HHRIM 2104: Information Systems and Technology in Health Care

Contact hours: 42hrs

Purpose
This course is designed to equip the Health Records and Information Management
learner with necessary knowledge; skills to enable them use a computer in managing
health information services

Expected Learning Outcomes
By the end of the course unit the learners should be able to: -
i. Describe the concept of computers
ii. Differentiate between manual and electronic data processing
iii. Discuss systems applications in health records management
iv. Describe telemedicine

Content
Computer technology: Introduction to computer hardware, CPU architecture, input
devices. Operating systems: Windows, NT, Windows servers, Unix, multitasking,
peripheral components. Storage devices: magnetic and optical media
Systems applications: Application software: word processors, database management,
spreadsheets, power points, statistical packages SPSS, Epi Info, Stata, SAS, User
Interfaces.
Electronic Health Records: Radiology Picture Archiving and Collection (PAC) system,
VTP, Electronic appointment systems.

References
i) Barasa M.K. and Wambugu. S 2004, Strengthening the health information system:
Kenyan experience
ii) Ministry of health 1999, Health Information Management System report
iii) Ministry of Medical Services 2009, Health Information Management Unit

Chapter 1: Introduction to computers

Definition of Electronic computer
A computer is a collection of electronic devices used to process data. Earlier computers were massive,
special-purpose machines that only big institutions such as governments and universities could afford.
They were used to perform complex numerical computations, such as planning the missile trajectories.
Although computers were certainly quite effective in such operations, it soon became clear that they
could be helpful for performing a number of tasks.
In 1964, IBM introduced its mainframe computer (system/360). This became very popular and as a
result, IBM became the standard against which other computer manufactures and their systems would
be benchmarked for many years to come. By 1980s, introduced the personal computer (PC)

Organization of a computer system
Any computer, regardless of its size, shape, or usage, is related to four logical parts:
Hardware
Software
Data
People

a. Hardware is the part of the computer that can be touched and seen. Its made up of
interconnected electronic devices that control the operations of the computer.
b. Software is a group of instructions that tell the hardware what to do. These instructions are also
known as programs. Each program is written for a specific purpose. E.g. Ms Outlook is popular
software used for managing e-mails, calendar, etc.
c. Data is the unprocessed set of information, which the computer can manipulate. When
processed, data becomes information. E.g. the pay details for all employees are data. After a
computer processes them and generates pay slips, this becomes information. A computer file is
simply a set of data or program instructions.
d. People interacting with computers can be end users, programmers, system analysts etc.

Computer Hardware
The internal components of a computers hardware can be classified into the following categories:
Processor
Memory
Input and output devices
Storage devices

a. Processor
Its conceptually the brain of the computer. It organizes and carries out instructions that initiate
either from the user or from the software. The processor usually consists of one or more
microprocessors, which are made up of silicon or other material. The processor is often known by
the name of the central processing unit (CPU).
b. Memory
The area of memory can be visualized as the computers electronic scratchpad. A computer loads a
program into the memory, where it is executed. Data used by the program used by the program is also
loaded into the memory.
The most typical example of a computers memory is the Random Access Memory (RAM). RAM is
volatile i.e. it needs a constant power supply and its contents vanishes when the computer is shut down.
The amount of memory a computer has greatly affects the speed of the computer. The higher the
memory, generally the better is the computer performance. The amount of memory is measured in bits
or bytes. Bit stands for binary digit which means either a 0 or a 1. A byte is a group of 8 bits.
Types of memory
a. Cache memory
This is a high speed memory whose speed compares to that of the C.P.U. Its used to interface
the slow communicating main memory to the C.P.U. It acts as a buffer that receives the data,
instructions and/or information from the main memory, at the speed of the main memory and
remits them to the C.P.U at the speed of the C.P.U and vice versa. The cache memory is usually
used in large computer systems, which ever the case it speeds up the rate of processing by
easing communication between the CPU and the main memory, i.e. movement of data and
instructions to the CPU and remitting back to the main memory of the immediate results.
b. Bubble Memory
This type of memory represents data and instructions within it in terms of magnetic principles
i.e. polarized spots (bubbles) to give binary representation of data, instructions and/or
information. A bubble represents a 1 while the absence of a bubble represents a 0.
The bubble memories are very expensive with limited but can withstand adverse conditions e.g.
dust and the memory cells do not loose data when they are de-energized by switching off the
power. They are convenient and easy to develop.
They are suitable where the internal (main) memory is to be expanded limitlessly, i.e. the virtual
storage technique, where high speed access is necessary for transferring small manageable data
or program segments, what is described as pages, into the main memory in turn for execution
by the C.P.U.


c. Holographic Memory
This memory uses the principles of light to store data, instructions and information; hence its
also described as optical memory. The data, instructions and or information stored are in terms
of smear of dots on light sensitive plate. These memories are non-volatile and have got vast
storage capacity.
d. Core memory
This is an internal store, which is made up of small magnetic rings, which are magnetic rings,
which are magnetized by the wires threaded on them. This ferrite core forms the memory cells
that are the basis of storage. The polarity of these magnets are set using currents to represent
data, instruction or information in terms of 1s and 0s. The core store are permanent, the set
polarities do not change even if the power is switched off, unless current is passed in the
opposite direction.
e. Semi-conductor Memory
Are the most used memory by current computers. They are cheaper and faster than magnetic
core memory. They are also available in a small board. The drawback of semi-conductor memory
is that it is volatile and loses its contents in the event of power failure but this can be overcomed
by having back-up power units.

Semi-conductor memories have greatly replaced the core memories because: -
They are small and occupy comparatively less space
Their access time is low i.e. they are fast for they operate purely on electronic principles
and hence reliable
They are inexpensive to produce hence lower cost
Generally, consume comparatively less power

Main Memory Classification
The main memory can be classified into two memory sections the RAM and the ROM.
a. RAM (Random Access Memory)
RAM is volatile i.e. it needs constant power supply and loses its contents when the computer is
shut down.
Functions of RAM
It stores data and instruction awaiting processing
Stores the instructions being obeyed or whose parts have been obeyed by the computer
Stores the immediate results, the results of computer working/calculations, before
being communicated to their recipients (computer users) through the output unit
b. ROM (Read Only Memory)
The ROM is non-volatile i.e. its contents remain intact even if the power is switched off.


Functions of ROM
Its stores the data and instructions that is necessary for the normal functioning of the computer
system hardware. (ROM stores system data and interactions)
It stores the control programs that are necessary for the initial activation of the hardware on
power switch on.

Concept of Virtual Storage
Computers memory is used to store data and instruction. Often user data and instructions may
overcome the RAM capacity. One common solution to this problem is to design the program and/or
data, in such a way that the programs and data are subdivided into small manageable units described as
segments, modules or pages that can be conveniently maintained in the memory.
The pages are then stored in a direct access store from where these pages can be swapped into the
main memory automatically under the operating system routine known as the paging supervisor.
Individual segments are called into memory obeyed by the computer and the next segment from the
direct access store swapped with the completed segment in memory i.e. when a segment is transferred
from the direct access store it replaces the segment that previously occupied the memory.
The process continues until all the modules in the direct store are executed by the computer. One the
part of the user (programmer, the program developer) the computer memory is expanded limitlessly,
and their big programs can run within the available internal memory without the memory size
limitation. This is the concept known as virtual storage.










Operating
System




Available
Memory
S1

S2

S3

S4

S5

Program
Segments
(DAS) e.g.
disk
Buffers:
This is a special purpose temporary memory location, used during input/output (I/O) or processing to
hold data and/or instruction temporarily between communicating devices/ elements. They are used to
counterbalance the speed differences between the communicating elements, because buffers accept
data instruction or information at the speed of the sending module/element and remit them at the
speed of the receiving module.
Registers:
These are temporary storage location within the CPU. They are used to hold data and instructions
temporarily during processing. They are more costly than the memory and their contents can be
handled by the computer in faster mode as compared to the main memory. The registers are special
purpose storage locations usually used by the control units, during the fetch and execute cycle, to store
control influences and instructions and by the ALU to store data.

Computer Input devices
Input devices accept data and instructions from the user.
Keyboard
The keyboards are used to type in data and/or instructions to the computer as input in a form that the
computer can understand i.e. in terms of electronic signals representing the digital bits, the 1s and 0s.
Document readers
These are input devices that directly sense the data and/or instructions from some documents and then
convey them to go as computer input directly in terms of electronic signals and with no requirement for
verification because the transcription process is not involved.
Optical Character Reader
Characters are formed on to the document using a typewriter or computer printer in a special
type font. Characters such as alphabetic, numeric or special characters are formed in a manner
which is both human and machine sensible.
Optical character recognition (OCR) is a data capture technique which enables the computer to
read printed or handwritten documents-directly.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
The documents are preprinted with predefined data positions. These positions can then be
marked by e.g. pencil shade. The marked position can then be sensed by the OMR to transfer
the pre-determined data value to go as computer input.

The OMR use the principle of light to sense the positional marks, i.e. the marks are interpreted
using reflected light by these positional marks, and conveys them to go as computer input in
terms of electronic signals. The OMR are used in marking multiple choice questions,
questionnaires, insurance premium collection etc.
Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR)
The document characters are typed or printed using ink containing particles of iron II oxide,
which gives them magnetic property. After forming the characters onto the document, the
magnetic ink encoded characters are magnetized by passing the document under a strong
magnetic field.
Mouse
This is an input device used as alternative to a keyboard, to provide a direct on-line input. The
mouse is a box like device with sensor buttons and a ball that slides it on the flat surface. It
controls the cursor to move about the screen as desired.
Light pen
Its like a pen like device, which is light sensitive and is hand held. They are used as design aids.
It provides a direct input mode. The light pen can be used in conjunction with a graphic VDU,
which is able to sense light shining on the screen using special hardware.
Touch Sensitive Panels
Is used as input method to replace the use of a light pen i.e. the touch sensitive panels are an
alternative to light pen. The finger is used to select the options instead of the light pen. This
method is used in conjunction to the VDU, which is able to sense the touched points on the
screen.
Joystick
This is used to play computer games on domestic computers. The game is played by joystick
controlling the cursor movement on the screen.
Digitizers
These are input devices that convert graphical drawings or images on the paper or other
material into digital data and convey them to as computer input.


Bar codes
In bar codes, data is represented by bars of different breadth that alternate the bar and spaces
to represent data in terms of 1s and 0 are using some character codes, which represents data in
terms of binary notation.
Other input devices include: scanners, voice input, badge readers etc.
Voice recognition
The facility to control a computer program or carry out data entry through spoken commands
via a microphone connected to a sound card.
Video capture card
The video capture card records and stores video sequences (motion video)]
Digital camera
A digital camera captures and stores still images in a cameras memory until they can be
transferred to a personal computer.
Touch screen
The touch screen is a transparent; pressure-sensitive covering that is attached to the screen of
the monitor. Uses make selections and control programs by pressing on the screen. Although
touch screens are simple to use, they are comparatively expensive and require special software
to operate
Selecting input devices
It is appropriate to select an appropriate means of data entry in order to ensure that any
computerized system works as efficiently as possible. The collection of data on a very large
scale, for example, usually requires an approach that involves automating the process as far as
possible.
The selection of input depends on: -
Volume-some input devices are unsuitable for dealing with large volumes of data.
Speed if large volume of data needs to be entered, speed and accuracy may be an important
consideration for many business applications.
Accuracy-it is essential to ensure that data entry is completely accurate.
Complexity of data-some methods are unsuitable for entering data of a complex nature
Cost-although some methods offer high levels of speed and accuracy, an organization may be
unwilling or unable to purchase the hardware and software required. In such cases an
alternative means of data entry may be required
Frequency of data entry. Some types of data entry may be carried out on an infrequent or ad
hoc basis. In these cases, the acquisition of new or specialized input devices may not be
justifiable.

Computer Output
The result of any computer processing is known as output. Output from a process may be of two forms;
it may be in a form that is human readable/understandable i.e. either printed or drawn, or if the
information is required for subsequent process run, it may be stored temporarily on machine-readable
media.

The quality of a computer system can be accessed by the quality of the output it generates. The essence
of designing and implementing a data processing system is to generate desirable output. The quality,
validity and usefulness of the output is influenced by the output facility used.
Factors that determine the actual choice of a computer output
Suitability to the application
The speed at which the output is required
Whether a printed version is required
The volume of data
Cost of the method chosen as compared with the benefits to be derived.

Output devices
i) Printers
This is a device that provides the hard copy output, which is permanent and hence desirable for the
information or results of the computer working can be maintained for future reference and/or the
information conveniently distributed to reach many recipients.
Classification of printers
The printers can be classified as character, line and page printers depending on how they produce the
document prints
Character printers
These provide one character print at a time hence comparatively slow. They are less costly as compared
to line or page printers. They are used with the slow communicating terminals or stand-alone systems,
which serve single users at a time.

Line printers
These printers provide one whole line print at a time, hence relatively more expensive than character
printer but less costly as compared to the page printers. They are faster than character printers but
slower than the page printers. They are mostly connected to the mini computers and mainframe
computers where the speed of printing is a real necessity for it is a shared resource in such instances.
i) Page printers
These provide one whole page print at a time hence faster than both character and line printers. The
page printers are the most expensive type of printers for their speed and are usually connected to the
mainframe computers where a variety of the computer users are to be served when producing their
information from the computer memory at an appreciable time scales.
ii) Graph plotters
These are output devices that produce graphical output e.g. diagrams, maps etc. The commonly
available plotters are the flat bed plotter and drum plotter. Graph plotters are applied basically in
Computer Aided Design (CAD) and architectural designs.
iii) Magnetic media
The computer output/information from the computer memory can also be directed into magnetic
storage media e.g. the tape or disk, instead of being printed or displayed.
Such output directed to any of the magnetic storage media is thus magnetically coded. This method is
used where such results/ output of processing is to be stored for future retrieval /or further processing.
iv) Voice Output
The information from the computer memory which is in electronic form is transformed to wave forms,
through various specialized additional circuitry, for the recipients of such information to hear. Voice is
useful where reading is not necessary or is impossible and fast output is required, though the output is
non-permanent and may be boring for prolonged output. Voice output is applied e.g. as learning aids, in
emergency situations for messages, in answering services e.g. post office talking clock
v) Microform
Computer output to microfilm (COM), also known as computer output microform, is often used to
achieve large quantities of information for future reference. Information is processed via a personal
computer and sent directly to a device that produces microfilm negatives.
A related technology is known as document image processing (DIP). Documents are treated as pictures
or images and stored directly to compact disc or tape.
v) Visual Display Unit
This is an output device in the form of a cathode ray tube which can display readable information on the
tube.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
The most common classification of computers is as follows: -
Supercomputer
Mainframe
Minicomputer
Microcomputer or personal computer
i) Supercomputer
These are the most powerful type of computers. They can process huge amounts of data very fast
(supercomputers can perform about one trillion calculations per second). Scientists construct models for
complex processes and simulate them on a supercomputer. Supercomputers are very expensive and
consume heavy amounts of electricity.
ii) Mainframe
These are used in large organizations, which need frequent access to common information.
Supercomputers are rarely used by private organizations or for common use. Mainframes are the largest
commonly used e.g. in banks, airlines, insurance companies, stock exchanges, foreign exchange markets,
etc.
Typically, employees work at computer terminals. (A terminal is a keyboard and screen connected to the
mainframe. A terminal does not have its own CPU or storage (Dumb terminal)). All terminals are
controlled by a mainframe computer that handles the input, output and processing needs of all the
terminals connected to it. They are quite big in size and can occupy entire rooms or even a floor of a
building.
They are mainly used by governments for maintaining peoples demographic data, tax information etc.
Many big stores use mainframes to track sales, update inventory position etc.
iii) Minicomputer
These are called mini, because they were smaller in size as compared to computers of those days (e.g.
Mainframes). However, by todays standards, we can call them giants. Minicomputers are considered to
be somewhere between mainframes and personal computers.
Similar to mainframes, minicomputers can process large inputs and outputs as compared to personal
computers. They are well suited to the needs of quite a few organizations and companies because they
are cheaper than mainframes, but have some features of mainframes.
iv) Personal computers
These computers are also referred to as microcomputer. The term refers to computers, which are
usually found at homes, workplaces and classrooms. Personal computers appear in many forms, sizes,
and brands. The popularity of the PCs is due to many reasons, chief of these being their economical
nature, ease of use and availability, and rapidly declining costs of hardware devices, such as memory,
I/O etc. The capability of the PC continuously increases, with simultaneous decrease in costs. This
makes the PC an extremely viable option for individuals as well as all kinds of organizations.

