Computer Network Basics

UNIT I
INTRODUCTION
Need for Communication
A communication service enables the exchange of information between users at
different locations.
Communication services & applications are everywhere. Some examples are given below
Need for Computer Communication over Distances
Computer communication has become essential for the following reasons:
(a) Computers can send data at a very fast speed over long distances using satellite and
microwave lins. !herefore" the cost of transfer of documents using computers is cheaper than
other conventional means lie telegrams.
(b) Computers can have fax system integrated with them. !his allows them to send pictures along
with the text. !hus the newspaper reports can be prepared and sent all over the world at a very
high speed by composing and publishing them from different centers.
(c) !he time taen to transmit the messages is very small. #ence different computers can be
connected together and the users can wor together as a group. Software pacages have
been developed for group woring in $ata %ase &anagement ($%&S) and graphic wors.
(d) $ifferent departments of an organi'ation may be separated physically being at distant places
but their data could be stored on a central computer. !his data is accessed by computers
located in different departments. !he data at the central computer may be updated from time to
time and accessed by all users. !his prevents any bottlenecs in the smooth functioning of the
organi'ation. !he latest data (say for inventory) will be easily available at all times to all the
users.
(e) (luctuations of prices in foreign exchange and shares)e*uities can be communicated
instantaneously
using the medium of computer communications only. !he transfer can be accelerated and verified
at any instant of time.
Data Communication:
$ata Communication is defined as the exchange of data between two devices via some
form of transmission medium such as a wire cable. !he communicating devices must be a
part of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware ( physical
e*uipment) and software (programs).
Characteristics of data Communication :
!he effectiveness of a data communication depends on three characteristics
+.$elivery
,.Accuracy
-.!imeliness
Delivery : !he system must deliver data to correct destination.
Accuracy: !he system must deliver data accurately.
Timeliness: !he system must deliver data in a timely manner. $ata delivered late are
useless. !imely delivery means delivering data as they are produced" in the same order
that they are produced. and without significant delay. !his ind of delivery is called real .
time transmission.
Components:
!he components of a data communication are
&essage
Sender
/eceiver
&edium
0rotocol
&essage : !he message is the information to be communicated. 1t can consist of text
"pictures" numbers" sound" video or audio .
Sender. !he sender is the device that sends the data message. 1t can be a computer or
worstation telephone handset" video camera and so on..
/eceiver. !he receiver is the device that receives the message. 1t can be a computer or
worstation telephone handset" video camera and so on..
&edium. !he transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. 1t could be a twisted pair wire " coaxial cable" fiber optic cable" or
radio waves.
0rotocol. A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications. 1t represents an
agreement between the communicating devices.
Data representation.
1nformation comes in different forms such as text" numbers" images" audio and video.
Text.
!ext is represented as a bit pattern "
!he number of bits in a pattern depends on the number of symbols in the language.
$ifferent sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. 2ach set is
called a code. !he process of representing the symbols is called coding.
ASCII
!he American 3ational Standards 1nstitute developed a code called the American
Standard code for 1nformation 1nterchange .!his code uses 4 bits for each symbol.
xtended ASCII
!o mae the si'e of each pattern + byte(5 bits)"the ASC11 bit patterns are augmented with
an extra 6 at the left.
Unicode
!o represent symbols belonging to languages other than 2nglish"a code with much
greater capacity is needed. 7nicode uses +8 bits and can represent up to 89"9-8 symbols.
IS!
!he international organi'ation for standardi'ation nown as 1S: has designed a code
using a -, . bit pattern. !his code can represent up to ;",<;"<84",<8 symbols.
Num"ers
3umbers are also represented by using bit patterns. ASC11 is not used to represent
numbers.!he number is directly converted to a binary number.
Ima#es
1mages are also represented by bit patterns.An image is divided into a matrix of
pixels"where each pixel is a small dot. 2ach pixel is assigned a bit pattern.!he si'e and
value of the pattern depends on the image.!he si'e of the pixel depends on what is called
the resolution.
Audio
Audio is a representation of sound. Audio is by nature different from text" numbers or
images. 1t is continuous not discrete
$ideo
=ideo can be produced either a continuous entity or it can be a combination of images.
