TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
1 PETROLEUM RESERVOIR ROCKS ......................................... 1-1
1.1

PETROPHYSICS ............................................................................... 1-1

1.2

PETROLEUM RESERVOIR ROCKS ................................................1-2

1.3

MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF ROCKSA REVIEW ...................1-4

1.4 ROCKS............................................................................................... 1-5

1.4.1 Igneous Rocks.................................................................... 1-5
1.4.2 Metamorphic Rocks...........................................................1-6
1.4.3 Sedimentary Rocks ............................................................1-6
1.5

CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS ............................. 1-7

1.5.1 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks ................................................ 1-7
1.5.2 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks............................................ 1-7
1.5.3 Organic Sedimentary Rocks ..............................................1-8

1.6 DISTRIBUTION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCK TYPES .................... 1-10

1.7

SANDSTONE RESERVOIRS (CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY

ROCK) ............................................................................................. 1-10
1.7.1 Pore Space ....................................................................... 1-12
1.7.2 Compaction and Cementation......................................... 1-15
1.7.3 Classification ................................................................... 1-17

1.8 CARBONATE RESERVOIRS (LIMESTONES AND

DOLOMITES) .................................................................................1-20
1.8.1 Classification ................................................................... 1-21
1.8.2 Pore Space .......................................................................1-22
1.9 FRACTURED RESERVOIRS ..........................................................1-28
1.10 RESEVOIR COLUMN.....................................................................1-29
REFRENCES ...................................................................................1-32
2 POROSITY AND FLUID SATURATIONS..................................2-1
2.1

DEFINITION OF POROSITY ...........................................................2-1

2.2

FACTORS AFFECTING SANDSTONE POROSITY ........................ 2-2

2.3

FACTORS AFFECTING CARBONATE POROSITY ........................ 2-4

2.4 TYPICAL RESERVOIR POROSITY VALUES.................................. 2-5

2.5

LABORATORY MEASUREMENT OF POROSITY.......................... 2-6

2.5.1 Direct Porosity Measurement by Routine

Core Analysis .................................................................... 2-6
2.5.2 Indirect Porosity Measurement by CT Imaging.............. 2-11
2.6 FLUID SATURATIONS ..................................................................2-16
2.7

INDIRECT POROSITY MEASUREMENTS FROM

WELL LOGS................................................................................... 2-24
2.7.1 Introduction to Well Logging......................................... 2-24
2.7.2 Mud filtrate Invasion...................................................... 2-25
2.7.3 Porosity Logs .................................................................. 2-32
Density Log .................................................................. 2-32
Sonic Log (Acoustic Log) ............................................. 2-36
Neutron Log .................................................................2-41
Combination Porosity Logs ......................................... 2-45
2.7.4 Resistivity Log ................................................................ 2-46
Electric Log ................................................................. 2-54
Induction-Electric Log ................................................ 2-56
Dual Induction Laterolog ........................................... 2-58
Focused Electric Log (Guard and Laterolog) ............. 2-62
Microresistivity Logs................................................... 2-65
2.7.5 Lithology Logs ................................................................ 2-68
Spontaneous Potential Log (SP) ................................. 2-68
The Gamma Ray Log (GR)...........................................2-73
2.7.6 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Logs.................... 2-76
Nuclear Spins in a Magnetic Field .............................. 2-76
The Effect of Radiofrequency Pulses Resonance Absorption ............................................... 2-79
Relaxation Processes................................................... 2-80
Molecular Diffusion Effect.......................................... 2-84
NMR Signal and Corresponding T2 Spectrum ........... 2-84
Pore Size Distribution................................................. 2-89
Estimation of Permeability from
NMR Relaxation Times............................................... 2-95
2.7.7 NMR Imaging of Laboratory Cores................................ 2-97
The Effect of Magnetic Field Gradients...................... 2-98
Slice-Selective Excitation............................................ 2-99
Frequency Encoding ................................................. 2-100
Phase Encoding.......................................................... 2-101
Image Reconstruction............................................... 2-102
Three-Dimensional NMR Imaging............................2-103
Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Image Contrast............... 2-104
Example NMR Images of Laboratory Cores..............2-105
2.7.8 A Comparison of Various Porosity
Measurements for Shaly Sand....................................... 2-112
2.8 RESERVE ESTIMATION PROJECT ........................................... 2-113
2.8.1 Reserve Estimation........................................................ 2-114

2.8.2
2.8.3
2.8.4
2.8.5

Economic Evaluation..................................................... 2-115

Simulation Procedure.................................................... 2-116
Sampling Procedure ...................................................... 2-116
Simulation Output.........................................................2-124

2.9 PORE VOLUME COMPRESIBILITY............................................2-126

NOMENCLATURE .......................................................................2-135
REFRENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS.............................2-138
3 PERMEABILITY .....................................................................3-1
3.1

DEFINITION ....................................................................................3-1

3.2

DIMENSIONS AND UNIT OF PERMEABILITY ............................ 3-6

3.3

LABORATORY DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY...............3-7

3.4 FIELD DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY ..........................3-14

3.4.1 Diffusivity Equation for Slightly
Compressible Liquid........................................................ 3-15
3.4.2 Pressure Drawdown Equation ........................................3-19
3.4.3 Pressure Buildup Equation ............................................ 3-22
3.4.4 Diagnostic Plots.............................................................. 3-24
3.4.5 Skin Factor...................................................................... 3-30
3.4.6 Homogenous Reservoir Model with
Wellbore Storage and Skin ............................................. 3-33
3.4.7 Type Curve Matching ......................................................3-37
3.4.8 Radius of Investigation of a Well Test ........................... 3-40
3.4.9 Field Example of Well Test Analysis .............................. 3-40
3.4.10 Welltest Model for Dry Gas Reservoir .......................... 3-52
3.5

FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY..................................... 3-56

3.5.1 Compaction..................................................................... 3-56
3.5.2 Pore Size (Grain Size) ..................................................... 3-56
3.5.3 Sorting ............................................................................ 3-60
3.5.4 Cementation ................................................................... 3-60
3.5.5 Layering .......................................................................... 3-60
3.5.6 Clay Swelling....................................................................3-61

3.6 TYPICAL RESERVOIR PERMEABILITY VALUES .......................3-61

3.7

PERMEABILITY-POROSITY CORRELATIONS............................3-61

3.8 CAPILLARY TUBE MODELS OF POROUS MEDIA..................... 3-69

3.8.1 Carman-Kozeny Equation .............................................. 3-69
3.8.2 Tortuosity ........................................................................3-75
3.8.3 Calculation of Permeability from Pore

Size Distribution............................................................. 3-79

3.9 STEADY STATE FLOW THROUGH FRACTURES....................... 3-84
3.10 AVERAGING PERMEABILITY DATA .......................................... 3-85
3.11 DARCYS LAW FOR INCLINED FLOW........................................ 3-88
3.12 VALIDITY OF DARCYS LAW ....................................................... 3-99
3.13 NON-DARCY FLOW..................................................................... 3-101
3.14 DARCYS LAW FOR ANISOTROPIC POROUS MEDIA ............. 3-106
3.14.1 Definition of Homogeneity and Anisotropy ................ 3-106
3.14.2 Darcys Law for Homogeneous
and Anisotropic Medium .............................................3-107
3.14.3 Transformation of Permeability Tensor
from One Coordinate system to Another .................... 3-114
3.14.4 Alternative Calculation of the Principal
Values and the Principal Axes of the
Permeability Anisotropy..............................................3-122
3.14.5 Directional Permeability...............................................3-124
3.14.6 Measurement of Transverse Permeability
of a Cylindrical Core .................................................... 3-137
3.15 EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS OF PERMEABILITY.......................3-140
3.15.1 Productivity of Horizontal Well ....................................3-140
Introduction ............................................................... 3-141
Homogeneous and Isotropic Reservoirs ................... 3-141
Homogeneous and Anisotropic Reservoirs ...............3-145
3.15.2 Productivity of a Vertically Fractured Well..................3-152
NOMENCLATURE ....................................................................... 3-155
REFRENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS.............................3-159
4 HETEROGENEITY ................................................................ 4-1
4.1

INTRODUCTION..............................................................................4-1

4.2

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND

VARIABILITY (HETEROGENEITY)............................................... 4-3
4.2.1 Measures of Central Tendency ......................................... 4-3
Mean.............................................................................. 4-3
Geometric Mean............................................................ 4-3
Median .......................................................................... 4-3
Mode.............................................................................. 4-4
4.2.1 Measures of Variability
(Heterogeneity or Spread) ............................................... 4-4
Variance ........................................................................ 4-4

Dykstra-Parsons Coefficient of Variation..................... 4-5

Lorenz Coefficient ......................................................... 4-8
4.3

MEASURES OF SPATIAL CONTINUITY ...................................... 4-11

4.3.1 Variogram ........................................................................4-13
Definition .....................................................................4-13
How to Calculate the Variogram .................................4-16
Physical Meaning of the Variogram............................ 4-27
Variogram Models....................................................... 4-28
Fitting a Theoretical Variogram Model to
an Experimental Variogram ....................................... 4-35
Variogram Anisotropy .................................................4-41
Example Experimental Variograms............................ 4-44
4.3.2 Covariance (Autocovariance) Function...........................4-51
Definition .....................................................................4-51
Physical Meaning of Covariance Function ................. 4-54
4.3.3 Correlation Coefficient Function
(Autocorrelation Function) .............................................4-57

4.4 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS ................................................. 4-59

4.4.1 Normal (Gaussian) Distribution .................................... 4-60
4.4.2 Log Normal Distribution................................................ 4-72
4.5

ESTIMATION .................................................................................4-75
4.5.1 Introduction ....................................................................4-75
4.5.2 Ordinary Kriging Equations ........................................... 4-86
Derivation in Terms of the
Covariance Function ................................................... 4-89
Derivation in Terms of the Variogram ....................... 4-94
Solution of the Kriging Equation in terms
of the Covariance Function......................................... 4-98
Solution of the Kriging Equation in terms
of Variogram ..............................................................4-103

4.6 CONDITIONAL SIMULATION ....................................................4-132

4.6.1 Introduction ..................................................................4-132
4.6.2 Sequential Gaussian Simulation ...................................4-132
4.6.3 A Practical Application of Sequential
Gaussian Simulation .....................................................4-136
NOMENCLATURE .......................................................................4-148
REFRENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS.............................4-149
5 DISPERSION IN POROUS MEDIA ..........................................5-1
5.1

INTRODUCTION.............................................................................. 5-1

5.2

LABORATORY FIRST-CONTACT MISCIBLE

DISPLACEMENTS........................................................................... 5-3

5.3

ORIGIN OF DISPERSION IN POROUS MEDIA .......................... 5-20

5.3.1 Molecular Diffusion.........................................................5-21
5.3.2 Mechanical Dispersion ....................................................5-21

5.4 CONVECTION-DISPERSION EQUATION................................... 5-23

5.4.1 Generalized Equation in Vector Notation...................... 5-23
5.4.2 One Dimensional Convection-Dispersion
Equation ........................................................................ 5-25
5.4.2 Solution of the One-Dimensional
Convection-Dispersion Equation ................................... 5-26
5.5

DISPERSION COEFFICENT AND DISPERSIVITY ..................... 5-42

5.6 MEASURMENT OF DISPERSION COEFFICENT

AND DISPERSIVITY ......................................................................5-53
5.6.1 Traditional Laboratory Method with
Breakthrough Curve .......................................................5-53
5.6.2 Laboratory Method of Peters et al. (1996) ..................... 5-56
5.6.3 Field Measurement of Dispersion
Coefficient and Dispersivity ............................................ 5-71
5.7

FACTORS THAT COULD AFFECT DISPERSION

COEFFICENT AND DISPERSIVITY ..............................................5-75

5.8 NUMERICAL MODELING OF FIRST-CONTACT

MISCIBLE DISPLACEMENT .........................................................5-79
5.8.1 Introduction ....................................................................5-79
5.8.2 Mathematical Model of First-Contact
Miscible Displacement ....................................................5-79
5.8.3 Numerical Modeling of Laboratory Experiments.......... 5-82
Experiment 1 ................................................................. 5-84
Experiment 2..................................................................5-91
Experiment 3................................................................. 5-99
Experiment 4................................................................5-106
Experiment 5................................................................ 5-116
Experiment 6................................................................ 5-121
NOMENCLATURE .......................................................................5-126
REFRENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS.............................5-128
6 INTERFACIAL PHENOMENA AND WETTABILITY ................ 6-1
6.1

INTRODUCTION..............................................................................6-1

6.2

SURFACE AND INTERFACIAL TENSIONS................................... 6-2

6.2.1 Surface Tension ................................................................ 6-2
6.2.2 Interfacial Tension .......................................................... 6-11

6.2.3 Measurement of Surface and

Interfacial Tension......................................................... 6-20
Capillary Rise Experiment ............................................ 6-20
Sessile Drop Method ..................................................... 6-24
Pendant Drop Method .................................................. 6-26
Ring Method.................................................................. 6-27
Spinning Drop Method ................................................. 6-30
6.3

WETTABILITY................................................................................6-31
6.3.1 Definition.........................................................................6-31
6.3.2 Determination of Wettability ......................................... 6-36
Contact Angle Method ................................................. 6-37
Amott Wettability Test.................................................. 6-40
United State Bureau of Mines (USBM)
Wettability Test............................................................. 6-42
6.3.3 Wettability of Petroleum Reservoirs.............................. 6-45
6.3.4 Effect of Wettability on Rock-Fluid Interactions........... 6-46
Microscopic Fluid Distribution at the
Pore Scale ..................................................................... 6-47
Effect of Wettability on Irreducible
Water Saturation .......................................................... 6-47
Effect of Wettability on Electrical
Properties of Rocks ...................................................... 6-48
Effect of Wettability on the Efficiency of an
Immiscible Displacement .............................................6-51

6.3

THERMODYMAMICS OF INTERFACES ..................................... 6-64

6.4.1 Characterization of Interfacial Tension
as Specific Surface Energy.............................................. 6-64
6.4.2 Characterization of Microscopic Pore Level
Fluid Displacements....................................................... 6-66
Case 1. Displacement of a Nonwetting
Phase by a Wetting Phase ............................................ 6-67
Case 2. Displacement of a Wetting Phase
by a Nonwetting Phase ................................................. 6-69
NOMENCLATURE ......................................................................... 6-71
REFRENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS .............................. 6-73

7 CAPILLARY PRESSURE .........................................................7-1

7.1

DEFINITION OF CAPILLARY PRESSURE ..................................... 7-1

7.2

CAPILLARY PRESSURE-SATURATION RELATIONSHIP

FOR A POROUS MEDIUM.............................................................. 7-8

7.3

DRAINAGE CAPILLARY PRESSURE CURVE .............................. 7-17

7.4

CONVERSION OF LABORATORY CAPILLARY PRESSURE

DATA TO RESERVOIR CONDITIONS .......................................... 7-21

7.5

AVERAGING CAPILLARY PRESSURE DATA .............................. 7-21

7.6 DETERMINATION OF INITIAL STATIC RESERVOIR

FLUID SATURATIONS BY USE OF DRAINAGE
CAPILLARY PRESSURE CURVE.................................................. 7-28
7.7

CAPILLARY PRESSURE HYSTERESIS.........................................7-45

7.8 CAPILLARY IMBIBITION..............................................................7-54

7.9 CAPILLARY END EFFECT IN A LABORATORY CORE ...............7-57
7.9.1 Capillary End Effect.........................................................7-57
7.9.2 Mathematical Analysis of Capillary End Effect ..............7-59
7.9.3 Mathematical Model of Capillary End Effect
During Steady State Relative Permeability
Measurement.................................................................. 7-68
7.9.4 Experimental Evidence of Capillary End Effect...............7-70
7.10 CAPILLARY PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS ................................7-76
7.10.1 Restored State Method (Porous Plate Method)..............7-76
7.10.2 Mercury Injection Method ............................................. 7-77
7.10.3 Centrifuge Method..........................................................7-81
7.11 PORE SIZE DISTRIBUTION......................................................... 7-96
7.11.1 Introduction.................................................................... 7-96
7.11.2 Pore Volume Distribution .............................................. 7-98
7.11.3 Pore Size Distribution Based on Bundle
of Capillary Tubes Model............................................7-103
7.11.4 Mercury Injection Porosimeter..................................... 7-115
7.12 CALCULATION OF PERMEABILITY FROM DRAINAGE
CAPILLARY PRESSURE CURVE................................................. 7-118
7.12.1 Calculation of Absolute Permeability from
Drainage Capillary Pressure Curve............................. 7-118
7.12.2 Calculation of Relative Permeabilities from
Drainage Capillary Pressure Curve............................. 7-132
7.13 EMPIRICAL CAPILLARY PRESSURE MODELS ........................ 7-133
7.13.1 Brooks-Corey Capillary Pressure Models ..................... 7-133
7.13.2 van Genuchten Capillary Pressure Model .................... 7-143
7.14 CAPILLARY TRAPPING IN POROUS MEDIA ........................... 7- 145
7.14.1 Pore Doublet Model of Capillary Trapping................... 7-145

7.14.2 Snap-Off Model of Capillary Trapping ......................... 7-152

7.14.3 Mobilization of Residual Non-Wetting Phase.............. 7-155
7.14.4 Oil Migration................................................................. 7-159
7.15 EFFECTS OF WETTABILITY AND INTERFACIAL
TENSION ON CAPILLARY PRESSURE CURVES.......................7-162
NOMENCLATURE .......................................................................7-164
REFRENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS ............................ 7-168
8 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY................................................... 8-1
8.1 DEFINITION OF RELATIVE PERMEABILITY...............................8-1
8.2

LABORATORY MEASUREMENT OF TWO-PHASE

RELATIVE PERMEABILITY BY THE STEADY STATE
METHOD ......................................................................................... 8-6

