Microwave Antennas and Propagation

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Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.

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Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Microwave Antennas And Propagation
Engineering Encyclopedia Communications
Microwaave Antennas and Propagation
CONTENTS PAGES
DETERMINING CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROWAVE
ANTENNAS........................................................................................................... 1
Derivation of Antennas from a Transmission Line...................................... 1
Basic Mechanics of Antenna Radiation....................................................... 2
Microwave Feed Horn................................................................................. 8
Parabolic Reflector ...................................................................................... 9
Horn Reflector Antenna ............................................................................ 11
Advantages and Disadvantages...................................................... 13
MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION PATH CHARACTERISTICS ....................... 14
LOS Propagation ....................................................................................... 14
Free Space Path Loss................................................................................. 17
Other Propagation Losses.......................................................................... 18
Atmospheric Absorption................................................................ 18
Rain Attenuation ............................................................................ 19
Terrain and Obstruction Losses ..................................................... 20
Reflection .................................................................................................. 21
Delay Distortion............................................................................. 24
Multipath Propagation ................................................................... 24
Fresnel Zone Radii ......................................................................... 25
Fade Margin .............................................................................................. 30
Reliability Objectives ................................................................................ 31
Probability of Outages ................................................................... 32
Diversity......................................................................................... 36
CALCULATING SYSTEM GAIN....................................................................... 40
Sample Gain Calculation........................................................................... 43
WORK AID 1: FORMULAS AND REFERENCES FOR
DETERMINING MICROWAVE ANTENNA
CHARACTERISTICS ................................................................ 47
Determining Microwave Antenna Gain..................................................... 47
Determining the Diameter of the Parabolic Reflector ............................... 48
WORK AID 2: PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE SYSTEM GAIN................... 50
GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................... 52
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1
DETERMINING CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROWAVE ANTENNAS
An antenna is the device that provides a transition of electromagnetic energy from the
transmission line to the free space and vice versa. An antenna is a reciprocal device, which
means that the characteristics that affect a transmitting antenna will have an identical effect on
a receiving antenna. This section provides information on the following topics that are
pertinent in the determination of the characteristics of microwave antennas:
Derivation of Antennas from a Transmission Line
Basic Mechanics of Antenna Radiation
Microwave Feed Horn
Parabolic Reflector
Horn Reflector Antenna
Advantages and Disadvantages
Derivation of Antennas from a Transmission Line
The basic operation of an antenna can be understood through use of transmission line theory.
Figure 1 shows how a half-wave dipole can be developed from a quarterwave section of
transmission line. The open-ended section of transmission line develops standing waves of
voltage and current. When the conductors are parallel with each other, the fields that are
generated by the voltage and current are in opposite directions, and these fields will cancel;
therefore, the transmission line will not radiate a signal. If the conductors are spread apart,
the fields that are generated will be in the same direction and the antenna will radiate waves
(energy) into free space. If the conductors are spread to a distance that is equal to one-half of
a wavelength of the signal on the transmission line, the antenna will radiate waves that are
one-half of a wavelength (l/2).
Development of an Antenna from a Section of Transmission Line
Figure 1
Basic Mechanics of Antenna Radiation
The radiation that is emitted by the antenna is in the form of transverse electromagnetic
(TEM) waves. The TEM wave consists of two components: the electric field (E-field) and
the magnetic field (H-field). Figure 2 shows a representation of the E- and H-fields. The E-
field is represented by E-lines that are developed along the length of the antenna. The H-field
is represented by H-lines that are developed circumferentially around the antenna. The H-
field lines are perpendicular to the E-field lines.
The E and H-fields are developed from the standing waves of voltage and current that are 90
o
out-of-phase with each other. The H-field is at minimum intensity when the E-field is at
maximum intensity. The H-field will be at maximum intensity when the E-field is at
minimum intensity.
TEM Wave Radiation from an Antenna
Figure 2
The following terms are used to describe the characteristics of antennas:
Polarization
Radiation Efficiency
Radiation Pattern
Directivity
Beamwidth
Gain
Capture Area
Bandwidth
Polarization is a term that is used to define the direction of the E-field lines in relation to the
surface of the earth. Because the E-field lines are developed along the length of the antenna,
the polarization of the transmitted wave is achieved through use of the position (horizontal or
vertical) of the transmitting antenna. If the transmitting antenna is vertical, the E-field lines
will be vertical to the surface of the earth, and the emitted wave is said to be vertically
polarized. Likewise, a horizontal antenna will emit a wave with horizontal polarization.
The receiving antenna must be in the same plane of polarization (vertical or horizontal) as the
transmitting antenna for the best reception. For example, a vertical antenna is normally used
to receive vertically polarized waves. A slight amount of twisting of the polarization occurs
as the TEM wave travels through free space. This twisting is called the faraday effect, and it
is normally not significant except in satellite communications.
The radiation efficiency of an antenna describes the ratio of the radiated power of an antenna
to the applied power of an antenna. Practical antennas will not be 100% efficient because
some of the applied power is lost. The radiation efficiency of an antenna is a function of the
resistance of the antenna. The actual radiation efficiency of an antenna depends on the design
of the antenna.
The term radiation pattern refers to the directional characteristics of an antenna. Nearly all
practical antennas tend to concentrate energy in specific directions rather than emit radiation
that is equal in all directions. A diagram typically is used to show the radiation pattern for an
antenna. Figure 3 shows the radiation patterns from an isotropic radiator and from a
directional antenna. The isotropic radiator equally emits radiation in all directions. The
radiation pattern of the directional antenna is stronger in one direction. The area of most
intense radiation is called the main lobe or major lobe. Other smaller lobes exist, and these
lobes are called minor lobes.
Radiation Patterns
Figure 3
Directivity describes the ability of an antenna to radiate energy in one direction. In reference
to Figure 3, directivity is the comparison of the amount of energy that is radiated in the main
lobe to the energy that is radiated in the main lobe plus the energy that is radiated in all three
minor lobes. Directivity is defined as the ratio of the maximum power density that is radiated
by an antenna to the average power that is radiated by the same antenna.
Beamwidth is a measure of the width of the major lobe of a directional antenna, and it is
measured in degrees. The beamwidth provides an indication of how effective a directional
antenna is at aiming the radiated energy in one main direction; for example, an antenna with
a narrow major lobe will be more effective in aiming the radiated energy than will an antenna
with a wide major lobe.
The gain of an antenna is also related to the directivity of the antenna because antennas are
essentially passive devices that do not add energy to an applied signal. Because antennas are
passive devices, the gain of an antenna is a directive gain that describes the percentage of
the power that is concentrated in the direction of radiation. Although a dipole is sometimes
used as a reference, an isotropic antenna is the reference point that is used to determine the
gain of directional antennas. An isotropic antenna is a theoretical antenna that radiates power
equally in all directions. The gain of an antenna is the ratio of the power density in the
direction of radiation of the antenna to the power density of an isotropic radiator. Power
density is a measure of the strength of the electromagnetic field across a given volume. This
relationship can be expressed mathematically in dB as follows:
gain (dB) = 10 log(Pant/Piso)
Pant = Power density at some distance along the direction of radiation from
the directional antenna.