Direction of data flo%
Communication between two devices can be simplex" half>duplex or full>duplex
Simplex
1n simplex mode "the communication is unidirectional. :nly one of the devices on a lin
can transmit? the other can only receive.
2x.@eyboards and monitors.
!he eyboard can only introduce input.!he monitor can only accept output.
&alf'duplex
1n half>duplex mode "each station can both transmit and receive but not at the same time.
Ahen one device is sending "the other can only receive.
!he half>duplex mode is lie a one>lane road with two directional traffic. !he entire
capacity of a channel is taen over by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the
time.
2x. Aalie>talies and C%(citi'en band radios.
(ull'duplex
1n full>duplex mode "both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. 1t is lie a
two>way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time. Signals going in
either direction share the capacity of the lin.
!he full duplex is lie a two .way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the
same time. Signals going in either direction share the capacity of the lin.
2x. !elephone networ
Ahen two people are communicating by a telephone line "both can listen and tal at the
same time.
Net%or):
Definition :
An interconnected collection of autonomous computersB interconnected C able to
exchange information
A set of nodes connected by communication lins .A node can be any device capable of
sending &)or receiving data to &)or from other nodes in the networ
A connected collection of hardware and software that permits information exchange and
resource sharing.
information C data" text" audio" video" images" D
resources C printers" memory" lin bandwidth

Uses of net%or)s
+ Ecompanies & organi'ations
, Eresource sharing: programs" e*uipment" dataD
- Ehigh reliability: multiple processors)lins)file copies)...
; Escalability: gradually improve system performance
9 Erapid communications & remote cooperation
8 Esaving money
+ Eprivate individuals:
, Eaccess to remote & diverse information sources
- Ecommunicating with other people
; Eentertainment
9 Eeducation" healthcare" access to government...
Distri"uted *rocessin#
3etwors use distributed processing which is termed as a tas divided among multiple
computers. 1nstead of a single machine responsible for all aspects of a process" separate
computers handle a subset.
*erformance
0erformance can be measured by means of transit time" response time" number of users"
type of transmission medium" capabilities of the connected hardware and the efficiency of
the software.
!ransit time
!he amount of time re*uired for a message to travel from one device to another.
/esponse time
!he elapsed time between an in*uiry and a response.
/eliability
/eliability is measured by the fre*uency of failure "the time it taes a lin to recover from
a failure.
Security
3etwor security is protecting data from unauthori'ed access.
Type of connection
!here are two possible type of connections
0oint>to>point
&ultipoint
0oint>to>point
A point>to>point connection provides a dedicated lin between two devices. !he entire
lin is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
2x. Change of television channel by infrared remote control. A point>to>point connection
is established between the remote control and the televisions control system.
&ultipoint
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific
devices share a single lin. !he capacity of the channel is shared either spatially or
temporally.
*hysical Topolo#y
0hysical !opology refers to the way in which networ is laid out physically. !wo or more
lins form a topology. !he topology of a networ is the geometric representation of the
relationship of all the lins and the lining devices tone another.
!he basic topologies are
&esh
Star
%us and
/ing
+esh
1n a mesh topology each device has a dedicated point to point lin to every other
device. !he term dedicated means that the lin carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects.
A fully connected mash networ therefore has n(n>+)), physical channels to lin n
devices. !o accommodate that many lins every device on the networ has (n>+) 1):
ports.
+erits.
$edicated lin guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load. !his
eliminates the traffic problems that occur when lins shared by multiple devices.
1f one lin becomes unusable "it does not incapacitate the entire system.
0rivacy or security: Ahen every message travels along a dedicated line only the
intended recipient
Demerits
!he amount of cabling and the 1): ports re*uired
1nstallation and reconnection are difficult
!he sheer bul of the wire accommodate more space than available.
!he hardware re*uired to connect each lin can be prohibitively expensive.
Star topolo#y
2ach device has a dedicated point to point lin only to a central controller usually called
a hub. 1f one device has to send data to another it sends the data to the controller" which
then relays the data to the other connected device.
+erits
Fess expensive than a mesh topology. 2ach device needs only one lin and 1):
port to connect it to any number of others.
1nstallation and reconfigure is easy.
/obustness. 1f one lin fails only that lin is affected.