8.3

THEORY OF ONE DIMENSIONAL IMMISCIBLE

DISPLACEMENT IN A POROUS MEDIUM ..................................8-15
8.3.1 Mathematical Model of Two-Phase
Immiscible Displacement................................................8-15
8.3.2 Buckley-Leverett Approximate Solution of the
Immiscible Displacement Equation................................8-21
8.3.3 Waterflood Performance Calculations from
Buckley-Leverett Theory .................................................8-31
Oil Recovery at any Time ...............................................8-31
Oil Recovery Before Water Breakthrough .....................8-31
Oil Recovery at Water Breakthrough............................ 8-32
Oil Recovery After Water Breakthrough ...................... 8-36
Water Production...........................................................8-41

8.4 LABORATORY MEASUREMENT OF TWO-PHASE

RELATIVE PERMEABILITY BY THE UNSTEADY STATE
METHOD ........................................................................................8-51
8.5

FACTORS AFFECTING RELATIVE PERMEABILITIES.............. 8-65

8.5.1 Fluid Saturation.............................................................. 8-65
8.5.2 Saturation History .......................................................... 8-66
8.5.3 Wettability ...................................................................... 8-67
8.5.4 Injection Rate ................................................................. 8-70
8.5.5 Viscosity Ratio ................................................................ 8-73
8.5.6 Interfacial Tension ......................................................... 8-74
8.5.7Pore Structure .................................................................. 8-75
8.5.8 Temperature ................................................................... 8-76
8.5.9 Heterogeneity ................................................................. 8-78

8.6 THREE-PHASE RELATIVE PERMEABILITIES .......................... 8-79

8.4 CALCULATION OF RELATIVE PERMEABILITIES FROM
DRAINAGE CAPILLARY PRESSURE CURVE ............................. 8-82
NOMENCLATURE .........................................................................8-91
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS ............................ 8-94
APPENDIX A: A Systematic Approach To Dimensional Analysis .. A-1
Summary .......................................................................................... A-1
Introduction ..................................................................................... A-1
Algebraic Theory of Dimensional Analysis...................................... A-2
Transformation of the Dimensionless Groups ............................. A-9
Example Problem............................................................................. A-9
Procedure ....................................................................................... A-10
Transformation of the Dimensionless Groups for
Example Problem........................................................................... A-21
Some Practical Considerations ......................................................A-28
Concluding Remarks...................................................................... A-31
Nomenclature ................................................................................ A-31
References ...................................................................................... A-32

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 PETROPHYSICS
Petrophysics is the study of rock properties and their interactions
with fluids (gases, liquid hydrocarbons and aqueous solutions). Because
petroleum reservoir rocks must have porosity and permeability, we are
most interested in the properties of porous and permeable rocks. The
purpose of this text is to provide a basic understanding of the physical
properties of permeable geologic rocks and the interactions of the various
fluids with their interstitial surfaces. Particular emphasis is placed on
the transport properties of the rocks for single phase and multiphase
flow.
The petrophysical properties that are discussed in this text
include:
Porosity
Absolute permeability
Effective and relative permeabilities
Water saturation

1-1

Irreducible water saturation

Hydrocarbon saturation
Residual oil saturation
Capillary pressure
Wettability
Pore size
Pore size distribution
Pore structure
Net pay thickness
Isothermal coefficient of compressibility
Mineralogy
Specific pore surface area
Dispersivity

1.2 PETROLEUM RESERVOIR ROCKS

A petroleum reservoir rock is a porous medium that is sufficiently
permeable to permit fluid flow through it.

In the presence of

interconnected fluid phases of different density and viscosity, such as

water and hydrocarbons, the movement of the fluids is influenced by
gravity and capillary forces. The fluids separate, therefore, in order of
density when flow through a permeable stratum is arrested by a zone of
low permeability, and, in time, a petroleum reservoir is formed in such a
trap.

Porosity and permeability are two fundamental petrophysical

properties of petroleum reservoir rocks.

1-2

Geologically, a petroleum reservoir is a complex of porous and

permeable rock that contains an accumulation of hydrocarbons under a
set of geological conditions that prevent escape by gravitational and
capillary forces. The initial fluid distribution in the reservoir rock, which
is determined by the balance of gravitational and capillary forces, is of
significant interest at the time of discovery.
A rock capable of producing oil, gas and water is called a reservoir
rock. In general, to be of commercial value, a reservoir rock must have
sufficient thickness, areal extent and pore space to contain a large
volume of hydrocarbons and must yield the contained fluids at a
satisfactory rate when the reservoir is penetrated by a well. Any buried
rock, be it sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic, that meets these
conditions may be used as a reservoir rock by migrating hydrocarbons.
However, most reservoir rocks are sedimentary rocks.
Sandstones and carbonates (limestones and dolomites) are the
most common reservoir rocks.

They contain most of the worlds

petroleum reserves in about equal proportions even though carbonates

make up only about 25% of sedimentary rocks. The reservoir character
of a rock may be primary such as the intergranular porosity of a
sandstone, or secondary, resulting from chemical or physical changes
such as dolomitization, solution and fracturing. Shales frequently form
the impermeable cap rocks for petroleum traps.
The distribution of reservoirs and the trend of pore space are the
end product of numerous natural processes, some depositional and some
post-depositional. Their prediction, and the explanation and prediction of
their performance involve the recognition of the genesis of the ancient
sediments, the interpretation of which depends upon an understanding
of sedimentary and diagenetic processes.
1-3

Diagenesis is the process of

physical and chemical changes in sediments after deposition that convert

them

to

consolidated

rock

such

as

compaction,

cementation,

recrystallization and perhaps replacement as in the development of

dolomite.

1.3 MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF ROCKS - A REVIEW

The physical and chemical properties of rocks are the consequence
of their mineral composition.

A mineral is a naturally occurring

crystalline inorganic material that has specific physical and chemical

properties, which are either constant or vary within certain limits. Rockforming minerals of interest in petroleum engineering can be classified
into the following families: silicates, carbonates, oxides, sulfates
(sulphates), sulfides (sulphides) and chorides. These are summarized in
Table 1.1. Silicates are the most abundant rock-forming minerals in the
Earths crust.
Table 1.1 Rock - Forming Minerals
Name
Silicates
Quartz
Orthoclase
Plagioclase
Clay

Chemical Formula

Specific Gravity

SiO2
KAlSi2O8
NaAlSi3O8
CaAl2Si2O8
Al2Si2O5(OH)

2.65
2.57
2.62 - 2.76
2.5

and many more

Carbonates
Calcite
Dolomite
Oxides
Magnetite
Hematite

CaCO3
CaMg(CO3)2

2.72
2.85

Fe3O4
Fe2O3

5.18
4.9 - 5.3

1-4

Sulfates
Anhydrite
Gypsum
Barite

CaSO4
CaSO4.2H2O
BaSO4

2.89 - 2.98
2.32
4.5

Sulfide
Pyrite

FeS2

5.02

Chloride
Halite

NaCl

2.16

1.4 ROCKS
A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals. There are three
classes of rocks: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks .
1.4.1 Igneous Rocks
These are rocks formed from molten material (called magma) that
solidified upon cooling either:
1.

At the earths surface to form volcanic or extrusive rocks, e.g.,

basaltic lava flows, volcanic glass and volcanic ash.

or
2.

Below the surface, usually at great depths, to form plutonic or

intrusive rocks, e.g., granites and gabbros.
Igneous rocks are the most abundant rocks on the earths crust,
making up about 64.7% of the Earths crust.

1-5

1.4.2 Metamorphic Rocks

These are rocks formed by transformation, generally in the solid
state, of pre-existing rocks beneath the surface by heat, pressure and
chemically active fluids, e.g., quartz is transformed to quartzite and
limestone plus quartz plus heat gives marble and carbon dioxide.
Metamorphic rocks are the second most abundant rocks on the
earths crust, making up 27.4% of the Earths crust.
1.4.3 Sedimentary Rocks
These are rocks formed at the surface of the earth either by
1.

Accumulation

and

consolidation

of

minerals,

rocks

and/or

organisms and vegetation, e.g., sandstone and limestone.

or
2.

Precipitation from solution such as sea water or surface water,

e.g., salt and limestone.
Sedimentary rocks are the source of petroleum and provide the

reservoir rock and trap to hold the petroleum in the earths crust.
Sedimentary rocks are the least abundant rocks on the earths crust,
making up about 7.9% of the earths crust.

Because most reservoir

rocks are sedimentary rocks, they are of particular interest to us in the

study of petrophysics. Therefore, we will examine sedimentary rocks in
more detail than igneous and metamorphic rocks.

1-6

1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary rocks may be classified by origin and composition as
clastic, chemical or organic.

Tables 1.2 to 1.4 show the various rock

types for each class.

1.5.1 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
These rocks are composed of fragments or minerals broken from
any type of pre-existing rock.

Clastic sedimentary rocks are usually

classified by grain size as boulder, cobble, gravel, sand, silt and clay.
Figure 1.1 shows such a classification known as the Wentworth scale.
Table 1.2 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

1.5.2 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

These rocks are formed by chemical precipitation as carbonates,
e.g., limestone (CaCO3) and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) or as evaporties, e.g.,
gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O), anhydrite (CaSO4) and salt (NaCl).

1-7

1.5.3 Organic Sedimentary Rocks

These

rocks

are

formed

by

biologic

precipitation

and

by

accumulation of organic (plant and animal) material, e.g., peat, coal,

diatomite and limestone.

Figure 1.1 Classification of clastic rocks according to texture.

1-8

Table 1.3 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks (Precipitates)

Table 1.4 Organic Sedimentary Rocks

1-9

1.6 DISTRIBUTION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCK TYPES

Table 1.5 shows the approximate distribution of sedimentary rocks
in the earths crust. Shales make up over 50% of total sedimentary rock
volume in the earths crust.
Table 1.5 Distribution of Sedimentary Rocks
Type
% Earths Crust
% Sedimentary Rock
Shale
4.2
53
Sandstone
1.7
22
Limestone and
2.0
25
Dolomite
Total
7.9
100

1.7 SANDSTONE RESERVOIRS (CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY

ROCK)
Sandstones are composed of fragmented materials, which have
been transported to the site of deposition by water currents and which
have been subjected to varying degrees of wave and current action
during transport and during deposition.

Consequently, sandstone

reservoirs vary from clean, well sorted quartz sandstone with well
rounded

grains

(Figure

1.2a)

through

more

angular

feldspathic

sandstone containing varying amounts of clay (Figure 1.2b), to

argillaceous, very poorly sorted sandstone containing varying amounts of
rock fragments (Figure 1.2c) all of which may be affected by varying
degrees of compaction, cementation, solution and replacement.

1-10

Figure 1.2: Examples of sandstone reservoir rocks. (A) clean, well sorted
sandstone, (B) angular, feldspathic sandstone and (C) argillacious, very
poorly sorted sandstone.

1-11

1.7.1 Pore Space

The basic framework of a sandstone reservoir is formed by the
sand grains between which the pore space may or may not contain
interstitial fine material and/or cement (Figure 1.3). The amount of this
intergranular pore space or porosity is controlled primarily by sorting of
the sediment and to a lesser extent by the packing of the grains. Sorting
is a measure of the spread of distribution of grain size on either side of
an average in a sediment.
porosity.

Theoretically, grain size has no effect on

This is true only for spherical grains of the same size.

However, the arrangement of such spheres has a large effect on the

porosity of the pack.

Figure 1.3: Framework of reservoir sand with interstitial clay and

cement.

1-12

Porosity is at its maximum for spherical grains but becomes

progressively less as the angularity of the grains increases because such
grains pack together more closely.

Experimental data from artificial

sands confirm that the grain size essentially has no influence on porosity
for well sorted sand. However, porosities of wet packed sands show a
general decrease as sorting becomes poorer.

This is because with a

mixture of sizes, the smaller grains partially fill the interstices between
the larger grains.
Permeability, being a measure of the ease with which a material
transmits fluids, depends primarily upon the size, shapes and extent of
the interconnections between individual pores rather than the size of the
pores themselves.

However, since the interconnections are directly

related to the pore size which in turn is related to grain size, there are
relationships between these factors and permeability.

Krumbein and

Monk (1942) have shown that permeability varies as the square of the
mean grain diameter and a complex function of sorting (other factors
being equal). Experimental data show a marked decrease in permeability
as grain size decreases and as sorting becomes poorer. Experience has
also shown that the permeability measured normal to the bedding is
usually less than permeability measured parallel to the bedding and that
large variations in permeability occur in different directions in the
bedding plane.
Clay in the pore space of a reservoir may affect the performance of
a reservoir very adversely.

The amount and kind of clay, as well as

distribution throughout the reservoir rock, has an important bearing on

liquid permeability, whereas a small amount has little effect on porosity.
Figures 1.4 and 1.5 show how the dispersed clay morphology affects the
permeability and capillary pressure of sandstones.

1-13

Figure1.4: Three general types of dispersed clay in sandstone reservoir

rocks and their effects on permeability: (a) discrete particles of kaolinite;
(b) pore lining by chlorite; (c ) pore bridging by illite (from Neasham,
1977).

1-14

Figure1.5: Three general types of dispersed clay in sandstone reservoir

rocks and their effects on capillary pressure (from Neasham, 1977).

If fresh water, for example drilling fluid filtrate, invades a reservoir,

certain clays, such as montmorillonite, will swell and plug some of the
pore interconnections, drastically reducing the permeability, whereas
saline water may have no effect.
1.7.2 Compaction and Cementation
The pore space of the original unconsolidated sediment is reduced
in ancient rocks by many factors. Compaction and cementation are the
most important of these factors but they in turn are affected by

1-15

composition of the sediment, and the contained fluids and their

pressures. Compaction by the weight of the overburden commences as
soon as a sediment is deposited. It produces reduction of pore space as
a result of:
1.

Closer packing of the grains which causes smaller pores and

connected passages.

2.

Crushing and fracturing of grains, and dissolution at points of

contact sometimes accompanied by precipitation of silica in the
pore space nearby.

Alkaline interstitial water seems to provide

conditions more conducive to dissolution than saline water.

3.

Plastic deformation of the softer grains which tend to mold around

the harder grains thus destroying pore space.

The softer grains

may be composed of limestone, shale, siltstone and other rock

fragments, and when the amount of such soft material exceeds 10
to 12%, the permeability may be largely destroyed even though
some porosity usually remains.
Early cementation of sand may produce a rigid framework which
will inhibit compaction until the depth of burial exceeds that at which
fracturing of the grains and cement is initiated. Abnormal fluid pressure
in sandstone reservoirs also inhibits compaction because the overburden
is partly supported by the fluid pressure.
Reduction of reservoir pressure by production of fluid can lead to
compaction of the producing zone by rearrangement of the sand grains.
This can produce serious and expensive subsidence of surface facilities
such as occurred in the Wilmington field in California, Bolivar District
fields in Venezuela and Ekofisk field in the North Sea.

1-16

This form of

compaction leads to porosity and permeability reduction which is

irreversible and which may affect the producing characteristics of the
reservoir very adversely.
Cementation is the result of recrystallization from solution of silica,
carbonates and other soluble materials in the pores of clastic rocks. The
most common cementing materials in sandstone reservoirs are silica and
calcite but many others do occur. It is not uncommon to find both silica
and calcite present in the cement and in such cases, the silica in the
form of quartz has precipitated first and the calcite later. Silica cement
usually occurs in the form of quartz and grows in optical continuity with
the sand grains until finally the crystals interfere with one another and
an interlocking network results. Calcite cement is often patchy but may
completely fill the pore space.
Silica cement appears to have two origins: (1) early cementation
before the sands were compacted appreciably, and (2) deposition of silica
predissolved by pressure solution during compaction.

In the Eocene

Wilcox sandstones of the Gulf Coast, the distribution of silica cement can
be related to both primary texture and depth of burial. The amount of
silica cement tends to increase in coarser and better sorted sands and, to
a lesser extent, with depth. Much of this cement appears to be early and
unrelated to the compaction process.
1.7.3 Classification
Sandstones may be classified by mineral composition (Figure 1.6).
The principal types are: (a) quartz sandstones consisting of over 95%
detrital quartz, (b) feldspathic sandstone consisting of 5 - 25% feldspar,
(c) arkosic sandstone consisting of over 25% feldspar, (d) sublithic
sandstone consisting of 5 - 25% rock fragments and (e) lithic sandstone
consisting of over 25% rock fragments.
1-17

Sandstone grain texture consists of five components: (a) size, (b)

sorting, (c) shape (sphericity), (d) roundness, and (e) packing. Figure 1.7
shows a grain size comparator where some of these qualitative terms are
presented visually. Porosity is independent of grain size for uniform
grains but decreases as sorting gets poorer.
porosity and permeability.

Close packing reduces

The effects of shape and roundness on

porosity are less definite. Permeability increases with increasing grain

size, but decreases with poorer sorting. Permeability generally increases
with angularity and decreasing sphericity.

Figure 1.6: Classification of sandstones by composition.

1-18

Figure 1.7: Grain size comparator chart (from Stow, 2005).