Variations of the PC are the notebooks (also called as laptops), and handheld computers (also called as
palmtops).
Applications of computers
These days, computers are such flexible tools that most people use them everyday. Some examples of
this are:
Office workers use computers to write emails/memos, maintain employee records, create
budgets, communicate with co-workers, find information, manage projects etc.
Almost all business people who work away from office also use computers. For instance,
salespeople use computers to manage accounts and make presentations.
The banks, post offices, government offices, telephone companies and so many other parties
use computers extensively.

Science
Scientists use computers to develop theories, gather data and test results, and exchange information
with colleagues. Scientists also use computers for simulating complicated events, such as predicting
rainfalls or change in weather patterns. Computers help tremendously in space exploration. Satellites
have beamed back to the earth a great amount of information about the solar system and the cosmos.
Education
Computers have truly revolutionized the area of education. Computers can be found everywhere-from
classrooms to museums and from libraries to labs. Students use computers to create science projects,
project reports and gather information from the internet.
In the libraries, computers are used to read articles and other materials of interest from magazines and
journals hosted on the computer. They can be used for distance education programs as well.
Medicine
Computers are used extensively in this area and healthcare. The usage spans from diagnosing diseases
to and monitoring patients to controlling the robotic movements of surgical assistants.
Legal practice
The lawyers, attorneys and all others concerned with the legal profession also make extensive use of
computers. Attorneys can quickly browse through huge collections of information for previous
judgments and historical evidences. Attorneys working on portable computers (called laptops or
notebooks) can make their own notes.

Manufacturing
Factories use robotic arms to carry out physical work, which is dangerous or monotonous.
Manufacturing with computer and robotics is called Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM). Computers
take over the entire production process, from design to manufacturing.
Entertainment
Computers are heavily used in all the areas of entertainment, such as movies, live shows, and dramas,
creating and recording music.
History and Generations of Computers
The term computer generation is used quite frequently. This term refers to the historical classification
and the milestones that have occurred during the development of the computing devices over the last
few decades.
Zeroth Generation of computers (1642-1945)
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) is credited with the distinction of building a working calculator. Pascal had
devised this calculator when he was only 19 to help his father, who worked as a tax collector. This
calculator could only perform additions and subtractions.Later, the famous German mathematician
Baron Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibniz
(1646-1716) developed another mechanical calculator, which could perform multiplication and division.
In 1834, Charles Babbage (1792-1871) built a machine called difference engine. This machine had a
mechanical design where wheels, gears, cogs, were used. This computer was slow and unreliable. Later
Babbage improved on his basic ideas to come up with another machine, called the analytical engine. The
analytical engine was a far much superior, general purpose, computing machine. It provided five
important components, which are a part of even the modern computer: an input unit, a processor, a
memory unit, a control unit, and an output unit.
First generation computers (1945-1955)
The worlds first real computer was the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC) built in
1946 in Pennsylvania, USA. ENIAC used vacuum tube devices. The main purpose behind ENIAC was to
predict the missile trajectories.
ENIAC had a lot of limitations, including a very small amount of memory, slow operations. The
programming was only done in machine language, which could be termed the first generation language.
These computers used big physical devices in their circuitry and hence were very big in physical size.
They consumed a lot of power generating a lot of heat and hence non-reliable as the circuitry
components were prone to failure.

Second Generation of Computers (1955-1965)
Although the first generation computers demonstrated that they could perform arithmetic and logical
operations successfully, there were major problems associated with them. Most notably, these
computers were large in size, generated a lot of heat, were slow and needed programming in machine
language, which was quite cumbersome to learn and use.
The second generation computers used transistors (invented at the Bell Labs USA in 1948). Transistors
offered an alternative, which was both cheap and effective. Transistors are quite small compared with
the vacuum tubes, and work far more efficiently without generating heat.
The PDP-1 computer was the first major machine based on the transistor, and was launched in 1961 by
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). PDP-1 was called as minicomputer, because it was small compared
to other computers of those times.
International Business Machines (IBM) came up with their computers, most notably, the 1401 and the
7094. Popular computer programming languages such as ALGOL, FORTRAN and COBOL emerged during
this generation.
Third Generation Computers (1965-1980)
The integrated circuit (IC) was the major milestone in the third generation of computer history. An IC
contains a number of transistors on a single silicon chip. Thus a single IC can perform the job of dozens
of transistors (these days, millions of transistors). This meant additional processing power with
reduction in the overall size of the computer.
IBM soon integrated their two highly successful computers, the 7094 and the 1401 and bought them
under the umbrella of system/360. The major achievement of system/360 was the possibility of
multiprogramming i.e. allowing multiple programs to reside in the memory of the computer at the same
time, and executing them one after the other.
Fourth Generation of Computers
The fourth generation computers were a modification of the third generation computers technology.
They use complex circuitry, an enhancement of the IC technology of the third generation computers.
The design of this generation computer is based on large scale integration (LSI) of circuitry and very
large scale integration (VLSI) of circuitry.
Fifth Generation Computers
The design of these computers was based on the VLSI technology, the microchip technology that gave
rise to smaller computers, known as the micro computers in use today. Examples of microcomputers are
IBM PCs (IBM personal computers), BBC micro etc. The micro computers are usually described as PCs or
stand alone or desk top computers because they were designed to primarily serve single person at a
time, though the trend is to have micro computers that can support more than one person at a time.

NB:
Research shows that the trend in the computers technological revolution is that there is: -
Continual decrease in computer size
Improved speed and power of processing
Decrease in computer and its related facilities cost
Number of components per circuit (IC) greatly increased, over 500000 physical elements e.g.
transistors, capacitors, diodes etc per chip. (IC)
Types of computers
There are a variety of computers, with a variety of their operational characteristics. The computers can
be classified in many useful ways. These can be classified as under: -
a) By the types of data which they can manipulate: -
i) Digital computers
ii) Analogue computers
b) By the purpose for which they are designed: -
i) General purpose computers
ii) Special purpose or dedicated computers
c) A mixture of data handling types: -
i) Hybrid computers
d) Scientific and business computers
e) On the basis of price, size and capabilities
i) Mainframe
ii) Minicomputers
iii) Micro computers
iv) Personal computers (pcs)


Chapter 2: Computer software











Software
Software is defined, as series of detailed instructions that control the operation of computer system.
Software exists as programs that are developed by computer programmers.
There are two main categories of software
System software
Application software
System software
Manages and controls the operation of the computer system as it performs tasks on behalf of
the user
This is a set of programs that coordinates the activities and functions of the hardware and other
programs throughout the computer system.
The combination of a hardware configuration and systems software is known as a computer
system platform
System software consists of three basic categories
- Operation system
- Development programs
- Utility programs

Software
Systems
Software

Applications
software
Operating
System
Utility
Programs
Development
Programs
General
Purpose
software
Application
specific
software
Operating systems
Software that interacts with the h/w of the computer in order to manage and direct the
computers resources
This is a set of programs that controls the computer hardware and acts as an interface with
applications
The operating system can control one or more computers, or they can allow multiple users
interact with one computer.

Combinations of OS
Single computer with single user:- this system is commonly used in a person computer or a
handheld computer that allows one user at a time
Single computer with multiple users:- This is a typical of larger, mainframe computers that can
accommodate hundreds or thousands of people, all using the computer at the same time\
Multiple computers:-this is typical of a network of computers, such as a home network with
several computers attached or a large computer network with hundreds of computers attached
around the world
Special purpose computers:- This system is typical of a number of special purpose computers,
such as those that control sophisticated military aircraft, the space shuttle, and some home
appliances
The basic functions of the operating system include: -
Control access to storage devices for example disk drives
Co-ordinate and control peripheral devices e.g printers.
Allow users to input data and issue instructions e.g allowing data to be entered via keyboard.
Co-ordinate and control the operation of programs e.g by scheduling processor time
Manage the computer memory.
Perform file management e.g by allowing users to create and delete files
Deal with errors e.g by displaying a message to the user if a fault is detected within a h/w
component.
Providing networking capability
Operating system can be described as text based or graphical. A text-based operating system uses a
command line interpreter (CLT) to accept instructions from the user. Command line interpreter (CLT)
Passes instructions from a user to a computer program as instructions from a user in the form of brief
statements entered via keyboard.

Graphical user interpreter (GUI) - Provides a means for a user to control a computer program using a
mouse to issue instructions using menus and icons.


Network software (NOS)
In general the network operating system (NOS) used by an organization will provide the majorities of
facilities required to support workgroup computing.e.g the n o s will allow a network manager to
define to define a group of users belonging to a particular workgroup.
Services of N O S
A centralized storage space can be created on the network system for exclusive use of workgroup
members. The security features of NOS can be used to restrict access to documents and other data by
those outside of the workgroup. The workgroup can be given network privileges that allow individual
member to access to resources and facilities that are not normally available to others
Examples: - windows N T, UNIX, NOVELL NETWARE
Utility programs
These provide a range of tools that support the operation and management of a computer system.
Programs that monitor system performance or provide security controls are examples of utility
programs.
Application software
This consists of programs that help users solve particular computing problems.
These are a set of programs that enable users to perform specific information processing
activities. Application software can be divided into two broad categories
General purpose
Application specific
General purpose
General-purpose applications describe programs that can be used to carry out a wide range of common
tasks. A word processor for example, is capable of producing a variety of documents that are suitable for
many different purposes. This type of application is often referred to as productivity software, since it
helps improve efficiency.
Business tasks carried out in the office
1. Document production and graphics software- This involves the creation of various internal and
external documents, including letters, reports, invoices, notes and minutes of meetings e.g text
editors, word processors, and desktop publishing packages.
2. Processing numerical information using spreadsheets All organizations require the means to
store, organize and Analyze numerical data. The spreadsheet program represents the most
common means of carrying out these tasks
3. Storage and retrieval of using database: - All organizations require the means to store, organize
and retrieve information. Electronic databases packages represent the most common means of
carrying out these tasks
4. Multimedia software: - Multimedia involves the user interacting with a computer using media such
as text, sound, animation and video. Its main business applications are computer-based training and
customer service in retail applications
5. Sending and retrieving information using the internet and intranets: - This describes the activities
involving internal and external communications such as email and the use of web browsers to find
information on the World Wide Web.
Application specific
Describes programs intended to serve a specific purpose or carry out a clearly defined processing task.
E.g. payroll
Document production software
One of the most common activities in a business organization is the production of documents for
external and internal use.
Internal documents can include inter-office memos, reports and summaries such as minutes of meetings
External documents can include invoices, sales, brochures and correspondence. A modern view of
document production sees technology as used in three basic ways:
Word processing
Desktop publishing
Document management

Word-processing: - is concerned with entering or editing text, with emphasis on the content of the
document. It allows the production of simple documents but gives limited control over layout.
Desktop publishing: -is concerned with the overall appearance of documents, placing a great deal of
emphasis on features that provide control over the layout and presentation of a document
Document management: -involves documents such as company procedures, which are circulated to a
large number of people in an organization.
Word-processing
A word processor provides the ability to enter, edit, store and print text. Word processing packages
allow users to alter the layout of documents and often provide a variety of formatting tools
Features
a) Editing text:- all word processing programs allow users to enter, edit, copy, move, and delete text.
This process of entering or correcting text is known as editing
b) Word wrap:- as users type text and move towards the end of a line, the program automatically
moves to the beginning of a new line. The spacing between words and characters is also adjusted so
that the appearance of the text is improved.
c) Justification: - a word processor allows the user to control text alignment, that is, the layout of the
margins on the page.
d) Block operations: - all word processors (packages) allow users to manipulate blocks of text in a
number of ways. Once a block of text has been marked, it can be moved, deleted, copied or
formatted. Word processors also allow these blocks to be cut and pasted
e) Search and replace: -programs such as word for windows allow the user to search an entire
document for a specific word or phrase. Once the text has been located, it can be deleted or
replaced with something else. Searches can be conditional, where the word or phrase must appear
exactly as specified or unconditional, where any occurrence of the text will be found.
f) Type/font styles: - Most word processing packages allow users to specify the style, font and point
size of text. Style refers to text effects such as bold, italics and underlined. The type face used in a
document is referred to as the font
g) Page layout: - word processing packages allow users to specify the layout of the pages in the
document. This is done by setting the sizes of the top, bottom and left and right margins of the page
and by selecting the size of the paper that will be used
h) Headers and footers: - a header is a piece of text that appears at the top of every pages of the
document. Headers are typically used to print a chapter heading or title at the top of each page.
Footer appears at the bottom of each page. Footers are typically used to print page numbers at the
bottom of every page. Headers and footers can be seen in many publications, including newspapers,
books and magazines.
i) Mail merge: - packages such as word for windows allow sets of personalized letters to be produced
by merging information taken from a separate data file with a standardized form document.
Example a database could be used to hold the names and addresses a number of business clients. A
standard letter could be produced with blanks where the name and address of the client are meant
to appear. When the mail merge process begins, each name and address would be inserted in the
document and printed. Mail merge is not restricted to names and addresses; any kind of data can be
merged into a standard document. This allows mail merge to be used for applications ranging from
the production of invoices to personalized newsletters.
j) Import/export of data: - many word processors allow documents to be saved in a number of
formats. This allows users to produces a document, save it to disk and then load into, for example, a
desktop publishing program for further enhancement.
a) Exporting: -The process of saving a file in a format compatible with another software package
b) Importing: -the process of loading a file created with another package.
k) Graphics and tables: - Modern word processors allow users to incorporate graphics and tables of
figures into their documents. E.g. word can import pictures from a range of sources e.g. GIF, TIFF,
PIC, GEM and PCX
l) Columns:- Many packages allow users to generate columns within their documents. These can be
used in a number of ways, including producing a newspaper- like layout for newsletters and other
documents.
m) Spellchecker and thesaurus: - Most packages allow users to check spelling of every word in a
document. When an error is detected, the program can suggest alternative spellings and make any
corrections automatically. The thesaurus function found in most modern packages can be used to
suggest synonyms and antonyms for a highlighted word or phrase.
n) Multiple windows: -the majority of packages allow users to work on more than one document at a
time. Each document is displayed in a window on the screen and the user can move between
windows using the mouse or by pressing special keys. This allows users to carry out a number of
useful activities, such as copying a block of text from one document to another, without having to
open and then close the documents in order.
o) Macros: -a macro is a sequence of instructions that can be used to automate a complex or repetitive
task.
p) Auto correct: - this feature attempts to correct the spelling as the user types. This corrects common
misspelling mistakes.
q) Tabs:-special markers, known as tabs, can be set so that users can move to specific columns in the
document with the use of the TAB key. This allows tables of numbers or columns of text to be
created quickly and easily.
r) Print preview:- the print preview feature displays a document exactly as it will be printed, enabling
users to check and correct the document without making unnecessary printouts.
s) Drawing and graphics:- many packages provide a variety of drawing tools, allowing users to add
lines, shapes or graphic files to their documents.
t) Tables: - many packages allow users to produce tables containing a specified number of rows and
columns. Tables created in this way often provide some of the functionality of a spreadsheet
program, although this is often limited.

Graphics programs

Graphics packages can be divided into the following basic categories: -
Drawing (or paint) packages
Design packages
Presentation packages
Diagramming packages
Photo-editing programs

Drawing programs
Paint programs serve the same purpose as a sketchpad or easel and enable users to produce drawing
using a variety of different techniques. A combination of tools allows users to create drawings made up
of freehand lines and regular shapes. Among the tools available are the following: -
A palette of drawing tools can be used to mimic the effects of drawing with different materials,
including pens, spray cans, brushes and charcoal.
Selection tools can be used to copy, erase or resize sections of a drawing
Painting tools let users apply shading and colors to areas or shapes
Text tools allow users to add text to drawing. Users specify the typeface, size, color and style of
the text
Special tools provide a range of sophisticated features. A color replacement tool, for example,
can be used to change one color for another within specified section of the image.
Diagramming software
The need to produce a wide variety of business-related charts and diagrams has resulted in the
emergence of numerous diagramming packages. Majority of these packages assume little technical
knowledge and rely on menus, icons and palettes of tools in order to construct diagrams.
In order to produce a chart or diagram, users select shapes and symbols from a library of prepared
materials.