/e*uires less cable than a mesh.
Demerits
/e*uire more cable compared to bus and ring topologies.
%us
:ne long cable acts as a bacbone to lin all the devices in a networ 3odes are
connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running
between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the
main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with a metallic core.
As the signal travels farther and farther "it becomes weaer .So there is limitation in the
number of taps a bus can support and on the distance between those taps.(1n this diagram
taps and connectors are
+erits
2ase of installation.
%us use less cabling than mesh or star topologies.
Demerits
$ifficult reconnection and isolation.
Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in *uality.
A fault or brea in the bus cable stops all transmission. 1t also reflects signals bac
in the direction of origin creating noise in both directions.
,in#
2ach device has a dedicated point to point connection only with the two devices on either
side of it.
A signal is passed along the ring in one direction from device to device until it reaches
the destination
2ach device in the ring incorporates a repeater. 1t regenerates the bits and passes them
along "when it receives the signal intended for another device.
+erits:
2asy to install and reconfigure.
!o add or delete a device re*uires changing only two connections.
!he constraints are maximum ring length and the number of devices.
1f one device does not receive the signal within a specified period" it issue an
alarm that alerts the networ operator to the problem and its location
Demerits
A brea in the ring disables the entire networ. 1t can be solved by using a dual
ring or a switch capable of closing off the brea.
Cate#ories of Net%or)
!he three primary categories are of networ are Focal Area 3etwor (FA3)"
&etropolitan Area 3etwor (&A3)" and Aide Area 3etwor(AA3). !he category into
which a networ fall is determined by its si'e" ownership" the distance it covers and its
physical architecture.
-AN:
A FA3 is usually privately owned and lins the devices in a single office"
building or campus.
A FA3 can be as simple as two 0Cs or it can extend throughout a company. FA3
si'e is limited to a few ilometers. !he most widely used FA3 system is the
2thernet system developed by the Gerox Corporation.
1t is designed to allow resources (hardware " software or data) to be shared
between 0CHs or worstations. 1t may be used to provide a (shared) access to
remote organi'ations through a router connected to a &etropolitan Area 3etwor
(&A3) or a Aide Area 3etwor (AA3).
:ne of the computers may be given a large capacity dis drive and may become a
server to other clients. Software can be stored on this server and used by the
whole group.
!he si'e of the FA3 may be determined by the licensing restrictions on the
numbers per copy of software. or the number of users licensed to access the
operating system.
Also differentiated from other types of networ by transmission media and
topology.
FA3 use only one type of transmission medium
!he common FA3 topologies are bus" ring and star.
FA3s have data rates in the ; to +6 megabits per second. Can also reach +66
&bps with gigabit systems in development.
1ntermediate nodes (i.e. repeaters" bridges and switches) allow FA3s to be
connected together to form larger FA3s. A FA3 may also be connected to
another FA3 or to AA3s and &A3Hs using a Irouter
+etropolitan Area Net%or):
A &A3 is designed to extend over an entire city.
&ay be a single networ such as cable != networ
&ay be a means of connecting a number of FA3s into a larger networ
/esources may be shared FA3 to FA3 as well as device to device
2xample A company can use a &A3 to connect the FA3s in all its offices
throughout a city.
A &A3 can be owned by a private company or it may be a service provided by a
public company "such as local telephone company
!elephone companies provide a popular &A3 service called (S&$S) Switched
&ulti>megabit $ata Services.
Aide Area 3etwor (AA3)
A AA3 provides long distance transmission of data ."voice "image and video
information over large geographic areas.
1t may comprise a country "continent or even the whole world. !ransmission rates
are typically , &bps" -; &bps" ;9 &bps" +99 &bps" 8,9 &bps (or sometimes
considerably more).
AA3 utili'e public" leased" or private communication e*uipment usually in
combinations and therefore span an unlimited number of miles.
A AA3 that is wholly owned and used by a single company is referred to as an
2nterprise 3etwor. !he figure represents the comparison of the different types of
networs
1nternetwor
Ahen two or more networs are connected they become an internetwor or internet
!SI:
!he :pen Systems 1nterconnection (:S1) architecture has been developed by the
1nternational :rgani'ation for Standardi'ation (1S:) to describe the operation and design
of layered protocol architectures. !his forms a valuable reference model and defines
much of the language used in data communications.