1-19

1.8 CARBONATE RESERVOIRS (LIMESTONES AND

DOLOMITES)
Most carbonate rocks, like clastics, are composed of particles of
clay to gravel size that were generally deposited in a marine environment.
However, they differ from terrigenous clastics in that they are deposited
as lime particles which are produced locally, whereas, sandstones are
composed of particles transported from an outside source by water
currents. They differ even more importantly from sandstones by being
subject to more post-depositional diagenesis ranging from simple
cementation of the original particles to complete recrystallization or
replacement by dolomite or chert. In addition, they are susceptible to
solution at any stage in their diagenesis. They are usually more poorly
sorted than clastics.
Components of carbonate rocks are usually (1) grains of various
kinds, (2) lime mud, and (3) carbonate cement precipitated later. There
are several kinds of grains, of which four are the most important. These
are (1) shell fragments, called bio, (2) fragments of previously deposited
limestone called intraclasts, (3) small round pellets - the excreta of
worms, and (4) ooliths - spheres formed by rolling lime particles along
the bottom. Lime mud consists of clay-sized particles of lime.
The material between the grains may be primary lime mud
deposited at the same time as the grains which would be grain-supported
rock, or the grains may be floating in lime mud which would be mudsupported rock.
1.8.1 Classification
Carbonates are usually classified according to depositional texture
as shown in Figure 1.8. The presence or absence of lime mud and the
1-20

type and abundance of grains form the basis of the classification.

boundstone consists of original skeletal components bound together

during deposition (Figure 1.9). Grainstones consist of packed carbonate
grains with the texture being grain-supported and very little lime mud
(Figure 1.10).

Packstones are grain-supported but contain very

substantial amounts of lime mud. Wackestones have a larger amount of

lime muds, such that the grains effectively float in the mud. Mudstones
consist of essentially lime muds only. The presence of lime mud may be
most important in the development of porosity in carbonates because
under the right conditions, lime mud may be preferentially dolomitized
and may also be more readily leached out than the grains.
Good

porosity

dolomitization.

in

carbonate

reservoirs

is

usually

due

to

The largest volume of carbonate petroleum reserves

comes from dolomites.

Dolomitization occurs from the substitution of

magnesium for calcium in half of the sites in a carbonate crystal.

volume loss of 12 to 13% due to dolomitization results in a corresponding

increase in porosity. Due to their larger surface area, mud-size grains
are more easily dolomitized than sand-sized grains.
carbonate

reservoirs

may

have

the

lowest

Thus, the best

primary

porosity.

Dolomitization also creates planar crystal surfaces and harder crystal

structures.

Thus, dolomites retain more of their porosity during

compaction than limestones.

1-21

Figure 1.8: Classification of carbonates by texture.

1.8.2 Pore Space

The porosity, permeability and pore space distribution in carbonate
reservoir rocks are related to both the depositional environment and the
diagenesis of the sediment.

They are most commonly of secondary

(diagenetic) origin although residual primary pore space does occur.

Carbonates have a large range of pore structures due to the
complex nature of carbonate constituents and diagenetic features. The
pore structures have been classified by Choquette and Pray, 1970) as
shown in Figure 1.10.

1-22

Figure 1.9: Examples of boundstone.

1-23

Figure 1.9: Examples of grainstones.

1-24

Fabric-selective porosity includes:

Interparticle porosity.
Intercrystalline porosity - typical of dolomites.
Fenestral porosity - by solution along bedding planes or joint
surfaces.
Skeletal, framework, molding, or shelter porosity - selective solution of,
within, or around fossil material.
Oomoldic porosity - selective solution of ooliths.
Non fabric-selective porosity includes:
Fracture porosity - by stress or shrinkage.
Channel porosity - widening and coalescence of fractures.
Vuggy or cavernous porosity.
Bioturbation porosity - from boring and burrowing.
Breccia porosity - in some cases, really high fracture porosity.
In carbonates, porosity and permeability are not well-correlated
with grain size or sorting.

Porosity and permeability are controlled

largely by the amount of fines and by diagenesis.

Correlation of

petrophysical properties with rock type is thus very difficult.

1-25

Figure 1.10: Classification of pore systems in carbonate rocks (Choquette

and Pray, 1970).

1-26

Table 1.6 shows a comparison of the pore space characteristics of

clastic and carbonate rocks (Choquette and Pray, 1970).
Table 1.6. Comparison of Pore-space Properties in Clastic and Carbonate
Rocks (Choquette and Pray, 1970).

1-27

1.9 FRACTURED RESERVOIRS

Natural reservoir fractures are caused by brittle failure, usually
due to such factors as (a) folding, (b) faulting, (c) fluid pressure, (d)
release of lithostatic pressure, (e) pressure solution, (f) dehydration, (g)
weathering, (h) cooling and (i) impact craters. Natural fractures can exist
in essentially any type of rock although they are particularly common in
carbonates.
Naturally fractured reservoirs are usually treated by a dual
porosity approach to deal with their properties.

The matrix rock

(between fractures) usually has reasonable porosity and extremely low

permeability.

Fractures range in size from hair-size to several

millimeters in aperture. Fractures that have not been filled with cement
have very high permeabilities, even though they may be fairly widelyspaced.

However, the fracture system generally contains only a small

fraction of the reservoir pore space. Thus, the matrix contains the bulk
of the reservoir pore volume while the fractures contain the bulk of the
reservoir flow capacity.
Figure 1.11 shows a naturally fractured rock together with its
idealized dual porosity approximation.

1-28

Figure 1.11: Idealization of naturally fractured reservoir (Warren and

Root, 1963)

1.10 RESERVOIR COLUMN

Figure 1.12 shows a reservoir column penetrated by a well. The
total thickness of the reservoir as determined from the spontaneous
potential (SP) log, discussed in Chapter 2, is H. This reservoir contains a
hydrocarbon bearing zone and a water bearing zone at the bottom. The
gross pay thickness, which is the thickness of the hydrocarbon bearing
portion of the reservoir as determined from the resistivity log (see
Chapter 2), is h0 . However, this thickness contains shale breaks which
will not be productive and must be discounted to determine the net pay
to be used in reserves estimation. The net pay for this example is given
by

1-29

i 6

Net pay

(1.1)

hi
i 1

The net to gross (NTG) pay is defined as

i 6

Net to gross (NTG)

h
h0

hi

i 1

h0

(1.2)

The net to gross is a number that is less than or equal to 1 or if

expressed as a percentage, is a number that is less than or equal to
100%. Notice that in this example, there is a gas oil contact (GOC) and
an oil water contact (OWC) in the reservoir. The thickness of the gas zone
is hgas and that of the oil bearing zone is hoil . Of course, not all petroleum
reservoirs have a gas oil contact or an oil water contact. Net pay is used
along with other petrophysical properties of the reservoir to estimate the
hydrocarbon reserve as discussed in Chapter 2.

1-30

Figure 1.12. Reservoir column showing gross and net pay.

1-31

REFERENCES
Archie, G.E. :Introduction to Petrophysics of Reservoir Rocks, AAPG
Bull., Vol. 34, No. 5 (May 1950) 943-961.
Beard, D.C. and Weyl, P.K. : Influence of Texture on Porosity and
Permeability of Unconsolidated Sand, AAPG Bull. (Feb. 1973) 57,
349-369.
Choquette, P.W. and Pray, L.C. : Geologic Nomenclature and
Classification of Porosity in Sedimentary Carbonates, AAPG Bull.,
Vol. 54, No. 2 (1970) 207-250.
Krumbein, W.C. and Monk, G.D. : Permeability as a Function of the Size
Parameters of Unconsolidated Sand, Amer. Int. Mining and Met.
Tech. Pub. 1492, 1942.
Levorsen, A.I. : Geology of Petroleum, W.H. Freeman and Company, San
Francisco, 1967.
Neasham, J.W.: "The Morphology of Dispersed Clay in Sandstone
Reservoirs and Its Effect on Sandstone Shaliness, Pore Space and
Fluid Flow Properties," SPE 6858, Presented at the 52nd Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition of the Society of Petroleum
Engineers, Denver, Oct. 9-12, 1977.
Selley, R.C. : Elements of Petroleum Geology, W.H. Freeman, New York,
1985.
Stoneley, R. : An Introduction to Petroleum Exploration for Non-Geologists,
Oxford University Press, New York, 1995.
Stow, D.A.V. : Sedimentary Rocks in the Field, Elsevier Academic Press,
Burlington, 2005.

1-32

CHAPTER 2

POROSITY AND FLUID SATURATIONS

2.1 DEFINITION OF POROSITY
Porosity gives an indication of the rocks ability to store fluids. It is
defined as the ratio of the pore volume to the bulk volume of the porous
medium as shown in the following equation:
Vp
Vb

Vb Vs
Vb

(2.1)

Porosity may be classified as total or effective porosity.

Total

porosity accounts for all the pores in the rock (interconnected and
isolated

pores)

whereas

interconnected pores.

effective

porosity

only

accounts

for

the

Therefore, effective porosity will be less than or

equal to total porosity depending on the amount of isolated pores in the

rock. From a reservoir engineering standpoint, it is the effective porosity
that matters, not the total porosity.

2-1

Porosity may also be classified as primary or secondary. Primary

porosity is that which was formed at the time of deposition of the
sediments whereas secondary porosity was developed after deposition
and burial of the formation. Sandstone porosity is practically all primary
porosity whereas carbonate porosity tends to be secondary porosity.

2.2 FACTORS AFFECTING SANDSTONE POROSITY

Sandstone
cementation.

porosity

is

affected

by

packing,

sorting

and

Packing describes the arrangement of the sand grains

relative to one another.

Figures 2.1 shows three idealized types of

packing for spherical sand grains and their theoretical porosities. The
cubic packing has a porosity of 47.6%; the hexagonal packing has a
porostiy of 39.5% and the rhombohedral packing has a porosity of
25.9%.

As shown by the geometrical derivations in Figure 2.1, the

porosity of a pack of uniform spheres is independent of the grain size as

the grain diameter cancels out.
Well sorted sandstone consists of grains having approximately the
same size whereas poorly sorted sandstone consists of grains having a
wide range of different grain sizes. Poor sorting reduces the porosity of
the sandstone as may be seen in Figure 2.2 in which the small grains fit
into the pores created by the large grains, thereby reducing the porosity.

22

Figure 2.1. Effect of packing on porosity of uniform spheres.

Figure 2.2. Effect of sorting on porosity. (A) Irregular grains,

(B) Idealized spherical grains (from Tiab and Donaldson, 2004).

2-3

Table 2.1 shows experimentally measured porosities of various

artificial sandpacks.

Note the general decrease of porosity with poor

sorting for all grain sizes and the approximately constant porosity of the
extremely well sorted sands for all grain sizes.
Table 2.1 Measured Porosities of Artificial Sandpacks (adapted from
Beard and Weyl, 1973)

In consolidated rocks, the sand grains are cemented together

usually by quartz or carbonates. Cementation reduces the porosity of
the sand as shown in Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3. Effect of cementation on porosity.

24

2.3 FACTORS AFFECTING CARBONATE POROSITY

In carbonates, secondary porosity is usually more important than
primary porosity.

The major sources of secondary porosity are

fracturing, solution and chemical replacement.

Fractures are cracks in the rock. Figure 2.4 shows an idealized
fractured formation where the grains are bricks and the fractures
constitute the pore space. Although fracture porosity is generally small,
often 1-2%, the fractures are very useful in allowing fluids to flow more
easily through the rock.

Therefore, they greatly enhance the flow

capacity of the rock.

Figure 2.4. Idealized fractured rock with low fracture porosity.

Solution is a chemical reaction in which water with dissolved

carbon

dioxide

reacts

with

calcium

carbonate

to

form

calcium

bicarbonate which is soluble. This reaction increases the porosity of the

limestone. The chemical reactions are

2-5

CO2

H 2O

H 2CO3 CaCO3

(2.2)

H 2CO3
Ca HCO3

(2.3)

Chemical Replacement is a chemical reaction in which one type of

ion replaces another with a resulting shrinkage in the size of the new
compound. An example is dolomitization in which some of the calcium
ions in calcium carbonate are replaced by magnesium ions to form
calcium magnesium carbonate (dolomite).

This replacement causes a

shrinkage of 12 to 13% in the grain volume, with a corresponding

increase in secondary porosity. The chemical reaction is
2CaCO3

MgCl2

CaMg CO3

CaCl2

(2.4)

2.4 TYPICAL RESERVOIR POROSITY VALUES

Sandstones have porosities that typically range from 8% to 38%,
with an average of 18%. About 95% of sandstone porosity is effective
porosity.

Sandstone porosity is usually mostly intergranular porosity.

Carbonates have porosities that typically range from 3% to 15%, with an

average of about 8%.
porosity.

About 90% of carbonate porosity is effective

Carbonate porosities are much more difficult to characterize

and may consist of (1) intergranular, (2) intercrystalline, (3) fractures and
fissures, and (4) vugular porosities.

26

2.5 LABORATORY MEASUREMENT OF POROSITY

2.5.1 Direct Porosity Measurement by Routine Core Analysis
Direct measurement of porosity requires the measurements of two
of the three volumes Vb, Vs and Vp. In the laboratory, measurements
are usually performed on extracted cores, which have been cleaned and
dried.
Bulk volume can be determined by (1) caliper and (2) fluid
displacement.

For well machined samples, the dimensions can be

measured with a caliper, from which the bulk volume can be calculated.
Two types of fluid displacements can be used to determine bulk
volume.

In the first method, fluid that does not easily penetrate the

pores such as mercury is used. The apparatus, which is known as a

pycnometer, measures the volume of mercury displaced by the sample
(Figure 2.5a).

Since mercury does not penetrate the pores at

atmospheric pressure, the volume of mercury displaced is equal to the

bulk volume of the sample.
In the second method, fluid which easily saturates the sample is
used. The sample is weighed in air, evacuated and then saturated with a
liquid (brine, kerosene, or toluene). The saturated sample is weighed in
air and then weighed fully immersed in the saturating liquid. The loss in
weight of the saturated sample when fully immersed in the saturating
liquid is proportional to the bulk volume of the sample (Archimedes
principle).
Grain volume can be determined by (1) fluid displacement and (2)
gas exapansion using Boyles law porosimeter. The loss in weight of the
2-7

dry sample and the sample fully immersed in a liquid is proportional to

the grain volume.
Figure 2.5b shows a schematic diagram of a Boyles law
porosimeter for grain volume determination by gas expansion. The
sample, which is confined in a vessel of known volume V1, is pressured
by gas (air, nitrogen or helium) to a pressure P1 (absolute units). The
vessel of volume V1 is connected to a second vessel of known volume V2,
which is initially evacuated. The valve between the two vessels is opened
and the pressure in the two vessels is allowed to stabilize at P2 (absolute
units). By Boyles law (PV = constant at a constant temperature),
V1 Vs P1

V1 Vs V2 P2

(2.5)

Eq.(2.5) can be solved for the grain volume as

Vs

V1 V2

P2
P1 P2

(2.6)

The instrument can be calibrated with steel blanks of known volume.

Calibration consists of a plot of Vs versus P2/(P1-P2), which should be
linear with a slope, -V2, and an intercept, V1. At least three steel blanks
of different sizes should be used in the calibration to ensure reliability of
the calibration. The three data points should fall on the calibration line.
Also, the slope and the intercept should be checked against the known
volumes, V2 and V1. Once the calibration line has been established, it is
used to convert the measurements from core samples to grain volume.

28

Figure 2.5. Schematics of equipment for measurement of core plug

porosity.(a) Bulk volume pycnometer; (b) Boyles law
porosimeter; (c) Bulk and pore volume porosimeter.

2-9

Pore volume can be determined by (1) fluid saturation and (2)

mercury injection. The difference in the weight of the saturated sample
and the dry sample is proportional to the pore volume.
Mercury injection consists of forcing mercury under relatively high
pressure into the pores of the sample using a mercury porosimeter
(Figure 2.5c). Typically, the core is evacuated before mercury injection.
Because any air left in the pores is compressed to a negligibly small
value, the volume of mercury injected is essentially equal to the
connected pore volume of the sample.

This is a destructive method

because after the test, the sample is no longer suitable for other
measurements. Mercury porosimetry is also used to determine capillary
pressure and pore size distribution of the sample (see Chapter 6).
The methods so far described determine the effective porosity of
the sample. To determine the total porosity, the sample is ground into a
fine powder after bulk volume measurement. The grain volume of the
ground sample can be determined either by liquid displacement or by
assuming an average grain density.
The measurement of porosity on consolidated samples in routine
core analysis might generally be expected to yield values of the true
fractional porosity plus or minus 0.005, i.e., a true value of 27% porosity
may be measured between 26.5% and 27.5% porosity.
Core porosities may differ from in-situ porosities for the following
reasons:
The core may be altered during recovery.

210

The core in the laboratory is no longer subjected to the overburden

and lateral stresses that it was subjected to in the reservoir.
The porosities are measured on small plugs, which may not be
representative of the entire reservoir.
The volume of the core analyzed is small and may not account for
the variability of the porosity in the reservoir.
Despite these limitations, core analysis provides the only direct
measurement of porosity. Frequently, the results of core analysis are
used to calibrate well logs.

Example 2.1
An experiment has been performed to determine the porosity of an
irregularly shaped core sample. The cleaned dry sample was weighed in
air. It was then evacuated and fully saturated with an oil with a density
of 0.85 gm/cc and then weighed again in air. Afterwards, the saturated
sample was weighed when it was fully immersed in the oil. Here are the
results of the experiment.
Weight of dry sample in air

42.40 gm

Weight of the saturated sample in air

45.49 gm

Weight of the saturated sample immersed in the oil

28.80 gm

a. Calculate the porosity of the core.

2-11

b. Is there enough information from this experiment to determine the

mineralogy of the sample? If yes, what is it? Please justify your answer
with appropriate arguments.
Solution to Example 2.1

a.

Wt of dry sample (Wdry)

42.40 gm

Wt of saturated sample (Wsat)

45.49 gm

Wt of sample immersed in oil (Wi)

28.80 gm

Density of saturating oil ( L)

0.85 gm/cc

Required to calculate the porosity of the sample.

Pore volume (Vp) = (Wsat Wdry)/ L = (45.4942.40)/0.85 = 3.64 cc
Bulk volume (Vb) = (Wsat Wi)/ L = (45.4928.80)/0.85 = 19.64 cc
Porosity ( ) = Vp/Vb = 3.64/19.64 = 0.185 or 18.5%

b.