Diagramming tools such as Visio tend to offer relatively limited number of stencils from which users can
select. However, all packages cater for a range of common business diagrams. A typical package will
provide stencils that enable users to produce flow charts, office layouts, organizational charts, network
diagrams, project timelines and block diagrams
Photo-editing software
The growth in the use of optical scanners and video capture devices has resulted in a need for tools that
can be used to manipulate photographic images. Photo-editing packages enable users capture, view,
edits scanned images.
Although the majority of photo-editing programs provide many of the features found in paint packages,
most provide more sophisticated tools intended especially for use with scanned images. Two typical
examples include:
Capture features enable users to acquire images directly from an optical scanner attached to the
computer system, removing the need for the user to control two separate programs
Filters can be used to apply a range of special effects to an image. E.g. they can sharpen a
blurred image or alter brightness and contrast.
Processing Numerical Information Using Spreadsheets
A spreadsheet is a program designed to store and manipulate values, numbers and text in an efficient
and useful way.
Modeling:
Applications of spreadsheets
Financial application. Common applications include the production of cashflow forecasts,
accounting statements, invoices, purchase orders, sales orders, quotations, managing expenses
and project management
Modeling and simulation. Modeling involves creating a representation of an existing situation
or set of circumstances, while simulation involves predicting new situations or circumstances. In
both cases, a model is produced that provides a numerical representation of the situation or
circumstances being studied.
o What if? Analysis: this describes the ability to see the predicted effect of a change made
to a numerical model
Statistical analysis. All spreadsheet programs provide a wide range of tools that can be used to
analyze numerical information in a number of ways. Examples
o Goal seeking: in a spreadsheet, goal seeking describes a way of automatically changing
the values in a formula until a desired result is achieved.
o Many programs offer a descriptive statistics feature that can be used to generate
various summaries relating to a block of data. The spreadsheet performs a simple
analysis and automatically creates a set of descriptive statistics.
Features of a spreadsheet
Automatic formulas: many programs allow users to enter part of a formula, completing the rest
of it automatically. The auto sum feature for example is found in a number of different
programs and automates the generation of totals.
Formatting: all spreadsheet programs provide a variety of tools that can be used to enhance the
appearance of worksheets. A built-in range of numeric formats, for example, allows users to
display values as currency or to a fixed number of decimal places. Users may also adjust the
width and height of rows and columns, use different typefaces and make use of shading, colour
and lines
Functions: all spreadsheet contain a number of built-in functions that can be used to simplify
the construction of a worksheet. Functions are normally divided into a number of different
categories so that users can locate them easily. Some typical categories include:
o Date and time: these allow users to perform calculations dealing with dates, e.g.
calculating the number of working days between two dates.
o Database: typical functions include the ability to sort rows or columns into specified
order.
o Financial: these provide a variety of financial and accounting functions, e.g. the ability
to calculate loan repayments based on factors such as the interest rate and the amount
borrowed.
o Logical: these allow users to create formulas that perform calculations according to
whether or not specific conditions have been met.
o Lookup and reference: these provide a range of functions that can be used to create
more sophisticated worksheets. E.g. a user might wish to create a formula that looks up
a value from a table
o Mathematics: these include mathematical and trigonometry functions, such as
factorials, exponential numbers and square roots
o Statistical: these allow users to produce statistical information, such as frequency
distributions.
o Text: these provide various methods for manipulating text, such as converting a piece of
text into a value.
Charts: an integral feature of spreadsheet programs is the ability to create a variety of different
charts based on the data held in the worksheet. These include bar charts, line graphs, area
charts. The charts created by spreadsheet programs are often described as live or dynamic,
meaning that if the data in the worksheet is altered, the chart will be updated automatically in
order to reflect the changes.
Workbooks and multiple worksheets: modern packages enable a user to organize groups of
worksheets within a single workbook. In addition, several workbooks can be opened at the same
time. This facility allows users to carry out large or complex tasks more easily and quickly.
Views and scenarios: modern spreadsheet packages is the ability to create views on the data
held in a worksheet or workbook. The use of views enables to focus on specific sections of the
worksheet by displaying data in a predetermined way. E.g. a manager might wish to view only
the summary information held in a worksheet. In order to cater for this, a view could be created
that displays only the required information, hiding all other data from sight.
Database functions: the way in which data is organized within a worksheet, by rows and
columns, means that all spreadsheet programs are capable of being used to perform simple
database operations. Although spreadsheet programs are clearly unable to offer the
functionality of a specialized database program, all programs offer the basic functions of
queries, filters and sorting.
Data analysis tools: the majority of modern spreadsheet packages contain a number of tools
designed to automate common data analysis tasks. These tools remove the need for users to
memorize complex formulae and perform all calculations automatically.
Import/export of data: spreadsheet programs are able to deal with data drawn from a variety of
different sources. In many cases, files produced by other packages can be imported directly into
a worksheet with no loss of data.

Storage and retrieval of information using databases
Prior to the introduction of electronic database systems, almost all of the information an organization
needed to store was organized using manual filling systems. Typical methods included filing cabinets and
card index records. Although manual filing systems are used widely are still used widely, electronic
databases are also commonplace and are considered to provide a number of important benefits to
business organizations.
Disadvantages of manual filing
The way in which information is organized largely determines the uses to which it can be put.
For example, if a list of customers is stored in alphabetical order by name, it is difficult to view
customers by location.
It is often difficult to retrieve specific items of information quickly
It might not be possible to add, amend or delete the information held in a manual record
without creating a new copy of the record
It is sometimes difficult to classify information so that it can be stored in the correct location.
This makes it difficult to locate specific items of information at a later date.
If information is used regularly by a number of different individuals or departments, multiple
copies of manual files may need to be maintained. This alone can introduce a number of
difficulties arising from the duplication of data e.g.
o Extra expense is incurred in terms of the additional storage space and labour power
required to maintain files
o Changes made to one set of files may not be reflected in all copies. This can mean that
some files contain outdated information, while others may contain new additional
details.
o If a standardized filing system is used, this may not suit the needs of all users. On the
other hand, the use of different filing systems creates problems in maintaining files and
location information.
Advantages of electronic databases
A database will allow users to organize information in a variety of different views. The
information can be reorganized quickly. This allows an organization to maximize its usage of
information it holds, through techniques such as data mining.
The powerful search facilities provided by electronic database programs can be used to locate
and retrieve information many thousands of times faster than by manual methods.
An electronic database provides facilities for users to add, amend or delete records as required.
Additional facilities simplify data entry and assist in managing the information held.
Sophisticated indexing features mean that the same basic information can be stored under a
number of different categories. This provides great flexibility and allows users to locate, retrieve
and organize information needed.
Databases used throughout a company are usually accessed by many different users across a
network system. Some advantages of this approach include:
o Since the unnecessary duplication of information is minimized, the costs involved in
maintaining records are reduced
o Any changes made to the information held in the database are reflected to all users,
ensuring consistency at all times
o Although information is held in a structured manner, the database software will
normally provide sufficient flexibility to meet the different requirements of individual
users and departments.

An overview of the types of database
Database: a collection of related information stored in an organized way so that specific items can be
selected and retrieved quickly. A database need not involve the use of technology examples of manual
databases include telephone directories, address books, diaries and card index files.
Database Management Systems
One or more computer programs that allow users to enter, store, organize, manipulate and retrieve
data from a database.
Field
Fields and records organize the data in an electronic database. A field is a single item of information,
such as a name or a quantity
Record
This is a collection of related fields
Table
In an electronic database, data is organized within structures known as tables. A table is a collection of
many records.
Databases management systems
The introduction of database management systems altered the way in which organizations managed
their data resources.
Characteristics of DBMS approach
Programs include a range of general purpose tools and utilities for producing reports or
extracting data.
The availability of general purpose tools enabled not-technical users to access data, extract
records and produce reports with little support from technical staff
The use of DBMS encouraged organizations to introduce standards for developing and operating
their databases.
Approaches to file processing
Three basic approaches have become popular for design of electronic databases:
File processing
Database management systems
Relational database management systems
File processing
Early data processing systems were based around numerous files containing large amounts of data
related to daily business transactions. As a result, many organizations found themselves in a position
where they held large amounts of valuable data but were unable to maximize their use of it. A major
problem stemmed from the fact that the data held was often stored in different formats, for example
completely different structures might be used to store details of sales and purchases.
Characteristics of file processing
Data was held separately from the programs that made use of it
Programs were limited in functionality as they were often created to perform a single task-
carrying out new tasks often resulted in a need to create a completely new program.
Since a relatively high degree of technical knowledge was needed to create and operate
programs, non-technical users often found it difficult to access the information they needed.
The process of developing new programs each time new requirements needed to be addressed
was considered expensive, time consuming and inefficient

This type of database is sometimes described as having a flat file structure (a self-contained database
that only contains one type of record or table and cannot access data held in other database files). Flat
file databases are suited to relatively small applications where the data held does not need to be cross-
referenced with other data files. Since the structure of a flat file tends to be quite simple, data can be
processed very quickly. E.g. an address book
Free form database
A free form database allows users to store information in the form of brief notes or passages of text.
Each item can be placed within a category or assigned to one or more keywords. Information is
organized and retrieved by using categories or keywords
A modern variation of free-form databases comes in hypertext databases. In a hypertext database
information is stored as a series of objects and can consist of text, graphics, numerical data and
multimedia data. Any object can be linked to any other, allowing storing disparate information in an
organized manner.
Both free form and hypertext databases provide great flexibility in terms of the type and content of the
information stored. However they are unsuitable for certain applications, e.g. those involving complex
data from across an organization.
An example of a free form database is in the help files found within most software packages. An
example of a hypertext database could be the pages available via the World Wide Web.

Database Management Systems
The introduction of database management systems altered the way in which organizations managed
their data resources. Although data was still held separately from the programs that made use of it, this
new approach offered greater flexibility while reducing development and operating costs.
Characteristics of DBMS
Programs included a range of general-purpose tools and utilities for producing reports for
extracting data. This meant that comparatively little development was needed in order to
undertake new tasks
The availability of general-purpose tools and utilities enabled non-technical users to access data.
Users were able to analyze data, extract records and produce with little support from technical
staff.
The use of DBMS encouraged organizations to introduce standards for developing and operating
their databases. E.g. many organizations developed standards governing the structure of any
new data files created.

Main Types of DBMS
Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS)
The popularity of the RDBMS approach grew from a need to share data resources across the entire
organization. Relational databases enable data to be stored within a number of different tables. They
are the most widely used type of database. Separate record designs can be used to store data dealing
with different subjects e.g. a database used for stock control might use separate record designs to store
information concerning items stocked, re-order levels and supplier details.
Primary Key:
The tables within a relational database can be linked together using one or more record keys. All records
must contain a unique record key called a primary key. Its used to identify a specific record.
Relationship: in a relational database, data can be combined from several different sources by defining
relationships between tables.
Compound key: in a relational database, it is possible to retrieve data from several tables at once by
using record keys in combination, often known as a compound key.
Object-oriented databases
An object oriented approach to database design employs the concept of reusable objects in order to
develop sophisticated or complex applications. An object combines data structures with any functions
needed to manipulate the object or data it holds.
Object-oriented database is made up of objects combining data structures with functions needed to
manipulate the object or the data it holds. As an example, an object called Employee might be created
to store details such as name, address, and age etc. to be stored. In addition, the object would also
contain facilities that allow various actions to be performed, such as changing an employees address:
Advantages of object-oriented databases

Since objects are self-contained, they are easy to manage, for example changes can be made to an
individual object without necessarily altering any other part of the system.
New objects can be created quickly and easily from existing ones.
Objects can be copied or transferred into new systems with little difficulty
Features of relational database management systems
Multiple tables. The majority of modern database programs support the creation of relational
databases containing several linked tables.
Forms. All major database programs enable to create and modify data entry forms. A data entry
form provides a convenient means of viewing, entering, editing and deleting records.
Indexes. An index stores information concerning the order of records in the database. The index
lists the location of records but does not alter the actual order of the database. They are used to
increase the speed with which records can be located or sorted. Multiple indexes can be created
so that the records in the database can be sorted in a variety of ways.
Security. All modern database programs provide a range of sophisticated security features.
Examples of some of the most common features available include:
o Encryption. Data can be encoded so that it appears meaningless until decoded.
Passwords provide control over the encryption and decryption process
o Recovery. Many programs contain tools that allow damaged database files to be
repaired. In the event that a file cannot be repaired, additional tools may be available
that allow users to retrieve as much data as possible from the damaged file.
o Passwords. Access to specific files or tables can be restricted through the use of
passwords. Several passwords can be used to limit what parts of the database different
users can view or alter.
Reports. All major database packages allow users to generate a wide variety of reports. Many
programs are capable of creating simple reports automatically. In addition, many programs
allow users to perform calculations and other actions as the report is produced. This enables
additional information, such as subtotals, to be calculated and included in the report whenever
required.
Queries. A query enables a user to locate, sort, update or extract records from a database. Its
used to extract data according to a set of conditions specified by the user. Users a design query
by specifying the conditions that must be met in order for a record to be selected.
Filters. A filter allows users to view the information held in a database in variety of ways. Filters
can be used to sort data into different orders, display only selected fields or display only
selected records
Structured query language. This provides a standardized method for retrieving information from
databases. Although traditionally used to manage large databases held on mainframes and
minicomputers, it has become a widely used popular tool for personal computer databases.
Macros. This is a programming tool that can be used to handle extremely complex tasks.
Data analysis tools. The majority of modern database programs contain a number of tools
designed to automate common data analysis tasks. The ability to generate charts and graphs,
for example is a common feature.
Import/export of data. Database programs are able to deal with data drawn from a variety of
different sources. In many cases, files produced by other packages can be imported directly into
a database with no loss of data.
Electronic Mail
E-mail can be defined as the transmission of a message over a communications network.

Typical Applications

Internal Communications: many organizations use e-mail instead of internal memos or telephone calls.
This has the advantage of the messages being stored automatically until the user comes to access it.
Teleworking: this refers to working from geographically dispersed locations e.g working from home
using technology as a means of communicating with employers, clients and other persons.
Advantages of e-mail
Speed. E-mail messages can be transmitted very fast
Cost. The cost of sending and receiving messages is considered very low. Hundreds of messages can
be sent or received for the cost of a brief telephone call, making e-mail far cheaper than the postal
service.
Multiple copies. E-mail allows multiple copies of the same basic message to be created and
transmitted.
Auditing. Even the simplest e-mail package will provide a number of features that allow users to
audit their messages. Most programs allow users to keep copies of any messages they produce,
automatically marking them with the date and time they were created.
Sharing data. E-mail messages can be used to transmit data files to other users. Files can be
attached to messages and transmitted in the actual way.
Multimedia. The latest e-mail packages allow users to include multimedia elements, including
graphics, video, and hyperlinks to information on the Internet and sound files.
Group work. E-mail supports group work and remote working. Group work involves several people
working on the same project, using IT to help them communicate with each other and share data
files. Remote working (teleworking) involves people working away from a central office-perhaps at
home-but staying in contact through e-mail and other methods.
Flexibility. The hardware and software used for handling e-mail can also be used for a variety of
other purposes. A typical modem, for example, can also be used to send or receive fax messages.
Disadvantages
Routing. E-mail messages seldom take the most direct route to their destinations. This can lead to a
number of difficulties:
o The time taken to receive the message can be very long
o The are more opportunities for the message to become lost or garbled
o There are more opportunities for messages to be intercepted
Cost. In order to send or receive e-mail, organizations must have access to the correct hardware and
software. The expense of buying new equipment, such as a PC with modem, can mean that it is
beyond the reach of smaller companies.
Technical issues. Since using an e-mail service requires a certain level of technical knowledge, novice
users may find it difficult to operate the hardware and software involved. This can place a burden on
an organization in terms of training and technical support requirements.
Spam. Most e-mail users receive unwanted messages, such as advertisements. The act of sending
out these messages is usually called spamming. Dealing with unwanted or unnecessary e-mail
messages can place a great burden on an organizations resources.
Security. Unless they are encrypted, e-mail messages can be intercepted relatively easily. This makes
e-mail unsuitable for sending confidential information unless special precautions are taken.