-ayer
2ach layer provides services to the next higher layer and shields the upper layer
from the details implemented in the lower layers.
2ach layer appears to be in direct (virtual) communication with its associated
layer on the other computer. Actual communication between adJacent layers taes
place on one computer only.
Fayering simplifies design" implementation" and testing. :nly the lowest level
(0hysical layer) can directly communicate with its peer communications process
into parts.
*eer'to'*eer *rocesses
!he processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer are called peer>
to>peer processes.
At higher layers communication must move down through the layers on device A
aver to device % and then bac up through the layers.
2ach layer in the sending device adds its own information to the message it
receives from the layer Just above it. and passes the whole pacage to the layer
Just below and transferred to the receiving device.
Interfaces "et%een layers
!he passing of data and networ information down through the layers of the
sending device and bac up through the layers of the receiving device is made
possible by an interface between each pair of adJacent layers.
2ach interface defines what information and services a layer must provide for
the layer above it.
Aell defined interfaces and functions provide modularity to a networ.
:S1 /eference &odel
$escribes a seven>layer abstract reference model for a networ
architecture
0urpose of the reference model was to provide a framewor for
the development of protocols
*hysical -ayer
1t coordinates the functions re*uired to transmit a bit stream over a
physical medium.
1t deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface
and transmission media.
&echanical: cable" plugs" pins...
2lectrical)optical: modulation" signal strength" voltage levels"
bit times"
1t also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and
interfaces have to perform for transmission to occur
&aJor responsibilities of 0hysical layer are
*hysical characteristics of interfaces and media:
1t defines the characteristics of the interface between the devices and the
transmission media. Also defines the type of transmission medium.
,epresentation of "its:
!o transmit the bits" it must be encoded into electrical or optical
signals. 1t defines the type of representation how 6s and +s are
changed to signals.
Data rate:
!he number of bits sent each second is also defined by the physical
layer.
Synchroni.ation of "its:
Sender and the receiver must be synchroni'ed at the bit level .i.e the
sender and the receiver clocs must be synchroni'ed.
1nformation flows from top to bottom at the sender and bottom to top
at the receiver.
Data lin) layer
!he data lin layer is responsible for hop>to>hop (node>to>node) delivery. 1t
transforms the physical layer a raw transmission facility to a reliable lin. 1t
maes physical layer appear error free to the networ layer. !he duties of the data
lin layer are
(raming: !he data lin layer divides the stream of bits received from the
networ layer into manageable data units called frames.
0hysical Addressing: 1f the frames are to be distributed to different
systems on the networ the data lin layer adds a header to the frame to
define the receiver or sender of the frame. 1f the frame is intended for a
system located outside the senders networ then the receiver address is
the address of the connecting device that connects the networ to the next
one.
(low Control: 1f the rate at which the data absorbed by the receiver is
less than the rate produced in the sender" the data lin layer imposes a flow
control mechanism to overwhelming the receiver.
2rror control /eliability is added to the physical layer by data lin layer
to detect and retransmit loss or damaged frames. and also to prevent
duplication of frames. !his is achieved through a trailer added to the end
of the frame
Access control Ahen two or more devices are connected to the same lin
it determines which device has control over the lin at any given time.

Net%or) -ayer
!he networ layer is responsible for source>to>destination delivery of a pacet across
multiple networs. 1t ensures that each pacet gets from its point of origin to its final
destination .1t does not recogni'e any relationship between those pacets. 1t treats each
one independently as though each belong to separate message.
!he functions of the networ layer are
Fogical Addressing 1f a pacet has to cross the networ boundary then the
header contains information of the logical addresses of the sender and the
receiver.
3etworing Ahen independent networs or lins are connected to create an
internetwor or a large networ the connective devices route the pacet to the final
destination.
Transport -ayer
!he networ layer is responsible for process>to>process delivery "that is source to
destination delivery of the entire message.
!he responsibilities of !ransport layer are
Service>point (port) addressing :Computers run several programs at the same
time. source>to>destination delivery means delivery from a specific process on
one computer to a specific process on the other. !he transport layer header
therefore include a type of address called a service . point address.