Yes. There is enough information to determine the mineralogy of

the sample through the grain density.
Grain volume (Vs) = VbVp =19.643.64 = 16.00 cc
Alternatively,

Grain

volume

(Vs)

28.80)/0.85 = 16.00 cc

212

(WdryWi)/ L

(42.40

Grain density ( s) = Wdry/Vs = 42.40/16.00 = 2.65 gms/cc

Specific gravity of mineral ( m) = s / w = 2.65/1.00 = 2.65
Table 1.1 lists the specific gravities of common reservoir rock minerals.
From the table, quartz has a specific gravity of 2.65, which is the same
as the specific gravity of the sample matrix. Therefore, based on the
available information, the mineral of the sample is quartz.
2.5.2 Indirect Porosity Measurement by CT Imaging
With the availability of X-ray computed tomography (CT) imaging
systems in research laboratories, it is now possible to measure the
porosity distributions in core samples.

Peters and Afzal (1992) have

made such measurements in an artificial sandpack and a Berea

sandstone approximately 60 cm long and 5 cm in diameter. CT imaging
gives rise to a very large data set, over 600,000 porosity values in some
cases.

Therefore, it is convenient to present the results of the

measurements as images (Figures 2.7 and 2.8). It should be noted in

Figure 2.7 that a sandpack may not be as uniform as we always assume
it to be. The packing technique used in this test introduced significant
porosity variation into the pack. The packing history is clearly evident in
the image. The dominant feature in the porosity variation of the Berea
sandstone is layering which is clearly visible in Figure 2.8. The porosity
data also can be presented in histograms as shown Figures 2.9 and 2.10.
The porosity in each voxel (volume element) was obtained by
scanning the sample dry and then scanning it fully saturated with a
wetting fluid such as brine. The x-ray attenuation equations for the two
scans are
2-13

air

dry

brine

wet

(2.7)
(2.8)

Eqs.(2.7) and (2.8) can be solved simultaneously to obtain the porosity in

each voxel as

wet

dry

brine

air

(2.9)

The x-ray attenuation coefficient of the brine in Eq.(2.9) is obtained by

scanning a sample of the brine in a test tube and the attenuation for air
is assumed to be zero.

Figure 2.7. Porosity image of a sandpack from CT imaging. L = 54.2 cm,

214

d = 4.8 cm. (a) Cross-sectional slice. (b) Longitudinal vertical slice. (Peters
and Afzal, 1992).

Figure 2.8. Porosity image of a Berea sandstone from CT imaging. L =

60.2 cm, d = 5.1 cm. (a) Cross-sectional slice. (b) Longitudinal vertical
slice. (Peters and Afzal, 1992).

2-15

Figure 2.9. Porosity histogram for a sandpack from CT imaging. L =

54.2 cm, d = 4.8 cm. Mean = 29.7%, Standard deviation = 2.5%.(Peters
and Afzal, 1992).

216

Figure 2.10. Porosity histogram for a Berea sandstone from CT

imaging. L = 60.2 cm, d = 5.1 cm. Mean = 17.3%, Standard
deviation = 2.0%.(Peters and Afzal, 1992).

2.6 FLUID SATURATIONS

In a petroleum reservoir, there is always more than one fluid phase
occupying the pore space. In an oil reservoir, oil and water occupy the
pore space. In a gas reservoir, gas and water occupy the pore space. At a
certain point in the production of an oil reservoir, oil, water and gas
could occupy the pore space. There is a need to keep track of the
quantity

of

each

type

of

fluid

occupying

the

pore

space.

The

petrophysical property that describes the amount of each fluid type in

2-17

the pore space is the fluid saturation. It is defined as the fraction of the
pore space occupied by a fluid phase. Thus, in general,

Fluid Saturation =

Fluid Volume
Effective Rock Pore Volume

(2.10)

If Sw = water saturation, So = oil saturation and Sg = gas saturation,

then Sw = Vw/Vp, So = Vo/Vp, and Sg = Vg/Vp, where Vw, Vo, Vg and
Vp are the volumes of water, oil, gas and pore space, respectively. For an
oil reservoir without a free gas saturation, So + Sw = 1.0.

For a gas

reservoir without a liquid hydrocarbon saturation, Sg + Sw = 1.0. For an

oil reservoir with a free gas saturation, So + Sw + Sg = 1.0.

Fluid

saturation may also be expressed in %.

There are two methods of determining the in-situ fluid saturations
in a petroleum reservoir rock.

The direct approach is to measure the

fluid saturations from a core cut from the reservoir.

The indirect

approach is to measure some other physical property of the rock that can
be related to fluid saturation.

The direct approach is discussed here.

The indirect approach such as using electric logs or capillary pressure

measurements to estimate water saturation will be discussed later.
One method of direct measurement of fluid saturations is the
retort method. In this method, a core sample is heated so as to vaporize
the water and oil, which are condensed and collected in a small,
graduated receiving vessel (Figure 2.11). The volumes of oil and water
divided by the pore volume of the core sample give the oil and water
saturations. The gas saturation is obtained indirectly by the requirement
that saturations must sum to one.

218

Figure 2.11. Retort distillation apparatus.

There are two disadvantages to the retort method of saturation

determination. In order to remove all the oil, it is necessary to heat the
core to temperatures in the range of 1000 to 1100 F.

2-19

At these

temperatures, the water of crystallization (hydration) of the rock is driven

off, resulting in an estimated water saturation that is higher than the
true interstitial (connate) water saturation. The second disadvantage is
that the oil when heated to high temperatures has a tendency to crack
and coke.

This cracking and coking tend to reduce the oil volume

resulting in an oil saturation that is less than the true value.

Corrections can be made to the retort measurements to make them more
accurate.
Another method of direct saturation measurement is by extraction
with a solvent.

This is accomplished in a Dean-Stark distillation

apparatus (Figure 2.12). The core is placed in the apparatus in such a

way that the vapor from a solvent (e.g., toluene) rises through the core
and is condensed back over the sample. This process leaches out the oil
and water from the sample. The water and solvent are condensed and
trapped in a graduated receiver. The water settles to the bottom of the
receiver while the solvent refluxes back into the main heating vessel. The
extraction is continued until no more water is collected in the receiving
vessel.

The water saturation is calculated directly from the volume of

water expelled from the sample.

The oil saturation is calculated

indirectly from the weight of the saturated sample before distillation, the
weight of the dry sample after distillation and the weight of the water
expelled from the sample.

Again, the gas saturation is calculated

indirectly from the requirement that the saturations must sum to one.
To ensure that all the oil has been removed from the sample, the
sample may be transferred from the Dean-Stark apparatus to a Soxhlet
extractor for further extraction (Figure 2.13).

The Soxhlet extractor is

similar to the Dean-Stark apparatus except that there is no provision for

trapping the extracted liquids.
220

The saturations determined by direct measurements on cores

should be treated with caution because they may not represent the insitu fluid saturations for several reasons.

If the core was cut with a

water-based drilling mud, it would have been flushed by mud filtrate

resulting in a higher water saturation than the original, undisturbed
formation water saturation.

The measured oil saturation in this case

would be the residual oil saturation after waterflooding, which is less

than the original in-situ oil saturation. If the core was cut with an oilbased mud, the water saturation obtained by direct measurement will be
essentially the correct original water saturation, if it was at irreducible
level. If the original in-situ water saturation was not at the irreducible
level, then the oil mud filtrate could potentially displace some of the
water making the laboratory measured water saturation to be too low.

Figure 2.12. Dean-Stark apparatus.

2-21

Figure 2.13. Soxhlet extractor.

As the core is brought from the high pressure and temperature of

the reservoir to the low pressure and temperature of the laboratory,
changes

occur

in

the

fluid

saturations

which

can

make

them

considerably different from the original in-situ saturations. The free gas,
if present, will expand, expelling water and oil in the process. Solution
gas will evolve from the oil, expand and further reduce the oil and water
volumes. The evolution of solution gas causes the oil to "shrink". These
changes cause the saturations determined by core analysis to be
different from the in-situ saturations. In particular, the changes cause
gas saturation to be excessive even when there was no free gas
saturation at the original in-situ conditions.

222

Although the saturations determined by direct measurements on

cores may not reflect the true in-situ saturations, they do provide useful
information about the reservoir. The saturation measurements can be
used to approximately locate the gas-oil and water-oil contacts in the
reservoir if they are present.
Fluid saturations, So, Sw and Sg, only tell us the proportion of
each fluid type in the pore space. They do not tell us how the fluids are
distributed in the rock. To determine the fluid distribution, we need to
consider the interfacial forces and phenomena that arise when
immiscible fluids are confined in reservoir pores of capillary dimensions.
The important interfacial forces and phenomena include surface tension,
interfacial tension, wettability, capillarity and capillary pressure (see
Chapters 6 and 7).
Table 2.2 shows the data obtained in an example core analysis
from a hydrocarbon bearing formation from a depth of 4805.5 to 4851.5
feet. The table shows the depth, core permeability, core porosity, oil
saturation, water saturation and gas saturation as determined in the
laboratory. Although the fluid saturations are not the true in-situ
saturations, nevertheless they provide useful information. Figure 2.14
shows the saturation distributions from the core data. One can easily see
a water bearing zone at the bottom where the measured water saturation
is very high, an oil bearing zone above it, and a gas cap on top of the oil
zone. A gas oil contact exists at 4828.5 ft, and a water oil contact exists
at 4848.5 ft. Note the misleading gas saturation below the gas oil
contact. There was no free gas saturation below the gas oil contact at insitu conditions.

2-23

Table 2.2: Core Analysis Data

Depth
(ft)
4805.5

k
(md
)
0

4806.5

4807.5

2.5

4808.5

59

4809.5

221

4810.5

211

4811.5

275

4812.5

384

4813.5

108

4814.5

147

4815.5

290

4816.5

170

4817.5

278

4818.5

238

4819.5

167

4820.5

304

4821.5

98

4822.5

191

4823.5

266

4824.5

40

4825.5

260

4826.5

179

4827.5

312

(%)

So
(%)

Sw
(%)

Sg
(%)

7.5

0.0

12.
3
17.
0
20.
7
19.
1
20.
4
23.
3
24.
0
23.
3
16.
1
17.
2
15.
3
15.
9
18.
6
16.
2
20.
0
16.
9
18.
1
20.
3
15.
3
15.
1
14.
0
15.
6

0.0

68.
0
78.
0
43.
0
29.
0
31.
4
38.
7
34.
7
26.
2
30.
9
29.
2
34.
3
24.
2
26.
4
39.
8
39.
5
38.
0
34.
3
34.
8
31.
1
22.
9
13.
9
21.
4
28.
8

32.
0
22.
0
57.
0
71.
0
68.
6
61.
3
65.
3
73.
8
69.
1
70.
8
65.
7
75.
8
73.
6
60.
2
60.
5
62.
0
65.
7
65.
2
68.
9
77.
1
86.
1
78.
6
71.
2

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

224

4828.5

272

15.
5
19.
4
17.
5
16.
4
17.
2
15.
5
20.
2
18.
3
19.
6
17.
7
20.
0
16.
8
13.
3
18.
0
16.
1
15.
1
18.
0
15.
7

0.0

4829.5

395

4830.5

405

4831.5

275

4832.5

852

4833.5

610

4834.5

406

4835.5

535

4836.5

663

4837.5

597

4838.5

434

4839.5

339

4840.5

216

4841.5

332

4842.5

295

4843.5

882

4844.5

600

4845.5

407

4847.5

479

17.
8
9.2

20.
8
14.
1
0.0

4848.5

4849.5

139

4850.5

135

20.
5
8.4

4851.5

1.1

6.2
13.
1
17.
7
19.
8
21.
9
16.
3
19.
7
19.
4
17.
5
14.
0
20.
8
18.
1
15.
6
19.
3
19.
2
20.
6
15.
3

0.0
0.0

2-25

34.
8
25.
3
25.
7
22.
5
19.
2
21.
3
22.
3
24.
6
16.
3
19.
8
27.
5
19.
7
23.
3
15.
6
15.
5
21.
2
22.
2
13.
4

65.
2
68.
5
61.
2
59.
8
61.
0
56.
8
61.
4
55.
7
64.
3
62.
7
58.
5
59.
5
58.
6
68.
8
65.
2
59.
6
57.
2
71.
3

14.
6
8.7

64.
6
77.
2
22.
9
42.
8
36.
4

77.
1
57.
2
63.
6

Figure 2.14. Saturation distributions from core analysis data.

Other useful observations can be made from the core

analysis data. The low residual oil saturation of about 20% indicates a
light oil reservoir in contrast to a heavy (more viscous) oil reservoir in
which the residual oil saturation would be much higher than 20%. All of
226

the measured properties vary with depth, which is an indication that the
reservoir is heterogeneous in nature. The porosity and permeability
distributions are shown in Figure 2.15. Variability of reservoir properties
is pervasive. Not only do the properties vary along the well depth, they
also vary laterally away from the well. The characterization of this
variability and the estimation of the properties at unmeasured locations
are the subjects addressed by geostatistics (see Chapter 4).

2.7 INDIRECT POROSITY MEASUREMENT FROM WELL

LOGS
2.7.1 Introduction to Well Logging
In-situ porosity cannot be measured directly in the field as in the
laboratory. Therefore, only indirect measurements are made through well
logging. These measurements use either sonic energy or some form of
induced or applied radiation. Most log evaluation is concerned primarily
with determining in-situ porosity and water saturation. Neither in-situ
water saturation nor hydrocarbon saturation can be measured directly in
the wellbore. However, it is possible to infer the water saturation if the
porosity is known by measuring the resistivity of the formation.
Therefore, in this section, porosity and resistivity logs are discussed.
Care should always be taken in comparing core versus log-derived
porosities, particularly in rocks that have been highly affected by
diagenesis. Logs measure average porosities over a much larger volume
than conventional laboratory core analysis. Also, a laboratory core has
been relieved of the overburden and lateral stresses and because it is an
elastic medium, it will expand. Since the minerals have very low
coefficient of expansion, the increase in volume must be due almost
solely to the increase in porosity. Thus, the porosity measured in the
2-27

laboratory at ambient conditions may be expected to be higher than at in

situ conditions.

Figure 2.15. Porosity and permeability distributions from core analysis

data.

228

2.7.2 Mud Filtrate Invasion

Well log measurements are made in the borehole after the well has
been drilled. The drilling operation alters the formation characteristics
near the wellbore where the log measurements are made. In order to
interpret the logs, it is necessary to understand the changes that have
occurred in the formation caused by the drilling mud.
Drilling mud is a complex liquid usually composed of mainly water
(for water-based muds) and suspended solids and various chemicals that
control the mud properties (viscosity, fluid loss, pH and others). Clays
(bentonite) are added to give the mud viscosity and weighting material
(barite) is added to increase the mud density above that of water.
The mud is circulated during drilling to lift the cuttings out of the
borehole. Another important function of the mud is to exert a
backpressure on the formation to prevent the well from "kicking" during
the drilling operations. In general, during drilling, the pressure in the
mud column in the borehole is higher than the formation pressure.
If we take a mud sample and place it in a mud press as is typically
done in mud testing, we can separate the mud into its two main
components: mud filtrate and mudcake. Mud filtrate is a clear liquid
whose salinity varies according to the source of the water used to mix the
mud and the chemical nature of the additives. Usually, the filtrate
salinity is lower than the formation water salinity. Since the filtrate is
clear (no suspended solids), it can invade the formation if the pressure in
the wellbore is greater than the formation pressure, which is the case
during overbalance drilling. The mud filtrate can displace some of the
original formation fluids away from the wellbore into the formation.

2-29

The mudcake seals off the formation from further invasion by the
mud filtrate. The presence of the mudcake can be detected by the logging
tool and will cause the borehole diameter to be smaller than the bit
diameter. It is an indication of invasion and, indirectly, of permeability.
Since the mudcake is a solid, it will not normally invade the formation.
Drilling mud itself usually cannot invade the formation because it
contains a lot of suspended solids. However, whole mud can be lost into
the formation if the formation is inadvertently fractured. This is lost
circulation, which should not be confused with mud filtrate invasion. The
mudcake has a very low permeability and as a result, controls the
volume of filtrate invasion. The depth of invasion is determined by the
porosity of the formation. The depth of invasion will be greater in a low
porosity formation than in a high porosity formation everything else
being equal.
Figure 2.16 shows a schematic diagram of the undisturbed
formation and the altered formation after it has been penetrated by the
bit. The left figure shows the undisturbed formation before it was drilled.
Let us assume that this is a sandstone formation bounded above and
below by impermeable shales. The bottom of the sand has water
saturation, Sw, of 100% and the upper section of the sand is at an
irreducible water saturation, Swirr. Irreducible water saturation is that
saturation at which the water cannot be produced during normal
production operations. The water occupies the lower portion of the
formation because it is denser than oil which floats to the top of the
formation. There is a transition zone in which the water saturation
decreases from 100% at the bottom to 25% at the top over a finite length
of the formation. This transition zone is caused by capillarity (see

230

Chapter 7). It should be pointed out that not all hydrocarbon bearing
zones contain irreducible water. Some can contain mobile water.

Figure 2.16. Schematic diagram of mud filtrate invasion. Undisturbed

formation is at left and invaded formation is at right.