Piso = Power density at the same distance from an isotropic radiator.
The gain of a given antenna depends on the size, shape, and efficiency of the antenna.
Capture area is the term that is used to describe the effective area from which an antenna can
capture (receive) transmitted signals. The capture area of a receive antenna is similar to the
beamwidth of a transmit antenna. The major lobe of the capture area represents the direction
from which a receive antenna is best able to receive a transmitted signal.
Bandwidth is the term that is used to describe the specific range of frequencies in which a
given antenna is designed to operate. An antenna that is operated at frequencies that are
above or below the specified bandwidth may not provide satisfactory service.
Microwave Feed Horn
The microwave feed horn that is shown in Figure 4 is the simplest type of microwave
antenna. Most microwave transmission systems use waveguide in place of conventional
transmission line to connect the transmitter/receiver to the antenna. The microwave feed horn
antenna consists of a section of connecting waveguide that is tapered (or flared outward) to
form a horn shape that provides a gradual transition from the characteristic impedance of the
waveguide to the impedance of free space. The operation of the microwave feed horn
antenna is similar to the operation of the half-wave dipole antenna that was previously
described. The spread of the conductors that was shown in Figure 1 is duplicated through use
of the horn of the microwave feed horn antenna. The horn allows the E-field lines and H-field
lines to leave the antenna and travel into free space.
Horn Antenna
Figure 4
The geometry of the horn is such that one or both dimensions of the horn walls are tapered.
The gain of the microwave feed horn antenna depends on the ratio of the opening of the horn
to the square of the transmitted wavelength, and the gain is limited to approximately 20 dB in
practical applications. Because the gain of the horn antenna is not high enough for most
microwave relay applications, microwave feed horn antennas are used most often in low
performance applications or they are used in conjunction with parabolic reflectors to form
parabolic antennas.
Parabolic Reflector
The most common antenna for use in microwave applications is the parabolic reflector or
parabolic antenna. The parabolic antenna is sometimes called a dish antenna because of its
unique shape. Saudi Aramco exclusively uses parabolic antennas for microwave
communication system antennas.
The parabolic antenna consists of two main components: the source of the energy and
the reflector. The energy source is commonly referred to as the feed, and it can be an antenna
such as a half-wave dipole or, more commonly, a horn antenna. The reflector is constructed
in the shape of a parabola because the geometry of a parabola is such that any ray of radiation
from the energy source that strikes the parabola will be reflected back in the same direction.
In addition, all of the reflected rays will travel an identical path length. Because all of the rays
are reflected in the same direction and are in-phase, the result is a highly concentrated beam
of radiation.
In order to ensure that all of the reflected rays are in-phase, the feed must be located at the
focus of the parabola. Ideally, the feed should act as a point source. Figure 5 shows the
common methods of feeding a parabolic antenna. Both of the antennas that are shown are
center-fed, which refers to placement of the feed horn in the center of the parabolic reflector.
The front feed design is an economical approach that consists of a waveguide and a horn
antenna that are placed around the front of the parabolic reflector. The waveguide section and
feed horn will somewhat interfere with the radiation pattern that is produced by the antenna
and will limit the gain of the antenna. An alternate method of feeding the parabolic antenna is
the Cassegrain feed. With the Cassegrain feed, the waveguide and the feed horn are placed
behind the primary parabolic reflector, and a second reflector that is called a hyperboloid is
placed out in front of the primary parabolic reflector. The geometry of the hyperboloid causes
the radiation that is emitted from the feed horn back into the parabolic reflector to appear to
emanate from the focus point of the parabola.
Methods of Feeding Parabolic Antennas
Figure 5
Parabolic antennas are used in microwave applications because of the high gain that can be
achieved with parabolic antennas. The gain of the parabolic antenna is directly proportional
to the ratio of the diameter of the reflector to the wavelength of the transmitted signal;
therefore, as the ratio of antenna diameter to signal wavelength increases, the gain of the
antenna also increases. This ratio shows that larger diameter reflectors produce higher
antenna gains than do small diameter reflectors, and in practical applications, the diameter of
the reflector must be at least ten wavelengths. The gain of an antenna is also dependant on
the efficiency of the antenna. Parabolic antennas have a standard efficiency of 55%.
The three factors (diameter of the reflector, wavelength, and efficiency) that affect the gain of
a parabolic antenna are represented in the equation to calculate antenna gain; however,
wavelength is not used directly because frequency is more convenient. Frequency can be
used to determine the gain because frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength. The
gain of a parabolic antenna with an efficiency of 55% can be calculated through use of the
following equation:
GdB = 20logFGHz + 20logB + 17.8
where: GdB = Gain of a parabolic antenna in dB
FGHz = Frequency of the signal in GHz
B = Diameter of the parabola in meters
17.8 = A constant that accounts for the efficiency of the antenna and for
unit conversions.
For example, the gain of a two meter parabola that operates at 6.000 GHz can be calculated as
follows:
GdB = 20logF
GHz
+ 20logB + 17.8
GdB = 20log(6) + 20log(2) + 17.8
GdB = 20(0.778) + 20(0.301) + 17.8
GdB = 15.6 + 6.0 + 17.8
GdB = 39.4 dB
Figure 15, which is located in Work Aid 1, can also be used to determine the gain of a
parabolic antenna through use of a straight edge that connects between the frequency of the
signal and the diameter of the reflector. The gain of the antenna is the point at which the
straight edge crosses the gain scale.
The horn reflector antenna that is shown in Figure 6 is actually a special type of parabolic
antenna. The antenna consists of a waveguide and a feed horn that are at the bottom of a
portion of a parabolic reflector. Microwave energy from the waveguide is reflected off of the
portion of the parabolic reflector to form a parallel beam that is similar to the parabolic
antenna. The geometry of the horn is curved so that the radiation from the feed horn is
reflected in concentrated parallel beams off the portion of the parabolic reflector. The main
difference between the horn reflector antenna and the parabolic antenna is that the feed
mechanism in the horn reflector antenna does not block the radiation from the reflector.
Figure 6
Advantages and Disadvantages
There are definite advantages and disadvantages that are associated with both the parabolic
reflector antenna and the horn reflector antenna. Each advantage and disadvantage is a direct
result of the geometry and the operational characteristics of the antennas.
One of the main advantages of the parabolic reflector antenna is the high overall gain. The
parabolic reflector antenna has a higher gain than does the horn reflector antenna, even when
these antennas are of comparable sizes. The higher gain is due to the complete parabolic
geometry of the parabolic reflector antenna. Also, the complete parabolic shape of the
parabolic reflector antenna provides a more focused or pencil-shaped beam than does the
horn reflector antenna. Pencil-shaped beams have less radiation loss from the transmitter to
the receiver.
The advantages of the parabolic reflector antenna also are the disadvantages of the horn
reflector antenna. The horn reflector antenna does not produce a crisp pencil-shaped beam,
and its gain is not as high as that of the parabolic reflector antenna. Both of these
disadvantages are the result of the incomplete parabolic shape.
