BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

BINARY VALUED QUANTITIES

The decision which results
into either YES (TRUE) or
NO (FALSE) is called a
Binary Decision.
Boolean algebra derives its name
from the mathematician George
Boole. Symbolic Logic uses values,
variables and operations :
True is represented by the value 1.
False is represented by the value 0.
Variables are represented by
letters and can have one of two
values, either 0 or 1.
LOGICAL OPERATORS
AND is represented by X.Y (LOGICAL
MULTIPLICATION )
OR is represented by X + Y (LOGICAL
ADDITION )
NOT is represented by X' (COMPLEMENT)
NOT operations have the highest
precedence, followed by AND operations,
followed by OR operations.
TRUTH TABLES
Truth table is a table which
represents all the possible values of
logical variables/statements along
with all the possible results of the
given combination of values.
I will buy a car If I get a salary increase or I win
the lottery
This statement explains the fact that the
proposition "buy a car" depends on two other
propositions "get a salary increase" and "win the
lottery".
Any of these propositions can be either true or
false hence the table of all possible situations:
Salary
Increase
Win Lottery
Buy a car = Salary Increase or
Win Lottery
False False False
False True True
True False True
True True True
Y X or Y X and Y not X
OR
X Y F = X + Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
AND
X Y F = X
.
Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
NOT
X NOT X = X'
0 1
1 0
EVALUATION OF BOOLEAN
EXPRESSIONS USING TRUTH TABLE
X+(YZ)+Z
XY+XY
XYZ+XYZ
X(Y+Z)+XY
XY(Z+YZ)+Z
A[(B+C)+C]
BASIC LOGIC GATES
A logic gate is an elementary building
block of a digital circuit . Most logic
gates have two inputs and one output.
At any given moment, every terminal is
in one of the two binary conditions low
(0) or high (1), represented by different
voltage levels.
There are three types of logic gates:-
NOT GATE
OR GATE
AND GATE
LOGIC GATES
The NOT gate or inverter is a gate
with only one input and one output
signal; the output state is always the
opposite of the input state.
NPUT
A
OUTPUT
NOT A
0 1
1 0
The OR gate has two or more input signals
but only one output signal. If any input
signal is 1(high), the output signal is 1(high)
INPUT
A B
OUTPUT
A + B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
The AND gate can have two or more
input signals and produce an output
signal. When all the input signal are 1
(high) then the output is 1 otherwise
output is 0.
INPUT OUTPUT
A B A AND B (AB)
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
PRINCIPLE OF DUALITY
This states that starting with a boolean relation ,
another boolean relation can be derived by
1. Changing each OR sign (+) to an AND sign(.)
2. Changing each AND sign (.) to an OR sign(+)
3. Replacing each 0 by 1 and each 1 by 0
X.Y+Z = (X'+Y').Z
Find dual of the following:-
1. X+XY
2. XY+XY+XY
3. (A+0).(A.1.A)
4. AB+AB
5. ABC+ABC+ABC
LAWS AND THEOREMS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
1. Properties of 0 and 1
If result of any logical statement or expression is always
TRUE or 1, it is called Tautology and if the result is
always FALSE or 0 it is called Fallacy.
2. Idempotence law
3. Involution law:
( X' ) ' = X
1. X + 0 = X 1D. X 1 = X
2. X + 1 = 1 2D. X 0 = 0
3. X + X =X 3D. X X = X
LAWS AND THEOREMS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
5. Laws of complementarity
6. Commutative laws:
7. Associative laws:
8. Distributive laws:
5. X + X' = 1 5D. X X' = 0
6. X + Y = Y + X 6D. X Y = Y X
7.(X + Y) + Z = X + (Y + Z)
=X + Y + Z
7D. (XY)Z = X(YZ) = XYZ
8.X( Y + Z ) = XY + XZ 8D. X + YZ = ( X + Y ) ( X + Z )
LAWS AND THEOREMS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
9. Absorption laws
10. Some Other rules of Boolean Algebra
9. X + XY = X 9D. X ( X + Y ) = X
10. ( X + Y ) X = XY 10D. XY + X = X + Y
DEMORGANS THEOREM
Proof:- Algebric and Truth table
(X+Y)=XY
(X.Y)=X+Y
DEMORGANIZATION
Complement the entire function
Change all the ANDs(.) to ORs(+) and all
the Ors (+) to ANDs(.)
Complement each of the indivodual
variables.