Features of an e-mail package
Message Editor: All packages provide a facility to allow users to enter the text of a new
message.
Message Reader: all e-mail programs are designed to collect new messages and allow users to
view them on the screen. Most programs also enable users to print the contents of a message or
copy the text into another program, such as a word processor.
Replying to messages: most packages will automatically include the e-mail address, subject and
the text of message being replied to. This enables a user to annotate a message that has been
received and return their comment to the sender.
Filters: filters provide the ability to mark messages for special attention. It searches for a
keyword or phrases in a message. Any messages matching the filter conditions can be dealt with
automatically. They can be used to highlight messages for special attention, delete messages
automatically, copy or move messages to another location or reply to incoming messages
automatically.
Mail boxes: most packages provide facilities for archiving, copying, moving, deleting and
grouping messages. Mailboxes can be created to hold messages from certain people or
concerning a particular subject.
Encryption: many programs provide the facility to encode messages so that only intended
recipients can read them.
File attachments: data files such as word-processing documents can be attached to messages
and sent to other users. Many packages have the ability to encode and decode files
automatically so that they can be sent and received with little difficulty.
Aliases and address books: the process of sending messages to specific individuals or groups
can be simplified by making use of aliases. An alias usually consists of a description and the e-
mail addresses of those grouped under the alias. Groups of aliases can be stored within the
address book tool found within most e-mail packages. The address book enables users to create,
delete, edit, and organize aliases.
Signatures: a signature file contains information that can be automatically added to the end of
an e-mail message. The signature file is normally a simple text file that can be created or edited
using a text editor or similar program.



Chapter 3: Adoption of Information Technology

Acquisition or procurement of a computer.
Introduction of computers into the business is an act that should be considered with great concern,
because it involves capital expenditure and therefore should be cost effective. The effects of introducing
the computer and its related facilities are investigated in great depth to ensure that adequate returns
are expected from such an investment.
Computer costs.
This depends on: -
Size
Nature
Application requirements of the organization

Big and complex organizations may require complex configuration and sophisticated related facilities
whereas small and simple organizations may require less sophisticated computer installations.
Classification of Computer Costs
i) Initial Costs
Are initial capital expenditures on the computer facilities when they are being acquired.
Are normally considerable
The costs are influenced by the method of acquiring the computer and its related facilities adopted and
o the type, nature and model of the facilities to be acquired.

Computer Initial Costs
Facility Examples
Hardware CPU and peripherals
Software System and Application programs
Media Tapes, Disks, Cassettes
Training Managers, Analysts, Programmers, operators
Computer room Construction, Environmental conditions equipments etc
Others Feasibility study, programming, changeover costs etc


ii) Recurrent Costs:
These are the operating costs which are met by the organization for the computer system after the
system becomes operational. The costs are influenced by the method of acquisition adopted.
Examples of operational costs
i) Depreciation costs e.g. Charges on depreciating machines and other equipments e.g. air
conditioning facilities
ii) Wages for staff e.g. Analysts, programmers, operators.
iii) Administrative expenses e.g. telephone bills, insurance cover, and consumable items etc.
iv) Other general expenses e.g. conducting seminars, on job training staff etc.

Functions of Computer
The main functions or purposes of computers are: -
To maintain control of business operations
To provide the required information more effectively and accurately.

Main uses of computers in organization
i) Preparation of payroll
It calculates gross pay, PAYE, social contributions like NSSF, NHIF etc and after these deductions, the net
pay of the employees is determined.
ii) Stock Control
The records of stock in respect of goods purchased and sold are maintained by the computer. The
computer contains the information regarding the items purchased, sold. Price, stock reference and the
re-order-level.
iii) Records of Debtors
The computers maintain the records of debtors to ensure that they pay in time. Over-due debtors are
pin-pointed by computer.
iv) Budgetary controls:
Computers are used to prepare the budgets and ensure the proper implementation of these budgets.
The computer can alert the management when the actual performance of the organization varies from
the planned program.

v) Production Control
The computers are used to control the production level thus computer help the management to make
correct decisions.
Advantages of a computer:
iii) Speedy processing of information hence may be cost saving e.g staff costs, equipment cost etc.
iv) Accurate results are obtained are obtained from computers
v) Computers can work continuously without getting bored or tired
vi) Computer can work on voluminous data items provided relevant instruction set is input
vii) Computer can operate in risky environment e.g volcanic e,g volcanic sites, lethal chemical plants,
where human life is feared.
viii) The computer is flexible i.e. can adapt to any work load without much strain.
ix) Computer produces reliable information
x) Large volume of data can be conveniently stored, assessed and altered.
xi) Computers can provide useful information to management for control and decision making
xii) Computers help to reduce paper works significantly
xiii) The number of persons required for performing various organizational activities will be reduced by
using a computer system.
xiv) The use of computer for office activities reduces the requirements of office space which otherwise is
required.

NB: The above benefits may be classified as cost saving, improved data processing quality and better
management information.
Disadvantages of Using a Computer
i) Computers are costly
ii) Due to the rapid change in the technology, the computer and related facilities can become outdated
very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss
iii) Changing from the old system (The manual system) is a gradual process during which there is
interruption in the normal working environment.
iv) There is usually fear that installing the computer into an organization might result in replacing some
human employees.
v) Controlling the computer master files contents is difficult exercise due to the fact that the contents
of the master files of computer based systems are non human sensible. There is further fear also
that such contents may suffer from fraudulent acts by the people who know them.
vi) Manual systems, though slow, are more flexible as compared to the computerized systems.

Resistance from employees (Reasons)
i) Fear of change: people are creatures of habit and hence are afraid of change.
ii) Fear of losing their jobs: people usually associate the computer with loss of jobs and hence will be
afraid that they might end up losing their jobs.
iii) Fear of failure: Since the computer is very new in a given working environment the people will be
afraid that they might never adapt to it.
iv) Loss of control: The management will be afraid that once a computer is implemented they might
lose control of the organization.
v) Lack of understanding: The user may not understand the benefits of the computer system in their
jobs. Thus this will create resistance since the computer will be looked upon as an intruder.

Procedure for procurement of a computer
Computer acquisition necessitates the formation of a steering committee, whose purpose is to supervise
the computer feasibility study and subsequently to monitor the electronic data processing (EDP)
operations.
The committee is made up of personnel from the various departments at various levels that are affected
by the introduction of the computer into the organization. The computer feasibility study should
establish the following:-
The need to acquire the computer facilities
How to finance the equipments i.e. the methods of procuring the equipments needed.
The computer equipments implementation considerations e.g. user training, changeover, time
scales etc.
The reaction of the personnel within the data processing department e.g. their resistance.

Prior to feasibility study, preliminary study is conducted to judge the expected costs and benefits,
computer word load so as to determine whether carrying out feasibility is necessary and to specify its
objectives. A detailed investigation of the work area is carried out based on the objectives set out from
the preliminary survey and a schedule is drawn, which takes care of both present and future application
requirements of the EDP system. Once the schedule is drawn the suppliers are asked to give a detailed
quotation.
Using the schedule, the supplier should specify the facilities necessary e.g.
The required h/w and s/w and maintenance offered by the manufactures
The cost estimates, depending on the method to adopted in financing the facilities
Back up equipments or procedures provided and capital involved in maintaining such strategy.
Adaptability of the proposed system to enhance data processing operations.
Training advice or seminars offered by the manufacturer.
Delivery dates.

The replies are evaluated by the steering committee and the decisions taken are contained in the
feasibility study report, which contains the following.
The recommended h/w, s/w and other facilities
The method of procuring the recommended equipment
Cost benefit appraisal of the recommended equipments against rejected ones
Installation consideration and the expected growth in the work load
The effect of computerization to the organization
NB: The report is handed to the top management for a decision, to either acquire the facilities of a
particular model or to take no action.
Methods of procurement of a computer
There are four methods namely
Rental
Purchasing
Leasing
Using Bureau

i) Renting a computer
The computer facilities are acquired and installed for use within the aspiring users premises at fixed
periodic charges e.g. monthly charges payable to the manufacturer.
Advantages
i) Tax allowances are available
ii) There is no large initial capital expenditure
iii) The effects of technological changes are reduced, because during the agreement period, the charges
are fixed hence inflation and maintenance is by the manufacturer and obsolete equipments can be
returned to him.
iv) The user has more flexibility to change the equipment configuration.

Disadvantages
i) This method is expensive in the long term, i.e. with time more computer varieties and related
facilities may be in market hence prices fall, but the rental charges remain fixed.
ii) The computer and related facilities remain the assets of the manufacturer and hence can not be
used by the renting company as a security e.g. while seeking loan facilities.
iii) In breach of the rental agreement, the computer, the computer and related facilities may be
repossessed by the manufacturer.
iv) The renting company usually pays more for any extra work done by the computer and its facilities
that was not covered in the rental agreement.
v) Productivity of the machines comes down with time but rental charges remain the same.


ii) Purchasing a computer

The user, which is the aspiring company, pays the manufacturer or supplier an amount equivalent to the
computer and related facilities value and the purchasing company owns the computer and the related
facilities.
Advantages
i) The computer and the related facilities become the assets of the buying company
ii) It may be cheaper in the long term with tax advantages
iii) Frequent expenditure is not expected, where the manufacturer enters maintenance agreement with
the buying company.
iv) The company can decide to sell the computer and or and/ or related facilities to generate cash,
which will depend on the market value of the facility to be sold.
v) Since the company owns the computer and related facilities, there are no extra charges for
additional work done as in renting.

Disadvantages
i) In long term the computer and related facilities may become obsolete hence the organization
suffers the loss due to the advancement in technology.
ii) There is large initial capital outlay but the returns are usually slow.
iii) Capital committed in purchasing the computer and its related facilities may be spent on other higher
returning investments for the organization
iv) Several other competing investment opportunities would have to be forgone in making the big cash
outflow for purchasing the computer.

iii) Leasing a computer

The leasing company (Lessor), installs the computer and its facilities in the users (lessees) premises.
The lessee then pays leasing charges to the lessor, who acquires the computer and its related facilities
from the manufacture and meets all the payments of the equipments values.
Leasing contracts are similar to rental contracts but usually for longer periods than those of renting.
Leasing contract charges are low and renewable even at lower rates compared to rental agreements.
Advantages
iii) Leasing charges are lower than the rental charges, and contracts are renewable even at lower rates
unlike rental agreements.
iv) In leasing, the extra work load for the computer system is not charged for by the lessor
v) It does not require heavy initial investment
vi) Lease expenditure being a revenue expense may be charged to the profit and loss account
vii) Maintenance charges are included in the lease charges
viii) Lease charges generally decline after a specified period

Disadvantages
i) Fixed charges are to met
ii) The computer and the related facilities may be repossessed by the lessor incase the leasing contract
is breached
iii) The computer and related facilities remain the assets of the lessor
iv) Maintenance contracts may not be guaranteed
v) In this arrangement, the lessee has got no choice over such facilities, because the lessor acquires
such facilities from the manufacturer of his choice
vi) The primary period for leasing is usually much longer than the renting period

iv) Using a bureau
A bureau is an organization which renders computer services to other companies which depend on such
services, its clients.
Computer bureaus can be companies, manufacturers, or users, with extra time to hire out, who work
with an aim of rendering services to the other companies.
They render the following services: -
i) System analysis and design
ii) Developing computer programs
iii) Computer time hire out, and do it-it- yourself.
iv) Advice and consultancy

Advantages
i) A company that is considering acquiring a computer may find it extremely beneficial to use a bureau
because: -
a) It can evaluate the type of computer it is interested in.
b) It can test and develop its programs prior to the delivery of its own computer
c) Its staff will become familiar with the requirements of a computer system.

ii) Many companies cannot justify the installation of an in-house computer on cost benefit grounds and
the use of a bureau does not require a high capital outlay
iii) Some computer users find it convenient to employ a bureau to cope with peak loads arising e.g.
from seasonal variation in sales
iv) A bureau computer may be used in the event of a breakdown of an in-house machine
v) It enables data processing to be done the people who have the expertise.
vi) It avoids the responsibility of operating an in-house computer i.e. it eliminates the personnel and
management problems caused by the employment of a group of highly paid technical professionals
in a rapidly changing and highly technical field of computer.
Disadvantages
i) The users of the bureau services have got no control over their jobs once they are submitted to the
bureau.
ii) Periodic audit is necessary because transportation of data and/or information from the organization
to the bureaus premises or vice versa, may pose problems e.g. fraud
iii) Control by individual companies is difficult because processing goes on at a remote location
iv) Confidential informations security is at risk.

Factors to consider when selecting the procurement method
i) Economic factors
i) Cost comparisons
ii) Acquisition methods
iii) Return on investment
ii) Hardware factors
i) Hardware performance, reliability, capacity and price
ii) Firmness of delivery date
iii) Accessibility of back-up facilities
iv) Presence or absence of modularity
v) Effective life of proposed hardware
vi) Compatibility with existing systems
iii) Software factors
i) Software performance
ii) Firmness of delivery date on the proposed software
iii) Availability and reliability of available software
iv) Availability of useful and well documented packaged programs
v) Ease of use and modification
iv) Service factors
i) Maintenance terms and quality
ii) Training facilities offered and quality of training provided
iii) Programming assistance and conversion assistance offered
iv) Facilities provided by the manufacturer for checking new programs
v) Reputation of a manufacturer
i) Financial stability
ii) Record of keeping promises



Chapter 4: Data Processing modes

DATA PROCESSING MODES
This involves collection and processing of the organizations data. Individual data units in an organization
are described as transactions. The computer system processes data with speed, accuracy and efficiency.
In order to increase the efficiency of a computer system, many innovations, both in h/w and s/w have
been made. These include the facility for a number of users to use a computer simultaneously or a
number of programs to be executed simultaneously etc.

Data processing modes describe the ways these transactions are handled during processing. They are
also known as data processing systems.

Batch Processing (Or Off-Line Processing)
It describes a mode in which the transactions are accumulated over a period of time and then
processed at a pre specified time to produce a batch of output.
It formed the basis for the early computers dealing with the transactions. It is still found in many
computer system of today even though there has been advanced techniques of handling the
transactions.
Data collection is usually done off-line in isolation of the CPU, on special machines known as
data entry terminals. The data so collected is input after a fixed time, processed and results
obtained (e.g. in payroll preparation)

Advantages
i. Simple to develop system.
ii. Timing of the reports (information) not a necessity.
iii. The unit cost of processing is low.
Disadvantages
i. Time lag between origination of transactions and information availability.
ii. Late information is not suitable in situations where instant decisions are required.
iii. It is difficult to provide the desired priority scheduling.

On-Line Processing

It is a type of processing where the result of data processing transaction is available immediately.
Its a mode in which all the computer peripherals and/or the other equipments eg communication
equipments are under direct influence of the central processor.
In this mode of processing, as soon as the input transactions are available they can be processed to
produce the information sought for.
The files are held on-line and hence enquiries or file interrogation is possible at any time. The
transactions can be input and master files be directly updated on spot.
It allows a dialogue to be established between the user or operator and the computers operating
system. (This may be done by use of commands).
On-line does not always imply that the work stations are within the same geographical location with the
central computer. It is possible for the on-line work station to be connected to the central computer
through telecommunication links.
In such a configuration, the data (input transactions) are communicated from the work stations via
telecommunication links to the central computer for processing and results communicated back to the
work stations through the telecommunication links.


VDUs as terminals (work stations) are connected to a centrally computer through communication links.
The communication links are either the telecommunication or cable links depending on the distance
separating the central computer and the terminals.

Examples of on-line applications include:
i. Banking on-line systems are being used to inform bank customers of the status of their
accounts in response to an inquiry by accessing the relevant file using on-line terminal.

ii. Stock exchanges terminals located in major stock exchanges throughout the country and the
officers of participating brokerage firms enable the speedy processing of share dealings.

iii. Stock controlterminals located in warehouses provide the means for automatic re-ordering
of stock ,reservations, follow-up of outstanding orders and the printing of picking lists etc.
iv. Work progress control in plants.
v. Inventory status or ordering and reporting of geographically dispensed distributors

Advantages
Files are maintained up to date
The information is readily available for current decisions. This information is fed back to
the work stations where they are needed.
File enquiries possible through the terminals (work stations).

Disadvantages
These systems are complex to develop.
They are costly in terms of the hardware, software, storage media, operating system,
communication facilities etc.

Time Sharing Processing
This is a mode in which case the central processor serves two or more users with different
processing requirements (tasks).
The central computer is therefore available to a variety of users, connected to the central
computer via communication links, who may wish to process their data and receive information
or test their programs. The computer work upon the users request (task) and the results are
communicated back to the work station via communication links.
The processor time is divided out appropriately among the user tasks into time slices, which is
the time during which an active job (task) has got the sole access to the processors resources.
Control is switched from one job to another under the influence of the operating system, intern,
hence the processors idle time is removed.

Characteristics of a time sharing system.
i. Each user one or more input /output devices connected to the central computer by
communication lines.
ii. Each user acts independently of the others who are connected to the system.
iii. The central computer accepts data and instructions arriving simultaneously from many
users and, by giving each user a small but frequently repeated segment of computer
time.
iv. The users data files are maintained at the central computer center.
v. Each user has its own private set of programs plus access to a set of public programs.
vi. The data files, programs, and input /output devices are all directly connected to the
computer, so that processing can be performed at random as transactions occur and
request mode.