The horn reflector antenna does provide one distinct advantage because of the placement of
the feed apparatus. Recall that the feed apparatus of the parabolic reflector antenna is in the
path of the radiated signals, and the feed apparatus of the horn reflector antenna is out of the
path of the radiated signals; therefore, the feed apparatus of the horn reflector antenna does
not interfere with the antennas radiation pattern. As a direct result of the feed mechanisms
not interfering with the radiation pattern, the horn reflector antenna produces less noise than
does the parabolic reflector antenna. In the parabolic reflector antenna, the radiated signal
bounces off the feed apparatus, which results in the production of noise and a low signal-to-
noise ratio. With the horn reflector antenna, the feed apparatus is not in the path of the
radiated signal, and this situation results in less noise production and a high signal-to-noise
ratio.
MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION PATH CHARACTERISTICS
Microwave transmissions usually involve a series of microwave links that provide point-to-
point communications. The actual path that the microwave signals travel is critical to
effective and reliable communications. This section provides information on the following
topics that are pertinent to the determination of microwave transmission path characteristics:
LOS Propagation
Free Space Path Loss
Other Propagation Losses
Reflection
Fade Margin
Reliability Objectives
LOS Propagation
LOS propagation refers to the method that microwave signals travel from one point to a
different point, and this propagation is shown in Figure 7. Figure 7 also shows a transmit
antenna that is mounted on a tower and faces a receive antenna that is also mounted on a
tower. The majority of microwave propagation occurs via space waves in a direct line-of-
sight (LOS) path from the transmit antenna to the receive antenna. Line-of-sight transmission
requires that a clear path be provided between the transmitting and the receiving antennas.
Mountains, trees, and the curvature of the earth limit the distance of a single-hop, line-of-sight
transmission.
In actual applications, the line-of-sight signal does not travel a perfectly straight path between
the antennas because the space wave is refracted by the earths troposphere. The amount of
refraction that occurs depends on the tropospheric conditions. Variations in the density of the
atmosphere at various altitudes and weather fronts will affect the refraction of microwave
signals. The effects of weather fronts are very unpredictable and can change rapidly as the
weather front progresses.
The following effects of tropospheric refraction are possible:
The wave is bent towards the earth.
The wave is not bent.
The wave is bent away from the earth.
If the wave is bent towards the earth, the net effect is to increase the radio horizon beyond the
optical horizon. An increased radio horizon allows LOS propagation to occur over longer
distances. Under normal tropospheric conditions, signals are bent toward the earth.
When the wave is not bent, the radio horizon equals the optical horizon. In this condition, the
distance that a microwave signal can be propagated is limited to the optical horizon.
If the wave is bent away from the earth, the radio horizon is shorter than the optical horizon.
A shortened radio horizon limits the propagation of microwave signals to distances that are
shorter than the distances that would be possible without the refraction.
The effective earth radius (K) is a useful tool in a discussion of the effects of refraction on
propagation. K multiplied by the real earth radius is the radius of an effective earth curve.
This effective earth curve is equivalent to the relative curvature of the microwave signal with
respect to the curvature of the earth; therefore, any change in the bending of the microwave
signal that is caused by tropospheric refraction can be expressed by a change in K.
K is equal to 4/3 under normal atmospheric conditions. When K is equal to 4/3, the effective
radius of the earth is greater than the actual radius of the earth. The term earth flattening
describes conditions when K is greater than one. The earth can be considered flattened
under these conditions because microwave signals can be propagated for longer distances
before the curvature of the earth blocks the signal.
Under extreme tropospheric conditions, K can be infinite. When K is infinite, the curvature
of the microwave signal exactly matches the curvature of the earth. An infinite K represents a
condition in which microwave signals could be propagated for extremely long distances.
Infinite values of K are not desirable because these conditions allow signals from different
microwave systems that are separated by great distances to interfere with each other.
K can also be less than one. Values of K that are less than one represent a bulged earth
condition. The earth can be considered to be bulged because microwave signals cannot be
propagated for as great a distance before the curvature of the earth blocks the signal.
In addition to refraction, reflections of the space wave also occur. Just as light is reflected
from a mirror, microwaves can be reflected from any flat surface such as a building, a lake or
even flat ground. Figure 7 shows a ground reflected wave. The reflected waves normally are
not used as an intentional means of propagation. Instead, the reflected wave is usually
unintentional, and it can cause severe propagation problems. The main problem that is caused
by the effect of reflected waves is that the reflected component of the transmitted wave is
often out-of-phase with the direct wave component. The phase difference at the receiving
antenna will result in a reduction of the received signal strength.
Microwave Propagation
Figure 7
Free Space Path Loss
As microwave signals propagate from point-to-point, the amplitude of the microwave signal is
attenuated by losses. One loss to which microwave signals are subjected is free space path
loss. Free space path loss is the loss that occurs in an electromagnetic wave as the
electromagnetic wave travels from point-to-point. Free space path loss is defined as the loss
that occurs between two isotropic antennas in free space, where there are no ground
influences or obstructions. Free space path loss does not account for absorption or for
reflection of energy from objects. Free space path loss only accounts for the spreading of an
electromagnetic wave as the electromagnetic wave travels through free space. An example of
free space path loss is the spreading of the electromagnetic energy in a microwave signal as
the microwave signal is propagated from the transmit to the receive antenna.
The spreading occurs in accordance with the inverse square law. The inverse square law
describes the spreading of a field so that the strength of the field at any given point is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the given point and the point at
which the field originates. Recall from the discussion of LOS propagation that an
electromagnetic wave is composed of an electric field and a magnetic field. These fields
spread in accordance with the inverse square law. For example, the strength of the signal at
the receive antenna will be reduced by a factor of four if the distance between a transmit and
receive antenna is doubled.
Because the microwave signal spreads in accordance with the inverse square law, only a
portion of a transmitted signal is received by the receive antenna. The portion of the
transmitted signal that is not received is a loss. The portion of the radiated energy that is lost
due to free space path loss can be calculated through use of the following formula:
L
p
= 92.4 + 20 log F(GHz) + 20 log D(km)
where: L
p
= Free space path loss in db
F(GHz) = Transmission frequency in GHz
D(km) = Distance between transmitting and receiving antennas
in km
For example, the free space path loss of a microwave system that transmits at 6.0 GHz to a
receiving antenna that is 50 km away can be calculated as follows:
L
p
= 92.4 + 20 log F(GHz) + 20 log D(km)
L
p
= 92.4 + 20 log (6 GHz) + 20 log (50 km)
L
p
= 92.4 + 15.6 + 34
L
p
= 142 db
The formula shows that free space path loss is a function of both the distance between
antennas and the frequency of the transmitted signal. Free space path loss will increase with
either an increase in the frequency of the transmitted signal or an increase in the distance
between the antennas.
Other Propagation Losses
Other propagation losses occur to microwave signals because of absorption or blockage of the
microwave signals by items in the propagation path. These other losses can occur in space or
along the ground. Losses in space are due to atmospheric absorption and rain attenuation of
the microwave signal. Losses along the ground are due to terrain and obstruction losses.