Segmentation and reassembly A message is divided into segments and each
segment contains a se*uence number. !hese numbers enable the !ransport layer
to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination. !he
pacets lost in the transmission is identified and replaced.
Connection control : !he transport layer can be either connectionless or
connection>oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats segment as an
independent pacet and delivers it to the transport layer. A connection>oriented
transport layer maes a connection with the transport layer at the destination
machine and delivers the pacets. After all the data are transferred the
connection is terminated.
(low control :(low control at this layer is performed end to end .
2rror Control: 2rror control is performed end to end. At the sending side "the
transport layer maes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving
transport layer with out error. 2rror correction is achieved through
retransmission.
Session -ayer : Session layer is the networ dialog controller. 1t establishes "maintains"
and synchroni'es the interaction between communicating systems. Specific
responsibilities of the layer are
$ialog Control : Session layer allows two systems to enter in to a dialog.
Communication between two processes tae place either in half>duplex or full>
duplex. 2xample :the dialog between a terminal connected to a mainframe. Can
be half>duplex.
Synchroni'ation. !he session layer allows a process to add checpoints into a
stream of data. 2xample 1f a system is sending a file of ,666 pages " chec
points may be inserted after every +66 pages to ensure that each +66 page unit is
advised and acnowledged independently. So if a crash happens during the
transmission of page 9,-"retransmission begins at page 96+"pages + to 966 need
not be retransmitted.
*resentation layer. 1t is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems. /esponsibilities of the presentation layer are
!ranslation .!he processes in two systems are usually exchanging information
in the form of character strings" numbers" and so on. !he Since different
computers use different encoding systems "the presentation layer is responsible
for interoperability between these different encoding methods. At the sender "the
presentation layer changes the information from its sender>dependent format
into a common format. !he presentation layer at the receiving machine changes
the common format into its receiver dependent format.
2ncryption. !he sender transforms the original information from to another
form and sends the resulting message over the entire networ. $ecryption
reverses the original process to transform the message bac to its original form.
Compression. 1t reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. 1t is important in
the transmission of text" audio and video.
Application -ayer : 1t enables the user(human)software) to access the networ. 1t
provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail" remote file
access and transfer" shared database management and other types of distributed
information services. Services provided by the application layer are
3etwor =irtual terminal. A networ virtual terminal is a software version of a
physical terminal and allows a user to log on to a remote host.
(ile transfer" access and management. !his application allows a user to access
files in a remote computer" to retrieve files from a remote computer and to
manage or control files in a remote computer.
&ail services. !his application provides the basis for e>mail forwarding and
storage.
$irectory services. 1t provides distributed database sources and access for global
information about various obJects and services .
Transmission +edia
!ransmission media are actually located below the physical layer and directly
controlled by the physical layer.
!ransmission media can be divided into two broad categories
Kuided &
7nguided
/uided media
1t includes twisted>pair cable" coaxial cable" and fiber>optic cable
Un#uided media
1t is usually air.
/uided media
Kuided media" which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another.
Coaxial ca"le
Coaxial cable carries signals of higher fre*uency ranges than twisted pair cable.
1t has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire enclosed in an insulating
sheath. !his in turn encased in an outer conductor of metal foil "braid or a
combination of the two.
!he metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second
conductor completes the circuit.
!he outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath and the whole cable
is protected by a plastic cover.
Coaxial ca"le Standards
Coaxial cables are categori'ed by their radio government (/K) ratings .2ach /K
number denotes a set of physical specifications such as"
wire gauge of the inner conductor
thicness and type of the inner insulator
the construction of the shield
the si'e and type of outer casing
Cate#ories of coaxial ca"les
Category 1mpedance 7se
/K>9< 49 Cable !=
/K>95 96 !hin 2thernet
/K>++ 96 !hic 2thernet
Coaxial Ca"le Connectors:
Coaxial Cable Connectors are used to connect coaxial cable to devices. !he most
common type of connector is the %ayone 3eill>concelman or %3C connectors. !here
are three popular types of connectors
%3C connector
%3C ! connector &
%3C terminator
0NC connector
1t is used to connect the end of the cable to a device such as a != set.
0NC T connector
1t is used in 2thernet networs to branch out a cable for connection to a computer or
other devices.