Application
In bureau who serve individuals or small companies who cannot afford the computer facilities. This can
be applicable in learning institutions where there are many users.

Advantages
i. Better services to users, for the information/ output is fast
ii. The problem of the processor idle time is solved for the processor has not to wait for the slower
communicating peripherals.
iii. Files are held on-line hence enquiries or files interrogations possible.
iv. Man computer dialogues are often in use through terminals connected to the host (central)
computer.
v. Helpful to small companies which cannot afford purchasing the computer and related facilities,
thus served at a fee through time sharing processing mode.
vi. It avoids duplication of s/w
vii. The user of the system can avail the facility of the computer through remote terminals.

Disadvantages
i. The users have got no control over the central computer.
ii. The response time high (i.e. slow response) when there are many tasks.
iii. Ti is not reliable as regards the security of data.

Real Time Processing
Is a data processing system in which the time interval required to process and respond to inputs is so
small that the response itself is useful for controlling the physical activity of a process.
It provides immediate transaction input capability from all input originating stations.
Essential Requirements For Real Time Processing
a) Direct connection (on-line) between input/output devices and the central processor.
b) Fairly fast response time, allowing two way communication (interaction between the user and
central processor)

Example
An on-line production data collection system that simply accepts an input from terminals in the factory
and utilizes it for payments and costing purposes later would not constitute real time data processing
but it would be termed real time if the system was designed to provide immediate information resulting
in prompt changes to the functioning of the production process as and when necessary.
Applications
Real time processing is for applications that require much rapid response eg in airline
reservation system, an individual cannot be booked before prior enquiry whether the seat, class,
etc is available. Note that such information is required on spot before a decision to book the
individual is undertaken. This implies that before the next transaction can be processed, the files
must have been updated by the previous transactions. (Others: hotel reservations, cinema
bookings etc).
Other application areas are for example in chemical plants, when the temperature is to be
regulated then a rise in temperature require immediate reaction for correction, missile control
etc.

Advantages
i. The information is readily available for instant decision
ii. Provides better service to users or customers.
iii. It is a fast and reliable mode of data processing.

Disadvantages
i. They are complex systems that use complex operating systems hence very expensive.
ii. They are not easy to develop systems.
iii. Real time systems usually use two or more computers, sharing up the work load, the process
described as multi-processing, which is expensive.

Distributing Processing
Is a data processing system consisting of various geographically dispersed computers, liked by
communication lines and all the computers linked belong to the same organization.
This implies that the computers are located at various departments or business sites for the individual
departments or the business site to be served individually by its own computer resources.
The computers at different departments or business sites may not be communicating to each other at
all, the computers of limited processing power e.g. micro computers may serve as terminals from the
various departments or sites connected to a central computer of enhanced processing ability e.g. the
mini or the main frame computer.
A typical application is in banks where all the branches have intelligent terminals (usually
microcomputers) linked to a big computer at the head office. Data from the branches is sent to the
master where it is processed.
Advantages
i. Reduction of the load on the host computer.
ii. Minimization of cost in data processing due to the use of low cost mini computers.
iii. Reduction of delays in data processing.
iv. Better service to the customers.
v. Less risk of system breakdown.
vi. Less complexity of system design and implementation due to decentralization.
vii. Level of expertise required is less.

Disadvantages
i. Expensive because of extra cost on communication equipment.
ii. Data duplication is very common.
iii. Programming problems occur with micro and mini computers.
iv. More training needed for the users involved.

MULTYPROGRAMMING
It is a concept of having more than one program resident in the computer memory and are
being processed or executed apparently or currently i.e. simultaneously.
Scheduling the job for run or execution is done automatically by the processor under the
influence of the control program, the operating system, which in this case is described as
multi-programming or multi-tasking operation system.

Advantages
i. Increases productivity of a computer.
ii. Reduces the CPU idle time
iii. Reduces the incidence of the peripheral bound operations

Disadvantages
i. Requires more expensive CPU.
ii. Operating system is complex and difficult to operate.
iii. Requires more expensive input/output facilities

CLIENT SERVER ARCHITECTURE (COMPUTING)
In computer terms, client and server are both computer programs which reside on
different computers.
If two or more programs have to interact with each other for performing a task, one
must wait for requests from the other.
In this context, the server program is a passive program that waits for requests from
clients. Therefore, a server program endlessly waits for requests from one or more
clients. A client on the other hand, is an active program that initiates a request for the
request for the services of that server.
When one computer requests for the services of another, it is known as client-server
computing. The participating computers are known as client and server computers.
Servers service or fulfill the client requests, e.g. a server computer could store files, in
which a client computer may be interested.

Factors to consider in selecting the data processing mode
i. The suitability of accumulating data (transaction) into batches for processing.
ii. The need for direct information retrieval and/or file interrogations.
iii. The optimization of the processing time.
iv. The time factor of the information for decision making by the managers.
v. The cost of acquiring the relevant h/w, s/w media etc and the cost of maintenance.
vi. The ease of development, use and subsequent maintenance.
vii. The control over the resources e.g. files I/O devices etc.
viii. The necessity of data communication equipment and/or facilities and the involved costs and
convenience.
ix. The need for the shared resources among several users, who may afford purchasing their own
facilities as in time showing configuration system.

Chapter 5: Information and Information systems

Data and Information
Data
Is a collection of non-random facts recorded by observation or research
It consists of raw facts or observations that are considered to have little or no value until they have been
processed and transformed into information. Unrelated items of data are considered to be essentially
without meaning and are often described as noise
There are several definitions for data in common use:
A series of non-random symbols, numbers, values or words
A series of facts obtained by observation or research
A collection of non-random facts
The record of an event or fact
Examples:
Today data, measurement taken on a production line; records of business transactions.
Naturally occurring data needs to be recorded in some way. The person recording the data tends to
have a little influence or control over the data itself, since it already exists in a form or another.
Information
Information can be defined as:
Data that has been processed so that they are meaningful.
Data that has been processed for a purpose.
Data that has been interpreted and understood by the recipient

There are important points that that can be drawn from this definition:
a) There is a clear and logical process that can be used to produce information. This process
involves collecting data and then subjecting it to transformation process in order to create
information.
b) Information involves placing data in some form of meaningful context, so that it can be
understood and acted on.
c) Information is produced for a purpose, to serve an information need of some kind.

Examples of information
i. A bank statement
ii. A sales forecast
iii. A telephone directory
NB: it is worth noting that information is subjective in nature; a piece of information found to be of
value to one person may be meaningless to another. Similarly, what might be regarded as information
by one person may be seen as data by another. A somewhat different view of information can be
examined by introducing an additional definition.
I.e. information acts to reduce uncertainty about a situation or event.
NB: information:
i. Involves transformation of data using a defined process.
ii. Involves placing data in some form of meaningful context.
iii. Is produced in response to an information need and therefore serves a specific purpose;
iv. Helps to reduce uncertainty, thereby improving decision behavior.

Creating information
A number of different data processes can be used to transform data into information.
Data processes
i. Classificationthis involves placing data into categories, for example categorizing an expense
and either a fixed or a variable cost.

Data Transformation process information

ii) Rearranging /sorting this involves organizing data so that items are grouped together or placed into
a particular order. Employee data for example might be sorted according to last name or payroll
number.
iii) Aggregating: this involves summarizing data, for example by calculating averages, totals or
subtotals.
iv) Performing calculations: an example might be calculating an employees gross pay by multiplying
the number of hours worked by the hourly rate of pay.
v) Selection. This involves choosing or discarding items of data based on a set of selection criteria. A
sales organization, for example, might create a list, of potential customers by selecting those with
incomes above a certain level.

Value of Information
When information is used effectively, it can bring about many of the improvements listed below.
i) Improved inventory control
ii) Enhanced customer service
iii) Increased production reduced administration costs
iv) Greater customer loyalty
v) Enhanced public image

Sources of Information
Formal communication
This involves presenting information in a structured and consistent manner. Since formal information
tends to be presented in a more structured manner, it is also more likely to present a more
comprehensive view of situations or circumstances it describes. Information transmitted by formal
communication tends to be presented in a consistent manner, e.g. company reports, will often use the
same basic format. Information transmitted this way is likely to be accurate and relevant, since it is
normally created for a specific purpose.
Disadvantages
a. The structure imposed on information is often inflexible, sometimes limiting its type, form and
content.
b. Formal communication often overlooks information obtained by informal means. This can lead to a
number of negative effects e.g. managers are less likely to be able to gain in-depth understanding
of a particular situation if they do not have access to all relevant information. In turn this can affect
the decision making process, reducing the quality and accuracy of any decision made.
c. Formal communication often ignores group and social mechanisms. A formal report e.g. might
marginalize or ignore staff opinions, causing offence and leading to reduced morale.
Informal communication
This describes less well-structured information that is transmitted by informal means, such as casual
conversation between members of staff. Informal communication tends to offer a high degree of
flexibility, since there is more freedom to choose how information is structured and presented.
Information obtained this way also tends to be highly detailed, although it may often contain
inaccuracies and may not be entirely relevant.
The scope of information obtained this way is often very narrow, relevant only to localized problem
solving and decision making, since it allows managers to gain a more detailed and in-depth
understanding of a given situation.
Disadvantages
a. It cannot deal with large volumes of information
b. Its relatively slow and inefficient
c. It can also be highly selectively e.g. a person taking part in a conversation may be able to restrict
what information is transmitted and who is able to receive it.
d. Informal communication is often ignored in favor of formal communication

Qualities of Information
Summary
Time Content Form Additional Characteristics
Timeliness Accuracy Clarity Confidence in source
Currency Relevance Detail Reliability
Frequency Completeness Order Appropriate
Time Period Conciseness Presentation Received by the correct person
Scope Media Sent by the correct channel

Time Horizon
The time dimension describes the time period with which the information deals and frequency with
which the information is received
Timeliness- The information should be available when needed. If information is provided too early, it
may not be relevant. If the information is provided too late, it will be of no use.
Currency- The information should reflect current circumstances when provided. In addition to being up
to date, the information should also indicate those areas or circumstances liable to change by the time
the information is used.
Frequency: information should also be available as often needed. This normally means that information
should be supplied at regular intervals e.g. some organizations may require weekly sales reports while
others need only monthly reports.
Time period: The information should cover the correct time period. A sales forecast e.g. might include
information concerning past performance, current performance and predicted performance so that the
recipient has a view of past, present and future circumstances.
Content Dimension
This describes the scope and content of information
Accuracy: information that contains errors has only limited value to the organization.

Relevance: The information supplied should be relevant to a particular situation and should meet the
information needs of the recipient. Extraneous detail can comprise other attributes of information
quality, such as scope and conciseness.
Completeness: All of the information required to meet the information needs of recipient should be
provided.
Conciseness: Only information relevant to the information needs of the recipient should be supplied.
Information should be provided in the most compact form possible. E.g. sales figures are normally
provided in the form of a graph or table- it would be unusual for them to be supplied as a descriptive
passage of text.
Scope: The scope of the information supplied should be appropriate to the information needs of the
recipient.
Form Dimension
Clarity: The information should be presented in a form that is appropriate to the intended recipient. The
recipient should be able to locate specific items quickly and should be able to understand the
information easily.
Detail: The information should contain the correct level of detail in order to meet the recipients
information needs e.g. In some cases highly detailed information will be required, while in others only a
summary will be necessary.
Order: Information should be provided in the correct order. E.g. Management reports normally contain
a brief summary at the beginning. This allows a manager to locate and understand the most important
aspects of the report before examining it at high level of detail.
Presentation: The information should be presented in a form that is appropriate to the intended
recipient. Different methods can be used to make information clearer and more accessible to the
recipient. E.g. it is common to present numerical information in the form of a graph or table.
Media: Information should be presented using the correct media. Formal information for example, is
often presented in the form of a printed report, whereas a presentation might make use of a slide
projector.
Additional Characteristics
Confidence in the source of the information received. Attempts should be made to obtain information
from sources considered to be reliable and trustworthy.

Reliability: Recipients should be confident that they can rely on information being available when that
and that the information will be of consistent quality in terms of other attributes of information quality,
such as accuracy and conciseness.

The Business environment
All business organizations operate within an environment that influences the way in which they operate
e g legislation will act to control some of the organization, activities.
The actions of an organization may also influence parts of the environment.


















Organization
Employee Relations
S
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Competitors
Legislation
T
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Economic Factors
P
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Weather
Location
Physical
Environment
General
Environment
Specific
Environment
Customers
MANAGERIAL DECISION MAKING
In order for an organization to function effectively, all activities must be managed in an efficient and
organized manner.
The role of managers to forecast and plan, to command, to co-ordinate and to control.
Much of managers work involves making decisions about the best way to achieve the organizations
objectives.
A forecast, for example, is created to help managers decide what actions are necessary to prepare the
organization for the future.
The success of all of the activities of management depends on access to high quality information.
It is here that information system have a role, as a means of supporting managers work by providing the
information he or she needs.
DECISION BEHAVIOR
The way in which managers make decision and the factors that influence those decisions are often
described as decision behavior.
Decisions can be classified as structured or unstructured (sometimes referred to as programmable and
unprogrammable decisions).
Decision behaviordescribes the process and factors involved when people make decisions.
Structured decisionstend to involve situations where the rules and constrains governing the decision
are known. They tend to involve routine or repetitive situations where the number of possible actions is
relatively small.
Example
Stock controlthe decision to reorder a given item will be governed by a fairly simple set of rules and
constraints when the amounts of stock falls below a certain point, a fixed quantity of stock will be
ordered
Unstructured decisions
Tend to involve more complex situations where the rules governing the decision are complicated or
unknown. Such decisions tend to be made infrequently and rely heavily on the experience, judgment
and knowledge of the decision maker.
Example whether or not an organization should open a new branch in a particular area.

A model of decision making.
Intelligence stage involves gathering information concerning the decision to be made. It recognizes
that managers must be made aware that a problem exists before any action can be taken. Once a
problem has been identified, information is collected in order to achieve a thorough understanding of
the problem and circumstances in which it arose.
Design Stage: As many as possible of the potential solutions to the problem are identified and
evaluated. The decision maker begins to discard unsatisfactory solutions in order to reduce the number
of alternatives as far as possible. The solution to be implemented is then chosen.
Implementation Stage
Having made a decision, the action required to achieve a resolution to the problem is taken in the
implementation stage
Evaluation
Following implementation, the evaluation stage considers how successful the solution has been.
Summary
Stage Activities
Intelligence -Awareness that a problem exists
-Awareness that a decision must be made
Design -Identify all possible solutions
-Examine possible solutions
-Examine implications of all possible solution
Choice -Select best solution
Implementation -Implement solution
Evaluation -Evaluate effectiveness or success of decision


Levels of decision taking
The characteristics of decisions taken in an organization vary according to the level at which they are
taken.
Strategic level
Managers are largely concerned with long-term organizational planning
Decisions tend to be unstructured and are made infrequently
Decisions at this level have large impact on the organization as a whole and cannot be reversed
easily.
Example
A choice of new markets into which to move
Tactical level
Managers are concerned with medium term planning. They monitor the performance of the
organization, control budgets, allocate resources and set policies.
Decisions taken at this level are used to set medium term goals that form stages leading to the
accomplishment of the organizations strategic objectives.
Example
Setting a departmental budget
Operational Level
Managers deal with short term planning and day to day to control of the organizations activities.
The decisions taken at this level direct the organizations efforts towards meeting the medium-term
goals, abiding by the budgets policies and procedures set at the tactical level.
Decisions here tend to be highly structured and have little impact on the organization as a whole.
Example
Setting a daily or weekly production schedule


Decision Characteristics and Management levels

Management
Level
Type of Decision Time Scale Impact on
organization
Frequency of
Decisions
Strategic Unstructured Long Large Infrequent
Tactical Medium Medium
Operational Structured Short Small Frequent



Strategic
Tactical
Operational
Information Characteristics for decisions by management level

Management
Level
Time
Period
Frequency Source Certainty Scope Detail
Strategic Wide Infrequent External Less certain Wide Summarized
Tactical
Operational Narrow Frequent Internal More Certain Narrow Detailed









Chapter 6: Basic Concepts- An introduction to Information Systems

A system is composed of a group of related components that work towards a common goal. These
components include inputs, processes, outputs, feedback and control.
An information system converts data into information products. This information is used to support the
activities of managers. Information systems make use of people resources, hardware resources,
Business information systems take advantage of the benefits of information technology and are often
grouped into two broad categories
Operations information systems are concerned with process control, transaction processing
and productivity. These include Transaction processing systems, process control systems and
office automation systems.
Management information systems provide feedback on organizational activities and support
managerial decision-making. These include information reporting systems, decision support
systems and executive information systems.
Other categories of business information systems include expert systems, business information systems,
end user computing systems and strategic information systems.
NB: In order to gain strategic advantage, companies will often adopt one of the three basic competitive
strategies: cost leadership, product differentiation or business innovation. Strategic information systems
can be used to support attempts to gain competitive advantage through a number of different
approaches. These include improving operational efficiency, raising entry barriers, creating high
switching costs and gaining information leadership.


