Marian Rejewski

Marian Rejewski
Marian Rejewski (probably 1932, the year he first

solved the Enigma machine).
Courtesy of Janina Sylwestrzak, Rejewski's
daughter.
Born Marian Adam Rejewski
16 August 1905
Bromberg, German Empire
Died 13 February 1980 (aged 74)
Warsaw, People's Republic of
Poland
Occupation Mathematician, cryptologist
Known for Solving the Enigma-machine
cipher
Awards Knowlton Award
[1]

[2]
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Marian Adam Rejewski [marjan rejefski] ( ) (16 August 1905 13
February 1980) was a Polish mathematician and cryptologist who in 1932
solved the plugboard-equipped Enigma machine, the main cipher device
used by Germany. The success of Rejewski and his colleagues Jerzy
Rycki and Henryk Zygalski jump-started British reading of Enigma in
World War II; the intelligence so gained, code-named "Ultra", contributed,
perhaps decisively, to the defeat of Nazi Germany.
(Note 1)
While studying mathematics at Pozna University, Rejewski had attended a
secret cryptology course conducted by the Polish General Staff's Biuro
Szyfrw (Cipher Bureau), which he joined full-time in 1932. The Bureau
had achieved little success reading Enigma and in late 1932 set Rejewski to
work on the problem. After only a few weeks, he deduced the secret internal
wiring of the Enigma. Rejewski and his two mathematician colleagues then
developed an assortment of techniques for the regular decryption of Enigma
messages. Rejewski's contributions included devising the cryptologic "card
catalog," derived using his "cyclometer," and the "cryptologic bomb."
Five weeks before the German invasion of Poland in 1939, Rejewski and
his colleagues presented their results on Enigma decryption to French and
British intelligence representatives. Shortly after the outbreak of war, the
Polish cryptologists were evacuated to France, where they continued their
work in collaboration with the British and French. They were again
compelled to evacuate after the fall of France in June 1940, but within
months returned to work undercover in Vichy France. After the country was
fully occupied by Germany in November 1942, Rejewski and fellow
mathematician Henryk Zygalski fled, via Spain, Portugal and Gibraltar, to
Britain. There they worked at a Polish Army unit, solving low-level German
ciphers. In 1946 Rejewski returned to his family in Poland and worked as an
accountant, remaining silent about his cryptologic work until 1967.
1 Education and early work
2 Enigma machine
3 Solving Enigma's wiring
3.1 Help from France
4 Solving daily settings
4.1 Early methods
4.2 "Bomb" and sheets
4.3 Allies informed
5 In France and Britain
5.1 PC Bruno
5.2 Cadix
5.3 Escaping France
5.4 Britain
sc)
Marian Rejewski - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Rejewski
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Pozna Castle, site of Pozna
University's mathematics
institute
At Prof. Krygowski's request,
Rejewski at Gttingen laid
flowers on Gauss's grave.
[3]
6 Back in Poland
7 Recognition
8 See also
9 Notes
10 Footnote citations
11 Bibliography
12 External links
Marian Rejewski was born 16 August 1905 in Bromberg,
now Bydgoszcz.
(Note 2)
His parents were Jzef, a cigar
merchant, and Matylda, ne Thoms. He attended a German-
speaking Knigliches Gymnasium zu Bromberg (Royal
Grammar School in Bromberg) and completed high school
with his matura in 1923. Rejewski then studied mathematics
at Pozna University, graduating on 1 March 1929.
In early 1929, shortly before he graduated, Rejewski began
attending a secret cryptology course organized for selected
German-speaking mathematics students by the Polish
General Staff's Cipher Bureau (Biuro Szyfrw).
[4]
The
course was conducted off-campus at a military facility
[5]
and, as Rejewski would discover in France in 1939 during World War
II, "was entirely and literally based" on French General Marcel Givirge's 1925 book, Cours de cryptographie (Course of
Cryptography).
[6]
Rejewski and fellow students Henryk Zygalski and Jerzy Rycki were among the few who could keep up
with the course while balancing the demands of their normal studies.
[7]
Rejewski graduated with a master's degree in mathematics on 1 March 1929; his thesis was titled, "Theory of double periodic
functions of the second and third kind and its applications." A few weeks later, without having completed the cryptology
course, Rejewski began the first year of a two-year actuarial statistics course at Gttingen, Germany. He would not complete
the actuarial-statistics course, for, while home for the summer in 1930, he accepted the offer of a mathematics teaching
assistantship at Pozna University.
He also began working part-time for the Biuro Szyfrw (Cipher Bureau), which by then had concluded the cryptology course
and set up an outpost at Pozna to decrypt intercepted German radio messages.
[8]
Rejewski worked some twelve hours a week
near the Mathematics Institute in an underground vault referred to puckishly as the "Black Chamber".
[9]
In the summer of 1932, the Pozna branch of the Cipher Bureau was disbanded. On 1 September 1932, as a civilian employee,
Rejewski joined the Cipher Bureau at the General Staff building (the Saxon Palace) in Warsaw, as did Zygalski and
Rycki.
[10]
Their first assignment was to solve a four-letter code used by the Kriegsmarine (German Navy). Progress was initially slow,
but sped up considerably after a test exchange was intercepteda six-group signal, followed by a four-group response. The
cryptologists guessed correctly that the first signal was the question, "When was Frederick the Great born?" followed by the
response, "1712."
[11]
In late October or early November 1932, while work on the Naval code was still underway, Rejewski was set to work, alone
and in secret, on the output of the new standard German cipher machine, the Enigma I, which was coming into widespread
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Warsaw's Saxon Palace, home of Cipher
Bureau in 1932. Destroyed in World War II,
the palace is to be rebuilt.
The Enigma machine,
solved by Rejewski in
1932
A cycle formed by the first and fourth
letters of a set of indicators. Rejewski
exploited these cycles to deduce the
Enigma rotor wiring in 1932, and
thereafter to solve the daily message
settings.
use.
[12]
While the Cipher Bureau had, by later
report, succeeded in solving an earlier,
plugboard-less Enigma,
(Note 3)
it had had no success
with the Enigma I.
[13]
The Enigma machine was an electromechanical
device, equipped with a 26-letter keyboard and a set
of 26 lamps, corresponding to the letters of the
alphabet. Inside was a set of wired drums ("rotors"
and a "reflector") that scrambled the input. The
machine also featured a plugboard to swap pairs of
letters. To encipher a letter, the operator pushed the
relevant key and noted down which of the lamps lit. Each key press caused one or more rotors to
advance, and thus the encipherment varied from one key press to the next.
In order for two operators to communicate, both Enigma machines had to be set up in the same way. The large number of
possibilities for setting the rotors and the plugboard combined to form an astronomical number of configurations, each of
which would produce a different cipher. The settings were changed daily,
[14]
with the consequence that the machine had to be
"broken" anew each day if the messages were to be read continually.
To decrypt Enigma messages, three pieces of information were needed:
A general understanding of how Enigma functioned 1.
The wiring of the rotors 2.
The daily settings: the sequence and orientations of the rotors (of which there were three initially), and the plug
connections on the plugboard
3.
Rejewski had only the first at his disposal, based on information already acquired by the Cipher Bureau.
[15]
First Rejewski tackled the problem of finding the wiring of the rotors. To do this, he
pioneered the use of pure mathematics in cryptanalysis. Previous methods had largely
exploited linguistic patterns and the statistics of natural-language textsletter-
frequency analysis. Rejewski, however, applied techniques from group theory
theorems about permutationsin his attack on Enigma.
These mathematical techniques, combined with material supplied by Captain Gustave
Bertrand,
[16]
chief of French radio intelligence,
[17]
enabled him to reconstruct the
internal wirings of the machine's rotors and nonrotating reflector.
"The solution", writes historian David Kahn, "was Rejewski's own stunning
achievement, one that elevates him to the pantheon of the greatest cryptanalysts of all
time."
[18]
Rejewski used a mathematical theoremthat two permutations are conjugate
if and only if they have the same cycle structurethat one mathematics professor has
since described as "the theorem that won World War II."
[19]
Prior to receiving the French intelligence material, Rejewski had made a careful study
of Enigma messages, particularly of the first six letters of messages intercepted on a
single day.
[12]
For security, each message was encrypted using different starting positions of the
rotors, as selected by the operator. This message setting was three letters long. To
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convey it to the receiving operator, the sending operator began the message by sending the message setting in a disguised form
a six-letter indicator.
The indicator was formed using the Enigma with its rotors set to a common global setting for that day, termed the ground
setting, which was shared by all operators.
The particular way that the indicator was constructed, introduced a weakness into the cipher.
For example, suppose the operator chose the message setting KYG for a message. The operator would first set the Enigma's
rotors to the ground setting, which might be GBL on that particular day, and then encrypt the message setting on the Enigma
twice; that is, the operator would enter KYGKYG (which might come out to something like QZKBLX). The operator would then
reposition the rotors at KYG, and encrypt the actual message. A receiving operator could reverse the process to recover first the
message setting, then the message itself. The repetition of the message setting was apparently meant as an error check to detect
garbles, but it had the unforeseen effect of greatly weakening the cipher. Due to the indicator's repetition of the message
setting, Rejewski knew that, in the plaintext of the indicator, the first and fourth letters were the same, the second and fifth
were the same, and the third and sixth were the same. These relations could be exploited to break into the cipher.
Rejewski studied these related pairs of letters. For example, if there were four messages that had the following indicators on
the same day: BJ GTDN, LI FBAB, ETULZR, TFREI I , then by looking at the first and fourth letters of each set, he knew that certain
pairs of letters were related. B was related to T, L was related to B, E was related to L, and T was related to E: (B,T), (L,B), (E,L),
and (T,E). If he had enough different messages to work with, he could build entire sequences of relationships: the letter B was
related to T, which was related to E, which was related to L, which was related to B (see diagram). This was a "cycle of 4",
since it took four jumps until it got back to the start letter. Another cycle on the same day might be A F W A, or a "cycle
of 3". If there were enough messages on a given day, all the letters of the alphabet might be covered by a number of different
cycles of various sizes. The cycles would be consistent for one day, and then would change to a different set of cycles the next
day. Similar analysis could be done on the 2nd and 5th letters, and the 3rd and 6th, identifying the cycles in each case and the
number of steps in each cycle.
Using the data thus gained, combined with Enigma operators' tendency to choose predictable letter combinations as indicators
(such as girlfriends' initials or a pattern of keys that they saw on the Enigma keyboard), Rejewski was able to deduce six
permutations corresponding to the encipherment at six consecutive positions of the Enigma machine. These permutations
could be described by six equations with various unknowns, representing the wiring within the entry drum, rotors, reflector,
and plugboard.
[20]
Help from France
At this point, Rejewski ran into difficulties due to the large number of unknowns in the set of equations that he had developed.
He would later comment in 1980 that it was still not known whether such a set of six equations was soluble without further
data.
[21]
But he was assisted by cryptographic documents that Section D of French military intelligence (the Deuxime
Bureau), under future General Gustave Bertrand, had obtained and passed on to the Polish Cipher Bureau. The documents,
procured from a spy in the German Cryptographic Service, Hans-Thilo Schmidt, included the Enigma settings for the months
of September and October 1932. About 9 or 10 December 1932,
[22]