0NC terminator
1t is used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the signal.
0erformance
Attenuation is much higher in coaxial cables than in twisted pair cable.
Coaxial cable has a much higher bandwidth the signal weaens rapidly and
needs the fre*uent use of repeaters.
0asic definitions
Signal Attenuation is the phenomenon whereby the amplitude of a signal
decreases as it propagates along a transmission line.
Attenuation is a function of distance and fre*uency of signal
/epeaters are used to increase the power of the signal at appropriate intervals
Sin effect" which increases attenuation as the bit rate of the transmitted signal
increases
Applications
Coaxial cable is used in analog telephone networ where a single coaxial
cable could carry +6"666 voice signals.
1t is also used in digital telephone networ where a cable could carry
digital data up to 866 &bps.
Cable != networs also used /K>9< coaxial cables.
1t is also used in traditional 2thernets.
(i"er !ptic Ca"le.
A fiber optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmit signals in the form of light.
*roperties of li#ht
Fight travels in a straight line as long as it moves through a single uniform
substance. 1f array traveling through one substance suddenly enters another the
ray changes direction.
,efraction:
1f the angle of incidence (the angle the ray maes with the line perpendicular to the
interface between the two substances) is less than the critical angle the ray refracts and
moves closer to the surface.
,eflection:
1f the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle the ray reflects and travels
again in the denser substance.
:ptical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.
A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. !he
difference in the density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving
through the core is reflected off the cladding.
*ropa#ation +odes
!here are two modes for propagating light along optical channels" each re*uires fiber
with different physical characteristics
&ultimode
Single mode
+ultimode
&ultiple beams from a light source move through the core in different paths.
&ultimode can be implemented in two forms
Step>index
Kraded index
+ultimode Step index fi"er
1n &ultimode Step .index fiber the density of the fiber remains constant from the
center to the edges
A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line .
Ahen it reaches the interface of the core and the cladding" there is an abrupt
change to a lower density that alters the angle of the beams motion.
Step>index >L the suddenness of this change.
+ultimode /raded'index fi"er
1t decreases the distortion of the signal through the cable.
$ensity is highest at the center of the core and decreases gradually to its lowest at
the edge.
Sin#le'+ode
1t uses step>index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits beams to a
small range of angles" all close to the hori'ontal
!he Single>&ode fiber itself is manufactured with a smaller diameter than that of
multimode fiber and with lower density.
!his results in a critical angle that is close enough to <6
.
to mae it hori'ontal.
All the beams arrive at the destination together and can be recombined with little
distortion to the signal.
(i"er Si.es
:ptical fibers are defined by the ratio of the diameter of their core to the diameter of their
cladding expressed in micrometers.
(i"er'optic ca"le connectors.
!hree different types of connectors are used by fiber .optic cable.
SC ( subscriber channel) Connector:
1t is used in cable !=.
ST1Strai#ht'tip2 Connector:
1t is used for connecting cable to networing devices .
*erformance :
Attenuation is flatter than in the case of twisted pair cable and coaxial cable.
(ew repeaters are needed when we use fiber optic cable.
Application
1t is used in cable != and FA3 ((ast 2thernet and +66%ase .G.
Advanta#es
&i#her "and%idth: 1t can support higher bandwidth than twisted pair or coaxial cable.
-ess si#nal attenuation: !ransmission distance is greater than that of other guided
media. Signals can be transmitted for 96 m without re*uiring regeneration.
Immunity to electroma#netic Interference : 2lectromagnetic noise can not affect fiber>
optic cables
,esistance to corrosive materials: glass is more resistant to corrosive materials.
-i#ht'%ei#ht: 1t is of less weight than the copper cables.
+ore Immune to tapin#: (iber>optic cables are more immune to taping than copper
cables.
Disadvanta#es :
Installation3+aintenance. 1nstallation)&aintenance need expertise since it is a new
technology.
Unidirectional: 0ropagation of light is unidirectional. %idirectional communication is
achieved by means of two optical fibers.
Cost: 1t is more expensive and the use of optical fiber cannot be Justified if the need for
bandwidth is not high.
Fine Coding : Fine Coding is the process of converting binary data " a se*uence of bits "
to a digital signal.