On the right is the same formation after it has been drilled. Here,
invasion has occurred. Because of the higher pressure in the borehole
than the formation, the formation acts as a mud press and separates the
mud into mudcake which plasters the borehole wall, and mud filtrate,
which invades the formation. In order to invade the formation, the fluids
that were originally there must be displaced. The filtrate flushes or

2-31

displaces the fluids deeper into the formation and takes their place near
the wellbore.
In the bottom of the formation where Sw = 100%, the flushing is
nearly complete because the formation water is being displaced by water
which is different only in salinity and is miscible with it. The salinity of
any formation water left behind will soon reach equilibrium with the
filtrate because of diffusion.
In the upper part of the formation, we had an initially large oil
saturation (Soi = 1-Swirr). Although most of the formation water has been
displaced by mud filtrate, residual oil remains in the flushed zone with a
saturation, Sor, because an immiscible displacement can never be
complete.
The filtrate has flushed out all the original fluids that it can flush
out to a certain depth. This depth is called the flushed zone. The flushed
zone water saturation is designated Sxo and the flushed zone diameter is
designated dxo. The resistivity of the water in the flushed zone is Rmf, the
resitivity of the mud filtrate, and the resistivity of the flushed zone
formation is Rxo. If we go a little deeper into the formation, we will find a
transition zone, which contains a mixture of formation fluids and mud
filtrate. The zone, from the borehole wall to the end of the mud filtrate is
the invaded zone and includes the flushed zone. The diameter of the
invaded zone is designated as di, the water saturation is Si, and the
formation resisitivity Ri. Note that in the flushed zone, Si = Sxo and Ri =
Rxo. Since the water between dxo and di is a mixture of formation water
and filtrate, it is not possible to measure a single value for Ri in this zone.
Finally, as we pass the invaded zone, we return to the undisturbed or
uncontaminated formation. This is the virgin zone. The conditions in this
232

zone are the same as at the left side of Figure 2.16. The resistivity of this
undisturbed zone is Rt, the true formation resisitivity, which we ideally
would like to measure for estimating the undisturbed water saturation,
Sw.
Figure

2.17

gives

the

same

information

about

the

fluid

distributions but in a different format. On the left is a plot of Sw versus

depth for the undisturbed formation. At the bottom, Sw = 100% and is
constant for about 30 ft from the bottom. We then enter the transition
zone, where Sw changes with depth until it reaches an irreducible water
saturation of about 25%. Sw is constant for the last 20 ft or so at Sw =
Swirr. Note that the hydrocarbon saturation, Sh is equal to (1-Sw).

Figure 2.17. Variation of water saturation with distance from the

borehole.

2-33

On the right are three sections drawn horizontally through the

formation to show how Sw varies with distance from the borehole at three
depths. At the bottom section, Sxo = Si = Sw = 100%. This is because there
was never any hydrocarbon in this section of the formation and as a
result, Sh = 0.
The depth in the middle section was chosen in the transition zone
where Sw was about 40%. We can see a change in the various water
saturations because oil is present in this zone and some of it has been
displaced by mud filtrate. Because of the residual oil, Sxo is less than
100% (Sxo = 1-Sor). Si will be lower than Sxo because some of the
hydrocarbon that was originally in the flushed zone has been displaced
into this zone, and Sw in the uncontaminated zone will be 40%.
In the uppermost section, Sw is at its irreducible saturation value
for the undisturbed formation. We see the maximum variation in the
various saturations after invasion. Sxo will be lower than the Sxo in the
transition zone, and (1-Sxo) will be close to the residual oil saturation, Sor.
The water saturation will vary throughout between dxo and di. Beyond di,
Sw = Swirr = 25%. In this uppermost section, we clearly see the flushed
zone diameter, where Sxo is constant, and the end of the invaded zone,
where Sw becomes constant.
Most of the difficulties in log evaluation and the proliferation of
many tool configurations are caused by the presence of mud invasion,
usually of unknown depth, in the logging environment. Figure 2.18
shows a schematic diagram of the borehole condition for logging
measurements.

234

Figure 2.18. Borehole conditions for well logging (Courtesy of

Schlumberger).

2-35

2.7.3 Porosity Logs

Conventional logging techniques for measuring porosity are the
Density, Neutron and Sonic logs. All of these logs provide an indication
of total porosity.
Density Log
The Density log measures the electron density of the formation by
using a pad mounted chemical source of gamma radiation and two
shielded gamma detectors (Figure 2.19). The medium-energy gamma rays
emitted into the formation collide with electrons in the formation. At each
collision, a gamma ray loses some, but not all, of its energy to the
electron and then continues with reduced energy. This type of interaction
is known as Compton scattering. The scattered gamma rays reaching the
detector, at a fixed distance from the source, are counted as an
indication of the formation density.

Figure 2.19. Schematic of density logging tool.

236

The number of Compton scattering collisions is related directly to

the number of electrons in the formation. Therefore, the response of the
density tool is determined essentially by the electron density (the number
of electrons per cubic centimeter) of the formation. Electron density is
related to the true bulk density in gm/cc, which in turn depends on the
density of the rock matrix, the formation porosity and the density of the
pore fluids.
For a pure element, the electron density index, which is
proportional to the electron density is defined as

where

2Z
A

is the electron density index,

(2.11)

is the bulk density, Z is the

atomic number of the element and A is the atomic weight of the element.
For a molecule, the electron density index is given by

2
e

Zi
M

where M is the molecular weight and

(2.12)

Z i is the sum of the atomic

numbers of the atoms making up the molecule, which is equal to the

number of electrons per molecule. For most materials encountered in the
formation, the quantities in brackets in Eqs.(2.11) and (2.12) are
approximately equal to unity as shown in Tables 2.3 and 2.4. The density
tool is calibrated in a fresh water filled limestone formation of high purity
to give an apparent density that is related to the electron density index
by

2-37

1.0704

0.1883

(2.13)

For liquid filled sandstones, limestones and dolomites, the apparent

density read by the tool is practically equal to bulk density of the
formation.
The bulk density of a clean formation is given by

(2.14)

Eq.(2.14) can be solved for the porosity as

(2.15)

To calculate porosity from Eq.(2.15), the matrix and fluid densities must
be known or assumed. The depth of investigation of the density log is
relatively shallow. Therefore, in most permeable formations, the pore
fluid is the drilling mud filtrate, along with any residual hydrocarbons.
Usually, the fluid density is assumed to be 1.0 gm/cc. When residual
hydrocarbon saturations are fairly high, this can cause the calculated
porosity values to be greater than the true porosity, and should be
corrected for this effect. Table 2.4 gives the densities of various rock
matrices.
Figure 2.20 shows a typical presentation of a density log. Track 1
shows the Gamma Ray log, which measures the natural gamma
radiation of the formation. Radioactive elements such as uranium,
potassium and thorium tend to occur more in shales than in sands. As a
result, the Gamma Ray log is a lithology log that identifies shales from
sands. The caliper in the same track measures the borehole diameter.
238

The formation density and the porosity derived from it are presented in
Tracks 2 and 3. Also shown is the correction or compensation applied to
account for mud cake effect and small borehole irregularities.

Table 2.3: Atomic Properties of Common Elements in the Formation

2
Elemen

1.008

Z
A

t
H

1.984
1

12.01

1
O

16.00

1
8

0
Na

22.99

0.999
1.000
0

11

0.956
9

Mg

24.32

12

0.986
8

Al

26.98

13

0.963
7

Si

28.09

14

0.996
8

32.07

16

0.997
8

Cl

35.46

17

0.958
8

39.10

19

0.971
9

Ca

40.08

20

0.998
0

2-39

Table 2.4: Densities of Rock Formations and Fluids

Zi

Compound

Formula

(gm/cc)

(gm/cc)

(gm/cc)

Quartz

SiO2

2.654

0.9985

2.650

2.648

Calcite

CaCO3

2.710

0.9991

2.708

2.710

Dolomite

CaMg(CO3)2

2.870

0.9977

2.863

2.876

Anhydrite

CaSO4

2.960

0.9990

2.957

2.977

Sylvite

KCl

1.984

0.9657

1.916

1.863

Halite

NaCl

2.165

0.9581

2.074

2.032

Gypsum

CaSO4.H2O

2.320

1.0222

2.372

2.351

Fresh Water

H2O

1.000

1.1101

1.110

1.00

Salt Water

200,000

1.146

1.0797

1.237

1.135

0.850

1.1407

0.970

0.850

ppm
Oil

N(CH2)

Methane

CH4

meth

1.247

1.247

met

C1.1H4.2

gas

1.238

240

1.238

meth-

0.188

Gas

1.335

gas

1.325

gas

-0.188

Figure 2.20. Presentation of density log.

2-41

Sonic Log (Acoustic Log)

The Sonic log measures the time,

t, required for compressional

sound wave to traverse one foot of formation. Known as the interval

transit time,

t is the reciprocal of the velocity of the compressional

sound wave. To avoid fractions, the interval transit time is scaled by 106
and reported in micro-seconds per ft ( sec/ft). Thus,

106
v

(2.16)

where t is the interval transit time in sec/ft and v is the compressional

wave velocity in ft/s.
The sonic tool contains a transmitter and two receivers (Figure
2.21). When the transmitter is energized, the sound wave enters the
formation from the mud column, travels through the formation and back
to the receivers through the mud column. The difference between the
arrival times at the two receivers divided by the distance between the
receivers gives the interval transit time. The speed of sound in the tool
and the drilling mud is less than that in the formation. Accordingly, the
first arrival of sound energy at the receivers corresponds to sound travel
paths in the formation near the borehole. The logging tool has circuits to
compensate for hole size changes or any tilting of the tool in the hole.
The interval transit time in a formation depends upon lithology and
porosity. In general, the more dense or consolidated a formation, the
lower the interval transit time. An increase in travel time indicates an
increase in porosity. Based on laboratory measurements, Wyllie (1956)
concluded that in clean and consolidated formations with uniformly

242

distributed small pores, there is a linear relationship between porosity

and interval transit time as follows:
t

where

tf

tm

t is the interval transit time measured by the log,

interval transit time in the pore fluid,

the rock matrix, and

tf is the

tm is the interval transit time in

is the formation porosity.

Figure 2.21. Schematic of sonic logging tool.

2-43

(2.17)

Eq.(2.17) can be solved for porosity as

t
tf

tm
tm

(2.18)

To calculate porosity from Eq.(2.18), the transit times for the rock matrix
and the pore fluid must be known or assumed. Table 2.5 gives the sonic
speeds and interval transit times for common rock matrices. The depth of
investigation of the sonic log is relatively shallow. Thus, the pore fluid is
usually assumed to be mud filtrate with an interval transit time of 189
sec/ft, corresponding to a fluid velocity of 5300 ft/sec.
If any shale laminae exist in the sandstone, the apparent sonic
porosity is increased by an amount proportional to the bulk volume
fraction of such laminae. The interval transit time is increased because
transit time for shale generally exceeds that of the matrix.
In carbonates having intergranular porosity, Wyllies average
formula still applies. But sometimes, the pore structure and pore size
distribution are significantly different from sandstones. Also, there is
often some secondary porosity such as vugs and fractures with much
larger dimensions than the pores of the primary porosity. In vuggy
formations, according to Wyllie, the velocity of sound depends mostly on
the primary porosity, and the porosity derived from the sonic reading
through the time average formula will tend to be too low by an amount
approaching the secondary porosity.
Direct application of the Wyllie formula to unconsolidated and
insufficiently compacted sands gives porosity values that are too high.
When shale transit time exceeds 100

244

sec/ft, which is an indication of

undercompaction, then the compaction correction should be made to

obtain more accurate porosity values. This is accomplished by applying
an empirical correction factor as shown in Eq.(2.19):

t
tf

tm
tm

100
tsh

(2.19)

where tsh is the interval transit time in the adjacent shale. Figure 2.22
shows a typical presentation of the sonic log.

Table 2.5: Sonic Speed and Interval Transit Time for Rock Formations
tm ( sec/ft)
tm ( sec/ft)

vm (ft/sec)

(commonly used)

Sandstones

18,000 19,000

55.5 51.0

55.5 or 51.0

Limestones

21,000 23,000

47.6 43.5

47.5

Dolomites

23,000

43.5

43.5

Anhydrite

20,000

50.0

50.0

Salt

15,000

66.7

67.0

Casing (iron)

17,500

57.0

57.0

2-45

Figure 2.22. Presentation of sonic log.

Neutron Log
The Neutron log measures induced formation radiation produced
by bombarding the formation with fast moving neutrons (Figure 2.23).
246

The tool responds primarily to the hydrogen present in the formation.

Thus, in clean formations, whose pores are filled with water or oil, the
neutron log reflects the amount of liquid-filled porosity.
Neutrons are electrically neutral particles with a mass almost
identical to the mass of a hydrogen atom. High-energy (fast) neutrons are
continuously emitted from a radioactive source mounted in the logging
tool. These neutrons collide with the nuclei of the formation materials.
With each collision, a neutron loses some of its energy. The

Figure 2.23. Schematic of neutron logging tool.

amount of energy lost per collision depends on the relative mass of the
nucleus with which the neutron collides. The greatest energy loss occurs
when the neutron collides with a nucleus of practically equal mass, i.e.,
2-47

hydrogen. Collisions with heavy nuclei do not slow the neutrons down
very much. Thus, the slowing down of neutrons depends largely on the
amount of hydrogen in the formation.
Within a few microseconds, the neutrons have been slowed down
by successive collisions to thermal velocities, corresponding to energies
of around 0.025 electron volt (eV). They then diffuse randomly, without
losing any more energy, until they are captured by the nuclei of atoms
such as chlorine, hydrogen, silicon and others. The capturing nucleus
becomes intensely excited and emits a high-energy gamma ray of
capture. Depending on the type of Neutron logging tool, either these
capture gamma rays or the slow neutrons themselves are counted by a
detector in the tool.
When the hydrogen concentration of the material surrounding the
neutron source is large, most of the neutrons are slowed down and
captured within a short distance from the source. However, if the
hydrogen concentration is small, the neutrons travel farther from the
source before they are captured. Accordingly, the counting rate at the
detector increases for decreased hydrogen concentration and decreases
for increased hydrogen concentration. The porosity based on the neutron
count is given by

(2.20)

a b log

where N is the slow neutrons counted, a and b are empirical constants

determined by appropriate calibration and

is the porosity.

Since there is very little difference in the concentration of hydrogen

in oil or water, neutron logs measure the liquid filled porosity. A high
248

neutron counting rate indicates low porosity and a low neutron counting
rate indicates high porosity. Figure 2.24 shows a typical presentation of
the Neutron log. The neutron count is presented in API (American
Petroleum Institute) units. The porosity is in neutron porosity units
based on calibration with limestone or sandstone.
Two additional factors should be considered in the interpretation of
neutron logs. First, shales and zones containing a significant amount of
shale, will indicate a high neutron porosity due to the bound water
associated with the shale. Secondly, because of the lower concentration
of hydrogen in gas than in oil or water, a zone containing gas will
indicate a neutron porosity that is lower than it should be. These
features are really an advantage since a comparison of the neutron
porosity to cores and other porosity logs provides a convenient method
for determining shale volumes and for distinguishing gas zones from oil
or water zones. In a gas zone, the fluid density is very much lower than
the 1.0 gm/cc used in Eq.(2.15) to calculate the density porosity. As a
result, the density porosity in a gas zone is higher than it should be.
Thus, in a gas zone, the neutron porosity is too low and the density
porosity is too high. When the two porosity logs are superimposed, the
two curves will agree is shales and in liquid zones and will cross over in
gas zones. This cross over of the two logs can be used to identify gas
bearing zones as shown in Figure 2.25.

2-49

Figure 2.24. Presentation of Neutron log.

250

Figure 2.25. A comparison of neutron and density porosities. Shaded

areas indicate gas zones.
2-51

Combination Porosity Logs

In many areas, it is common practice to record more than one
porosity log on a well. Common combinations are Density-Neutron,
Density-Sonic and Sonic-Neutron. Sometimes, all three logs are run in
the same well. These logs are usually recorded along with a Gamma Ray
curve and a Caliper.
Combination porosity logs are used to (1) differentiate oil or water
from gas zones, (2) calculate quantitative values for lithology, and (3)
determine volume of shale in the rock matrix. Figure 2.26 shows a
section of the three porosity logs run in the same well.
2.7.4 Resistivity Log
Resistivity is one of the most useful physical properties measured
in the borehole. Formation resistivity measurements, in conjunction with
porosity and water resistivity, are used to obtain values of water
saturation and consequently, hydrocarbon saturation. They are also
used in conjunction with lithology logs to identify hydrocarbon bearing
intervals and to estimate the net pay thickness.
Resistivity is the degree to which a substance resists or impedes
the flow of electrical current. It is a physical property of the material,
independent of size and shape. In well logging, both resistivity and
conductivity are used frequently. One is the reciprocal of the other. Thus,

Resistivity

1
Conductivity

252

(2.21)

Figure 2.26. A comparison of the three porosity logs in the same

formation.

2-53

Low resistivity corresponds to high conductivity and high resistivity

corresponds to low conductivity. The resistivity unit used in well logging
is ohm-meter2/meter, which is usually shortened to ohm-meter.
Electrical conductivity is expressed in mhos per meter. In order to avoid
decimal fractions, in electrical logging, it is expressed in millimhos per
meter.
In reservoir rocks, the sedimentary minerals that make up the
formation matrix are non-conductors. Also, hydrocarbons such as gas
and oil are non-conductors. Therefore, current flow in sedimentary rocks
is associated with the water in the pore space. Most of the waters
encountered in well logging contain some sodium chloride (NaCl) in
solution. The current then is carried by the ions of the salt, which is
dissolved in the water. Therefore, conductivity is proportional to the salt
concentration (salinity) of the water. Although each ion is capable of
carrying only a definite quantity of charge, as the formation temperature
is increased, these ions are capable of moving faster. This results in
increased conductivity. Figure 2.27 shows the variation of water
resistivity with temperature at various salinities.
The amount of water contained in the formation is directly related
to the porosity and, also, affects the formation resistivity. As the volume
of water increases, the capacity for ions increases and the conductivity
increases. Thus, the formation resistivity is affected by (1) salt
concentration in the water (salinity), (2) reservoir temperature, (3) water
volume (porosity) and (4) hydrocarbon content. Thus, although we
cannot directly measure the amount of hydrocarbon in a formation, we
can infer the hydrocarbon content from resistivity measurements.