Atmospheric Absorption
Oxygen and water vapor in the atmosphere will absorb energy from microwave signals. This
absorption of energy is represented as a loss to the microwave signal. Absorption losses to
microwave signals are analogous to I2R losses in metallic conductors; the energy that is
absorbed by oxygen and water vapor in the atmosphere is converted to heat, and the result of
the energy absorption is a reduction in the power of the microwave signal.
Oxygen and water vapor absorption is a very minor concern in microwave systems that
operate below 14 GHz. From 2 GHz to 14 GHz, oxygen absorption is only about 0.01 dB to
0.02 dB per kilometer, and the absorption from water vapor is even less. At 2 GHz, water
vapor absorption attenuation is only approximately 0.0003 dB/km. The attenuation that
results from water vapor absorption increases with frequency, and it is approximately equal to
the attenuation that results from oxygen absorption at 14 GHz. Figure 8 is a graph of the
attenuation of microwave signals that results from oxygen and water vapor absorption versus
frequency of the microwave signal. Figure 8 is used to determine the microwave signal losses
that result from oxygen and water vapor absorption.
Atmospheric Absorption of Electromagnetic Waves
Figure 8
Rain Attenuation
The attenuation of microwave signals that results from rain attenuation is also of very little
concern in microwave systems that operate at 8 GHz or lower; however, at the higher
microwave frequencies, the losses that result from rain attenuation are significant. Rain
attenuation losses are the result of energy absorption by water droplets. The energy that is
absorbed by the water droplets is converted to heat.
The degree of attenuation that results from rainfall is a complex function of many variables.
The three most important variables are the frequency of the microwave signal, the area that is
covered by the rainfall, and the intensity of the rainfall. The total amount of rainfall along the
transmission path over a period of time is not significant. The intensity of the rainfall and the
area that is covered by the rainfall along the transmission path at any given instant are the
significant parameters.
The mechanism of the microwave signal attenuation that results from fog or clouds is
identical to that of rainfall; however, fog or cloud attenuation of microwave signals is much
less significant than rain attenuation. Figure 9 is a graph of attenuation that results from rain,
fog, or clouds at various rainfall rates. Figure 9 is used to determine the microwave signal
losses that result from rainfall, fog, or clouds.
Attenuation Due to Precipitation
Figure 9
Terrain and Obstruction Losses
Features of the terrain or man-made obstructions can directly cause losses to a microwave
signal. Such losses are caused by a blockage of the signal or a diffraction of the signal.
Obstructions (natural and man-made) that exist along the transmission path can physically
block the microwave signal. The severity of the signal blockage (complete or partial) that
occurs will depend on the size, shape, and nature of the obstruction. A complete blockage of
the signal results in a total loss of the received signal, and a partial blockage of the signal
results in an additional propagation loss to the signal. Because all signal blockages result in a
loss to the microwave signal, microwave transmission paths should avoid obstructions.
Diffraction occurs when the microwave signal grazes an obstruction, which results in a
scattering of the microwave signal. This signal scattering results in a loss to the microwave
signal, and these losses can reach 6 dB.
Reflection
Electromagnetic waves are subject to electromagnetic reflection during propagation.
Electromagnetic reflection occurs when an incident wave strikes the boundary of two media,
and some or all of the incident waves power does not enter the second medium. The
boundary can exist on the ground or in space. A body of water or a building can be a
reflective surface on the ground, and the boundary between a mass of cool air and a mass of
warm air can act as a reflective surface in space.
There are three types of electromagnetic reflection:
Specular reflection
Diffuse reflection
A combination of specular and diffuse reflection
Electromagnetic reflection is specular when the reflection occurs at a smooth boundary.
Specular electromagnetic reflection results in a reflected wavefront that maintains the shape of
the incident wavefront. Specular electromagnetic reflection of microwave signals is
analogous to the reflection of a flashlight beam in a mirror. Dry lake beds, salt flats, and
atmospheric boundaries present a mirror-like surface that can result in specular reflection of
microwave signals.
Electromagnetic reflection is diffuse when the reflection occurs at a rough boundary. Diffuse
electromagnetic reflection results in the destruction of the reflected wavefronts shape; that is,
the electromagnetic energy is scattered in many different directions at the point of reflection.
Rough mountainous terrain or other highly irregular surfaces produce diffuse reflection.
A combination of specular and diffuse electromagnetic reflections occurs at semi-rough
boundaries. Electromagnetic reflections at semi-rough surfaces will not destroy the shape of
the wavefront; however, reflections from semi-rough surfaces do cause a greater reduction in
the power of the microwave signal. Objects such as roads, sand dunes, or a field of crops
present semi-rough boundaries that can result in a combination of specular and diffuse
reflections of microwave signals.
Electromagnetic reflection of microwave signals can create problems when a reflected
wavefront reaches the receive antenna; therefore, specular and combination reflection can
create problems. Diffuse reflection destroys the shape of the wavefront; therefore, diffuse
reflection cannot produce a reflected wavefront that will reach a receive antenna. For a
reflected wavefront to reach the receive antenna, the wavefront must be intact, and the
reflection must occur at an angle so that the reflected wavefront continues to follow the
transmission path.
With electromagnetic reflection, the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence;
therefore, the electromagnetic reflection must occur at a narrow angle of incidence if the
reflected waves are to follow the transmission path, as shown in Figure 10. When reflection
occurs at a large angle of incidence, the reflected waves are directed away from the
transmission path. This situation is also shown in Figure 10.
Electromagnetic Reflection
Figure 10
Delay Distortion
Delay distortion is a problem with microwave systems that is caused by electromagnetic
reflections of microwave signals along the transmission path or within waveguide runs.
Delay distortion occurs when a portion of the microwave signal undergoes reflections so that
the reflected portion of the signal arrives at the receive antenna at least several wavelengths
behind the unreflected signal. The delayed portion of the signal interferes with the direct
signal, and the end result of the interference that is associated with delay distortion is noise.
Noise is defined as any unwanted component of the received signal that lowers the
performance of a system.
The transmission paths that are most likely to experience delay distortion are paths that
consist of low, flat, intermediate terrain that is between high, elevated antennas. For example,
this type of path can occur when the transmit and receive antennas are located on building
tops and the transmission path is aligned with streets. A path from mountain top to mountain
top with low flat terrain in between could also cause delay distortion.
Reflections within waveguides that occur because of impedance mismatches and irregularities
also cause delay distortion. Delay distortion that is caused by reflections that are within
waveguides can be avoided through minimization of the length of waveguide runs.
Multipath Propagation
Multipath propagation also results from electromagnetic reflection. Multipath propagation
occurs when reflected waves that are out-of-phase with the direct wave arrive at the receive
antenna. Under these conditions, the received signal is the vector sum of all of the various
component waves that vary in phase and amplitude, and there will be short intervals in which
the various vectors will cancel each other to produce a null. This null production causes most
of the very deep fading that is experienced on many microwave links. Fading is the term that
describes the reduction in the strength of a received signal.
Multipath propagation can result from electromagnetic reflections that occur in the
atmosphere or on the ground. Electromagnetic reflection in the atmosphere occurs when a
microwave signal strikes the boundary between two layers in the atmosphere. Layers in the
atmosphere are produced from temperature inversions and weather fronts.