(Note 4)
the documents were given to Rejewski. They
enabled him to reduce the number of unknowns and solve the wirings of the rotors and reflector.
[23]
There was another obstacle to overcome, however. The military Enigma had been modified from the commercial Enigma, of
which Rejewski had had an actual example to study. In the commercial machine, the keys were connected to the entry drum in
German keyboard order ("QWERTZU..."). However, in the military Enigma, the connections had instead been wired in
alphabetical order: "ABCDEF..." This new wiring sequence foiled British cryptologists working on Enigma, who dismissed
the "ABCDEF..." wiring as too obvious. Rejewski, perhaps guided by an intuition about a German fondness for order, simply
guessed that the wiring was the normal alphabetic ordering. He later recalled that, after he had made this assumption, "from
my pencil, as by magic, began to issue numbers designating the connections in rotor N. Thus the connections in one rotor, the
right-hand rotor, were finally known."
[21]
The settings provided by French Intelligence covered two months which straddled a changeover period for the rotor ordering.
A different rotor happened to be in the right-hand position for the second month, and so the wirings of two rotors could be
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Cyclometer, devised in the
mid-1930s by Rejewski to
catalog the cycle structure of
Enigma permutations. 1:
Rotor lid closed, 2: Rotor lid
open, 3: Rheostat, 4:
Glowlamps, 5: Switches, 6:
Letters.
recovered by the same method.
(Note 5)
Rejewski later recalled: "Finding the [wiring] in the third [rotor], and especially... in the
[reflector], now presented no great difficulties. Likewise there were no difficulties with determining the correct torsion of the
[rotors'] side walls with respect to each other, or the moments when the left and middle drums turned." By year's end 1932, the
wirings of all three rotors and the reflector had been recovered. A sample message in an Enigma instruction manual, providing
a plaintext and its corresponding ciphertext produced using a stated daily key and message key, helped clarify some remaining
details.
[21]
There has been speculation as to whether the rotor wirings could have been solved without the documents supplied by French
Intelligence. Rejewski recalled in 1980 that another way had been found that could have been used to achieve this, but that the
method was "imperfect and tedious" and relied on chance. (In 2005, mathematician John Lawrence published a paper arguing
that it would have taken four years for this method to have had a reasonable likelihood of success.
[24]
) Rejewski wrote that
"the conclusion is that the intelligence material furnished to us should be regarded as having been decisive to solution of the
machine."
[21]
After Rejewski had determined the wiring in the remaining rotors, he was joined in early 1933 by Rycki and Zygalski in
devising methods and equipment to break Enigma ciphers routinely.
(Note 6)
Rejewski later recalled:
Now we had the machine, but we didn't have the keys and we couldn't very well require Bertrand to keep on
supplying us with the keys every month ... The situation had reversed itself: before, we'd had the keys but we
hadn't had the machine we solved the machine; now we had the machine but we didn't have the keys. We had
to work out methods to find the daily keys.
[25]
Early methods
A number of methods and devices had to be invented in response to continual improvements
in German operating procedure and to the Enigma machine itself. The earliest method for
reconstructing daily keys was the "grill", based on the fact that the plugboard's connections
exchanged only six pairs of letters, leaving fourteen letters unchanged.
[26]
Next was Rycki's "clock" method, which sometimes made it possible to determine which
rotor was at the right-hand side of the Enigma machine on a given day.
[27]
After 1 October 1936, German procedure changed, and the number of plugboard connections
became variable, ranging between five and eight. As a result, the grill method became
considerably less effective.
[26]
However, a method using a card catalog had been devised around 1934 or 1935, and was
independent of the number of plug connections. The catalog was constructed using Rejewski's
"cyclometer", a special-purpose device for creating a catalog of permutations. Once the
catalog was complete, the permutation could be looked up in the catalog, yielding the Enigma
rotor settings for that day.
[26]
The cyclometer comprised two sets of Enigma rotors, and was used to determine the length and number of cycles of the
permutations that could be generated by the Enigma machine. Even with the cyclometer, preparing the catalog was a long and
difficult task. Each position of the Enigma machine (there were 17,576 positions) had to be examined for each possible
sequence of rotors (there were 6 possible sequences); therefore, the catalog comprised 105,456 entries. Preparation of the
catalog took over a year, but when it was ready about 1935, it made obtaining daily keys a matter of 1220 minutes.
[26][28]
However, on 1 or 2 November 1937, the Germans replaced the reflector in their Enigma machines, which meant that the entire
catalog had to be recalculated from scratch.
[26]
Nonetheless, by January 1938 the Cipher Bureau's German section was reading a remarkable 75% of Enigma intercepts, and
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A Zygalski sheet
The Enigma Secret (1979)at 25
July 1939 Pyry meeting, Rejewski
(left) explains Enigma to Poland's
allies
according to Rejewski, with a minimal increase in personnel this could have been increased to 90%.
[29]
"Bomb" and sheets
In 1937 Rejewski, along with the German section of the Cipher Bureau, transferred to a secret facility near Pyry in the Kabaty
Woods south of Warsaw.
On 15 September 1938, the Germans put into effect new rules for enciphering message keys (a new "indicator procedure"),
rendering the card-catalog method completely useless.
[26]