254

Figure 2.27. Variation of water resistivity with temperature and salinity.

Let Rw be the resistivity of the formation water, Ro be the

resisitivity of the formation saturated 100% by the formation water of
resistivity Rw and Rt be the true resistivity of the formation partially
saturated with water of resistivity Rw and hydrocarbon. Based on
laboratory measurements, Archie (1953) found that Ro was directly
proportional to Rw for clean, consolidated sandstone cores for a fixed
porosity. Thus,

Ro

FRw or F

Ro
Rw

(2.22)

where F is a constant of proportionality at a given porosity known as the

formation resistivity factor. He further found that F could be related to
the porosity of the core by an equation of the form

2-55

(2.23)

where a is an empirical constant and m is a cementation factor that

varies from 1.3 for unconsolidated sands to 2.5 for consolidated
sandstones. Thus, for clean sandstone cores of varied porosity,

ln F

ln a m ln

(2.24)

Eq.(2.24) suggests that a graph of lnF versus ln should be linear. Figure

2.28 shows such a graph for clean sandstone cores. For these data, a =
1.10 and m = 1.73.

Formation Resistivity Factor

1000
-1.7332

y = 1.1016x
2
R = 0.8648

100

10

1
0.01

0.1

Porosity

Figure 2.28. Log-Log graph of formation resistivity factor versus porosity

for various water resistivities.

256

For the cores used in his measurements, Archie found a to be

approximately 1.0. Therefore, he proposed the following relationship
between formation resistivity factor and porosity

(2.25)

Others performed similar measurements using their own core samples. A

group in Humble Oil (Now ExxonMobil) performed similar measurements
and found that their data were best fitted by an equation of the form

0.62

Ro
Rw

2.15

(2.26)

Eq. (2.26) is known as the Humble formula and is still widely used in the
petroleum industry.
Archie also conducted resistivity measurements in partially
saturated cores to measure Rt at various water saturations, Sw. He
defined formation resistivity index as

Rt
Ro

(2.27)

He found that the formation resistivity index, I, was related to the water
saturation by an equation of the form

Rt
Ro

2-57

1
S wn

(2.28)

where n is the water saturation exponent. Eq.(2.28) can be solved for the
water saturation as

Sw

1
I

Ro
Rt

FRw
Rt

(2.29)

Figure 2.29 shows lnI versus lnSw for a Berea sandstone core. For this
sample, n = 2.27. Archie found n to be approximately 2 for the core
samples in his study. The hydrocarbon saturation is given by

Sh 1 Sw

(2.30)

Figure 2.30 shows an example invasion profile for resistivity

measurements. This profile is analogous to the water saturation profile of
Figure 2.17.

258

Figure 2.29. Resistivity index for Berea sandstone core

2-59

Figure 2.30. Example invasion profile for resistivity logs.

Three types of logging tools are used to measure formation

resistivity: Induction tools, focused resistivity tools and unfocused
resistivity tools. These tools can be further subdivided into those that
measure a very small volume of the formation (microresistivity logs) and
those that measure a relatively large volume of the formation. Table 2.6
presents a summary of the various resistivity tools and their limitations.

260

Table 2.6: Resistivity Tools

Electric Log
The Electric log was the basic and most frequently used log until
the mid 1950's. This log was invented and developed by two French
brothers, Conrad and Marcel Schlumberger. Figure 2.31 shows the
presentation of an electric log. It consists of a Spontaneous Potential (SP)
curve in Track 1 and a combination of resistivity curves designated as
normal and lateral depending on the electrode arrangements.
The normal curve is produced by two effective electrodes downhole,
a current electrode and a pickup electrode as shown in Figure 2.32.
Resistivity values are measured by recording the voltage drop across
these electrodes. A short normal, with electrode spacing of 18 inches, is
used for correlation to define bed boundaries, and to measure the

2-61

resistivity near the wellbore. Normal curves have a radius of investigation

of approximately twice the electrode spacing.

Figure 2.31. Presentation of an electric log.

262

The lateral curve is produced by three effective electrodes, one

current and two pickup electrodes (Figure 2.32). The radius of
investigation is approximately equal to the electrode spacing, which is
the distance from the current electrode to the midpoint between the two
pickup electrodes. The spacing is usually in the range of 16 to 19 feet.
Lateral curves are nonsymmetrical and highly distorted by adjacent beds
and thin beds, but are effective in measuring true resistivity in thick
homogeneous formations.

Figure 2.32. Schematic of electric logging tool: (A) Normal curve, (B)
Lateral curve.

2-63

Induction-Electric Log
The Induction-Electric log is a combination of electric log curves
with induction curves. The induction tool was developed to provide a
means of logging wells drilled with oil-based (nonconductive) muds. All
the original electric logging tools used the mud column to conduct the
current into the formation, so they could not be run in nonconductive
muds or air-drilled holes. Although the induction tool was developed to
meet the need for a resistivity tool that could operate in a nonconductive
mud, it soon became recognized that the tool worked better than the
original electric log in freshwater muds. The induction curve was easier
to read than the electric log, and it read close to true formation resistivity
in formations where the resistivity was not over 200 ohm-meter and Rmf
was greater than Rw.
The induction tool works by the principle of electromagnetic
induction.

high-frequency

alternating

current

flows

through

transmitter coil mounted on the logging tool (Figure 2.33). This current
sets up a high-frequency magnetic field around the tool, which extends
into the formation. The alternating magnetic field causes currents to flow
through the formation concentric with the axis of the induction tool. The
currents, called ground loops, are proportional to the conductivity of the
formation. They alternate at the same frequency as the magnetic field
and the transmitter current flowing through the induction coil. The
ground loop currents set up a magnetic field of their own. This secondary
magnetic field causes a current to flow in the receiver coil located in the
logging tool. The amount of current flowing in the receiver coil is
proportional

to

the

ground

loop

currents

and

therefore

to

the

conductivity of the formation. The signal in the receiver coil is detected,

264

processed and recorded on the log as either a conductivity measurement

or a resistivity measurement.
The tool illustrated in Figure 2.33 is a simple two-coil device. In
practice, bucking coils are used to help focus the effects of the main
transmitter and receiver coils and to remove unwanted signals from the
borehole. One popular induction tool used today has six different coils.
The depth of investigation (the depth from which most of the
measurement is obtained) for a typical deep induction tool is about 10
feet. The vertical resolution (the thinnest bed that the tool will detect) is
40 inches. Both the depth of investigation and the vertical resolution are
affected by the spacing between the main transmitter and receiver coils
as well as by the placement of the focusing coils. By judicious selection of
these parameters, different depths of investigation can be designed into a
tool. Thus, one can measure the resistivity profile through the invaded
zone and correct the deep induction reading to move it close to the true
formation resistivity, Rt.

Figure 2.33. Schematic of induction logging tool.

2-65

Figure 2.34 shows a typical presentation of the induction electric

log (IEL). It includes an SP and/or Gamma Ray curve, 18" normal and
the induction curve on both the resistivity and conductivity scales. An
amplified 18" normal curve is often recorded in areas where low
resistivities are encountered.
For many years, the induction electric log was the most popular
induction tool in high-porosity formations such as in California, along
the US Gulf Coast and in other high-porosity, moderate-resisitivity
formations. A single induction curve with a vertical resolution of about 3
feet and a depth of investigation of about 10 feet was combined with
either a short normal curve or a shallow laterolog curve. Since mud
filtrate invasion is seldom deep in high-porosity formations, these two
curves, corrected for borehole and bed boundary effects, could be used to
determine Rt.
Dual Induction Laterolog
The Dual Induction Laterolog was developed for those areas that
had low porosities and deep invasion. The tool has two induction curves
(ILd and ILm) with a vertical resolution of about 40 inches. However, one
induction curve, the ILd, reads very deeply into the formation, while the
medium induction curve, ILm, reads only half as deep. A shallow-reading
laterolog combined with the two induction curves gives a good
description of the resistivity profile.

266

Figure 2.34. Presentation of induction-electric log.

2-67

Figure 2.35 shows a typical presentation of a dual induction

laterolog. An SP and/or Gamma Ray curve and three resistivity curves
having different depths of investigation are recorded. The shallow
laterolog measures the resistivity of the flushed zone, Rxo. The medium
induction curve, ILm, measures the combined resistivity of the flushed
and invaded zones, Ri. The deep induction curve responds primarily to
the resistivity of the uncontaminated zone, Rt. The resistivity curves may
be recorded on logarithmic or linear scales. The logarithmic presentation
permits a greater dynamic range for resistivities and is convenient for
determining ratios since the difference of two logarithms is equal to their
ratio.
The ratios of shallow to deep curves and medium to deep curves
are used to determine the diameter of invasion, di, the resistivity of the
flushed zone, Rxo, and the true formation resistivity, Rt. Figure 2.36
shows a typical "tornado chart" (so called because of its distinctive shape)
used to correct the dual induction log to obtain Rt.

268

Figure 2.35. Presentation of dual induction laterolog.

2-69

Figure 2.36. Tornado chart used to correct deep induction resistivity to

true resistivity.

270

Focused Electric Log (Guard and Laterolog)

In boreholes which contain extremely saline drilling muds or very
high resistivity formations, the current that is emitted from a normal or
lateral electrode is almost entirely confined within the borehole and flows
up and down within the mud column. Very little, if any, of the current
penetrates surrounding resistive material. Under similar borehole
conditions, the induction logging tool is also adversely affected because
too much of the receiver voltage is derived from high conductivity of the
invaded zone. Focused-current logging tools have been designed to
overcome these problems in part.
There are two different focused-current logging systems, referred to
as the guard and laterolog, in use today (Figure 2.37). In the guard
system, guard electrodes are placed above and below a current electrode
and kept at the same potential to focus the formation current into a thin
disc, which flows perpendicularly to the borehole. The radius of
investigation is approximately three times the length of the guard
electrode.
The guard log defines bed boundaries very well and is affected very
little by adjacent bed resistivities. Shallow guard systems, utilizing short
guard electrodes (approximately 30 inches), are used with tools like the
Dual Induction for measuring the flushed zone resistivity, Rxo, or the
invaded zone resistivity, Ri. The longer guard (5 feet in length) systems
are used for measuring the true resistivity of the uncontaminated
formation, Rt. Figure 2.38 shows an example guard log presentation.
The laterolog electrode arrangement consists of a center current
electrode placed symmetrically between three short-circuited pairs of
electrodes. A controlled current is emitted from the short-circuited outer
2-71

pair of electrodes in such a manner that the voltage difference between

the two inner short-circuited pairs of electrodes is essentially zero. As in
the guard system, these electrode arrangements focus the formation
current into a thin disc, which flows perpendicularly to the borehole.

Figure 2.37. Focused-current electrode arrangements.

Various laterolog tools have been developed over the years. Among
the most commonly used tools, the dual laterolog is common. This tool,
similar to the dual induction tool, has both deep and shallow measuring
laterologs. It is often run in conjunction with a very shallow reading
laterolog tool, which is mounted on a pad pressed against the borehole.
272

This shallow reading curve, called the micro-spherically focused log,

measures the flushed zone resistivity (Rxo). This combination of
measurements can define the resistivity profile from the borehole,
through the invaded zone to the undisturbed formation. Since the
current path for these logs is through the mud to the borehole wall,
through the invaded zone, and then to the uncontaminated zone, the
resistivity readings are a combination of these different zones. However,
mud and the invaded zones affect the tool's resistivity measurement
much less than unfocused tools, a feature which minimizes corrections.
Microresistivity Logs
Microresistivity tools are designed to measure the resistivity of the
flushed zone (Rxo). Since the flushed zone could be only 3 or 4 inches
deep, Rxo tools have very shallow readings, with depths of investigation
approximately 1 to 4 inches. The electrodes are mounted on flexible pads
pressed against the borehole wall, thereby eliminating most of the effects
of the mud on the measurement (Figure 2.39). Microresistivity logs
include the microlog, microlaterologs and microspherically focused logs.
Collectively, these logs can be used to estimate
Depth of invasion
Flushed zone water saturation (Sxo)
Moveable hydrocarbon saturation (Sxo-Sw)
Corrections for deep induction and laterologs
Permeability
Hole diameter
Pay zone thickness
2-73

Porosity.

Figure 2.38. Presentation of a guard log.

274

Figure 2.39. Microresitivity logging tools.

2-75

2.7.5 Lithology Logs

Two lithology logs are commonly used in formation evaluation, the
Spontaneous Potential (SP) log and the Gamma Ray (GR) log. Both are
recordings of naturally occurring phenomena in the formation.
Spontaneous Potential Log (SP)
The SP curve records the electrical potential produced by the
interaction of formation water, conductive drilling mud, and certain ionselective rocks such as shale. It is a recording versus depth of the
difference between the electrical potential of a moveable electrode in the
borehole and the electrical potential of a fixed surface electrode. Opposite
shales, the SP curve usually defines a more or less straight line on the
log, called the shale baseline. Opposite permeable formations, the curve
shows deflections from the shale baseline. In thick beds, these
deflections tend to reach an essentially constant deflection defining a
sand line. The deflection may be to the left (negative) or to the right
(positive), depending primarily on the salinities of the formation water
and of the mud filtrate. If the formation water is more saline than the
mud filtrate, the deflection is to the left. If it is less saline than the mud
filtrate, the deflection is to the right.
The position of the shale baseline on the SP log is arbitrary as it is
set by the logging engineer so that the curve deflections remain in the SP
track of the log. The SP is measured in millivolts (mV).
An SP curve cannot be recorded in boreholes filled with
nonconductive muds, such as oil muds or air, because such muds do not
provide electrical continuity between the SP electrode and the formation.
Also, if the resistivities of the mud filtrate and formation water are about

276

equal, the SP deflections will be small and the curve will be rather
featureless and useless.
The deflections on the SP curve result from electric currents
flowing in the mud in the borehole. These currents are caused by
electromotive forces in the formation, which are of electrochemical and
electrokinetic origins. Consider a permeable formation with thick shales
above and below it. Assume that the two electrolytes present, formation
water and mud filtrate, contain sodium chloride (NaCl) only. Because of
the layered clay structure and the charges on the layers, shales are
permeable to the Na+ cations but impermeable to the Cl- anions. Only the
Na+ cations are able to move through the shale from the more saline to
the less saline NaCl solution. This movement of charged ions constitutes
an electric current, and the force causing them to move constitutes a
potential across the shale.
The curve arrow in the upper section of Figure 2.40 shows the
direction of the current corresponding to the flow of Na+ ions through the
adjacent shale from the more saline formation water to the less saline
drilling mud in the borehole. Since shales pass only the cations, shales
resemble ion-selective membranes, and the potential across the shale is
called the membrane potential.
A second component of the electrochemical potential is produced
at the edge of the invaded zone where the mud filtrate and formation
water (the electrolytes) are in direct contact. Here Na+ and Cl- can diffuse
from one electrolyte to the other. Since Cl- are more mobile than Na+
ions, the net result of the diffusion is the flow of negative Cl- ions from
the more saline to the less saline electrolyte. This is equivalent to a
conventional current flow in the opposite direction as shown by the
2-77

arrow A in the upper half of Figure 2.40. The current flowing across the
junction between solutions of different salinity is produced by an
electromotive force called liquid-junction potential. The magnitude of the
liquid-junction potential is much smaller than the membrane potential.
If the permeable formation is clean (not shaly), the total
electrochemical emf, Ec, corresponding to these two phenomena is given
by

Ec

K log

aw
amf

(2.31)

where aw and awf are the chemical activities of the two solutions at
formation temperature, K is a coefficient proportional to temperature,
and for NaCl formation water and mud filtrate is 71 at 25 C (77 F). The
chemical activity of a solution is roughly proportional to salinity and
hence to its conductivity. If the solutions contain substantial amounts of
salts other than NaCl, the value of K at 77 F may differ from 71. If the
permeable formation is shaly, or contains dispersed clay, the total
electrochemical emf will be reduced since the clay produces an
electrochemical membrane of opposite polarity to that of the adjacent
shale bed.

278

Figure 2.40. Schematic representation of potential and current

distribution in and around a permeable bed.

2-79

An electrokinetic potential, Ek (also known as streaming potential

or electrofiltration potential), is produced when an electrolyte flows
through a permeable, nonmetallic, porous medium. The magnitude of the
electrokinetic potential is determined by several factors, among which are
the differential pressure producing the flow and the resistivity of the
electrolyte. In the borehole, an electrokinetic emf, Ekmc, is produced by
the flow of the mud filtrate through the mud cake. An electrokinetic emf,
Eksh, may also be produced across the shale, since it may have sufficient
permeability to permit a tiny amount of filtrate flow from the mud. Each
of these electrokinetic emfs contributes to a more negative SP reading
opposite the permeable bed and opposite the shale. The net contribution
to the SP deflection is, therefore, the difference between Ekmc and Eksh,
which is generally small and negligible.
The movement of ions, which causes the SP phenomenon, is
possible only in formations that have a certain minimum permeability.
However, there is no direct relationship between the magnitude of the SP
deflection and permeability, nor does the SP deflection have any direct
relationship with the porosity.
The lower portion of Figure 2.40 shows how the SP currents flow in
the borehole and formations. The current direction shown corresponds to
the more usual case where the salinity of the formation water is greater
than that of the mud filtrate. Thus, the potential observed over the
permeable bed is negative with respect to the potential opposite the
shale. This negative variation corresponds to an SP curve deflection to
the left of the SP log as shown in the figure.
As shown in Figure 2.40, the SP currents flow through four
different media: the borehole (mud), the invaded zone, the noninvaded
280

part of the permeable formation, and the surrounding shale. In each

medium, the potential along a line of current flow drops in proportion to
the resistance encountered. The total potential along a line of current
flow is equal to the total emf. The deflections on the SP curve are,
however, a measurement of only the potential drop in the borehole (mud)
resulting from the SP currents. This potential drop represents only a
fraction (although usually the major fraction) of the total emf. If the
currents could be prevented from flowing by means such as the
insulating plugs as shown in the upper part of Figure 2.40, the potential
differences observed in the mud would equal the total emf. The SP curve
recorded in such an idealized condition is called the static SP curve and
is shown in the lower part of Figure 2.40.
Figure 2.41 shows the presentation of an SP curve. In general,
shale-free permeable beds of moderate to low resistivity are sharply
defined by the SP curve. High resistivity beds distort the SP currents,
causing a change in the shape of the SP curve at bed boundaries and
thus poor boundary definitions. Also, the SP curve is depressed in
permeable zones that contain shale or hydrocarbon. The shape of the SP
curve is influenced by (1) the thickness (h) and resistivity (Rt) of the
permeable bed, (2) the resistivity (Ri) and the diameter (di) of the invaded
zone, (3) the resistivity (Rs) of the surrounding formation, and (4) the
resistivity of the mud (Rm) and the diameter (d) of the borehole.