Temperature inversions produce layers in the atmosphere when the air that is just above the
ground cools more rapidly than do higher portions of the atmosphere. When a temperature
inversion occurs, the cool air is trapped beneath warmer air and a reflective boundary is
formed at the interface. Temperature inversions normally occur at night because of the
radiative cooling of the ground. Temperature inversions also can occur during the day;
however, these temperature inversions infrequently occur.
Temperature inversions are very common along Saudi Aramco microwave transmission
paths. Unfortunately, there is nothing that can be done to overcome the effects of temperature
inversions that are in progress. If a temperature inversion is in progress, layers exist in the
atmosphere; therefore, multipath propagation will occur.
Weather fronts can also produce layers in the atmosphere. When a weather front moves into
an area, the weather front is often accompanied by a sudden decrease in temperature at lower
elevations in the atmosphere. This phenomenon creates boundaries between the layers in the
atmosphere at which electromagnetic reflection can occur. The layers that are produced by
weather fronts are not nearly as stable as those layers that are produced by temperature
inversions; therefore, multipath fades that are produced by weather fronts generally do not last
as long as the fades that are produced by temperature inversions.
Ground reflections occur when the transmission path travels over a smooth or semi-rough
surface. Examples of smooth surfaces that can cause multipath propagation are dry lake beds
and salt flats. Sand dunes and road beds are examples of semi-rough surfaces that can
produce multipath propagation. Recall from the discussion of reflection that the reflections
from smooth surfaces are stronger than reflections from semi-rough surfaces; therefore, the
fades that are produced from smooth surfaces are deeper than the fades that are produced
from semi-rough surfaces.
The transmission path has a bearing on the susceptibility of the system to multipath
propagation. Long paths tend to produce more multipath propagation than do short paths.
Multipath propagation also is somewhat greater at higher frequencies. The incidence of
multipath fading varies not only as a function of path length and frequency, but also as a
function of climate. In the most favorable areas such as paths in dry, windy areas, multipath
fading may be non-existent. Hot, humid areas typically have a high incidence of multipath
fading.
Fresnel Zone Radii
If transmit and receive antennas were located in empty space, reflected signals would not
exist, and free space path loss would be the only loss. The strength of the resultant signal at
the receive antenna would be equal to the transmitted power minus the free space path loss.
Because the transmit and receive antennas are located on earth, the signal strength at the
receive antenna now is also dependent on the nature of the reflected signals that are present at
the receive antenna. The presence of in-phase reflected waves results in a greater signal
strength than would occur with no reflected waves being present; therefore, in-phase
reflected waves result in signal addition (gain). For similar reasons, out-of-phase reflected
waves result in signal attenuation (loss).
Fresnel Zones are used to determine the effects that reflected waves have on reception.
Because reflected waves travel a greater distance than do primary waves, the reflected and
primary waves will not always arrive at the receive antenna in-phase. Fresnel zones define
the boundaries at which reflections can occur such that the reflected and primary waves arrive
in-phase or out-of-phase.
As previously discussed, the electromagnetic reflection must occur at a narrow angle of
incidence in order for the reflected wavefront to reach the receive antenna. A consequence of
reflection at a narrow angle of incidence is that a 180o phase shift of the reflected wave is
produced at the point of reflection.
If the reflected path length is one half wavelength longer than the primary path length, the
reflected waves will arrive at the receive antenna one-half wavelength behind the primary
waves. One half wavelength is equal to 180o; therefore, a one half wavelength longer
reflected path produces a 180o phase shift between the reflected waves and the primary
waves. Likewise, a reflected path length that is one wavelength longer than the primary
pathlength produces a net zero phase shift between the reflected waves and the primary
waves.
In-phase reflection occurs when the reflective path is one half wavelength longer than the
primary path. The 180o phase shift that results from reflection combines with the 180o phase
shift that results from the one half wavelength longer pathlength to produce a net zero phase
difference between the primary and reflected waves. Out-of-phase reflection occurs when the
reflected path length is one wavelength longer than the primary path because the net phase
shift is 180o.
The first Fresnel Zone consists of all those points at which reflections can occur so that the
path length of a reflected wave is exactly one half wavelength longer than the path length of a
primary wave. If all the points that constitute the first Fresnel zone were plotted between a
transmitting antenna and a receiving antenna, a long, narrow ellipsoid would be produced.
The radius of the first Fresnel zone ellipsoid can be calculated for any point along the
transmission path through use of the following equation:
where: F1 = First fresnel zone radius in m
d1 = Distance from one end of the transmission path to the
reflection point in km
D = Total transmission path length in km
d2 = D - d1
f = Frequency in GHz
The second Fresnel Zone consists of all those points at which reflections can occur so that the
path length of the reflected waves is exactly one wavelength longer than the path length of
primary wave. Each successive Fresnel Zone continues the pattern through description of a
reflected wave pathlength that is one half wavelength longer than the reflected wave
pathlength of the previous Fresnel Zone. If reflection occurs at the ellipsoid that is defined by
an odd numbered Fresnel zone, the reflected signal will arrive at the receive antenna in-phase
with the direct signal; therefore, odd numbered Fresnel zones produce additive reflections.
Likewise, all even numbered Fresnel zones produce subtractive reflections.
The radius for any fresnel zone, n, at a given point along a path can be calculated through use
of the following equation:
where: Fn = Fresnel zone radius in m
F1 = First Fresnel zone radius at that point of the path in m
n = Number of fresnel zone
Figure 11 illustrates the ellipsoids that make up the first three Fresnel Zones. The ellipsoid
that constitutes the second Fresnel Zone is somewhat larger than the ellipsoid that constitutes
the first Fresnel Zone. The difference in the radius between Fresnel Zones decreases as the
number of the Fresnel Zones increase. Restated, the difference in the size of the first and
second Fresnel Zone is greater than the difference in the size of the second and third Fresnel
Zones.
The radius of the first Fresnel Zone at point A of Figure 11 can be calculated through use of
the following formula and the data that are given in Figure 11:
F1A = 17.3 (10)(10)/(2.000)(20)
F1A = 17.3 2.5
F1A = (17.3)(1.58)
F1A = 27.3 meters
The radius of the second and third Fresnel Zones can be calculated now that the radius of the
first Fresnel Zone is known. The radius at point A of the second Fresnel Zone is calculated as
follows:
F2A = F1A n
F2A = (27.3) (2)
F2A = (27.3)(1.41)
F2A = 38.5 meters
The radius at point A of the third Fresnel Zone is calculated as follows:
F3A = F
1A
n
F3A = 27.3 3
F3A = (27.3)(1.73)
F3A = 47.2 meters
Fresnel Zones
Figure 11
Fade Margin
Fade margin is a factor that is considered during a system design and that accounts for the
effects of fading. Essentially, fade margin represents the amount of fading loss that the
system can overcome and still meet the desired quality objectives of the system. The fade
margin of a system determines the extent to which a system is over-engineered. Restated, the
fade margin results in an unfaded signal strength that is stronger than the signal needs to be.
The system changes that can result from an excess margin to fading include stronger
transmitters, more sensitive receivers, or shorter pathlengths. Because over-engineering is
expensive, fade margin is limited to the amount that is necessary to meet the reliability
objectives of the system.