(Note 7)
The Polish cryptologists rapidly responded with new
techniques.
One was Rejewski's bomba ("bomb"), an electrically powered aggregate of six Enigmas, which
made it possible to solve the daily keys in about two hours. Six bombs were built and ready for
use by mid-November 1938.
[26][30]
The bomb method, like the grill method, exploited the fact
that the plug connections did not change all the letters. But while the grill method required
unchanged pairs of letters, the bomb method required only unchanged letters. Hence it could
be applied even though the number of plug connections in this period was five to eight.
[26]
But from 1 January 1939 the number of plug connections was increased to seven-to-ten, greatly
decreasing the usefulness of the bombs. Moreover, two weeks earlier, on 15 December 1938,
the Germans had increased the number of rotors from three to five, thereby increasing the
bombs' workload tenfold.
[26]
Building an additional 54 bombs, in order to increase the number
tenfold to 60 from the original 6, would have utterly exceeded the Polish Cipher Bureau's
available funds.
[31]
The British bombe, the main tool that would be used to break Enigma messages during World
War II, would be named after, and likely inspired by, the Polish bomb, though according to
Gordon Welchman the cryptanalytic methods embodied by the two machines were different.
[32]
Around the same time as the Polish bomb, a manual method was invented by Zygalski, that of "perforated sheets" ("Zygalski
sheets"), which, like the card-catalog method, was independent of the number of plug connections. But production of these
sheets was very time-consuming, so that by 15 December 1938 only one-third of the job had been done.
[33]
Allies informed
As it became clear that war was imminent and that Polish resources were insufficient to
keep pace with the evolution of Enigma encryption (e.g., due to the prohibitive expense
of an additional 54 bombs and due to the Poles' difficulty in producing in time the
required 60 series of 26 "Zygalski sheets" each
[34]
), the Polish General Staff and
government decided to let their Western allies in on the secret.
The Polish methods were revealed to French and British intelligence representatives in
a meeting at Pyry, south of Warsaw, on 25 July 1939. France was represented by
Gustave Bertrand and Henri Braqueni; Britain, by Alastair Denniston, Alfred Dillwyn
Knox and Royal Navy electronics expert Humphrey Sandwith. The Polish hosts
included Stefan Mayer, Gwido Langer, Maksymilian Ciki and the three cryptologists.
[35][36][37]
The Poles' gift of Enigma decryption to their Western allies, five weeks
before the outbreak of World War II, came not a moment too soon. Knowledge that the
cipher was crackable was a morale boost to Allied cryptologists. The British were able
to manufacture at least two complete sets of perforated sheetsthey sent one to PC
Bruno, outside Paris,
[38]
in mid-December 1939and began reading Enigma within months of the outbreak of war.
Without the Polish assistance, British cryptologists would, at the very least, have been considerably delayed in reading
Enigma. Author Hugh Sebag-Montefiore concludes that substantial breaks into German Army and Air Force Enigma ciphers
6 of 17 7/28/2014 2:33 AM
PC Brunofrom left, Polish Lt. Col.
Gwido Langer, French Major Gustave
Bertrand, British Capt. Kenneth
McFarlan
by the British would have occurred only after November 1941 at the earliest, after an Enigma machine and key lists had been
captured, and similarly into Naval Enigma only after late 1942.
[39]
Former Bletchley Park cryptologist Gordon Welchman
goes further, writing that the Army and Air Force Enigma section, Hut 6, "would never have gotten off the ground if we had
not learned from the Poles, in the nick of time, the details both of the German military... Enigma machine, and of the operating
procedures that were in use."
[40]
Intelligence gained from solving high-level German ciphersintelligence codenamed "Ultra" by the British and
Americanscame chiefly from Enigma decrypts. While the exact contribution of Ultra intelligence to Allied victory is
disputed, Kozaczuk and Straszak note that "it is widely believed that Ultra saved the world at least two years of war and
possibly prevented Hitler from winning."
[41]
The English historian Sir Harry Hinsley, who worked at Bletchley Park, similarly
assessed it as having "shortened the war by not less than two years and probably by four years".
[42]
The availability of Ultra
was, at the least, due largely to the earlier Polish breaking of Enigma.
PC Bruno
In September 1939, after the outbreak of World War II, Rejewski and his fellow Cipher
Bureau workers were evacuated from Poland to Romania, crossing the border on 17
September (the day the Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland).
[43]
Rejewski, Zygalski and Rycki managed to avoid being interned in a refugee camp
and made their way to Bucharest, where they contacted the British embassy. Having
been told by the British to "come back in a few days," they next tried the French
embassy, introducing themselves as "friends of Bolek" (Bertrand's Polish code name)
and asking to speak with a French military officer. A French Army colonel telephoned
Paris and immediately issued instructions for the three Poles to be assisted in
evacuating to Paris.
[44]
On 20 October 1939 the three Polish cryptologists resumed work on German ciphers at
a joint French-Polish-Spanish radio-intelligence unit stationed at Gretz-Armainvillers,
forty kilometers northeast of Paris, and housed in the Chteau de Vignolles
(code-named "PC Bruno").
[45]
On 17 January 1940, the Poles found the first Enigma
key to be solved in France, one for 28 October 1939.
[46]
The staff at PC Bruno collaborated by teleprinter with their opposite numbers at
Bletchley Park in England. For communications security, the allied Polish, French and British cryptologic agencies used the
Enigma machine itselfBruno closing its Enigma-encrypted messages to Britain with an ironic "Heil Hitler!"
[47]
On 24 June 1940, after Germany's victory in the Battle of France, Gustave Bertrand flew Bruno's international personnel
fifteen Poles, and seven Spaniards who worked on Italian ciphers
[48]
in three planes to Algeria.
[49]
Cadix
During September 1940 they returned to work in secret in unoccupied southern (Vichy) France. Rejewski's cover was as Pierre
Ranaud, a lyce professor from Nantes. A radio intelligence station was set up at the Chteau des Fouzes near Uzs,
code-named "Cadix". Cadix began operations on 1 October. Rejewski and his colleagues solved German telegraph ciphers,
and also the Swiss version of the Enigma machine (which had no plugboard). Rejewski may have had little or no involvement
in working on German Enigma at Cadix.
(Note 8)
In early July 1941, Rejewski and Zygalski were asked to try solving messages enciphered on the secret Polish Lacida cipher
machine, which was used for secure communications between Cadix and the Polish General Staff in London. Lacida was a
rotor machine based on the same cryptographic principle as Enigma, yet had never been subjected to rigorous security
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Henryk Zygalski (left), Jerzy
Rycki (center), Rejewski
at Cadix
Polish-French-Spanish Cadix center.
11 individuals are identified at
"Cadix."
Marian Rejewski as second
lieutenant (signals), Polish
Army in Britain, in late 1943
or in 1944, some 11 or 12
years after he first broke
Enigma.
analysis. The two cryptologists created consternation by
breaking the first message within a couple of hours;
further messages were solved in a similar way.
[50]
On 9 January 1942, Rycki, the youngest of the three
mathematicians, died in the sinking of a French
passenger ship as he was returning from a stint in
Algeria to Cadix in southern France.
[51]
By summer 1942 work at Cadix was becoming
dangerous, and plans for evacuation were drawn up.
Vichy France itself was liable to be occupied by
German troops, and Cadix's radio transmissions were
increasingly at risk of detection by the Funkabwehr, a German unit tasked with locating enemy radio transmitters. Indeed, on 6
November a pickup truck equipped with a circular antenna arrived at the gate of the chateau where the cryptologists were
operating. The visitors, however, did not enter, and merely investigated and terrorized nearby farms. Nonetheless, the
order to evacuate Cadix was given, and this was done by 9 November. The Germans occupied the chateau only three days
later.
[52]
Escaping France
The Poles were split into twos and threes. On 11 November Rejewski and Zygalski were sent to Nice, which was in the Italian-
occupied zone. They had to flee again after coming under suspicion, constantly moving or staying in hiding, to Cannes,
Antibes, Nice again, Marseilles, Toulouse, Narbonne, Perpignan and Ax-les-Thermes, close to the Spanish border.
[53]
The plan was to smuggle themselves over the Pyrenees into Spain. On 29 January 1943, accompanied by a local guide,
Rejewski and Zygalski began their trek across the Pyrenees, avoiding German and Vichy patrols. Near midnight and near the
Spanish border, the guide pulled out a pistol and demanded that they hand over the rest of their money. After being robbed
they succeeded in reaching the Spanish side of the border, only to be arrested within hours by security police.
[54]
The Poles were sent first to a prison in La Seu d'Urgell until 24 March, then moved to a prison at Lerida. The pair were
eventually released on 4 May 1943, after the intervention of the Polish Red Cross, and sent to Madrid.
[55]
Leaving Madrid on
21 July,
[56]
they made it to Portugal; from there aboard HMS Scottish to Gibraltar; and thence aboard an old Dakota to RAF
Hendon, in north London, arriving on 3 August 1943.
[57]
Britain
Rejewski and Zygalski were inducted as privates into the Polish Army on 16 August 1943 and
were posted to a Polish Army facility in Boxmoor, cracking German SS and SD hand ciphers.
The ciphers were usually based on the Doppelkassettenverfahren ("double Playfair") system,
which the two cryptologists had already worked on in France.
[58]
On 10 October 1943,
Rejewski and Zygalski were commissioned second lieutenants;
[59]
on 1 January 1945
Rejewski, and presumably also Zygalski, were promoted to lieutenant.
[60]
When Gustave
Bertrand fled to England in June 1944, he and his wife were provided with a house in Boxmoor
a short walk from the Polish radio station and cypher office where it seems likely that his
collaboration with Rejewski and Zygalski continued.
[52]
Enigma decryption, however, had become an exclusively British and American domain; the
two mathematicians who, with their late colleague, had laid the foundations for Allied Enigma
decryption were now excluded from making further contributions to their mtier.
[61]
British
cryptologist Alan Stripp suggests that by that time, at Bletchley Park, "very few even knew
about the Polish contribution" because of the strict secrecy and the "need-to-know" principle.
Stripp comments further that "Setting them to work on the Doppelkassetten system was like
8 of 17 7/28/2014 2:33 AM
Memorial to Rejewski in Bydgoszcz,
unveiled on 2005 centennial of his
birth there. It resembles the memorial
to fellow-mathematician Alan Turing
at Whitworth Gardens, Manchester.
using racehorses to pull wagons."
[62]
On 21 November 1946, Rejewski, having been on 15 November discharged from the Polish Army in Britain, returned to
Poland to be reunited with his wife, Irena Maria Rejewska (ne Lewandowska, whom Rejewski had married on 20 June 1934)
and their son Andrzej (Andrew, born 1936) and daughter Janina (Jeanne, born 1939, who would later follow in her father's
footsteps to become a mathematician).
[63]
Rejewski [writes Kozaczuk] could after the war have worked in academia and was urged to do so by Prof.