DERIVATION OF BOOLEAN EXPRESSION
Boolean expressions which consist of a single variable or its
complement e.g. x or y or z are known as literals.
MINTERMS
Mintermis a product of all the literals (with or without the
bar)within the logic.
Mintermcan easily be formed e.g. X=0, Y=1, Z=0 then the
mintermwill be XYZ.
A minterm must have every variable present. If a boolean
product term does not have every variable present, then it can be
expanded to its minterm representation.
F(A,B,C) = AB + C neither AB, or C are minterms
To expand AB to minterms, use the relation:
AB = AB(C+ C) = ABC + ABC
To expand C to minterms, do:
C = C(A+A) = AC+ AC = AC(B+B) + AC(B+B)
= ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
F = AB +C = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
= 001 + 011 + 101 + 110 + 111
= m
1
+ m
3
+ m
5
+ m
6
+ m
7
F(A,B,C) = m(1,3,5,6,7)
DERIVATION OF BOOLEAN EXPRESSION
A maxterm is sum of all the literals(with or without the bar)
within the logic system.
If the values of variable are X=0, Y=1and Z=1 then its maxterm
will be :- X+Y+Z
A maxterm must have every variable present. If a boolean
sum term does not have every variable present, then it can be
expanded to its maxterm representation.
F(A,B,C) = (A+B) (C) neither (A+B), or C are maxterms
To expand (A+B) to maxterms, use the relation:
(A+B) = (A+B+CC) = (A+B+C)(A+B+C)
To expand C to minterms, do:
C = C+AA = (A+C)(A+C) = (A+BB+C)(A+C+BB)
= (A+B+C)(A+B+C)(A+B+C)(A+B+C)
F = (A+B)(C) =
(A+B+C).(A+B+C).(A+B+C).(A+B+C).(A+B+C)
(000) . (001) . (010) . (100) . (110)
M
0
. M
1
.M
2
. M
4
. M
6
F(A,B,C) = M(0,1,2,4,6)
CANONICAL EXPRESSION
Boolean expression composed entirely either of
Minterms or Maxterms is referred to as Canonical
Expression
Canonical expression can be represented in the
following two forms:-
Sum-of-Products (S-O-P) form
When a boolean expression is represented purely as sum of
minterm , it is said to be in Sum-of Product from
Product-of-sums(P-O-S) form
When a boolean expression is represented purely as product of
maxterms, it is said to be in Product-of-sum form of expression.
MINTERM, MAXTERM NOTATION
Each line in a truth table represents both a Minterm
and a Maxterm
TRUTH TABLE TO SOP FORM
Can write SOP form of equation directly from truth
table.
TRUTH TABLE TO POS FORM
Can write POS form of equation directly from truth
table.
F(A,B,C) = (A+B+C) (A+B+C)(A+B+C)
F(A,B,C) = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
SOP form. If a product term has all variables present, it
is a MINTERM.
F(A,B,C) = (A+B+C) (A+B+C)(A+B+C)
POS form. If a sum term has all variables present, it is
a MAXTERM.
All Boolean functions can be written in terms of either
Minterms or Maxterms.
MINIMIZATION OF BOOLEAN EXPRESSION
Algebraic Method
Karnaugh Maps
It is a pictorial form of a truth table and
could handle up to 6 variables.
It is used to reduce or simplify a
Boolean function.
It is an array of cells/squares in which
each cell represents a binary value of
the input variables.
MAP SET-UP (SOP Reduction)
The number of cell/square in a K-map is equal
to 2
n
where n is the number of input variables.
The map is drawn to show the relationship
between squares and input variables.
Variables are assigned to row and column.
Binary marking are placed in each row and
column using reflected code sequence.
Each cell in the map represents a
combination of input variables in a given
truth table.
GRAY CODE
It is arranged so that every transition from one value
to the next value involves only one bit change.
MAPPING OF 0S AND 1S IN THE KARNAUGH
MAP
1s are placed in the squares of a K-map to
represents minterms of a Boolean function in
canonical SOP (Sum-of-Minterm) form. The number
of 1s in the K-map is equal to the number of product
terms in the Boolean function. The cells that do not
have a 1 are the cells for which the expression is 0.
All 1s and 0s in the output column of the truth
table can be mapped directly onto a Karnaugh
map into the cells corresponding to the values of
the associated input variable combinations.