2-81

Figure 2.41. Presentation of an SP curve in a sand-shale sequence.

The Gamma Ray Log (GR)

The GR log is a measurement of the natural radioactivity of the
formation. In sedimentary formations, the log normally reflects the shale
content of the formation because the radioactive elements tend to
concentrate in clays and shales. Clean formations usually have a very
low level of radioactivity, unless a radioactive contaminant such as
volcanic ash or granite wash is present or formation waters contain
dissolved radioactive salts.
The GR log can be recorded in cased holes, which makes it very
useful as a correlation curve in completion and workover operations. It is
282

frequently used to complement the SP log and as a substitute for the SP

curve in wells drilled with salt mud, air or oil-based muds. In each case,
it is useful for the location of shales and nonshaly beds and, most
importantly, for general correlation.
Gamma rays are bursts of high-energy electromagnetic waves that
are emitted spontaneously by some radioactive elements. Nearly all
gamma radiation encountered in the earth is emitted by the radioactive
potassium isotope of atomic weight 40 (K40) and by the radioactive
elements of the uranium and thorium series. These elements emit
gamma rays, the number and energies of which are characteristic of each
element. Figure 2.42 shows the energies of the emitted gamma rays.
Potassium emits gamma rays of a single energy at 1.46 MeV, whereas the
uranium and thorium series emit gamma rays of various energies.
In passing through matter, gamma rays experience successive
Compton-scattering collisions with atoms of the formation material,
losing energy with each collision. After the gamma ray has lost enough
energy, it is absorbed by means of photoelectric effect, by an atom of the
formation. Thus, natural gamma rays are gradually absorbed and their
energies reduced as they pass through the formation. Two formations
having the same amount of radioactive material per unit volume, but
having different densities, will show different levels of radioactivity. The
less dense formations will appear to be slightly more radioactive than the
more dense formations. The GR log response, after appropriate
corrections,

is

proportional

to

the

weight

concentrations

of

the

radioactive material in the formation:

V Ai

i i

GR

2-83

(2.32)

where

volume

are the densities of the radioactive minerals, Vi are the bulk

factors

of

the

minerals,

Ai

are

proportionality

corresponding to the radioactivity of the mineral, and

factors

is the bulk

density of the formation. In sedimentary formations, the depth of

investigation of the GR log is about 1 foot.

Figure 2.42. Gamma ray emission spectra of radioactive minerals.

The gamma ray logging tool contains a detector to measure the
gamma radiation originating in the volume of formation near the tool.

284

Scintillation counters are now generally used for this measurement. They
are much more efficient than the Geiger-Mueller counters used in the
past. Events resulting in gamma rays are random. For this reason,
gamma ray logs have a ragged appearance (see Figure 2.20).
The primary calibration for the gamma ray tools is in the API
(American Petroleum Institute) test facility in Houston. A field calibration
standard is used to normalize each tool to the API standard and the logs
are calibrated in API units. The radioactivities in sedimentary formations
generally range from a few API units in anhydrite or salt to 200 or more
units in shales.
The GR log is particularly useful for defining shale beds when the
SP is distorted (in very resistive formations), when the SP is featureless
(in fresh water-bearing formations or in salty muds, when Rmf = Rw), or
when the SP cannot be recorded (in nonconductive mud, empty or airdrilled hole, cased holes). The bed boundary is picked at the point
midway between the maximum and minimum deflection of the anomaly.
The gamma ray reflects the proportion of shale and, in many
regions, can be used to quantitatively as a shale indicator. It is also used
for the detection and evaluation of radioactive minerals, such as potash
and uranium ore. The GR log is part of most logging programs in both
open hole and cased hole. It is readily combined with most other logging
tools and permits the accurate correlation of logs made on one trip into
the borehole with those that were made on another trip.
2.7.6 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Logs
NMR measurements of fluids in porous media can be used under
favorable conditions to estimate porosity, irreducible water saturation,
2-85

moveable fluid saturation, fluid viscosity, pore size distribution, surface

to volume ratios and permeability. In this section, the principles of NMR
and its use in petrophysical measurements are presented.
Nuclear Spins in a Magnetic Field
Most atomic nuclei possess a quantum mechanical property called
spin angular momentum. This means that the nucleus spins around an
axis. Since atomic nuclei are charged particles, the spinning motion
causes a magnetic moment that is co-linear with the direction of the spin
axis. The strength of this magnetic moment is a property of the type of
nucleus. 1H nuclei (protons) possess a strong magnetic moment (second
only to radioactive 3H), which, together with the high natural abundance
of hydrogen and prevalence in most fluids, makes it the ideal nucleus for
NMR logging and NMR imaging in radiology.
Consider a collection of 1H nuclei as in Figure 2.43. In the absence
of an externally applied magnetic field, the individual magnetic moments
have no preferred orientation and the net magnetization of the collection
of spins is zero. However, if an externally supplied magnetic field
(denoted as B0) is imposed, there is a tendency for the magnetic moments
1
to align with the external field. H nuclei with a quantum number of I =

1
2

in this situation may adopt one of two possible orientations: alignment

parallel or anti-parallel to B0 as shown in Figure 2.44. Thus, depending
on their orientation, we can define two groups or populations of spins.
Alignment parallel to B0 is the lower energy orientation and is thus
preferred, while the anti-parallel alignment is the higher energy state.
However, the energy difference between the two states is very small.
Thermal energy alone causes the two states to be almost equally
populated. The remaining population difference results in a net bulk
286

magnetization aligned parallel to B0. It is only this net magnetization

arising from a small population difference that is detectable by NMR
techniques.
The individual spins do not align exactly parallel or anti-parallel to
B0, but at an angle to B0. This is analogous to the case of a spinning top:

Figure 2.43. Random orientations of the nuclear magnetic moments in

the absence of an externally applied magnetic field.

Bo
parallel

antiparrallel

Figure 2.44. Two orientations of the nuclear magnetic moments in the

2-87

presence of an externally applied magnetic field (Bo).

the top precesses about the axis defined by the pull of gravity. This
precession defines the surface of a cone. Figure 2.45 shows a model for a
large collection of spins at any given instant. Here, each of the vectors
(arrows) represents an individual spin. The vector M represents the bulk
net magnetization that results from the vector sum of the contributions
from each of the spins.

Bo

parallel

antiparallel

Figure 2.45. The bulk net magnetization M

The individual magnetic moments precess at a certain frequency,

known as the Larmor frequency, which is determined by the strength of
the magnetic field and the type of nucleus. The Larmor equation gives
this frequency as

where

B0

(2.33)

is the Larmor frequency (in radians per second), Bo is the

magnetic field strength, and

is a constant for each nucleus known as

288

the gyromagnetic ratio. Eq.(2.33) is the fundamental equation for all

NMR methods. Table 2.7 gives

values for some NMR active nuclei.

From Table 2.7, we can see that

H nucleus has the highest

1
relative sensitivity and a high natural abundance. So H nuclei (protons)

possess a strong magnetic moment and are most commonly used in NMR
logging and NMR imaging.
Table 2.7: Magnetic Resonance Properties of Some Important Nuclei

Nucleus
1

H
C
19
F
23
Na
31
P
13

Natural
Abundance %

Hz / Gauss

Relative
Sensitivity

99.98

4257

1.0

1.10

1071

0.016

100.0

4005

0.830

100.0

1126

0.093

100.0

1723

0.066

The Effect of Radiofrequency Pulses - Resonance Absorption

In order to detect a signal, a condition of resonance needs to be
established. The term resonance implies alternating absorption and
dissipation of energy. Energy absorption is caused by radiofrequency (RF)
perturbation, and energy dissipation is mediated by relaxation processes.
RF radiation, like all electromagnetic radiation, possesses electric
and magnetic field components. We may consider the RF as another
magnetic field of strength B1 perpendicular to B0 as shown in Figure
2.46. At equilibrium, M (=Mo) is stationary and difficult to observe. By
2-89

applying an RF field B1 perpendicular to B0, M can be rotated so that it

has a component transverse to B0. A maximum transverse component is
obtained by applying B1 with an amplitude and duration that rotates M
by 90 degree and into the plane transverse to B0. This is called a 90degree pulse. Once in the transverse plane, M precesses (rotates) around
the B0 axis at the Larmor frequency. This rotating magnetization can
induce an alternating current (AC) in a receiver coil, and that current can
be used to record the action of the magnetization in the transverse plane.
The signal that is induced in the receiver coil decays over time. The
signal decay is due to a process known as relaxation.
Relaxation Processes
In resonance absorption, RF energy is absorbed by the nuclei when
it is broadcast at the Larmor frequency. Relaxation is the process by
which the nuclei release this energy and return to their original
configuration. There are two relaxation processes involved: transverse
relaxation and longitudinal relaxation.

Bo

B1

Figure 2.46. A second magnetic field B1 generated by

Radiofrequency (RF)

290

Given that at equilibrium, the net magnetization is longitudinal (B0

direction), the equilibrium magnetization in the transverse plane is zero.
So the signal that is induced in the receiver coil will decay over time and
reach zero some time after the 90 RF pulse is turned off. This decay
process is exponential and the decay envelop can be expressed by the
equation

M transverse

0
M transverse
exp

t / T2*

(2.34)

0
where M transverse
is the initial transverse magnetization immediately after a

90 RF pulse, M transverse is the transverse magnetization at any given time t

after a 90

RF pulse, T2* is the apparent NMR transverse relaxation time

or spin-spin relaxation time, which characterizes the rate of signal decay.

The decay mechanism is that different components of the magnetization
may precess at slightly different rates, a process known as dephasing
in the transverse plane. Since the signal recorded is the vector sum of all
the transverse components, sufficient dephasing will lead to complete
cancellation of the signal.
One of the major causes of this dephasing is B0 inhomogeneity
( B0) effects. Spins at different locations are not exposed to exactly the
same B0 field, which in turn yields a range of Larmor frequencies.

B0

effects are largely suppressed by correcting the magnetic field uniformity

as much as possible, and by employing NMR spin-echo techniques.
In spin-echo NMR (Hahn, 1950), the dephasing

B0 effects are

largely reversed by following a 90-degree RF pulse with a short delay

and a 180-degree refocusing pulse. After a second delay

, the

transverse magnetization M transverse is refocused as an NMR spin-echo. B0

2-91

effects are canceled at the center of the echo, where the dephasing from
B0 is momentarily rephased.
If the induced signal is measured at time TE after a 90 RF pulse,
then equation (2.34) can be rewritten as

M transverse

0
M transverse
exp

TE / T2

(2.35)

where TE=n2 and n is the number of 180-degree pulses. T2 is the true

NMR transverse relaxation time or spin-spin relaxation time. In Eq.(2.35),

T2* is substituted with T2 upon the correction of B0 effects.

T2 can be measured by repeating the spin-echo experiment with
different TE, then fitting the resulting M transverse versus TE curve to
Eq.(2.35). Another more accurate method, and one that is used in NMR
logging, is to employ a multiple-spin-echo sequence, where the NMR
signal is refocused multiple times as shown in Figure 2.47. This method
removes unwanted molecular diffusion effects. In NMR logging, 400 or
more echos are used in the measurements. The exponential curve, which
measures the amplitudes of the decaying echos is the fundamental well
log measurement and is used to compute the T2 spectrum.

292

Figure 2.47. Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill spin echo pulse sequence.

Longitudinal relaxation is a process that restores the longitudinal

magnetization to its equilibrium state after an RF pulse is turned off.
Immediately after a 90 pulse, the net magnetization vector lies in the
transverse plane. Therefore, longitudinal magnetization is zero. However,
as time passes, the longitudinal magnetization will approach the
equilibrium value. This buildup of the longitudinal magnetization is also
exponential in time and can be expressed as

Mz t

M 0 1 exp

t / T1

(2.36)

where M0 is the equilibrium value of the longitudinal magnetization, Mz(t)

is the longitudinal magnetization at any given time t after a

90 RF

pulse, and T1 is the NMR longitudinal relaxation time or spin-lattice

relaxation time

that characterizes the rate of buildup. For any given

system, T1 is greater than or equal to T2. (T1 and T2 of 1H nuclei in water

2-93

in a test tube is about 3 seconds. In a porous medium, the T1 and T2 are

significantly lower than in a test tube and are of the order of
milliseconds).

The

longitudinal

direction

or

direction

of

B0,

is

conventionally assigned the z direction, i.e., B0=Bz.

In an NMR experiment, sufficient time must elapse between
successive 90 RF pulses to allow M to achieve equilibrium. This time,
known as the repetition time TR, depends on the samples T1. In general,
TR should be greater than 5T1. Substituting TR into Eq.(2.36) gives

M z TR

M 0 1 exp

(2.37)

TR / T1

where Mz(TR) is the longitudinal magnetization at the repetition time TR

after a 90 RF pulse is turned off. Since another 90 RF pulse is applied
0
immediately at time TR, the M transverse
for this subsequent 90 RF pulse

should be equal to Mz(TR)) of Eq.(2.37). Thus,

0
M transverse

M 0 1 exp

(2.38)

TR / T1

Substituting Eq.(2.38) into Eq.(2.35) gives the transverse magnetization

at the time of measurement as

M transverse

M 0 1 exp

TR / T1

exp

TE / T2

(2.39)

As Eq.(2.38) implies, T1 can be measured by repeating an NMR

experiment with several different TR values, then fitting the resulting

M transverse versus TR to Eq.(2.38).

Molecular Diffusion Effect

294

Random thermal motion will affect the NMR signal as spins move
from one part of the sample to another and experience a different
magnetic field strength because of static field inhomogeneities. Variation
in the frequency and phase of these mobile spins introduces a phase
incoherence that causes a reduction in the signal amplitude. This effect
can be expressed by Eq.(2.40) (Hahn, 1950):

M transverse

TE
exp
TR

0
exp
M transverse

2 D 2G 2 TE
3
2

where D is the diffusion coefficient and G (

(2.40)

B0) is the magnetic field

gradient.
NMR Signal and Corresponding T2 Spectrum
The exponential decay curve shown in Figure 2.47 suggests that all
the spins relax at the same T2 relaxation time. This would be applicable
to the spins in a bulk fluid such as the protons in water in a test tube.
However, when the fluids are confined in the pore space of a porous
medium, the protons near the pore wall will relax faster (shorter T2) than
those in the center of the pores. Further, the protons in small pores will
relax faster than those in large pores. As a result, the NMR decay signal
will contain a spectrum of T2 relaxation times. The signal can be
decomposed into its T2 spectrum by using a multi-exponential model as

M t
M0

j m

f j exp
j 1

2-95

t / T2 j

(2.41)

where fj is proportional to the population of protons which have a

relaxation time of T2j. The inversion problem is to find a set if T2
amplitudes, fj, from a set of measurements of echos, gi. Application of
Eq.(2.41) to each echo gives the following system of linear equations in fj

gi

M ti
M0

j m

f j exp

ti / T2 j

(2.42)

for i 1, 2,..., n

j 1

where gi is the amplitude of the echo measured at time ti,

is the error

caused by noise in the data and n is the total number of echos. A least
square fit is used to determine the fjs that minimize the sum

where

is

i 1

j 1

f j exp

regularization

ti / T2 j

gi

f j2

(2.43)

j 1

constant

or

smoothing

parameter.

Figure 2.48 shows an example log measurement for n = 500, TE =

1.2 milliseconds, with 12 measurements averaged together. Note the
noisy data. The magnitude of the NMR signal at t =0 (M0) is proportional
to the number of hydrogen nuclei in the measurement volume. This
number can be calibrated into the total NMR porosity. Figure 2.49 shows
the corresponding T2 spectrum obtained from the data of Figure 2.48.

296

Time (ms)
Figure 2.48. Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill spin echo measurements.

T2 (ms)
Figure 2.49. T2 spectrum of the data of Figure 2.49.

2-97

Based on laboratory measurements in sandstone cores, the NMR

spectrum can be divided into several segments to represent the fluid
distribution in the pore space as shown in Figure 2.50. In this figure, the
area under the spectrum is equal to the total NMR porosity.

Figure 2.50. T2 spectrum and fluid distribution in the pore space.