[Zdzisaw] Krygowski, who proposed a [university] mathematics [position] at Pozna or Szczecin. Rejewski was,
however, exhausted psychically, in ill health (in the Spanish prisons he had contracted, among other things,
rheumatism...). A grievous blow to him also was, not long after his return, in the summer of 1947, the almost
sudden, after five days' illness (poliomyelitis), death of his 11-year-old son Andrzej. After that he did not want to
part from his wife and daughter, as would have been necessary if he had accepted Krygowski's offer, which
might... have promised him a rapid academic career in view of the postwar shortages in personnel, decimated by
the enemy. In Bydgoszcz they lived with their fairly well-to-do in-laws (Mrs. Rejewska's father was a dentist).
[63]
Rejewski took a position in Bydgoszcz as director of the sales department at a cable
manufacturing company, Kabel Polski (Polish Cable).
[63]
Between 1949 and 1958, Rejewski was repeatedly investigated by the Polish Security
Service but never divulged that he had worked on Enigma; in 1950 they demanded that
he be fired from his employment.
[64]
He then worked briefly as a director at the State
Surveying Company, then at the Association of Polish Surveyors. From 1951 to 1954
he worked at the Association of Timber and Varied Manufactures Cooperatives. From
1954 until his retirement on a disability pension in February 1967, he was director of
the inspectorate of costs and prices at a Provincial Association of Labor Cooperatives.
In 1969 Rejewski and his family moved back to Warsaw, to the apartment that he had
acquired in May 1939 with financial help from his father-in-law. (After the Germans
suppressed the 1944 Warsaw Uprising, they had sent Mrs. Rejewska and her children to
the west, along with other Warsaw survivors. The family had eventually found refuge
with her parents in Bydgoszcz.)
[63]
Rejewski understandably took satisfaction from his accomplishments in breaking the German Enigma cipher for nearly seven
years (beginning in December 1932) prior to the outbreak of World War II and then into the war, in personal and teleprinter
collaboration with Bletchley Park, at least until the 1940 fall of France. In 1942, at Uzs, Vichy France, he wrote a "Report of
Cryptologic Work on the German Enigma Machine Cipher."
[65]
Before his retirement in 1967 a quarter-century later, he began
writing his "Memoirs of My Work in the Cipher Bureau of Section II of the [Polish] General Staff," which were purchased by
the Military Historical Institute, located in Warsaw.
[63]
Rejewski must often have wondered, after the 1940 French debacle, what use Alan Turing (who had visited the Polish
cryptologists outside Paris) and Bletchley Park, had ultimately made of the Polish discoveries and inventions. For nearly three
decades after the war, little was publicly known due to a ban that had been imposed on 25 May 1945 by British Prime Minister
Winston Churchill.
[66]
What little was published attracted little attention. Ladislas Farago's 1971 best-seller The Game of the Foxes presented a
garbled account of Ultra's origins: "Commander Denniston went clandestinely to a secluded Polish castle [!] on the eve of the
war [to pick up an Enigma, "the Wehrmacht's top system" during World War II]. Dilly Knox later solved its keying..."
[67]
Still,
this was closer to the truth than many British and American accounts that would follow after 1974. Their authors were at a
disadvantage: they did not know that the founder of Enigma decryption, Marian Rejewski, was still alive and alert and that
historical confabulation was therefore hazardous.
[68]
9 of 17 7/28/2014 2:33 AM
Bronze monument to the
three cryptologists, erected
in 2007 before the Pozna
Castle
With Gustave Bertrand's 1973 publication of his Enigma, substantial information about the origins of Ultra began to seep out
to the broader world public. With F.W. Winterbotham's 1974 best-seller The Ultra Secret, the dam began to burst. Still, many
authors likewise aspired to best-sellerdom and were not averse to filling gaps in their information with whole-cloth
fabrications. Rejewski fought a gallant (if into the 21st century still not entirely successful) fight to get the truth before the
public. He published a number of papers on his cryptologic work and contributed generously to articles, books and television
programs. He was interviewed by scholars, journalists and television crews from Poland, East Germany, the United States,
Britain, Sweden, Belgium, the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia and Brazil.
[69]
He maintained a lively correspondence with his wartime French host, General Gustave Bertrand, and at the General's bidding
began translating Bertrand's Enigma into Polish.
[69]
A few years before his death, at the request of the Jzef Pisudski Institute
of America, Rejewski broke enciphered correspondence of Jzef Pisudski and his fellow Polish Socialist conspirators from
1904.
[70]
On 12 August 1978, a year and a half before his death, he received the Officer's Cross of the Order of Polonia
Restituta.
[69]
Rejewski, who had been suffering from heart disease, died of a heart attack at his home on 13 February 1980, aged 74. He was
buried with military honors at Warsaw's Powzki Military Cemetery.
[63]
In 1979 Rejewski and his colleagues became heroes of Sekret Enigmy ("The Enigma Secret"), a
Polish-cryptologists-and-German-spies movie thriller about the Poles' solution of the German
Enigma cipher. Late 1980 also saw a Polish TV series with a similar theme, Tajemnice Enigmy
("The Secrets of Enigma").
[71]
In 1983, a Polish postage stamp marked the 50th anniversary of the German military Enigma's
first solution; the First Day Cover featured likenesses of the three mathematician-cryptologists.
Memorials to the trio have been unveiled at Bletchley Park and the Polish Embassy in the
United Kingdom, and at Uzs in France. In Rejewski's home city of Bydgoszcz, a street and
school have been named for him, a plaque placed on the building where he had lived, and a
sculpture commissioned (pictured above).
In 2000, Rejewski and his colleagues Zygalski and Rycki were posthumously awarded the
Grand Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta.
On 4 July 2005, Rejewski's daughter Janina Sylwestrzak received on his behalf, from the
British Chief of the Defence Staff, the War Medal 19391945.
[72]
In 2005 a postcard (below) was issued, commemorating the centennial of Rejewski's birth.
In 2007 a three-sided bronze monument was dedicated before Pozna Castle. Each side bears the name of one of the three
mathematics students who had attended the 1929 cryptology course and subsequently collaborated on breaking the Enigma
cipher.
[73]
On 1 August 2012 Marian Rejewski posthumously received the Knowlton Award of the U.S. Military Intelligence Corps
Association.
[74]
Rejewski's mathematician daughter Janina accepted the award on behalf of her late father at his home town,
Bydgoszcz, on 4 September 2012. Rejewski had been nominated for the award by NATO Allied Command
Counterintelligence. The Knowlton Award, named for an American War of Independence military intelligence chief, was
established in 1995.
[75]
10 of 17 7/28/2014 2:33 AM
Plaque at Bletchley Park, unveiled
2002. English side reads: "This
plaque commemorates the work of
Marian Rejewski, Jerzy Rycki and
Henryk Zygalski, mathematicians of
the Polish intelligence service, in first
breaking the Enigma code [sic: it was
a cipher]. Their work greatly assisted
the Bletchley Park code breakers and
contributed to the Allied victory in
World War II."
Polish prepaid postcard (2005)
commemorating centennial of Rejewski's
birth.
Military ceremony (2005) at
Rejewski's grave on centennial of his
birth.
Cryptanalysis of the Enigma
List of cryptographers
Polish contribution to World War II#Intelligence
Polish School of Mathematics
Tadeusz Peczyski#Enigma
List of Poles
The exact extent of the contribution of Ultra to Allied victory is debated. The typical view is that Ultra shortened the
war; Supreme Allied Commander Dwight D. Eisenhower called Ultra "decisive" to Allied victory.
[76]
For a fuller
discussion, see "Ultra".
1.
Bydgoszcz (called "Bromberg" in German) was then part of the Prussian Province of Posen. Bydgoszczwhich had
been seized by Prussia in the 1772 First Partition of Polandreturned to Poland in 1919 after the Greater Poland
Uprising.
2.
An early Naval Enigma model (the "O Bar" machine) had been solved before 1931 by the Polish Cipher Bureau, but it
did not have the plugboard of the later standard Enigma.
[77]
Mahon cites, as his source for "most of the information I
have collected about prewar days", Alan Turing, who had received it from the "Polish cryptographers", who Mahon says
had done "nearly all the early work on German Naval Enigma [and] handed over the details of their very considerable
achievements just before the outbreak of war."
3.
Some writers, after Bloch (1987), argue that Rejewski is more likely to have received these documents in
mid-November, rather than on 9 or 10 December 1932. Rejewski, however, recalls: "I later... learned that... it was on
December 8 [1932, that] Bertrand had come to Warsaw and delivered this material. [H]e describes it in his book
[Enigma. T]here is a mistake [in the book] and he gives the year [as] 1931. But later I corresponded with him, and it
turned out that it had been... the eighth of December, 1932." Marian Rejewski, in Richard Woytak, "A Conversation
4.
11 of 17 7/28/2014 2:33 AM
with Marian Rejewski," Appendix B to Wadysaw Kozaczuk, Enigma, 1984, p. 233.
Lawrence (2004) shows how Rejewski could have adapted his method to solve for the second rotor, even if the settings
lists had not straddled the quarterly changeover period.
5.
More Enigma settings were provided to the Polish Cipher Bureau by French Intelligence, but these were never passed on
to Rejewski and his colleagues. A possible explanation for this is that the Poles wished to remain independent of French
assistance for reading Enigma, and without outside help the cryptologists were forced to develop their own
self-sufficient techniques.
6.
The Navy had already changed its Enigma indicator procedure on 1 May 1937. The SD net, which lagged behind the
other services, changed procedure only on 1 July 1939.
7.
Rejewski later wrote that at Cadix they did not work on Enigma.
[78]
Other sources indicate that they had, and Rejewski
conceded that this was likely the case. Rejewski's correspondent concluded that "Rejewski either had forgotten or had
not known that, e.g., Zygalski and Rycki had read Enigma after the fall of France".
[79]
8.
^ http://article.wn.com/view/2012
/09/04
/odznaczenie_knowltona_dla_mariana_rejewskiego_dzi_uroczysto/
1.
^ pl:Marian Rejewski 2.
^ Wadysaw Kozaczuk, Enigma:
How the German Machine Cipher
Was Broken, and How It Was Read by
the Allies in World War Two, 1984, p.
7, note 6.
3.
^ The course began on 15 January
1929. A letter dated "Warsaw, 29
January 1929, To Professor Z.
Krygowski, in Pozna, ul. Gogowska
74/75," and signed by the "Chief of
the General Staff, Piskor [i.e.,
Tadeusz Piskor], Genera Dywizji,"
reads: "I hereby thank Pan Profesor
for his efforts and assistance given to
the General Staff in organizing the
cipher [i.e., cryptology] course
opened in Pozna on 15 January
1929." The letter is reproduced in
Stanisaw Jakbczyk and Janusz
Stokosa, Zamanie szyfru Enigma
(The Breaking of the Enigma Cipher),
2007, p. 44.
4.
^ Marian Rejewski, in Richard
Woytak, "A Conversation with
Marian Rejewski," Appendix B to
Wadysaw Kozaczuk, Enigma, 1984,
p. 230.
5.
p. 238.
6.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, p. 4. 7.
pp. 23031.
8.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, pp. 56 9.
p. 231.
10.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, pp. 1011 11.
^
a