Fades are caused by both terrain and atmospheric effects; therefore, the following equation
can be used in calculations of fade margin that include factors to account for both effects:
FM = 30 logD + 10 log(6ABF) - 10 log(1-R) - 70
where: FM = Fade margin in dB
D = Path length in km
A = Roughness factor
- 4 over water or smooth terrain
- 1 over average terrain
- 0.25 over rough mountainous terrain
B = Factor to convert the worst month probability to an
annual probability
- 0.5 for hot, humid areas
- 0.25 for average inland areas
- 0.125 for very dry or mountainous areas
F = Frequency in GHz
R = Reliability
The term 30 logD accounts for atmospheric effects because a longer path is more likely to
experience fading. The term 10 log(6ABF) accounts for terrain effects because the nature of
the terrain affects the probability that fades will occur. The reliability term is included
because a system that requires higher reliability will require a higher fade margin.
Reliability Objectives
A reliability objective is an objective that describes the acceptable outage time for a system.
This reliability objective is expressed as a reliability percentage. An outage time is a time
when the received signal level is below the level that is acceptable. The minimum acceptable
signal level is that signal level that allows the system to meet the performance objectives of
the system. If the signal level falls below the minimum acceptable level, the receiver may
still produce an output; however, this output will not meet the performance objectives of the
system. The term outage is not meant to imply that the received signal is totally lost. The
term outage only means that the received signal is not acceptable.
This section provides information on the following topics that are pertinent to reliability
objectives:
Probability of Outages
Diversity
Probability of Outages
The reliability percentage is related to the acceptable outage time through use of the following
expression:
Acceptable outage time = 1 - reliability percentage
For example, if the reliability objective is a reliability percentage of 99.99%, the acceptable
outage time would be .01% of the time or about 53 minutes a year. Restated, the received
signal level may fade below the level that is acceptable for about 53 minutes a year. Because
a reliability objective implies an allowable outage time, the probability of an outage can be
used to determine if the reliability objective will be met. For example, an outage probability
of 0.0001% implies an outage time of 31.5 seconds a year. As long as the allowable outage
time is less than 31.5 seconds a year, the reliability objectives will be met.
The transmission path has a large bearing on the steps that must be taken to meet the
reliability objective. Undp stands for the non-diversity annual outage probability and is a
measure of the probability of an outage that occurs because of factors that are associated with
propagation such as signal reflection. The non-diversity outage probability is calculated to
determine if the reliability objectives of a system will be met. Undp can also be expressed in
terms of fade probability on the worst month (rm) or over the year (ryr). The following
equation can be used to calculate the non-diversity annual outage probability (Undp) for a
given path:
Undp = a x b x (3.0 x 10
-7
) x f
1.5
x D
3
x 10
-F/10
where: Undp = Non-diversity annual outage probability
a = Roughness factor
- 4 for very smooth terrain with some roughness
- 1 for average terrain with some roughness
- 1/4 for mountainous, very rough, or very dry
terrain
F = Fade margin in dB
b = Factor to convert the worst month probability to an
annual probability
- 1/2 for hot humid areas
- 1/4 normal temperate climates
- 1/8 mountainous or very dry areas
The following equations can be used to calculate rm and ryr, which are both indications of
fade probability:
rm(worst month) = a x 10
-5
x (f4)
1.5
x (D/1.61)
3
where: a = Roughness factor
ryr (over a year) = b x rm
where: b = Factor to convert the worst month probability to an
annual probability
rm = Fade probability on the worst month
The equation for Undp can be simplified through use of the equations for rm and ryr to yield
the following new equations for Undp:
Undp = ryr x 10
F/19
ryr = Fade probability over a year
Undp = b x rm x 10
F/19
b = Factor to convert the worst month probability to an
annual probability
rm = Fade probability on the worst month
The reliability objectives of a system influence the selection of the transmission path. The
probability of an outage for a system is influenced by the terrain and climate along the
transmission path. A path that has a higher probability of an outage will cause the system to
be less able to meet the reliability objectives of the system. The effect of the reliability
objectives on the selection of the transmission path can be illustrated through an examination
of an example microwave system.
The example microwave system has a reliability objective of 99.999%. This reliability
objective can be converted to the following acceptable outage time:
Acceptable outage time = 1 - reliability percentage
Acceptable outage time = 1 - 99.999%
Acceptable outage time = 0.001%
Because the acceptable outage time is 0.001%, the nondiversity outage probability cannot be
greater than 0.001% (0.00001).
The example system operates at 2.120 GHz, and the path length is 45 km. If the path is over
very dry terrain of average roughness, the fade margin that is required to produce a
nondiversity outage probability of 0.00001 can be determined as follows:
Undp = a x b x (3.0 x 10
-7
) x f
1.5
x D
3
x 10
-F/10
10
-F/10
= Undp/(a x b x (3.0 x 10
-7
) f
1.5
x D
3
)
10
-F/10
= 0.00001/(1 x 1/8 x (3.0 x 10
-7
) x (2.120)
1.5
x (45)
3
)
10
-F/10
= 9.48 x 10
-4
F = -(10)(log(9.48 x 10
-4
))
F = 30.2 dB
If the example system had a transmission path over smooth terrain in a hot, moist area, the
fade margin that is required would be much higher. The fade margin that is required for these
conditions can be calculated as follows:
Undp = a x b x (3.0 x 10
-7
) x f
1.5
x D
3
x 10
-F/10
10
-F/10
= Undp/(a x b x (3.0 x 10
-7
) x f
1.5
x D
3
)
10
-F/10
= 0.00001/(4 x 1/2 x (3.0 x 10
-7
) x (2.120)
1.5
x 45
3
)
10
-F/10
= 5.93 x 10
-5
F = -(10)(log(5.93 x 10
-5
)
F = 42.3 dB
The fade margin that is required of the system with the transmission path over the smooth
terrain in a hot, moist area is 12.1 dB greater than the fade margin that is required of the
system with rolling terrain in a dry area. The greater fade margin that is required of the
second system could result in shorter path lengths, more powerful transmitters, more sensitive
receivers, or even a less reliable system. As stated in the discussion of fade margin, added
fade margin is expensive; therefore, the selection of the transmission path not only affects the
reliability of the system. It also affects the costs of the system.
Diversity
The purpose of diversity systems is to increase system reliability. System reliability is
increased through use of diversity systems because they reduce the effect that disruptive
atmospheric conditions have on the microwave system. The following are the three types of
diversity systems:
Space diversity
Frequency diversity
Quad diversity
Space diversity systems use a single transmitter to transmit to two physically separated
receiving antennas. Space diversity systems reduce atmospheric effects because it is unlikely
that the effects are the same along both transmission paths at the same points in time.
Frequency diversity systems use two sets of transmitters and receivers that are usually
connected to a single antenna and that operate at different frequencies. Frequency diversity
systems take advantage of the fact that many atmospheric effects are frequency dependent and
therefore will not affect both channels simultaneously.
Quad diversity systems are a combination of the two previous diversity systems. Using two
transmitters and four receivers, quad diversity systems have the benefits of both space and
frequency diversity.
