ruption may pro!ide channe$"
for inten"e fru"tration# *ut u$timate$y the im*a$ance of po.er ha" to *e rectified' 1n
e!ery from of human a""ociation# in e!ery "phere of $ife# any re$ation"hip $oaded to
fa!our the e(p$oitation of tho"e $o.er do.n in the ri&&ed hierarchy mu"t *e rep$aced
*y one .hich &i!e" a$$ in!o$!ed e0ua$ re"pect and operate" throu&h cooperati!e
pro*$em2"o$!in&' The po""i*i$ity of thi" tran"formation i" dai$y demon"trated *y the
.or/ of en$i&htened reformer" and cooperati!e acti!i"t"'
From "ma$$ community cooperati!e"# democratic tenant" and re"ident" a""ociation"#
cooperati!e "choo$"# throu&h community2$ed de!e$opment "cheme"# cooperati!e
enterpri"e" of a$$ "i4e"# to "tatutory *a"ed *odie" at the $oca$ and nationa$ $e!e$" that
ha!e in addition to the re$ati!e$y remote interaction" of e$ectora$ democracy *ui$t up
"y"tematic in!o$!ement of citi4en" in participatory deci"ion2ma/in&# there are many
e(amp$e" a" .e ha!e "een of cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in& *ein& main"treamed into
ho. .e or&ani"e our $i!e"'
The cha$$en&e i" to ha!e more of them# more 0uic/$y# more inten"i!e$y e"ta*$i"hed'
,nd to do thi"# the di!er"e champion" in different "ector" "hou$d 9oin force" to *ui$d
up a &reater momentum than any they cou$d indi!idua$$y achie!e' 1n a num*er of
$oca$itie" thi" ha" indeed *een attempted' ,t the nationa$ $e!e$# the Briti"h
1B
:o!ernment *et.een 200E and 2010 pro!ided the $eader"hip for one of the mo"t
comprehen"i!e e(amp$e" of a "y"tematic campai&n for reciproca$ cooperation' The
"e!en2year initiati!e# ta/en for.ard *y the Ci!i$ )ene.a$ <nit throu&h a nation.ide
Community Gmpo.erment De$i!ery Pro&ramme# .a" *e"t /no.n under it" campai&n
tit$e of 3To&ether +e Can%
28
'
1t contained three e$ement"- rai"e under"tandin& of and intere"t in &ood practice"C
pro!ide "upport to he$p tar&eted &roup" *ui$d their capacityC and put for.ard po$icie"
to faci$itate the de!e$opment of cooperati!e participation in pro*$em2"o$!in&'
Fir"t of a$$# to promote .ider under"tandin& of and intere"t in promotin& cooperati!e
re$ation"hip"# a con"i"tent f$o. of re"earch findin&" .a" channe$ed to ci!ic $eader"#
mana&er"# acti!i"t" in pu*$ic or&ani"ation" and community &roup"' Centra$
:o!ernment and the @oca$ :o!ernment ,""ociation "et up the net.or/ of Ci!ic
Pioneer" 5$oca$ authoritie" "harin& "imi$ar o*9ecti!e"6' The Counci$$or" Commi""ion
.a" con!ened to rai"e a.arene"" of ho. community participation cou$d "tren&then
repre"entati!e democracy' Throu&h the Community De!e$opment Foundation#
"upport .a" &i!en to a .ide ran&e of initiati!e" "uch a" the )e&iona$ Gmpo.erment
Partner"hip" in *rin&in& $oca$ authoritie" and their community partner" to&ether to
ma/e u"e of the mo"t effecti!e techni0ue" in cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in&'
Second$y# to pro!ide "upport to tar&eted &roup" to *ui$d their capacity# community
or&ani"ation" .ere in!ited a" partner" in de!e$opin& and de$i!erin& appropriate
"cheme" on the &round' For e(amp$e# the Participatory Bud&etin& <nit 5part of
Church ,ction on Po!erty6 .a" &i!en "upport to he$p $oca$ authoritie" and their
communitie" $earn ho. to ena*$e citi4en" to de$i*erate to&ether in "ettin& prioritie"
for the u"e of pu*$ic fund"' , partner"hip .a" de!e$oped .ith Hou"in& Fu"tice in
"ettin& up :uide Dei&h*ourhood" .here re"ident" from different part" of the country
cou$d $earn from more e"ta*$i"hed nei&h*ourhood &roup" .hich had a &ood trac/
record in in!o$!in& $oca$ peop$e in "hapin& and impro!in& the pu*$ic "er!ice" in their
re"pecti!e $oca$itie"' The De!e$opment Tru"t ,""ociation .a" ena*$ed to "et up the
,""et Tran"fer <nit to he$p communitie" ta/e o!er pu*$ic *ui$din&" .hen they cou$d
add &reater !a$ue in meetin& $oca$ need"' , ran&e of community2*a"ed partner"hip"
ad!anced the ,cti!e @earnin& for ,cti!e Citi4en"hip 5$ater to *e /no.n a" 3Ta/e
Part%6 pro9ect to he$p di!er"e citi4en" and &roup" $earn ho. to *rin& their inf$uence to
*ear on matter" of common concern to them' +ith Co2operati!e" <K# the
e(perience of rai"in& community "hare" to "et up community cooperati!e" .a"
re!ie.ed and "hared .ith other" to app$y in their o.n $oca$itie"'
Fina$$y# to de!e$op &o!ernment po$icie" and practice" to faci$itate effecti!e