b
Marian Rejewski, in Richard
p. 232.
12.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, p. 12 13.
^ One element of the key, the
sequence of rotors in the machine, at
first was changed quarterly; but from
1 January 1936 it was changed
monthly; from 1 October 1936, daily;
and later, during World War II, as
often as every eight hours. Marian
Rejewski, "Summary of Our Methods
for Reconstructing ENIGMA and
Reconstructing Daily Keys, and of
German Efforts to Frustrate Those
Methods," Appendix C to Wadysaw
Kozaczuk, Enigma, 1984, p. 242.
14.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, pp. 12, 1921 15.
^ Bertrand had obtained the material
from a German Chiffrierdienst
(Cryptographic Service) employee,
Hans-Thilo Schmidt. Kozaczuk, 1984,
pp. 1617.
16.
12 of 17 7/28/2014 2:33 AM
^ In the 1920s, French radio
intelligence had been decentralized.
Decryption of foreign, chiefly
German and Italian, ciphers and codes
had been the responsibility of a
General Staff cryptology department,
while radio monitoring had been
conducted by the intelligence service,
Service de Renseignement or S.R. At
the end of 1930, decryption was
turned over to the S.R., which created
a Section D (for Decryptement), of
which Bertrand became chief. He
later took over all of French radio
intelligence. Kozaczuk, 1984, p. 22.
17.
^ Kahn, 1996, p. 974 18.
^ Good and Deavours, 1981, pp. 229,
232
19.
^ Marian Rejewski, "How the Polish
Mathematicians Broke Enigma,"
Appendix D to Wadysaw Kozaczuk,
Enigma, 1984, pp. 25455.
20.
^
a