Categories of business information systems















Operational systems
Operational systems are used for tasks involved in the daily running of a business. Their performance is
often vital to an organization and they are sometimes are described as mission critical or strategic
information systems. The three most common types of information systems are: -
Transaction processing systems (TPS)-used to manage the exchange of information and funds
between a company and third parties such as customers and distributors
Office automation systems (OAS)- Used to manage the administrative functions in an office
environment and are often critical to service based industries.
Process control systems-are important in manufacturing industries for controlling the
manufacture of goods.


Strategic
Tactical
Operational
Transaction Processing
Competitor
Analysis
Cash flow
forecast
Sales order invoice
Executive Information Systems
Decision Support Systems
Information reporting systems
Office automation systems
Transaction processing systems
Processing control systems
Types of information Systems
Examples of Decisions made
Transaction processing systems (TPS)
These perform the frequent routine external and internal transactions, which serve the operational level
of the organization. Transactions involve recording events within or between a business and third
parties, which incorporate the exchange of information regarding different services.
Examples
Customer placing orders for products and services from a company such as making a holiday
booking
A company placing orders with a supplier for components from which to make its products
Payments for goods or services received by a third party
A customer visiting a supermarket to shop
A customer ringing a call center of a bank to pay her bills
A withdrawal of money from an auto-teller machine
Although the functions undertaken by TPS are routine and repetitive, they usually perform a vital
function in the organization.
Components of a TPS
Data- Is usually input by being keyed in to onscreen data entry forms such as those used when orders
are placed by phone. For retail applications, customer transactions are recorded through bar-code
technology.
Database-storage and retrieval are often handled by a database management system except where high
performance is required.
There are two main types of transaction processing systems in operation.
Batch systems-collect information on transactions in batches before it is processed at times of
lower transaction rates (Such as overnight)
Real-time-Process information immediately
Information from the transaction processing system is accessed in the branch and in head office using
online reporting e.g. to find stock availability, or offline reporting where information is stored in a
separate system for detailed analysis.
NB: Because the TPS gives direct contact with customers and suppliers beyond the boundary of an
organization, if it fails, it becomes immediately apparent to the organizations customers. Therefore
these are the mission critical systems that must be reliable and secure. Also data captured by TPS is used
to monitor the performance of the organization.
Office Automation systems (OAS)
These are information systems intended to increase the productivity of office workers. Examples
include: groupware, workflow and general purpose application such as word processors and
spreadsheets.
Role of OAS
They coordinate and manage the work of local, professional and information workers within the
organization
They link the work being performed across all levels and functions of the organization
They couple the organization to the external environment, including to its clients and suppliers;
when you call an organization, you call an office.
The roles emphasize the fact that the office should be seen as more than a typing area but rather as a
center for exchange of organizational knowledge.
Groupware
This is software that enables information to be shared by people collaborating on solving problems. This
could include activities such as the scheduling and running of meetings, sharing documents and
communicating over distance.
Groupware assists teams of people in working together because it provides the three Cs of
communication, collaboration, and coordination.
Communication- this allows information to be shared or sent to others using lectronic mail.
Groupware for conferencing is sometimes known as computer-mediated communication
software.
Collaboration-this is the act of joint cooperation in solving a business problem or undertaking a
task. It reduces problems of traditional meetings, such as finding a place and time to meet, lack
of available information or even dominance by one forceful individual in a meeting. It improves
the efficiency of decision-making and its effectiveness by encouraging contributions from all
group members.
Coordination-Is the act of making sure that a team is working effectively and meeting its goal.
This includes distributing tasks to team members, reviewing their performance or perhaps
steering an electronic meeting.

Main groupware functions
Groupware function Application
E-mail and Messaging E-mail, Electronic forms processing
Document management and information
sharing
Improved information dissemination
Collaborative authoring Team development of documents
Conferencing Text conferencing, video conferencing,
whiteboarding
Time management Calender and group scheduling
Groupware management and decision support Remote and distributed access to facilities
including replication and access control
Ad hoc workflow Loosely coupled collaboration
Structured workflow Structured management of tasks
Calendar and scheduling software
Calendar programs help organize meetings by allowing workgroup members to synchronize schedules.
E.g. a user willing to call a meeting can view the schedules of all other workgroup members. Having
picked a convenient date, time and location, the user enters this information into a calendar program.
The program can then automatically complete the rest of the process e.g. reserving resources such as a
meeting room, e-mail messages to remind users of the date of meeting.
Document conferencing software
This allows the members of a workgroup to work simultaneously on a given project. The program
automatically updates each users view of the document each time a change is made. The program will
also maintain a log containing the details of any changes or additions made by individual users.
Document imaging processing (DIP)
DIP systems attempt to alleviate the problems caused by paper-based systems, including the cost of
handling large amounts of paperwork and the time wasted searching for paper documents. DIP systems
convert documents (and images) into digital format, which allows storage, retrieval, and manipulation of
the document on computer. The document is converted using a scanner which can be either handheld
or passed over a document, or a flat-bed type where a document is placed on a glass sheet and scanner
reader passes under it.
Workflow Management Systems (WFMS)
Workflow is defined as the automation of a business process, in whole or part during which documents,
information or tasks are passed from one participant to another for action, according to a set of
procedural rules.
Workflow systems are used to automate business processes by providing a structured framework to
support the process. They help manage business processes by ensuring that tasks are prioritized to be
performed: as soon as possible, by the right people and in the right order.

Process control systems for operations management
Process control systems are used to manage manufacturing type processes. Operations management
involves the transformation of inputs, such as raw materials, equipment and labour, into outputs in the
form of goods and services.
The three main types of production facility that information systems can be used to support:
Repetitive: Production-line-type systems producing a standard product such as the model T Ford
car (this is equivalent of packaged software)
Job shop: production of individual jobs for individual customers according to the specific
requirements (this is equivalent to bespoke software)
Batch: intermediate between the two, a batch of identical products produced before changing
the production set up for the next batch of systems
Applications of process control systems
1) Managing material flows and production management.
a) Materials management.
There are three approaches to materials management.
Materials Requirements Planning (MRP): Aims to ensure that just the right amount of each
item is held at the right time in order to meet the manufacturing schedule.
Master Production Schedule (MPS): identifies what products are needed and when they are
needed on customers orders held and a forecast of future demand.
Bill of Materials (BOM): Is a file that provides a list of the components required to create
each product.
Inventory Status file (ISF): provides information on current stock level of each component.
b) Product /service design and development
Good design of products and services is an essential element in satisfying customer needs.
Information requirements are:
Market research to evaluate customer needs
Demand forecasts
Component costing
Technical specification of the product
c) Facility design: this concerns how capacity will be supplied by the organization to meet market
demand, that is, it involves the design of production facilities often using CAD/CAM software.
Information requirements are:
External sources on the state of competition and risks associated with not undertaking a
task in-house
Facility location needs to consider long-range demand forecasts and information on the cost
of land, the availability of appropriate skilled labour, transportation links and the quality of
local education and training services.

2) Software for operations management
a) Spreadsheets: Used in production planning applications
b) Statistical packages: can be used for applications such as inventory control and production levels
using linear programming.
c) Project management software: for project activities (e.g. development of new products). They
are useful for tactical management control. The PERT chart indicates the relationships between
activities in a project and the Gantt chart indicates the timing of activities.
d) Bar coding: this can scan a bar code on items delivered and components delivered within the
production system.
e) Programmable logic controllers: is a device that remembers a series of instructions and then
transmits them to a machine.
Management Information Systems
MIS are systems used to support tactical and strategic decision-making.
Decision-making theory

Management level Decision Types Information systems support
Strategic

Executive information systems
Tactical

Decision support systems
Expert systems
Operational

Transaction processing
systems

Example of decision types

Structured decision: operational planning
How should we process a sales order?
How do we perform quality control? E.g. measure conformance of product

Semi-structured decision: tactical planning
How do we target our most profitable customers and what are their characteristics?
Which foreign markets should we target?
What is the best pricing structure for this product?

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Unstructured decision: Strategic planning
Which business area should the organization be in?
How should the organization be structured?
What should our distribution channels be?
Decision support systems (DSS)
These are systems that provide information and models in a form to facilitate tactical and strategic
decision-making. They support management decision-making by integrating:
Company performance data
Business rules based on decision tables
Analytical tools and models for forecasting and planning
An easy-to-use graphical user interface
They are often developed by end users and are departmental rather than corporate systems. DSS tend
to be used for ad hoc queries rather than regular reporting. The technology varies particularly rapidly in
this area and the newest developments such as data warehouses attest to this.
Applications
Forecasting sales through geodemographic analysis
Optimizing distribution networks, using a model to select the best retail locations
Optimizing product mixes.

When used by teams of people to make decisions, they are sometimes known as GDSS or group decision
support systems. They are often implemented as specialized types of information systems such as data
warehousing, expert systems, geographical information systems or even spreadsheet models.
Functions /Objectives
The DSS should provide support for decision-making, but in particular semi-structured and unstructured
decisions
The DSS should not focus on a single level of management decision-making, such as tactical. Rather, it
should integrate across all levels in recognition of the overlap between operational, tactical and
strategic decisions.
The DSS should support all phases of the decision-making process outlined above
The DSS should be easy to use.

Components of DSS
Dialog: This component is used for achieving interaction with the user so they can formulate
queries and models and review results.
Data: information may need to be collected from a range of sources such as operational
systems, financial accounting systems or document sources such as internal documents or those
available on the Internet.
Model: The model component provides an analysis capability for the DSS. A financial model, for
example, may predict for given inputs what the future profitability of a company will be if it
continues on the present course.
Types of Decision Support Systems
a) Artificial Intelligence (AI). This is the term given to research into how computers reproduce human
intelligence. A useful method of considering different types of DSS is to consider the different types
of problem they can solve. The problems are considered in terms of four elements:
The data
The problem solving procedures
The goals and constraints
The flexibility of strategies among the procedures
The types of problems are:
Type I problems are structured in all of the four elements above
Type II problems have some incomplete data and partly understood goals and constraints
Type III problems are those in which rules can be defined in a knowledge base and the software
can then solve problems of a similar type
Type IV problems have aspects of both type II and Type III problems.
b) Expert systems
These are used to represent the knowledge and decision-making skills of specialists so that non-
specialists can take decisions. They encapsulate the knowledge of experts by providing tools for the
acquisition of knowledge, representation of rules and their enactment as decisions. They need to
contain information relevant to taking the decision. This is often referred to as the knowledge base and
includes the rules on which the decisions are based.
Applications
Gold prospecting
Medical diagnosis
Credit decisions and insurance underwriting
Product design, management and testing
c) Executive Information Systems
These systems provide senior managers with a system to assist them in taking strategic and tactical
decisions. Their purpose is to analyze, compare and highlight trends to help them govern the strategic
direction of a company. They are commonly integrated with operational systems, giving managers the
facility to drill down to find out further information on a problem.

EIS are intended as decision support tools for senior managers. Since these strategic decisions are based
on a wide range of input information, they always need to be well integrated with operational systems
in a business.
Features of EIS
They provide summary information to enable monitoring of business performance. This is often
achieved through measures known as critical success factors or key performance indicators.
They are used mainly for strategic decision-making but also provide features, which relate to
tactical decision-making.
They provide drill down feature, which gives a manager the opportunity to find out more
information necessary to take decision or discover the source of problem.
They provide analysis tools
They must be integrated with other facilities to help manage the solving of problems and the
daily running of the business. These include electronic mail and scheduling/ calendar facilities
They integrate data from a wide variety of information sources, including company and external
sources such as market and competitor information
They have to be designed according to the needs of managers who do not use computers
frequently. They must be intuitive and easy to learn.
Functions of EIS may include: -
Financial reporting
TQM reporting
Management reporting
Profit management
Enterprise budgeting
Executive information
Marketing Information Systems
Marketing refers to the range of specialist marketing functions carried out within many organizations.
Such functions include market research, brand/product management, public relations and customer
service.
It also refers to an approach or concept that can be used as the guiding philosophy for all functions and
activities of an organization. Such a philosophy encompasses all aspects of a business. Business strategy
is guided by an organizations market and competitor focus and everyone in an organization should be
required to have a customer focus in their job.
Marketing Information Systems support decisions making at the operational, tactical and strategic
levels. At the operational level, distribution information systems and telemarketing systems offer
assistance in day-to-day activities and provide information to areas such as inventory and customer
credit systems. Tactical marketing systems provide assistance in such areas as product pricing and sales
management information systems. At the strategic level, information from sales forecasting, marketing
research and competitive tracking systems helps management plan and develop new products
Application areas for marketing information systems

Sales information systems: employees involved in the sales area are required to identify
potential customers, negotiate the sale of goods and services with those customers and provide
a follow-up service. Sales information systems are available to support each of these tasks
Distribution information systems: speed of delivery is often an important aspect of service to
the customer. In order to ensure this, it is important that tracking systems are in place, which
can locate products during distribution of products. These tracking systems incorporate
technology such as mobile and satellite communications and open-based computing
Sales order processing systems (SOP): are usually based on financial area and provides a variety
of data that can be used for marketing purposes.
Sales and campaign management information systems: Provides information in support of
decision making at the tactical level. It will hold information on such aspects as sales
performance by geographic area, by product group and sales person.
Product pricing information systems: the price of a good will be dependent on a variety of
factors e.g. cost of producing the product or providing service, the required profit margins and
the prices of competitor goods. The pricing information system will collate information on cost
and predicted market demand at different price points and discounts in order to support the
pricing decision.
Sales forecasting information systems: at a strategic level it is necessary to provide sales
forecast data in order to help the long range strategic plan
Marketing research and analysis information systems: in order to ensure there is a demand for
the organizations goods and services, it is necessary to undertake market research. For a new
product, this may include information on demographic changes and customer feedback from
questionnaires and interviews indicating customer preferences.
Competitive tracking: knowledge of competitor prices, products, sales, and promotion is an
important factor in the development of a marketing strategy.
Telemarketing software: this software is designed to dial the telephone numbers of potential
customers automatically based on customer files maintained in a database. The software will
also allow notes to be stored on customer requests, generate follow-up letters and display
information gathered on the customer for reference as the call is taking place. Call centers use
computer-integrated telephony (CIT) to sell direct product lines such as insurance and personal
finance




Chapter 7: Introduction to Health Informatics


Informatics includes the science of information, the practice of information processing, and the
engineering of information systems.
Informatics studies the structure, behavior, and interactions of natural and artificial systems that
store, process and communicate information.
It also develops its own conceptual and theoretical foundations. Since computers, individuals and
organizations all process information, informatics has computational, cognitive and social
aspects, including study of the social impact of information technologies.

What is health informatics?

From the French informatique
Medical informatics, medical computing, computers in medicine,
Interdisciplinary field combining health sciences, computer science, statistics,
engineering, management sciences,
Many definitions.

an umbrella term referring to the application of the methodologies and techniques of information
science, computing, networking and communications to support health and health related
disciplines such as medicine, nursing, pharmacy, dentistry etc WHO

the field that concerns itself with the cognitive, information processing, and communication
tools of medical practice, education, and research including the information science and the
technology to support these tasks (Shortliffe)

Nursing informatics

Nursing informatics is the integration of nursing, its information, and information management
with information processing and communication technology, to support the health of people
worldwide.
Nursing Informatics is a specialty that integrates nursing science, computer science, and
information science to manage and communicate data, information, and knowledge in nursing
practice.



Who does health informatics serve?
Patient
Medical Profession
Government Bodies
Primary Care/GPs
National Agencies
Finance/Admin. Management in Hospitals
Tax Payers
General Population
The public
Policy makers (strategic management)
Regional managers/tactical management
Facility management/operational management
Health care providers
Healthcare researchers
Healthcare educators and their students
Will one solution suit all?

What services does Health Informatics involve?

Data processing (health is a data intense industry)
Includes collection, processing, transformation, presentation & use
Communication main emphasis should be on supporting communication between
people
Knowledge based services
Includes computerized bibliographic services, on-line collections on non-numerical
information such as practice guidelines, pharmacopoeias, essential drug lists, telephone
directories, expert, decision-support and reminder systems

What technologies does it employ?