The measure of the benefit of diversity systems to system reliability is dependent upon the
correlation of fading between the separate paths. Each individual diversity configuration has
a correlation coefficient that describes the amount of correlation between the paths. The
coefficient ranges between 0 and 1. At 0, there would be completely independent fading
between the paths, and at 1, the separate paths would fade identically. Completely
independent fading is the ideal objective of all diversity systems. Completely independent
fading implies that the atmospheric conditions that affect one path will not affect the other
path; therefore, the likelihood of both paths fading simultaneously is greatly reduced. The
typical correlation coefficients that result from frequency diversity systems are somewhat
higher than 0.8. The typical correlation coefficients that result from space diversity systems
range from 0.6 to 0.7.
A more convenient term to describe the benefits of diversity systems is diversity improvement
factor. The diversity improvement factor (I) is used with Undp to calculate the diversity
outage probability (Udiv). The diversity outage probability is the probability that outages will
occur in a system that employs a diversity system. Undp and Udiv are related by the
following equation:
Udiv = Undp/I
where: Udiv = Diversity outage probability
Undp = Non diversity outage probability
I = Diversity improvement factor
The diversity improvement factor can be used for either space diversity or frequency
diversity. The space diversity improvement factor depends on the spacing between the
receive antennas, the path length, the transmitted frequency, and the fade margin. The space
diversity improvement factor is calculated with the following equation:
where: Isd = Improvement diversity factor
s = Vertical spacing between receive antennas in meters
F = Fade Margin in dB
D = Path length
For example, if a 2.12 GHz system has a non-diversity outage probability of 1.1 x 10-5 and
the vertical spacing between the antennas is 12 meters, the diversity outage probability can be
calculated if the diversity improvement factor is known. The diversity improvement factor
can be calculated as follows:
After the diversity improvement factor is calculated, the diversity outage probability can be
calculated as follows:
Udiv = Undp/I
Udiv = 1.1 x 10
-5
/8.14
Udiv = 1.4 x 10
-6
The non-diversity outage probability for this example was given as 1.1 x 10-5, and the
diversity outage probability is 1.4 x 10-6; therefore, this space diversity system increased the
reliability of the system by approximately a factor of 10. A greater vertical separation
between antennas or a higher fade margin would result in an even greater improvement.
The frequency diversity improvement factor is not easily determined. All of the data that
relates to frequency diversity improvements is experimentally derived and is based on only
the 4 GHz and 6 GHz bands. Also, all of the data that are obtained from the experiments only
relate to average length paths (40 - 50 km).
The following general relationships tend to exist in frequency diversity systems:
The frequency diversity improvement factor decreases when the frequency
of the two transmitters increases for a given difference in transmitter
frequencies. For example, a 200 MHz difference in the 4 GHz band
provides twice the improvement as a 200 MHz difference in the 6 GHz
band would provide.
The frequency diversity improvement factor increases when the difference
in frequency between the two transmitters increases.
The frequency diversity improvement factor also increases as the fade
margin increases.
System reliability improvement from quad diversity systems is almost exclusively the result
of the space diversity component of the system; therefore, the quad diversity improvement
factor equals the space diversity factor. The quad diversity improvement factor is calculated
as if a straight space diversity system was used.
CALCULATING SYSTEM GAIN
System gain is the difference between the transmitter output power and the minimum receiver
input power. If the system is to operate correctly, system gain must be greater than or equal
to the sum of all the gains and losses that are incurred by a signal between the transmitter and
receiver. If system gain is less than the sum of these gains and losses, the received signal
level will be less than the receiver sensitivity (threshold), and the system performance will be
degraded.
Figure 12 illustrates a typical microwave system link, and it includes the locations where
gains and losses occur in the system. The microwave power amp (Pt) is the transmitter for the
system. The signal from the microwave power amp goes to the channel combining network
(Lb) where losses may occur. From the channel combining network, the signal is fed via
some transmission medium (either coaxial cable or elliptical waveguide) to the antenna feed.
There are losses (Lf) that are associated with the transmission medium. The signal is
transmitted from the antenna that provides a gain (At). As the signal is propagated, various
losses (Lp) occur. The microwave signal is captured by the receive antenna that also provides
a gain (Ar). From the receive antenna, the signal is again fed through a transmission medium
that also results in a loss (Lf). Finally, the signal is fed through a channel separation network
that results in an additional loss (Lb). If the system has been designed properly, the resultant
signal that arrives at the receiver input is greater than the microwave threshold (Cmin).
System Gains and Losses
Figure 12
Mathematically, system gain can be expressed with the following formula:
Gs = Pt - Cmin
where: Gs = System gain (dB)
Pt = Transmitter output power (dBm)
Cmin = Receiver threshold (dBm)
For a properly designed system, the difference between the transmitter output power (dBm)
and the receiver threshold (dBm) must be greater than or equal to the losses plus the gains as
previously stated. The following is a mathematical expression of this relationship:
Pt - Cmin > losses + gains
where: Pt = Transmitter output power (dBm)
The following are the individual gains that must be considered in a calculation of system gain:
A
t
= Transmit antenna gain (dB) relative to an isotropic radiator.
A
r
= Receive antenna gain (dB) relative to an isotropic radiator.
The following are the individual losses that must be considered in a calculation of system
gain:
Lp = Free-space path loss between antennas (dB).
Lf = Waveguide or coaxial cable feeder loss (dB) between the
distribution network (channel combining network or channel
separation network) and its respective antenna.
Lb = Total coupling or branching loss (dB) in the circulators, filters,
and distribution network between the output of a transmitter or
the input to a receiver and its respective waveguide feed or
coaxial connector.
FM = Fade margin for a given reliability objective.
The previously stated equations can be combined to yield the following system gain equation:
Gs = Pt - Cmin > FM +Lp + Lf + Lb - At - Ar
where: G
s
= System gain (dB)
P
t
= Transmitter output power (dBm)
FM = Fade margin
Lp = Free space path loss (dB)
Lf = Waveguide or coaxial cable feeder loss (dB)
Lb = Total coupling or branching loss (dB)
At = Transmit antenna gain (dB)
Ar = Receive antenna gain (dB)
Because system gain is indicative of a net loss, the losses are represented with positive dB
values, and the gains are represented with negative dB values.
Sample Gain Calculation
Figure 13 illustrates a simple microwave link. The output power of the transmitter is 37 dBm
and the transmit frequency is 2.100 GHz. Both the transmit antenna and the receive antenna
have a gain of 33.2 dB. There is 50 km of dry mountainous terrain that separates the
transmitter and receiver. The transmitter and receiver both have 30 meters of coaxial cable
that connect them to their respective antennas. The coaxial cable that is used has a
characteristic loss of 4.0 dB/100 meters. A reliability of 99.999% is desired of the system.
The total coupling loss is 3 dB. This given information can be used to calculate the gain of
the simple microwave link that is shown in Figure 13.