b

c

d
Marian Rejewski, "How the
Polish Mathematicians Broke
Enigma," Appendix D to Wadysaw
21.
p. 233.
22.
Enigma, 1984, p. 25859.
23.
^ Lawrence, 2005 24.
pp. 234235
25.
^
a

b

c

d

e

f

g

h

i
Marian Rejewski,
"Summary of Our Methods for
Reconstructing ENIGMA and
Reconstructing Daily Keys, and of
German Efforts to Frustrate Those
Methods," Appendix C to Wadysaw
26.
Enigma, 1984, p. 262.
27.
^ Marian Rejewski, "The
Mathematical Solution of the Enigma
Cipher," Appendix E to Wadysaw
Kozaczuk, Enigma, 1984, pp. 28487.
28.
Enigma, 1984, p. 265.
29.
^ Marian Rejewski, "The
Mathematical Solution of the Enigma
Cipher," Appendix E to Wadysaw
30.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, p. 63, note 6. 31.
^ Welchman, 1986 32.
^ Marian Rejewski, "Summary of Our
Methods for Reconstructing
ENIGMA and Reconstructing Daily
Keys, and of German Efforts to
Frustrate Those Methods," Appendix
C to Wadysaw Kozaczuk, Enigma,
1984, p. 243.
33.
^ Marian Rejewski, "Remarks on
Appendix 1 to British Intelligence in
the Second World War by F.H.
Hinsley," Cryptologia, January 1982,
p. 80. Cited in Kozaczuk, 1984, p. 63,
note 7.
34.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, p. 59. 35.
p. 236.
36.
^ Ralph Erskine, "The Poles Reveal
their Secrets: Alastair Denniston's
Account of the July 1939 Meeting at
Pyry," Cryptologia, vol. 30, no. 4
(December 2006), pp. 294305.
37.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, p. 84. 38.
^ Sebag-Montefiore, 2000 39.
^ Welchman, 1982, p. 289. 40.
^ Kozaczuk and Straszak 2004, p. 74 41.
^ The Influence of ULTRA in the
Second World War
(http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/Research
/Security/Historical/hinsley.html)
42.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, p. 71. 43.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, pp. 7173, 79. 44.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, pp. 8182. 45.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, pp. 84; 94, note 8. 46.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, p. 87 47.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, p. 82. 48.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, p. 109. 49.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, pp. 13435 50.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, p. 128 51.
^
a

b
Gustave Bertrand, Enigma ou la
plus grande nigme de la guerre
19391945 (Enigma: the Greatest
Enigma of the War of 19391945),
Paris, Librairie Plon, 1973, pp.
13741.
52.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, pp. 14850. 53.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, pp. 15051. 54.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, pp. 15154. 55.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, pp. 155. 56.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, pp. 2056. 57.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, pp. 2079. 58.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, p. 209. 59.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, p. 220. 60.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, pp. 2078. 61.
^ Stripp, 2004, p. 124. 62.
^
a