Computers and networks

But dont forget paper-based information systems, including input to and output from the
computer

Applications of Health Informatics
For recording accurate data
To have data available in a timely manner
Support and inform managers to make better decisions
Resource allocation and planning
Email therapy
Risk management
Training
Support for shared care
Patient Assessment
Evaluation of patient care
Monitoring patients
Staff coordination
Tracking patients in hospital
Stock management
Tracking sterile supplies
Integration engines
Mobile computing
Drug control medication dispensing/ordering
Purchasing equipment
Payroll
Clinical Pathways
Labor management
Patient scheduling
Budget analysis
Research
Word processing
National database
Quality Assurance
Donor databases
Devices
Monitors
Analyzers
Imaging equipment


Imaging systems in Health
Impossible without the use of computers
Computers are used to:
Construct an image from measurements
Obtain an image reconstructed for optimal extraction of a particular feature from an
image
Present images
Improve image quality by image processing
Store and retrieve images
Ulstrasound, x-rays, computed tomography, MRI, nuclear imaging etc. .

Telehealth

Telehealth is the delivery of health-related services and information via telecommunications
technologies.
Telehealth delivery could be as simple as two health professionals discussing a case over the
telephone, or as sophisticated as using videoconferencing to between providers at facilities in
two countries, or even as complex as robotic technology.

Telehealth is an expansion of telemedicine, and unlike telemedicine (which more narrowly
focuses on the curative aspect) it encompasses preventive, promotive and curative aspects.
Originally used to describe administrative or educational functions related to telemedicine, today
telehealth stresses a myriad of technology solutions. For example, physicians use email to
communicate with patients, order drug prescriptions and provide other health services.



Clinical uses of telehealth technologies

Transmission of medical images for diagnosis (often referred to as store and forward
telehealth)
Groups or individuals exchanging health services or education live via videoconference
(real-time telehealth)
Transmission of medical data for diagnosis or disease management (sometimes referred
to as remote monitoring)
Advice on prevention of diseases and promotion of good health by patient monitoring
and follow-up


Nonclinical uses of telehealth technologies
Distance education including continuing medical education, grand rounds, and patient
education
Administrative uses including meetings among telehealth networks, supervision, and
presentations
Research
Online information and health data management
Healthcare system integration
patient movement and remote admission


Telehealth modes
Telenursing
Refers to the use of telecommunications and information technology for providing
nursing services in health care whenever a large physical distance exists between patient
and nurse, or between any number of nurses.
As a field it is part of telehealth, and has many points of contacts with other medical and
non-medical applications, such as telediagnosis, teleconsultation, telemonitoring, etc.


eHealth
eHealth (also written e-health) is a relatively recent term for healthcare practice which is
supported by electronic processes and communication. The term is inconsistently used: some
would argue it is interchangeable with health care informatics and a sub set of Health
informatics, while others use it in the narrower sense of healthcare practice using the Internet.
The term can encompass a range of services that are at the edge of medicine/healthcare and
information technology

Electronic Medical Records: enable easy communication of patient data between
different healthcare professionals (GPs, specialists, care team, pharmacy)
Telemedicine: includes all types of physical and psychological measurements that do not
require a patient to travel to a specialist. When this service works patients need to travel
less to a specialist or conversely the specialist has a larger catchment area.
Evidence Based Medicine: entails a system that provides information on appropriate
treatment under certain patient conditions. A healthcare professional can look up whether
his/her diagnosis is in line with scientific research. The advantage is that the data can be
kept up-to-date.
Consumer Health Informatics (or citizen-oriented information provision): both healthy
individuals and patients want to be informed on medical topics.
Health knowledge management (or specialist-oriented information provision): e.g. in an
overview of latest medical journals, best practice guidelines or epidemiological tracking.
Virtual healthcare teams: consist of healthcare professionals who collaborate and share
information on patients through digital equipment.


NB
Information Technology is now an integral and essential part of health delivery
IT systems are prevalent in society
Training and education in the appropriate application of IT in healthcare essential



Health sector today
Citizen Centered Care
Health and education are two major consumers of the public purse
Situation in the sector
Cost containment
Information overload (data doubles every five years)
Shared care (team based care)
Technological push vs. demand pull (users driving it)
Clinical focus - Should be driven by supporting clinical needs and not financial
management (otherwise solutions in search of problems)
Cost containment is major driving force planning resources (eg. cost of care for
diabetes)
Improving quality of care equally important
Distributed organizational structures (independent clinics/labs) strong local autonomy
Accountability
Increased dependence on automation
Emphasis is moving from administrative to clinical information systems
Public has more knowledge about healthcare (NLM, Medline, Web)
Tension between demand for increased quality of care vs. reduction in costs
Efficiency vs. cost-effectiveness
Information overload nos., text, x-rays, ultrasounds
Complex (narrative)
Distributed
Multi-vendor (heterogeneous) no one vendor can support all the processing needs of
all systems, GP, A&E
Strong autonomy (need to relinquish a certain amount of autonomy to share data)
Data intensive

Implications for healthcare organizations

Unnecessary duplication of tests and investigations
Valuable time wasted trying to track down relevant information
Studies have shown that at least 20% of healthcare professionals time is spent reading,
writing, sorting and searching through notes (up to 70% has been claimed by some)
Appropriate healthcare not provided as efficiently and cost effectively as possible

The strategy to improve the situation should include the following ideas..
Patient care requirements prime
Secure, reliable, on-line clinical information systems
Facilitate cost-effective use of IT
Establish stewardship for implementation of enterprise-wide solutions and standards
Connect and manage distributed information systems
Delivering healthcare today is no longer the sole responsibility of a single professional
Movement away from hospital (tertiary) to community (primary)


Implications
Ability to share information between care providers is key
The right information in the right place, in the right format and at the right time
IT is key-enabling technology for shared care
Tension between demand for increased quality of care vs. reduction in costs
Efficiency vs. cost-effectiveness




















Chapter 8: Introduction to computer networks

A computer network can be defined as a communications system that links two or more computers and
peripheral devices and enables transfer of data between the components.
Local Area Network (LAN)
This is a computer network that spans a limited geographic area, typically a single office or building.
Wide Area Network
Network covering a large area, which connects businesses in different parts of the same city, different
parts of the same city, parts of a country or different countries
Telecommunications
This refers to the method by which data and information are transmitted between different locations.
To transfer information electronically, companies create telecommunications systems. These systems
consist of both hardware and software necessary to set up these links. They enable a business, which
operates from different locations to run as a single unit.
The role of communications in business
Communications technologies are vital to a business. They are important for the cost savings and
improved communications that arise from an internal network.
Benefits networks give a business
Reduces cost compared to traditional communications-if information has to be sent to another
location, the cost of sending is very low compared to using a letter or even fax.
Reduces time for information transfer-its now possible for the global company to operate 24
hours a day by taking advantage of people working in different time zones.
Enables sharing and dissemination of company information. Opportunities to share information
are lost when it is locked in a filing cabinet or stored on an individuals PC. By placing
information on a server, either as a file or within a database, it can be made accessible to all
departments who need it or the flow of information in the company is improved.
Enables sharing of hardware resources such as printers, backup, processing power. It enables
the cost of equipment such as printers, faxes, modems or scanners to be shared within a
business.
Promotes new ways of working. As well as the tangible benefits, introducing networks can
enable different approach to running a business. Setting up an internal network makes it
possible to use group working tools, setting up a wide area network makes electronic data
interchange with suppliers possible
Operate geographically separate business as one. Through using wide area communications
technology, its possible to rationalize the operations of a company that originally operated as
separate business units in different geographic locations, perhaps with their own working
practices, procedures and reporting mechanisms.
Restructures relationships with partners. In the same way that different groups or businesses
within a company can work more effectively together, different companies can also collaborate
better.
Disadvantages of Networks
The initial setup cost may be high, and there may be a considerable period before the costs are
paid off.
When implementing or updating the network there may be considerable practical difficulties.
Deploying cabling can be very disruptive to staff doing their daily work
In the long term, companies become reliant on networks and breaks in service can be very
disruptive. For this reason investment in network maintenance is vital.
Security is reduced through introducing a network, since there are more access points to
sensitive data. Data may also be intercepted when its transferred from one site to another.

Business applications of networks
1) Collaboration and management within a business
Groupware tools can help collaboration within or between organizations. They include:
Electronic mail (e-mail)
Workgroup software enabling collaboration e.g. using a shared office diary
Voice mail
Facsimile (fax servers for desktop fax)
Teleconferencing and video conferencing
Within the retail sector, electronic point of sale (EPOS) systems allows information about sales in
each branch to be collected and analyzed at head office.
2) Business-to-business collaboration-Electronic Data Interchange
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) is the exchange of information between business using wide area
networks. EDI includes transactions of structured data such as electronic payment and documents.
EDI is now widespread in supporting collaboration between different business partners and provides
a reliable method of electronic transactions between companies.
3) Business-to-customer interactions
For catalogue companies, phone links and the Internet provide what is now an essential means of
obtaining sales and providing customer services. Call centers provide an integrated phone and
computer network for answering customer queries or taking orders. Auto-Teller machines (ATMs)
used by bank customer are made available by a countrywide or international network.



Network Functions
Sharing Data-This enables managers to see customers and marketing data immediately as it is
collected. An employee in one department can easily share data with others in other
departments. It also facilitates the use of teams i.e it enables informal teams to spring up
throughout the company to solve problems as they arise. A LAN is commonly used to connect
computers and share data within a company
Transactions- one of the most important reasons for connecting computers is the ability to
share data. E.g. Consider a retail store with five checkout registers. Each register is actually a
computer. If these computers are not connected, it is difficult to compute the daily sales for the
stores. At the end of the day, someone would have to manually collect data from each computer
and enter it to another computer. E-commerce consists of a transaction system with the
Internet as the network and customer browsers as the client computers. The product data and
sales transactions are stored in the central database connected to the Internet. Using a central
database provides inventory data to customers. When a customer asks whether an item is in
stock, the website can provide the answer. Managers can get daily sales figures from any
location with a web browser and an Internet connection. Payments and bills can also be handled
directly online.
Decisions and Searches- Consider a situation in which a manager is told to close 3 out of 200
stores. Selecting those stores can be a tough decision. It requires knowing sales volume for
every store and projected future sales as well as operating costs. The manager will bring this
basic information to a person computer to create graphs and evaluate models. It is possible to
collect all of the data from each store by hand and enter into the computer. However, it would
be much more efficient if the manager could simply transfer the data directly from the central
database to the personal computer. This would be faster and prevents errors.
Messages- with e-mail, you can send a message to any person with a mail account. E-mail
messages are asynchronous since the sender and recipient do not have to participate at the
same time. A mail server holds the message until the user logs in and retrieves the e-mail. Users
can create mailing lists and send mail to many people at one time. Messages can be stored,
retrieved, and searched for later usage. Junk e-mail, or spam, is an increasingly annoying
problem. Many companies capture e-mail addresses and sell them to other companies that send
out unwanted messages. These massages take up space on company computers and make it
more difficult for users to deal with legitimate messages.
Websites, newsgroups, and chat rooms-websites are essentially bulletin boards that are used to
make information available to many people over the Internet. Intranet sites are similar in that
they use Internet technologies but use security methods to restrict access to internal users.
Websites can be interactive and retrieve customized information from a database. Discussion
sites and the chat rooms allow users to post information as well as search for specific topics.
Chat rooms do not usually store comments, but discussion sites provide databases and links so
users can maintain a string of related messages. Chat rooms are more interactive than e-mail,
since they display messages as they are written. A newsgroup is an Internet feature similar to a
discussion site in that it carries comments from many people. It is designed to be copied from
server to server so that the comments are available to a wide audience. Internet newsgroups
are useful when you are searching for people with experiences similar to your own. The purpose
for these systems is to enable people to send and retrieve electronic messages from others. The
difference lies in the level of control and monitoring. More monitored newsgroups are generally
more accurate and more valuable in business. E.g. the HRM department could run a newsgroup
to provide information benefits. Employee questions and answers could be posted in the
newsgroup or on a website, because answers to one person might be valuable to many other
employees.
Calendars and Scheduling- managers spend a great deal of time in meetings. Sometimes the
greatest challenge with meetings is finding a time when everyone can get together. Several
software packages use computer networks to solve this problem. Managers enter planned
meeting times and scheduled events into their personal electronic calendars file, where each
event is assigned a priority number. If the CEO wants to set up a meeting, the CEO tells the
computer which people are to be included, sets a priority level, and gives an appropriate time.
The computer then uses the network to check everyone elses schedule. When it finds an open
time (overriding lower priority events if needed), it enters the meeting into each persons
calendar. These systems can be useful when managers carry PDAs that are connected to a
wireless network.
Teamwork and Joint Authorship- in any job, it is rare for one person to work alone. Most
businesses are arranged as teams. Within the teams, individual people are given specific
assignments, and each team member contributes to the final product. For instance, the
marketing department might have to prepare a sales forecast for the next six months. Each
person could work on specific sales region or product category. These individual pieces would
then be merged into a single document. If computers are networked, the managers computer
can be given access to the others work to ensure that the reports use the same data and
assumptions. Groupware is software that enables several people to work on the same
document. Each individual computer has access to the master document. When one person
makes a change to the document, the change is highlighted for everyone to read and approve.
With existing international networks, each person might be located in a different country.
o Examples Lotus notes, Netmeeting
Backup-another important reason for sharing data over computer networks is that most people
are not very good at maintaining backup copies of their work-especially on personal computers.
If each computer is attached to a network, there are two ways to set up an automatic backup
system for individual personal computers.
o The older method relies on individual workers saving their data files to a central file
server. A few companies even provide this service over the Internet. For a fee you can
transfer your files to their server, giving you a backup copy-plus they keep backup tapes
for the server.
o A newer method is significantly safer because it is virtually automatic and does not
require users to remember to transfer their files. It does require the users to leave their
machines running. At a predetermined time, a central computer with a large backup
capacity connects to the individual machines and copies the files that have changed.
Sharing hardware- networks also enable workers to share expensive hardware. Networks are
used to provide access to special output devices, such as high-speed printers, plotters, or color
printers. Networks can be used to give people access to special computers such as when an
engineer needs to use high-speed supercomputer.
o Printers- a common use of networks is to give users access to high-quality printers.
Users can choose from among two or three different printers by selecting them on the
screen. If one printer breaks down, users can spend their jobs to another printer on the
network.
o Storage devices-financial data and stock prices for most U.S companies can be
purchased on CD-ROM disks. It would be expensive to buy copies of the data disks for
every person in the finance department. It makes more sense to connect the finance
computers and the CD-ROM drive together on a network, then whenever someone
wants to look up information in the database, the computer uses the network to
transfer the information from the optical disk.
o Special Processors- special computers that are relatively expensive can be attached to a
network to save costs and make it easier for users to access these machines. Parallel
processing computers and other supercomputers can perform calculations thousands of
times faster than ordinary computers but they are expensive.

Sharing Software-networks have been used at different times to share software. When disk
space was expensive, it was cheaper to put one copy on a server and download it to each
computer, as it was needed. Today, several firms have been working on a system that stores
software on Internet servers, where client computers use web browsers to connect to the
server and run the software.

The main advantages of running software on a central server are:
o It is easier to install and update
o The client computers can be small and low cost, which makes it particularly useful for
PDAs and cell phones.
The main drawback is network performance and reliability. If the network is slow or server
crashes, no one can use the software
Voice and Video Communication-
A major cost of telecommunications in business is for telephone calls. Despite the total
expenditures, there is little doubt about the value of communication and phones. Phone calls
are almost always cheaper than in-person visits. With rapidly declining costs of phone calls, cost
is less of an issue. Even cellular phone costs are dropping rapidly; some experts predict that
within a few years, almost all calls will be made over the cellular networks instead of traditional
phone lines.
Newer technologies are emphasizing the value of routing all communication over a single
Internet-based network, often called voice over Internet protocol (VoIP).
With this technology, your telephone becomes a device in the Internet and conversations are
digitized and sent over the Internet along with all traffic.
Components of a Network
As networks have become more important, the components are increasingly built into the machines.
Computers- virtually any type of computer device can be connected to a network. Computers
attached to the networks tend to perform one of two function: servers or clients:
o Servers- these are computers that store data to be used by other computers attached to
the network. A server is a powerful computer used to control management of a
network. It may have specific function such as storing user files or a database or
managing a printer.
The server and network operating systems perform the following functions
Maintain security-access to information in files is restricted according to the
user name and password issued to users of the network
Sharing of peripheral devices connected to the network, such as printers and
tape drives. These are often attached directly to the server.
Sharing of applications such as word processors, which do not then need to be
stored on the hard drive of the end-users computer. The cost of buying
applications can be reduced through buying a site license.
Sharing information-access to this data is maintained by the NOS and it is stored
within the hard drive of a server as files or as part of a database.

o Clients-computers used by individual people.
Network Interface Card (NIC) or LAN card-This is installed in each computer. These cards are
connected together by some transmission medium e.g. cable.
Transmission media- all communication requires a transmission medium. Common methods
include electric wires, light waves, and radio waves. Each method offers certain advantages and
disadvantages so they are designed for specific applications.
o Electric cables- the two basic types of electric cables are twisted pair and coaxial.
Twisted Pair. Its the oldest form of electrical wiring. Since electricity must
travel in a closed loop, electrical connections require at least two wires.
Twisted-pair wires are simply pairs of plain copper wires-typically a specific
version known as Cat 5 wiring consists of four pairs of wires, and generally two
pairs (4 wires) are used for most typical networks.