GROUPING OF 0S AND 1S
Always group adjacent cell containing 1s in powers of 2 {1,
2, 4, 8, 16, 32 or 64 1s in a group}. Start by combining the
maximum number of adjacent cell containing 1s.
Reduction of pair
Remove the variable which changes its state from complemented
to uncomplemented or vice versa. Pair removes one variable only.
Reduction of Quad
Removes two variables which changes their state.
Octet Reduction
Remove the three variables which change their states.
Map rolling
Consider the map as if its left edges are touching the right edges
and top edges are touching bottom edges.
Overlapping groups
Overlapping means same 1 can be encircled more than once
Overlapping always leads to simpler expression
Redundant Group
A group whose all 1s are overlapped by other groups.
Removal of redundant group leads to much simpler expression.
Reduce the following Boolean expression using K-map.
F (A, B, C, D) = (0,2,7,8,10,15)
Pair is M7+ M15
And Quad is M0+M2+M8+M10
Reduced expression for pair (M7+ M15) is BCD as A is removed. Reduced
expression for quad (M0+M2+M8+M10) is B`D` as for horizontal corners
C is removed and for vertical corners A is removed.
Thus final reduced expression is BCD + B`D
P-O-S REDUCTION USING K-MAP
The 0s placed in the squares of a K-map
represents the maxterms of a Boolean function in
canonical POS (Product of Maxterm) form. The number
of 0s in the K-map is equal to the number of sum terms
in the Boolean function. The cells that do not have a 0
are the cells for which the expression is 1.
Example: F(A,B,C) =
(A+B+C)(A+B+C)(A+B+C)(A+B+C)
F(A,B,C,D) = (A + B + C')(A' + B' + C +D)(A' + C' + D')
MORE ABOUT LOGIC GATES
AND , OR and NOT gate are known as basic gates.
NOR and NAND gate are known as universal
gates.
NOR gate (NOR = Not OR)
The NOR gate has two or more input signal but only
one output signal. If all the inputs are 0 (i.e. low),
then the output signal is 1(high)
Input A Input B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
NAND gate (NAND = Not AND)
The NAND gate has two or more input signal but
only one output signal. If all the inputs are 1 (i.e.
high), then the output signal is 0 (low )
Input A Input B
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
XOR (eXclusive-OR) gate
The XOR gate have two or more inputs but produces
one output signal. OR gate produces output 1 for
any input combination having one or more 1s, but
XOR gate produces output 1 for only those
input combination that have odd 1s
Input A Input B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
XNOR (eXclusive-NOR) gate
The XNOR Gate is logically equivalent to an
inverted XOR i.e., XOR gate followed by a NOT
gate. Thus XNOR produces 1 output when the
input combination has even number of 1s.
Input A Input B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
REALIZATION OF BASIC LOGIC GATES USING
NAND GATES
Implementing an inverter using NAND gate
Input Output Rule
(X.X)' = X' Idempotent
Implementing AND using NAND gates
Input Output Rule
((XY)'(XY)')' = ((XY)')' Idempotent
= (XY) Involution
Implementing OR using NAND gates
Input Output Rule
((XX)'(YY)')' = (X'Y')' Idempotent
= X''+Y'' DeMorgan
= X+Y Involution
REALIZATION OF BASIC LOGIC GATES USING
NOR GATES
Implementing an inverter using NOR gate
Input Output Rule
(X+X)' = X' Idempotent
Implementing AND using NOR gates
Input Output Rule
((X+X)'+(Y+Y)')' =(X'+Y')' Idempotent
= X''.Y'' DeMorgan
= (X.Y) Involution
Implementing OR using NOR gates
Input Output Rule
((X+Y)'+(X+Y)')' = ((X+Y)')' Idempotent
= X+Y Involution
DESIGN RULE FOR NAND-TO-NAND
LOGIC NETWORK ( ONLY FOR 2- LEVEL)
Derive simplified SOP expression
Draw circuit diagram using AND OR Not gates
Replace all basic gates (AND, OR, NOT) with NAND
gates.
For e.g. Consider the following SOP expression
F = W.X.Y + X.Y.Z + Y.Z.W
DESIGN RULE FOR NOR-TO-NOR LOGIC
NETWORK ( ONLY FOR 2- LEVEL)
Derive simplified POS expression
Draw circuit diagram using AND OR Not gates
Replace all basic gates (AND, OR, NOT) with NOR
gates.
For e.g Consider the following POS expression
F = (X+Y) . (Y+Z)