b

c

d

e

f
Kozaczuk, 1984, p. 226. 63.
^ Polak, 2005, p. 78. 64.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, p. 326. 65.
^ F.W. Winterbotham, The Ultra
Secret, p. 15.
66.
^ Ladislas Farago, The Game of the
Foxes, p. 674.
67.
13 of 17 7/28/2014 2:33 AM
^ Historian Richard Woytak wrote in
1982: "[F.W.] Winterbotham's [The
Ultra Secret (1974)] spoke of 'a
Polish mechanic... employed in [an
Enigma] factory in Eastern Germany'
who 'was sacked and sent back to
Poland' and 'got in touch with our
man in Warsaw.' By 1975... Anthony
Cave Brown in his Bodyguard of Lies
had promoted the nameless Polish
mechanic to a 'Richard Lewinski (not
his real name)' who had worked as a
mathematician and engineer at the
[Enigma] factory in Berlin'... [T]o be
on the safe side, though, Brown...
mention[ed] 'Polish cryptanalysts, led
by M. Rejewski and H. Zygalski', as
well as a German 'officer of the
Forschungsamt...' In 1976, another...
best-seller, A Man Called Intrepid
by... William Stevenson... g[o]t
wrong... Rejewski's sex and marital
status. Then [Stevenson] went on to
a... story about [Elizabeth Thorpe, a
Minneapolis-born] spy codenamed
CYNTHIA, who was 'married to a
British diplomat, Arthur Pack, who
had been transferred to Warsaw...
[She] formed a series of liaisons with
top-ranking members of Poland's
Foreign Service' [and from an aide of
68. Foreign Minister Jzef Beck obtained
documents and information about
Polish Enigma decryption that
Stevenson suggests were somehow
important to subsequent British
efforts]. In conversations with me,
Rejewski, in Warsaw, and Colonel
Stefan Mayer... prewar chief of Polish
military counter-intelligence, in
London, have denied that there is any
truth in... these... accounts.... The
official history of British Intelligence
in the Second World War, by F.H.
Hinsley et al...., vol. 1... 1979,
repeats, in Appendix 1, the story
about 'a Pole who was working in an
Enigma factory in Germany'..."
Richard Woytak, prefatory note (pp.
7576) to Marian Rejewski,
"Remarks on Appendix 1 to British
Intelligence in the Second World War
by F.H. Hinsley", Cryptologia, vol. 6,
no. 1 (January 1982), pp. 7583.
^
a