Typical 2 GHz Microwave System Link
Figure 13
The following system gain equation can be used to calculate the maximum receiver threshold
that is required:
Gs = Pt - Ccim
The system gain equation can be rearranged to solve for the maximum receiver threshold as
follows:
Ccim = Pt - Gs
Recall that the system gain must be greater than or equal to the sum of the gains and losses of
the system. If the gains and losses are inserted into the above equation, the following
expression results:
Cmin Pt - (FM + Lp + Lf + Lb - At - Ar)
The previous equation showed that to determine the maximum receiver threshold, the
transmitter power, gains, and losses of the system must be determined.
Transmitter power is given by the manufacturer. In the example system, transmitter power is
37 dBm.
As discussed previously, fade margin is dependent on the reliability objectives of the system
and the nature of the terrain that is between the transmitter and the receiver. The following
equation is used to calculate FM:
FM = 30 logD + 10 log(6ABF) - 10 log(1 - R) - 70
- 4 over water or smooth terrain
- 1 over average terrain
- 0.25 over a very rough, mountainous terrain
B = The factor to convert a worst-month probability to an
annual probability
- 0.5 for hot humid areas
- 0.25 for average inland areas
- 0.125 for very dry or mountainous areas
R = Desired system reliability
The following variables should be inserted into the FM equation for the example system:
D = 50 km
A = 0.25
B = 0.125
F = 2.100 GHz
R = .99999
The fade margin for the example system now can be calculated as follows:
FM = 30 log(50) + 10 log(6 x 0.25 x 0.125 x 2.1) - 10
log(1-.99999) - 70
FM = 30(1.6990) + 10(-0.4048) - 10(-5) - 70
FM = 50.97 + (-4.048) - (-50) - 70
FM = 26.9 dB
The following equation is used to calculate free space path loss:
Lp = 92.4 + 20 logF(GHz) + 20 logD(km)
The free space path loss for the example system can now be calculated as follows:
Lp = 92.4 + 20 logF(GHz) + 20 logD(km)
= 92.4 + 20 log(2.1) + 20 log(50)
= 92.4 + 20(0.3222) + 20(1.6990)
= 92.4 + 6.4 + 34.0
= 132.8 dB
If the system operated at a higher frequency, losses that result from atmospheric and rain
absorption would be added to the free space path loss.
The feeder loss of the system equals the characteristic loss of the waveguide or coaxial cable
multiplied by the length of the run, and this loss can be mathematically stated with the
following equation:
L
f
= (length of run)(characteristic loss)
The feeder loss of the example system now can be calculated as follows:
Lf = (length of run(characteristic loss)
= (60 meters)(4 dB/100 meters)
= 2.4 dB
The total branching loss of the system was given as 3 dB, and the gain of both the transmitter
and receiver antennas was given as 33.2 dB.
With the transmitter power, the gains, and the losses of the system having been determined,
the maximum receiver threshold can be calculated as follows:
Cmin P
t
- (FM + Lp + Lf + Lb - At - Ar)
Cmin 37 dBm - (26.9 dB + 132.8 dB + 2.4 dB + 3 dB - 33.2 dB - 332
dB)
Cmin 37 dBm - (98.7 dB)
Cmin - 61.7 dBm
For the example system, the receiver threshold must be less than or equal to 61.7 dBm if the
system is to operate properly.
WORK AID 1: FORMULAS AND REFERENCES FOR DETERMINING
MICROWAVE ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS
Determining Microwave Antenna Gain
The gain that is provided by a standard parabolic antenna with 55% efficiency and a given
diameter can be determined through use of the following equation:
GdB = 20 logFGHz + 20 logB + 17.8
The gain of a parabolic antenna also can be determined through use of Figure 14. To
determine the gain of a parabolic antenna with Figure 14, use a straight edge to connect
between the frequency of the signal and the diameter of the reflector. The gain of the antenna
is read at the point at which the straight edge crosses the gain scale.
Parabolic Antenna Gain
Figure 14
Determining the Diameter of the Parabolic Reflector
The required diameter for a parabolic antenna to produce a given gain can be determined
through use of the following equation:
where: B = Antenna diameter in meters
Gdb = Antenna Gain in dB
FGHz = Frequency in GHz
The required parabolic antenna diameter also can be determined through use of Figure 14.
Use a straight edge to connect between the frequency of the signal and the gain of the
antenna. The diameter of the antenna is read at the point at which the straight edge crosses
the diameter scale.
WORK AID 2: PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE SYSTEM GAIN
1. Evaluate the given information to determine the equation that is needed to calculate
system gain.
2. If the transmitter power and receiver sensitivity are given, solve the following
equation:
Gs = Pt - Cmin
where: Gs = System gain
Pt = Transmitter power
Cmin = Receiver threshold
3. To determine if the gain of a system is sufficient for the gains and losses of the system,
the following relationship must be true:
Gs FM + Lp + Lf + Lb - At - Ar
To determine the sum of the gains and losses, the magnitude of each individual gain or loss
must first be determined.
3a. To calculate fade margin, solve the following equation:
= 4 over water or smooth terrain
= 1 over average terrain
= 0.25 over rough mountainous terrain
B = Factor to convert the worst month
probability to an annual probability
= 0.5 for hot, humid areas
= 0.25 for average inland areas
= 0.125 for very dry or mountainous areas
R = Reliability
3b. To calculate the free space path loss, solve the following equation:
Lp = 92.4 + 20 logFGHz + 20 logDkm
where: FGHz = Frequency in GHz
3c. To calculate feeder losses, multiply the characteristic loss of the waveguide
or coaxial cable by the length of the waveguide or coax run.
3d. Coupling losses are provided by the manufacturer.
3e. To calculate antenna gain, solve the following equation:
GdB = 20 logFGHz + 20 logB + 17.8
GLOSSARY
antenna The ratio of the power that is radiated by an antenna to the sum
of the power that is radiated from an antenna and the power that
is dissipated from an antenna as losses.
correlation coefficient The relationship of fading components in two separate diversity
paths.
E-field Electric field.
EIRP Effective Isotropic Radiated Power.
E-lines Electrostatic lines of forces that make up the E-field.
fading Any loss in signal strength at the receiving antenna.
fade margin An uncertainty factor in the system gain equation that accounts
for multipath propagation, terrain sensitivity, and reliability
objectives.
fresnel zones Areas of reflection that surround a transmission path that
alternately provide aiding and canceling effects.
H-field Magnetic field.
H-lines Magnetic lines of force that make up the H-field.
homogeneous medium A medium with uniform properties throughout.
isotropic radiator A theoretical antenna that emits radiation equally in all
directions.
k Equivalent earth radius.
multipath propagation The effect of radiowaves that travel by more than one path.
noise figure The signal-to-noise ratio of an ideal noiseless device divided by
the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of an amplifier or a
receiver.
polarization The angular alignment of the radiated E-lines with respect to the
surface of the earth.
radiation The equivalent resistance that would dissipate the same amount
of power that is radiated by an antenna.
reciprocity The property of mutual exchange in two directions.
specular reflection A reflection from a relatively smooth surface.
system gain The difference between the nominal output power of a
transmitter and the minimum input power to a receiver.
terrain sensitivity The effect that various terrains have on a transmitted radio wave.

Microwave Antennas and Propagation

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Microwave Antennas and Propagation

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Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional

Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.

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