This kind of cable cannot carry much information at one time and data
transmitted on unshielded twisted-pair wires is subject to interference from
other electrical devices. Interference can distort or damage a
telecommunications signal.

Coaxial cables: these were designed to carry more information than twisted
pairs, with lower chances of interference. They consist of a central wire,
surrounded by a nonconductive plastic, which is surrounded by a second wire.
The second wire is actually a metallic foil or mesh that is wrapped around the
entire cable. This shielding minimizes interference from outside sources. Cable
television signals are transmitted on coaxial cables. Coax is cable of carrying
more information for longer distances than twisted pair.
Fiber optics: this technology uses light instead of electricity. Because light
generally travels in a straight line, it could be difficult to use for communication.
Fiber-optic cable allows light to travel in straight lines but still be bent around
corners. A fiber-optic cable consists of a glass or plastic core that is surrounded
by a reflective material. A laser light (typically infrared) is sent down the cable.
When the cable turns, the light is reflected around the corner and continues
down the cable. Fiberoptic cable provides the advantages of high capacity with
almost no interference. The limitation in using fiber is the high cost of the cable
and the cost of the connectors and interface cards that convert computer
electrical signals into light.
Radio, Micro, and Infrared Waves: these transmissions do not require cables.
These communication methods are called broadcasts. Any receiver or antenna
that lies in its path can pick up the signal. However, microwave and infrared
transmissions require clear line of sight transmission. The major advantage of
broadcast methods is portability. For example, computers can be installed in
delivery vehicles to receive information from corporate headquarters. On a
smaller scale, individuals can carry around laptops and PDAs and remain
connected to the central database via a broadcast network. For example,
physicians in hospitals could carry small computers that would automatically
receive information for each patient when the physician enters the room. Any
instruction could be sent directly from the physicians computer to the nursing
station.

Potential drawbacks include the importance to provide security for the
transmissions, and that the broadcast transmissions carry a limited amount of
data
Connection devices: To reduce overall traffic, larger organizations often fine it beneficial to
build the corporate network from a set of smaller networks. Both small and large companies use
similar techniques to connect their networks to the Internet
Computers within a building or smaller area are linked into a hub, switch, or router. This
interconnection device is then linked to the backbone, which is typically a fiber-optic line.
Hubs are the simplest connection devices. They essentially act like a giant junction box. Any
device connected to a hub shares all of the lines with the other devices. It is a mechanism to
plug several computers together.
Switches and routers actually examine every packet that passes through them and decide
where to send each packet. They are actually specialized computers that can be programmed to
identify network problems and intelligently route traffic to fastest route.
Bridges: These are used to connect different LANs and transfer data packets from one network
to the next. They can be used to connect similar types of LAN. They also offer filtering services
to restrict local traffic to one side of the bridge, thus reducing traffic overall.
Repeaters: over a long transmission distance, signal distortion may occur. Repeaters are
necessary to increase transmission distances by regenerating signals and retransmitting them.
Modem: (Short for modulation-demodulator): converts the digital signal sent from a computer
to the analogue signal, which is transmitted along, phone lines.

Transmission Methods
Transmission of data can be achieved in a variety of ways.
Signal type
The two alternate methods of transmission are analogue and digital.
An analogue signal represents a message by using a continuous waveform, which is carried by a cable
such as a phone line. Here analogue transmission is used to carry voice, data or fax. Analogue is less
suitable for higher capacity needs such as video, since its bandwidth is limited.
A digital signal is not continuous, consisting of binary data sent in pulses of ones and zeros. This is
achieved by varying the voltage of the line from high to low state. Digital transmissions are used to
where higher bandwidth is available. They have dual advantages that no conversion from digital to
analogue is necessary before sending, and quality is better since distortion does not occur when the
signal is boosted when long-distance transmission is required.
Communication method
Data transmission can occur in different modes according to how individual characters are transmitted.
Asynchronous communication occurs when transmission occurs one character at a time with control
bits to either side.
Synchronous communication occurs when groups of characters are sent as packets and both the
sending and receiving device synchronize data using timer.
Packets are units of data that are exchanged between different devices over communications media. An
entire message is broken down into smaller packets.
Transmission modes

Simplex- refers to a one-way transmission
Half duplex refers to a two-way transmission, but only one way at a given time
Full duplex refers to simultaneous two way transmission
NB: the terms have now dropped out of common usage since LANs became predominant and most
digital networks achieve full-duplex mode with simultaneous data flow in both directions.
Value added networks (VANs)

These are named so since they allow a company to minimize their investment in wide area
communications while still receiving all the benefits this can bring. The cost of setting up and
maintaining the network is borne by the service provider, which then rents out the network to a number
of companies. This works out more cheaply than if a company had leased its own point-to-point private
lines, but it is not secure.
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
This is a data network that makes use of the public telecommunications infrastructure and the
Internet, but information remains secure by use of what is known as a tunneling protocol and
security procedures such as firewalls.

Private branch exchange (PBX)
A PBX enables switching between phones or voice and data using existing telephone lines. This can be
used for printer sharing.
Layouts for company networks
The physical layout of a LAN is known as a network topology. Bus, star, ring and combinations are most
common.
Summary of the advantages and disadvantages of the main local area network topologies
Topology Advantage Disadvantage
Bus or Linear Easy to install and manage for small
workgroup
Breaks in the cable disrupts the whole
network
Star Provide protection from cable
breaks
Dependent on central host
Ring Suitable for large data volumes and
mission-critical applications
Higher initial cost and time for
installation.
Introduction To The Internet
Internet: This is a network that links computer across the globe. It consists of infrastructure of servers
and communication links between them.
Intranet: This uses web servers, browsers and e-mail within a company to share company information
and software application. The intranet is only accessible to company employees.
Advantages
Quick to set up
Cheap to maintain
Easy to use and popular with users
Disadvantages
Unauthorized access
Extranet
This is an intranet with restricted access, which is extended to suppliers, collaborators or customers. The
term extranet has been coined to describe an intranet that is extended beyond the boundaries of a
company. Authorized people outside the company, such as collaborators, suppliers or major customers,
can access the extranet but information is not available to everyone with an Internet connection only
to those with password can gain access.
Business uses of different Internet tools

Internet Tool
Business use
Electronic mail or
e-mail
The cost of communication within and between businesses has
been greatly reduced through the use of e-mail. Through using
file attachments, word processed documents and spreadsheets can
also be transmitted by e-mail
Internet relay chat
(IRC)
This is synchronous communications tool, which allows text-
based chat between different users who are logged on at the same
time. It is not used for many business application, since
asynchronous discussions are more practical not all team
members need to be present at the same time
Usenet newsgroups Usenet is mainly used by special Internet-groups, for example
people discussing their favorite such as fishing or archery. They
are not used much by businesses, unless it is as a means of
studying consumer behavior. There are newsgroups for
announcing the introduction of new products or staff vacancies
FTP file transfer The file transfer protocol is used as a standard for moving files
across the Internet. The most common use is for releasing fixes to
software applications. Documents can be transferred by this
means. FTP is available as a feature of the web for downloading
files
Gopher,Archie, and
WAIS
These tools were important before the advent of the web for
storing and searching documents on the Internet. They have
largely been superceded by the web, which provides better
searching and more sophisticated document publishing
Telnet This allows remote access to computer systems. For example a
system administrator on one site could log in to a computer
elsewhere to check that it is running successfully. Telnet is widely
used in retail industry. For example, a retailer could check to see
whether an item was in stock in a warehouse using a Telnet
application. Such telnet applications will not usually be run over
the public internet, but rather over secure lines
World wide web The web is widely used for publishing information and running
business applications over the Internet.

Communications software and protocols
Communications protocol is a set of rules that govern the exchange of information over a
communications channel.
The goal is to ensure fast, efficient, error free communications over an imperfect
communications channel.
Wireless communication protocols
With widespread wireless network technology to support devices such as PDAs, mobile computers and
cell phones, the telecommunications industry needed new protocols to connect these devices.
Wireless communication protocols are still evolving as the industry matures

Chapter 9: Data Analysis using SPSS

Types of Variables
Continuous variables:
Always numeric
Can be any number, positive or negative
Examples: age in years, weight, blood pressure readings, temperature,
concentrations of pollutants and other measurements
Categorical variables:
Information that can be sorted into categories
Types of categorical variables ordinal, nominal and dichotomous (binary)
Categorical Variables:

Ordinal Variables
An ordinal variable is any categorical variable with some intrinsic order or numeric value. For
example, we might categorize information on the educational status of a group of people into a
variable called EDUCATION. One person may not have graduated from high school, another
might have graduated from high school but received no further education, a third could have
some college education or have received some other post-secondary training, and another
might have graduated from college. The education levels of all members of the group will fit
neatly into these categories, and the categories have an intrinsic order. A college graduate has
more education than a high school graduate, and a high school graduate has more education
than someone who did not graduate from high school. Thus as the categories go from 1 to 5,
the level of education increases. Other examples of ordinal variables are:
agreement (for example, strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree)
rating (for example, excellent, good, fair, poor)
frequency (for example, always, often, sometimes, never) or any other scale (for example, On
a scale of 1 to 5, how much do you like peanuts?)

Ordinal variablea categorical variable with some intrinsic order or numeric value
Examples of ordinal variables:
Education (no high school degree, HS degree, some college, college degree)
Agreement (strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree)
Rating (excellent, good, fair, poor)
Frequency (always, often, sometimes, never)
Any other scale (On a scale of 1 to 5...)
Nominal Variables
A nominal variable is a categorical variable without any intrinsic order. For example, say we
have a variable called RESIDE that characterizes the part of the United States in which a person
livesthe Northeast, the South, the Midwest, the Southwest, or the Northwest. The categories
of this variable have no numeric value or order. Residence in the Northwest has no
quantitative value compared to the Northeast. Other examples of nominal variables include
sex (male, female), nationality (American, Mexican, French), race/ethnicity (African American,
Hispanic, White, Asian American), or favorite pet (dog, cat, fish, snake).
Examples of nominal variables:
Where a person lives in the U.S. (Northeast, South, Midwest, etc.)
Sex (male, female)
Nationality (American, Mexican, French)
Race/ethnicity (African American, Hispanic, White, Asian American)
Favorite pet (dog, cat, fish, snake)
Dichotomous Variables
A dichotomous or binary variable is a categorical variable that has only 2 levels or categories.
Many dichotomous variables represent the answer to a yes or no question. For example, Did
you attend the church picnic on May 24? or Did you eat potato salad at the picnic? A
variable does not have to be a yes/no variable to be dichotomousit just has to have only 2
categories, such as sex (male/female).
Often represents the answer to a yes or no question
For example:
Did you attend the church picnic on May 24?
Did you eat potato salad at the picnic?
Anything with only 2 categories
Coding
Coding process of translating information gathered from questionnaires or
other sources into something that can be analyzed
Involves assigning a value to the information givenoften value is given a label
Coding can make data more consistent:
Example: Question = Sex
Answers = Male, Female, M, or F
Coding will avoid such inconsistencies
Coding systems
Common coding systems (code and label) for dichotomous variables:
0=No 1=Yes
(1 = value assigned, Yes= label of value)
OR: 1=No 2=Yes
When you assign a value you must also make it clear what that value means
In first example above, 1=Yes but in second example 1=No
As long as it is clear how the data are coded, either is fine
You can make it clear by creating a data dictionary to accompany the dataset
Dummy Variables
A dummy variable is any variable that is coded to have 2 levels (yes/no,
male/female, etc.)
Dummy variables may be used to represent more complicated variables
Example: # of cigarettes smoked per week--answers total 75 different responses
ranging from 0 cigarettes to 3 packs per week
Can be recoded as a dummy variable:
1=smokes (at all) 0=non-smoker
This type of coding is useful in later stages of analysis

Attaching Labels to Values
Many analysis software packages allow you to attach a label to the variable
values
Example: Label 0s as male and 1s as female
Makes reading data output easier:
Without label: Variable SEX Frequency Percent
0 21 60%
1 14 40%
With label: Variable SEX Frequency Percent
Male 21 60%
Female 14 40%
Coding- Ordinal Variables
Coding process is similar with other categorical variables
Example: variable EDUCATION, possible coding:
0 = Did not graduate from high school
1 = High school graduate
2 = Some college or post-high school education
3 = College graduate
Could be coded in reverse order (0=college graduate, 3=did not graduate high
school)
For this ordinal categorical variable we want to be consistent with numbering
because the value of the code assigned has significance
Example of bad coding:
0 = Some college or post-high school education
1 = High school graduate
2 = College graduate
3 = Did not graduate from high school
Data has an inherent order but coding does not follow that orderNOT
appropriate coding for an ordinal categorical variable
Coding: Nominal Variables
For coding nominal variables, order makes no difference
Example: variable RESIDE
1 = Northeast
2 = South
3 = Northwest
4 = Midwest
5 = Southwest
Order does not matter, no ordered value associated with each response
Coding: Continuous Variables
Creating categories from a continuous variable (ex. age) is common
May break down a continuous variable into chosen categories by creating an
ordinal categorical variable
Example: variable = AGECAT
1 = 09 years old
2 = 1019 years old
3 = 2039 years old
4 = 4059 years old
5 = 60 years or older
May need to code responses from fill-in-the-blank and open-ended questions
Example: Why did you choose not to see a doctor about this illness?
One approach is to group together responses with similar themes
Example: didnt feel sick enough to see a doctor, symptoms stopped,
and illness didnt last very long
Could all be grouped together as illness was not severe
Also need to code for dont know responses
Typically, dont know is coded as 9
Coding Tip
Though you do not code until the data is gathered, you should think about how
you are going to code while designing your questionnaire, before you gather any
data. This will help you to collect the data in a format you can use.
Data Cleaning
One of the first steps in analyzing data is to clean it of any obvious data entry
errors:
Outliers? (really high or low numbers)
Example: Age = 110 (really 10 or 11?)
Value entered that doesnt exist for variable?
Example: 2 entered where 1=male, 0=female
Missing values?
Did the person not give an answer? Was answer accidentally not entered into the
database?
May be able to set defined limits when entering data
Prevents entering a 2 when only 1, 0, or missing are acceptable values
Limits can be set for continuous and nominal variables
Examples: Only allowing 3 digits for age, limiting words that can be
entered, assigning field types (e.g. formatting dates as mm/dd/yyyy or
specifying numeric values or text)
Many data entry systems allow double-entry ie., entering the data twice and
then comparing both entries for discrepancies
Univariate data analysis is a useful way to check the quality of the data

Univariate Data Analysis
Univariate data analysis-explores each variable in a data set separately
o Serves as a good method to check the quality of the data
o Inconsistencies or unexpected results should be investigated using the
original data as the reference point
Frequencies can tell you if many study participants share a characteristic of
interest (age, gender, etc.)
o Graphs and tables can be helpful
Examining continuous variables can give you important information:
o Do all subjects have data, or are values missing?
o Are most values clumped together, or is there a lot of variation?
o Are there outliers?
o Do the minimum and maximum values make sense, or could there be
mistakes in the coding?

Commonly used statistics with univariate analysis of continuous variables:
Mean average of all values of this variable in the dataset
Median the middle of the distribution, the number where half of the
values are above and half are below
Mode the value that occurs the most times
Range of values from minimum value to maximum value
Distribution and Percentiles
Distribution whether most values occur low in the range, high in the
range, or grouped in the middle
Percentiles the percent of the distribution that is equal to or below a
certain value