b

c
Kozaczuk, 1984, p. 225. 69.
^ Kozaczuk, 1990 70.
^ Christopher Kasparek and Richard
Woytak, "In Memoriam Marian
Rejewski," p. 24.
71.
^ Untold Story of Enigma
Code-Breaker (http://news.mod.uk
/news/press
/news_headline_story.asp?newsItem_i
d=3339), published 5 July 2005,
retrieved 9 January 2006.
72.
^ Stanisaw Jakbczyk and Janusz
Stokosa, eds., Zamanie szyfru
Enigma. Poznaski pomnik polskich
kryptologw (The Breaking of the
Enigma Cipher: the Pozna
Monument to the Polish
Cryptologists), 2007.
73.
^ [1] (http://www.micastore.com
/AwardsAlphabeticallyR.html)
Military Intelligence Corps
Association, Awards Alphabetically.
74.
^ "Najwysze odznaczenie
amerykaskiego wywiadu za zamanie
kodw Enigmy" ("Highest American
Intelligence Award for Breaking
Enigma Ciphers"), Gwiazda Polarna
(The Pole Star), vol. 103, no. 20 (22
September 2012), p. 6.
75.
^ Brzezinski, 2005, p. 18 76.
^ Mahon, 1945, p. 12 77.
Enigma, 1984, p. 270.
78.
^ Kozaczuk, 1984, p. 117 79.
The main source used for this article was Kozaczuk (1984).
Gustave Bertrand, Enigma ou la plus grande nigme de la guerre 19391945 (Enigma: the Greatest Enigma of the War
of 19391945), Paris, Librairie Plon, 1973.
Gilbert Bloch, "Enigma before Ultra: Polish Work and the French Contribution", translated by C.A. Deavours,
Cryptologia, July 1987, pp. 142155.
Zbigniew Brzezinski, "The Unknown Victors". pp. 1518, in Jan Stanislaw Ciechanowski, ed. Marian Rejewski
19051980, Living with the Enigma secret. 1st ed. Bydgoszcz: Bydgoszcz City Council, 2005, ISBN 83-7208-117-4.
Stephen Budiansky, Battle of Wits: the Complete Story of Codebreaking in World War II, New York, The Free Press,
2000.
Chris Christensen, "Polish Mathematicians Finding Patterns in Enigma Messages", Mathematics Magazine, 80 (4),
14 of 17 7/28/2014 2:33 AM
October 2007.
Ralph Erskine, "The Poles Reveal their Secrets: Alastair Denniston's Account of the July 1939 Meeting at Pyry,"
Cryptologia, vol. 30, no. 4 (December 2006), pp. 294305.
Ladislas Farago, The Game of the Foxes: The Untold Story of German Espionage in the United States and Great Britain
during World War II, New York, Bantam Books, 1971.
James Gannon, Stealing Secrets, Telling Lies: How Spies and Codebreakers Helped Shape the Twentieth Century,
Washington, D.C., Brassey's, 2001, ISBN 1-57488-367-4, pp. 2758 and passim.
I. J. Good and Cipher A. Deavours, afterword to: Marian Rejewski, "How Polish Mathematicians Deciphered the
Enigma", Annals of the History of Computing, 3 (3), July 1981. (This paper of Rejewski's appears as Appendix D in
Kozaczuk, 1984.)
F.H. Hinsley and Alan Stripp, eds., Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park, Oxford University Press, 1993,
ISBN 0-19-820327-6.
Stanisaw Jakbczyk and Janusz Stokosa, editors, Zamanie szyfru Enigma. Poznaski pomnik polskich kryptologw
(The Breaking of the Enigma Cipher: the Pozna Monument to the Polish Cryptologists), Pozna, Wydawnictwo
Poznaskiego Towarzystwa Przyjaci Nauk, 2007, ISBN 978-83-7063-527-5. This 140-page book was published in
connection with the 2007 dedication, before the Pozna Castle, of a three-sided bronze monument, each side bearing the
name of one of the three Polish mathematician-cryptologists who attended the cryptology course there and subsequently
collaborated on breaking the Enigma cipher. The volume recounts the history of the cipher's breaking before and during
World War II and the importance of this achievement in the prosecution of the war, provides brief biographies of a
number of Interbellum Pozna mathematicians, and includes photographs of documents and of a growing number of
Enigma-decryption-related memorials to be found in various Polish locales.
David Kahn, The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient Times to the
Internet, 2nd edition, New York, Scribner, 1996, ISBN 0-684-83130-9.
David Kahn, Seizing the Enigma: the Race to Break the German U-Boat Codes, 19391943, Boston, Houghton Mifflin,
1991, ISBN 0-395-42739-8.
Christopher Kasparek and Richard Woytak, "In Memoriam Marian Rejewski," Cryptologia, vol. 6, no. 1 (January 1982),
pp. 1925.
Wadysaw Kozaczuk, Enigma: How the German Machine Cipher Was Broken, and How It Was Read by the Allies in
World War Two, edited and translated by Christopher Kasparek, Frederick, MD, University Publications of America,
1984, ISBN 0-89093-547-5. (The standard reference on the Polish part in the Enigma-decryption epic. This English-
language book is substantially revised from Kozaczuk's 1979 Polish-language W krgu Enigmy, and greatly augmented
with documentation, including many additional substantive chapter notes and papers by, and interviews with, Marian
Rejewski.)
Wadysaw Kozaczuk, "A New Challenge for an Old Enigma-Buster", Cryptologia, 14 (3), July 1990.
Jerzy Kubiatowski, "Rejewski, Marian Adam", Polski sownik biograficzny (Polish Biographical Dictionary), vol.
XXXI/1, Wrocaw, Wydawnictwo Polskiej Akademii Nauk (Polish Academy of Sciences), 1988, pp. 5456.
John Lawrence, "A Study of Rejewski's Equations", Cryptologia, 29 (3), July 2005, pp. 233247.
John Lawrence, "The Versatility of Rejewski's Method: Solving for the Wiring of the Second Rotor", Cryptologia, 28
(2), April 2004, pp. 149152.
John Lawrence, "Factoring for the Plugboard Was Rejewski's Proposed Solution for Breaking the Enigma Feasible?",
Cryptologia, 29 (4), October 2005.
A.P. Mahon, "The History of Hut Eight: 19391945", June 1945, 117 pp., PRO HW 25/2, [2] (http://www.cs.usfca.edu
15 of 17 7/28/2014 2:33 AM
/www.AlanTuring.net/turing_archive/archive/a/A09/A09-001.html).
A. Ray Miller, "The Cryptographic Mathematics of Enigma", 2001, [3] (http://www.nsa.gov/publications
/publi00004.cfm).
Wojciech Polak, "Marian Rejewski in the Sights of the Security Services," in Jan Stanisaw Ciechanowski, ed., Marian
Rejewski, 19051980: Living with the Enigma Secret, Bydgoszcz: Bydgoszcz City Council, 2005, ISBN 83-7208-117-4,
pp. 7588.
Marian Rejewski, "Remarks on Appendix 1 to British Intelligence in the Second World War by F.H. Hinsley," translated
by Christopher Kasparek, Cryptologia: a Quarterly Journal Devoted to All Aspects of Cryptology, vol. 6, no. 1 (January
1982), pp. 7583.
Marian Rejewski, in Richard Woytak, "A Conversation with Marian Rejewski," Appendix B to Wadysaw Kozaczuk,
Enigma, 1984, pp. 22940.
Marian Rejewski, "Summary of Our Methods for Reconstructing ENIGMA and Reconstructing Daily Keys, and of
German Efforts to Frustrate Those Methods," Appendix C to Wadysaw Kozaczuk, Enigma, 1984, pp. 24145.
Marian Rejewski, "How the Polish Mathematicians Broke Enigma," Appendix D to Wadysaw Kozaczuk, Enigma,
1984, pp. 24671.
Marian Rejewski, "The Mathematical Solution of the Enigma Cipher," Appendix E to Wadysaw Kozaczuk, Enigma,
1984, pp. 27291. Covers much the same ground as the 1980 Applicationes Mathematicae paper referenced below.
Marian Rejewski, "An Application of the Theory of Permutations in Breaking the Enigma Cipher," Applicationes
Mathematicae, 16 (4), 1980, pp. 543559 (PDF) (http://frode.home.cern.ch/frode/crypto/rew80.pdf).
Marian Rejewski, interview (transcribed by Christopher Kasparek) in: Richard Woytak, Werble historii (History's
Drumroll), edited by and with introduction by Stanisaw Krasucki, illustrated with 36 photographs, Bydgoszcz, Poland,
Zwizek Powstacw Warszawskich w Bydgoszczy (Association of Warsaw Insurgents in Bydgoszcz), 1999, ISBN
83-902357-8-1, pp. 12343. A more complete transcript of the interview, highlights of which earlier appeared in
Cryptologia, vol. 6, no. 1 (January 1982), pp. 5060, and as Appendix B to Wadysaw Kozaczuk, Enigma, 1984,
pp. 22940.
Marian Rejewski, Sprawozdanie z prac kryptologicznych nad niemieckim szyfrem maszynowym Enigma (Report of
Cryptologic Work on the German Enigma Machine Cipher). Manuscript written at Uzs, France, 1942.
Marian Rejewski, Wspomnienia z mej pracy w Biurze Szyfrw Oddziau II Sztabu Gwnego 19321945 (Memoirs of
My Work in the Cipher Bureau of Section II of the [Polish] General Staff). Manuscript, 1967.
Hugh Sebag-Montefiore, Enigma: the Battle for the Code, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2000.
Simon Singh, The Code Book: The Evolution of Secrecy from Mary Queen of Scots to Quantum Cryptography,
Doubleday, 1999, pp. 149160, ISBN 0-385-49531-5.
Alan Stripp, "A British Cryptanalyst Salutes the Polish Cryptanalysts", Appendix E to Wadysaw Kozaczuk and Jerzy
Straszak, Enigma: How the Poles Broke the Nazi Code, New York, Hippocrene Books, 2004, ISBN 0-7818-0941-X,
pp. 12325.
Gordon Welchman, The Hut Six Story: Breaking the Enigma Codes, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1982.
Gordon Welchman, "From Polish Bomba to British Bombe: the Birth of Ultra", Intelligence and National Security, 1
(1), January 1986.
F.W. Winterbotham, The Ultra Secret, New York, Dell, 1974.
Fred B. Wrixon, Codes, Ciphers, & Other Cryptic & Clandestine Communication: Making and Breaking Secret
Messages from Hieroglyphics to the Internet, 1998, Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, ISBN 1-57912-040-7,
pp. 8385.
16 of 17 7/28/2014 2:33 AM
The Enigma Code Breach by Jan Bury: an account of the Polish role (http://www.armyradio.com/publish/Articles
/The_Enigma_Code_Breach/The_Enigma_Code_Breach.htm)
The Breaking of Enigma by the Polish Mathematicians (http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/virtualbp/poles/poles.htm)
by Tony Sale
How Mathematicians Helped Win WWII National Security Agency (http://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic_heritage
/center_crypt_history/publications/how_math_helped_win.shtml)
Enigma documents (http://www.spybooks.pl/en/enigma.html)
Rejewski biography, University of St Andrews (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Rejewski.html)
Marian Rejewski and the First Break into Enigma (http://www.ams.org/featurecolumn/archive/enigma.html)
Photographs of Rejewski: [4] (http://ww2.tvp.pl/2739,20050927249915.strona), [5] (http://www.wiadomosci.tvp.com.pl
/389,20050704221744.strona), [6] (http://ww6.tvp.pl/389,20051013256196.strona)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marian_Rejewski&oldid=618468329"
Categories: 1905 births 1980 deaths Biuro Szyfrw People from Bydgoszcz People from the Province of Posen
Polish cryptographers Polish inventors Polish Army officers Pre-computer cryptographers
Grand Crosses of the Order of Polonia Restituta Adam Mickiewicz University in Pozna alumni
20th-century Polish mathematicians
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