cooperati!e participation# officia$" from acro"" &o!ernment co$$a*orated to $earn from
each other and maintain the momentum for chan&e' Youn& peop$e .ere proacti!e$y
"ou&ht to *ecome in!o$!ed in the de!e$opment of inte&rated chi$dren "er!ice"#
emp$oyment trainin&# "port"2*a"ed "ocia$ inc$u"ion and $i*rary de"i&n' The ,cti!e
Citi4en" in Schoo$" "cheme increa"ed the num*er of pupi$" ta/in& part in pu*$ic
campai&n" and community pro9ect"# $earnin& to care a*out their $oca$ communitie"'
28 The ogether We Can action p$an can *e do.n$oaded from
http-AA...'communitie"'&o!'u/Adocument"Acommunitie"ApdfA1?1>EE'pdfC the anne( to the
p$an i" a!ai$a*$e from http-AA...'communitie"'&o!'u/Adocument"Acommunitie"ApdfA1?2822'pdf
The conte(t for it" de!e$opment i" out$ined in Tam# H'# 3)e9u!enatin& Democracy- $e""on"
from a communitarian e(periment%# +orum 9ourna$# Ho$ume ?E# Dum*er E# pp'I0B2I20'
http-AA...'educ'cam'ac'u/Are"earchAacademic&roup"Ae0ua$ityAforumyouthparticipationAHBTa
m)e9u!Democracy'pdf
18
=ore peop$e from di!er"e *ac/&round" .ere encoura&ed to *ecome ma&i"trate"#
mem*er" of youth referra$ pane$"# pro*ation *oard and po$ice authority mem*er"'
1nno!ation" in !oter re&i"tration 5"uch a" u"in& youn& ur*an arti"t" to dri!e up the
re&i"tration of 1822I year o$d"6 .ere promoted' $der peop$e and peop$e .ith
di"a*i$itie" .ere in!ited to "er!e a" ad!i"or" on &o!ernment po$icy de!e$opment
&roup"' Parenta$ in!o$!ement *ecame "tandard in the de!e$opment of Sure Start
pro9ect" 5for chi$dren6' Support .a" &i!en to en&a&in& $oca$ peop$e in 3myth *u"tin&%
campai&n" to tac/$e raci"m and mi"information# and to the u"e of mentor" from
.ithin communitie" to .or/ .ith refu&ee and *ui$d mutua$ under"tandin&'
Po$icie" introduced to enhance community "afety inc$uded the ro$$in& out of
nei&h*ourhood po$icin& team" .ith a "tron& focu" on "ee/in& community !ie."C the
de!e$opment of Community Fu"tice Centre" .ith $oca$$y *a"ed 9ud&e" .ho re&u$ar$y
met .ith $oca$ peop$eC the promotion of re"torati!e 9u"tice proce""e" to en&a&e
offender" .ith their !ictim" to cut reoffendin&C and the en&a&ement of $oca$ peop$e#
fami$ie"# !ictim" and youn& peop$e throu&h Tar&eted Dei&h*ourhood Pre!ention
Pro&ramme" in pre!entin& youth crime' +hi$e po$icie" re$atin& to hea$th promoted
initiati!e" "uch a" the de!e$opment of Hea$thy Communitie" Co$$a*orati!e .hich
*rou&ht community .or/er"# hea$th profe""iona$" and $oca$ re"ident" to&ether to
.or/ out ho. to reduce pro*$em" "uch a" fa$$"# dia*ete"# and ma$nutrition
2>
'
,$thou&h there ha" *een no "y"tematic promotion of cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in& on
the "ca$e of 3To&ether +e Can% "ince the chan&e of &o!ernment in the <K in 2010
E0
#
the $e""on" from a mu$ti2"ector dri!e to *rea/ do.n re"i"tance# "hare effecti!e
techni0ue"# and reform condition" unfa!oura*$e to reciproca$ cooperation remain to
*e app$ied' The"e $e""on" ha!e one nota*$e common theme- .hate!er the *arrier"
are to peop$e .or/in& to&ether on mutua$$y "upporti!e term"# they can *e o!erturnedC
and .hen reciproca$ cooperation i" put in p$ace in a "choo$# a community# a
*u"ine""# or a democratic &o!ernment# e!en the mo"t di!i"i!e and "eemin&$y
intracta*$e pro*$em" can *e more effecti!e$y dea$t .ith' +hi$e the ori&ina$ 3To&ether
+e Can% campai&n cou$d ha!e achie!ed pro&re"" on an e!en $ar&er "ca$e had there
*een more time and re"ource" a!ai$a*$e# it demon"trated ho. dedicated ad!ocacy
cou$d rai"e under"tandin& and tran"form mind"et# po$icie" and or&ani"ation
"tructure" to *rin& a*out the condition" for cooperati!e pro*$em2"o$!in&' For tho"e of
u" .ho .ant to ma/e the cooperati!e .ay of $ife a rea$ity for e!eryone# there i" e!ery
rea"on to *e$ie!e that .e can to&ether de$i!er 9u"t "uch a form of ad!ocacy'
Henry am5 Cam$ridge 6niversity5 /03/
2> For more detai$" on .hat the ogether We Can campai&n achie!ed# "ee
http-AA...'communitie"'&o!'u/Adocument"Acommunitie"ApdfA1?1I02'pdf
E0 <n$i/e the 3To&ether +e Can% campai&n# the "o2ca$ ed 3Bi& Society% a&enda .a" primari$y
an attempt to c$oa/ pu*$ic "ector diminution .ith pro2community rhetoric' See Tam# H'# 3The
Bi& Con- reframin& the "tate2"ociety de*ate%# PP' Fourna$# =arch2=ay 2011# Ho$ume 18#
1""ue 1- http-AAon$ine$i*rary'.i$ey'comAdoiA10'1111A9'1BII2?I0V'2011'00JE8'(Apdf'
1>