The nomenclature for Figure 2.50 is as follows. The Free Fluid

Index (FFI) is the percent of the bulk volume occupied by movable fluids
(water + hydrocarbon). In Figure 2.50, this is shown as the fraction of the

298

bulk volume for T2 greater than 30 milliseconds. The Free Fluid Index is
also known as Bulk Volume Movable (BVM). The Bulk Volume
Irreducible (BVI) is the percent of the bulk volume containing irreducible
water. The irreducible water consists of two components: (1) Clay Bound
Water (CBW) (T2 from 0.3 to 3 milliseconds), which is the water bound to
the clay minerals and (2) Bulk Volume Capillary (BVC) (T2 from 3 to 30
milliseconds), which is the water trapped by capillary forces. The Bulk
Volume Water (BVW) (T2 from 0.3 to 300 milliseconds) is the percent of
the bulk volume occupied by water (moveable, capillary bound water and
clay bound water). These bulk volumes are related to porosity and
saturations as follows:

Vp
total

Vi
Vp

(2.45)

VCBW VBVC VBVM

(2.46)

VCBW VBCV
Vb

(2.47)

Si

Vp

total

(2.44)

Vb

BVI

VCBW VBCV
Vb

(2.48)

VBVM
Vb

(2.49)

BVM

total

VBVM
Vb

BVI

2-99

BVM

(2.50)

BVM

BVI

total

Vw
Vb

BVW

(2.51)

MPHI

total

MPHI
S wV p

BVI

Sw

Vb

total

FFI

(2.52)

(2.53)

VBVC VBVM
Vp

(2.54)

VBVC VBVM
totalVb

(2.55)

BVC BMV

(2.56)

e
total

S wirr

VCBW VBVC
Vp
BVI
FFI

BVI

(2.57)

total

S wirr

(2.58)

1 S wirr

(2.59)

total

total

Vb
Vb

Figure 2.51 shows an NMR log in which the pore fluids in the
second track have been divided into free fluid (above 30 ms), capillary
bound fluid (3 to 30 ms), small pore bound fluid (0.28 to 3 ms), and very
small pore bound fluid (0.2 to 0.28 ms). The two small pore bound fluids
(0.2 to 3 ms) correspond to clay bound fluid. Also shown in the third
track is the T2 spectrum, with a T2 cutoff of 30 ms for free fluid. Note the
two streaks with free fluid at depths of X163 m and X189 m, where the

2100

T2 is greater than 30 ms. This example is from a predominantly shaly

formation where the differences in the bound fluids are more apparent.
Pore Size Distribution
NMR relaxation measurements have been shown to be a sensitive
probe in the study of the microscopic structure of porous media. The
connection between NMR measurements and pore size is based on the
strong effect that the rock surface has on promoting proton relaxation.
The NMR T1 relaxation behavior of a fluid confined within a pore is
sensitive to both the pore geometry and size, and thus yields much
useful information when related to the pore-size distribution via an
appropriate mathematical model. The simplest and most common model
is the two-fraction fast-exchange model (Senturia and Robinson, 1970;
Howard et al., 1990), which assumes that there are two magnetically
distinct

phases

within

the

pore:

bulk

phase

with

relaxation

characteristic of the bulk fluid and a surface phase with much faster
relaxation. Assuming that diffusion of the fluid is much faster than the
relaxation process, the observed relaxation rate is given by a single
average T1 value as
1
T1

1
T1bulk

S
V T1surface

where S/V is the pore surface area to volume ratio and

(2.60)

is the thickness

of the surface monolayer. The T1 technique basically determines the

surface/volume ratio as a characteristic pore-size parameter. Usually,
T1bulk>>T1surface, so Eq.(2.60) can be simplified as

2-101

Figure 2.51. Example NMR log showing fluid distribution in the pore
space.

2102

1
T1

where

S
V

(2.61)

= /T1surface is the NMR surface relaxivity, which is a measure of

the ability of the surface to cause relaxation of proton magnetization. The

surface relaxivity

has dimensions of length/time. Eq.(2.61) shows that

T1 responds to pore size. Small pores (large S/V ratio) exhibit small
values for T1, and the converse is true for large pores.

Since transverse relaxation time T2 is closely related to T1, it is

expected that a similar relationship exists between the distribution of T2
and the pore-size distribution. However, in this case, apart from the bulk
relaxation process, which can often be neglected, the T2 relaxation is also
controlled by a surface relaxation mechanism as well as the diffusion
effect because of the magnetic field gradient. The relaxation rate equation
is of the form

1
T2

1
T2bulk

S
V T2 surface

1
3

(2.62)

B D

where the first two terms on the right side correspond to similar
expressions in Eq.(2.60), while the last term accounts for spin dephasing
because of restricted diffusion in a magnetic field gradient
pulse spacing (pulse-to-echo delay),

B.

is the

is the gyromagnetic ratio for

protons, and D is the diffusion coefficient. Usually, the first and the last
2-103

terms on the right side of Eq.(2.62)are small and can be neglected. Thus,

1
T2

where

S
V

(2.63)

/T2surface is the NMR T2 surface relaxivity. Eq.(2.63) shows

that T2 also responds to pore-size. Thus, in a water bearing zone without

the complications of hydrocarbons, the T2 spectrum such as shown in
Figure 2.49 could be viewed as a pore-size distribution.

It should be emphasized that what is measured by NMR relaxation

is the distribution of volume-to-surface ratio, (V/S). Since (V/S) has the
dimension of length, then its distribution could be viewed as a pore-size
distribution. The ratio (V/S) is not a pore size or a pore diameter. Its
magnitude is markedly affected by the pore shape. The ratio will be a
maximum for a spherical pore (a sphere has the smallest surface area for
a given volume) and will decrease for other pore shapes. If all pores are
geometrically similar, then the T2 spectrum could be viewed qualitatively
as a pore size distribution.
Figure 2.52 shows a clastic sequence with shales overlying a
sandstone in a water zone. The volumetric calculations in the first track
indicate an upward decreasing clay in the sandstone interval. Geological
analysis

suggests

that

this

corresponds

to

coarsening-upward

sequence. While this assertion is based on inference, the T2 spectrum in

the third track shows an upward increase in the relaxation times, a trend

2104

which can be explained by an increase in the pore size and, therefore, an

increase in the grain size.

Figure 2.52. Example NMR log showing pore size distribution in a waterbearing sandstone section.

2-105

Carbonates often have a variety of pore types such as moldic,

intercrystalline

and

interparticle

pores.

The

relationship

between

relaxation times and pore size distribution is therefore more complex in

carbonates than in sandstones. Further, the surface relaxivity of
carbonates is less than that of sandstones, typically 1.7 m/s for
carbonates compared to 5 m/s for sandstones. As a result, the protons
align and relax faster in sandstones than in carbonates. Therefore, the
cut off T2 for free fluid in carbonates is higher than in sandstones,
typically on the order of 100 ms.
Estimation of Permeability from NMR Relaxation Times
The fact that T1 and T2 NMR relaxation times can be used to
estimate permeability stems from the fact that these relaxation times can
be correlated with pore size distribution in water-bearing zones.
Permeability is proportional to the square of some characteristic length of
the porous medium and as such would be proportional to T12 or T22 .
Various empirical equations have been proposed for estimating the
absolute permeability of a porous medium. Wyllie and Rose (1950)
suggested an empirical permeability equation of the form

C x S wirry

k
where C is an empirical constant,

(2.64)

is the porosity, Swirr is the irreducible

water saturation and x and y are numerical exponents. Timur developed

a permeability equation in the spirit of Eq.(2.64) of the form

k 10

4.5
2
S wirr

2106

(2.65)

where the porosity and irreducible water saturation are in fractions and
the permeability is in millidarcy. One version of the Timur/Coates
equation that is widely used to estimate permeability from NMR logs is
given by
4
NMR

FFI
BVI

(2.66)

where C=10 or can be determined from laboratory measurements on

cores. In Eq.(2.66) the porosity, FFI and BVI are in porosity units (p.u.)
and the permeability is in millidarcy. BVI and FFI are related to the
irreducible water saturation by Eqs.(2.58) and (2.59).
Another permeability equation based on laboratory measurements
at Schlumber Doll Research (SDR) is given by
k

a 4T22gm

(2.67)

where T2gm is the logarithmic (geometric) mean of the T2 spectrum

defined as
m

f j log T2 j
T2 gm

j 1

(2.68)

fj
j 1

Other equations proposed by Kenyon et al. are

C1

4
2
NMR 1

and

2-107

(2.69)

C2

4
2
NMR 2

(2.70)

Figure 2.53 shows a comparison of the permeability from NMR

measurements using Eq.(2.66) with those from core analysis. The
agreement between the two sets of data is good. Also shown is the
comparison of the NMR porosity measurements with those from core
analysis. The agreement also is good.

Figure 2.53. A comparison of NMR-derived permeability and porosity

with measurements from core analysis (from Dunn et al., 2002).

2108

2.7.7 NMR Imaging of Laboratory Cores

Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI) can be used to map
the spatial distribution of NMR observables in core analysis. Thus,
porosity distribution and fluid saturation distribution or solvent
concentration distributions can be imaged in the laboratory.
In order to create an image, the NMR experiments must be
modified to spatially encode the NMR signals. Figure 3.54 is a typical
2DFT

(2-dimensional

Fourier

Transform)

spin-echo

NMR

imaging

sequence showing (a) radiofrequency pulses, (b) slice-selection gradient,

(c) frequency-encoding gradient, (d) phase-encoding gradient, and (e)
NMR signal (echo). The experiment is repeated with multiple phaseencoding gradient amplitudes.
The Effect of Magnetic Field Gradients
For most NMR imaging applications, the B0 field must be made to
vary in a linear fashion with distance. A magnetic field gradient or simply
gradient refers to the spatial variation of the strength of the B0 field.
Magnetic field gradient is a key factor in NMR imaging. A magnetic field
gradient causes the transverse magnetization to precess at a frequency
that is proportional to position along the gradient axis as follows:

where

B0

(2.71)

rGr

is the Larmor frequency at position r, Gr is the gradient, and r

is the position along the gradient axis. Since we can measure

know B0, Gr and

and we

, the position of the resonating nucleus can be

determined. Gr can be applied concurrently with slice selection,

frequency encoding or independently of other events (phase encoding).

2-109

The magnitude of the gradient, its direction (i.e., along what axis), and
timing need to be controlled.

90

180o

a. RF

b. G ss

c. G RO

d. G PE
Echo
e. NMR

TE

Timing
TR

p1

tpe

pw

tro

Figure 2.54. Simplified timing diagram for a 2DFT spin-echo NMR

imaging sequence

2110

Slice-Selective Excitation
In most NMR imaging applications, it is desirable to generate a
single slice or multislice images. The initial step in generating such an
image is the localization of the RF excitation to a region of space. This is
accomplished by the use of frequency-selective excitation in conjunction
with a slice-selection gradient, Gss, on an axis perpendicular to the
chosen slice plane. A frequency-selective RF pulse has two parts
associated with it, a central frequency and a bandwidth of frequencies
ss

defined by the shape of the pulse envelope. When such a pulse is

broadcast in the presence of the slice-selection gradient, a narrow region

of the object will achieve the resonance condition and will absorb the RF
energy. The central frequency of the pulse determines the particular
location that is excited by the pulse when the slice-selection gradient is
present. Different slice positions are achieved by changing the central
frequency. The slice thickness is determined by the bandwidth of
frequencies

ss

incorporated into the RF pulse and is given by

ss

(2.72)

Gss d s1

where ds1 is the slice thickness. Typically,

ss

is fixed so that the slice

thickness is changed by changing the amplitude of Gss. Thinner slices

require larger Gss. Once Gss is determined, the central frequency

is

calculated using Eq.(2.71) to bring the desired location into resonance.

Multislice imaging uses the same Gss for each slice but a unique RF
pulse during excitation. Each RF pulse has the same bandwidth but a
different central frequency, thereby exciting a different region of the
object.
2-111

Frequency Encoding
The next task in the imaging process is encoding the image
information within the excited slice. The image information is actually
the amplitude of the NMR signal arising from the various locations in the
slice. Two distinct processes are used for encoding the two dimensions:
frequency encoding and phase encoding.
The frequency encoding provides one of the two visual dimensions
of the image. The NMR signal is always detected in the presence of a
frequency encoding gradient in an imaging pulse sequence. After sliceselective excitation, the frequency encoding gradient, also known as the
readout gradient, GRO, is applied perpendicularly to the slice direction.
Under the influence of this new gradient field, the nuclei within the slice
will precess at different frequencies depending on their positions in the
readout gradients direction, in accordance with Eq.(2.71). Each of these
frequencies will be superimposed in the echo. The echo signal is detected
in the presence of GRO and digitized at a chosen sampling interval for
later Fourier transformation. The magnitude of GRO and the frequencies
that are detected enable the positions of the nuclei to be determined.
Two user-selectable parameters determine the image resolution in
the frequency encoding, or the readout, direction: the field of view (FOV)
in the readout direction and the number of readout data points in the
matrix, NRO. The pixel size in the readout direction is given by

FOV
RO

N RO

and

2112

RO

(2.73)

FOV

RO

N RO
2 GRO tro

BW
GRO

where BW is the receiver bandwidth,

(2.74)

is the gyromagnetic ratio and tro is

the duration of the frequency encoding gradient.

Phase Encoding
In order to produce a two-dimensional image of the slice, one can
cause a systematic variation in phase that would encode the spatial
information along the one remaining axis of the image plane. This is
accomplished by the use of a phase encoding gradient, GPE. GPE is
perpendicular to both Gss and GRO and is the only gradient that changes
amplitude during the data acquisition loop of a standard twodimensional imaging sequence. The NMR imaging information is
obtained by repeating the slice excitation and signal detection many
times (typically 128 or 256 times), each with a different amplitude of GPE
applied before detection. The resulting signals are stored separately for
subsequent processing.
Separate Fourier transformation of each of these data sets yields a
set of projections onto the readout axis. Specifically, the second Fourier
transformation converts signal amplitude at each readout frequency from
a function of GPE to a function of frequency.
The image resolution in the phase encoding direction depends on
two user-selectable parameters, the FOV in the phase encoding direction
and the number of phase encoding steps in the matrix, NPE. The pixel
size in the phase encoding direction is given by

FOV
PE

N PE
2-113

PE

(2.75)

and

FOV

where

PE

N PE
GPE t pe

(2.76)

is the gyromagnetic ratio and tpe is the duration of the phase

encoding gradient.
Image Reconstruction
Two types of matrices are used in NMR imaging:

raw data and

image data. The raw data matrix is a grid of complex points with the
frequency encoding direction displayed in the horizontal direction and
the phase encoding direction displayed in the vertical direction. All image
information is contained within the raw data matrix.
The image data matrix is obtained by a two-dimensional Fourier
transformation of the raw data matrix. The first Fourier transformation of
each row of the raw data matrix yields a set of modulated projections of
the slice onto the frequency encoding axis. The second Fourier
transformation of each column of the temporary data matrix converts the
signal magnitude at each readout frequency from a function of GPE to a
function of frequency, resulting in the image. The image matrix is a
spatial

map

of

the

nuclei

signal

intensity.

While

the

Fourier

transformation contains information regarding both the magnitude and

the phase of the measured signals, the phase information is often
discarded so that the normal image matrix contains only the magnitude
information. The image matrix is usually displayed as a rectangular
image with readout in one direction and phase encoding in the other
direction.

2114

Figure 2.55 shows a graphical representation of how an image is

spatially encoded during 2DFT imaging. In this figure, the frequency
encoding direction is horizontal and the phase encoding direction is
vertical. A set of NMR signals is acquired using the same frequency
encoding gradient but different values of the phase encoding gradient.
Each of these NMR signals is Fourier transformed to provide a frequency
spectrum of each phase encoding step, which constitutes a onedimensional projection in the frequency encoding direction. Each column
of the data from the first Fourier Transform projection images is Fourier
transformed again to determine the spatial projection in the vertical
image plane.
Three-Dimensional NMR Imaging
Three-dimensional volume imaging technique is, in essence, a
double phase encoding technique. The slice-selective excitation is
replaced with another phase encoding process along that axis. Each RF
pulse excites the entire imaging volume instead of just one slice. The
second phase encoding is applied to partition or subdivide the volume
into individual layers. The number of layers is determined by the number
of phase encode steps. For example, if the number of the second phase
encoding gradient steps is changed from 32 to 128, 3D-FFT of the 3D
data set then yields 32 to 128 image layers in that direction.

2-115

Figure 2.55. Graphical demonstration of 2DFT NMR image data

acquisition and reconstruction.

The advantage of the 3D-imaging technique is that very thin

contiguous layer images can be obtained with minimal interslice
crosstalk. Also, the signal-to-noise ratio is greater than for a comparable
2D-sequential imaging method.
The disadvantage of the technique is the time required. The total
scan time for 3D volume imaging is much longer than for 2D slice or
multislice imaging. In practice, 3D volume imaging is not widely used.
Instead, 2D-multislice imaging is often used as a replacement for 3D
volume imaging.

Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Image Contrast

2116

Voxel size is a very important factor in increasing the signal-tonoise ratio (SNR). Voxel size is defined by

d s1

FOV

RO

N RO

FOV
N PE

PE

(2.77)

If the voxel volume is large, then there are more spins in each voxel to
contribute to the signal, thus increasing the SNR. But large voxels imply
a low spatial resolution. The converse is also true. Small voxels imply a
low SNR but a high spatial resolution. Therefore, the user-controlled
parameters, slice thickness ds1, FOV, NRO and NPE, are important
parameters that affect the signal-to-noise ratio and the image resolution.
The echo time TE, repetition time TR, longitudinal relaxation time T1
and transverse relaxation time T2 are the important factors that
determine image contrast as defined in Eq.(2.39). Remembering that T2
relaxation describes the rate of decay of the NMR signal in the transverse
plane, a long TE would yield different signal intensity from objects
possessing different T2 values. The long T2 object will contribute more
signal, causing it to appear hyperintense in the NMR image relative to
the short T2 object. This is termed a T2-weighted image. Similarly, since
T1 relaxation describes the rate of recovery of the longitudinal
magnetization, a short TR would yield different signal intensity from
objects possessing different T1 values. The object exhibiting a short T1
value will contribute more signal, causing it to appear hyperintense in
the NMR image relative to the long T1 object. This is termed a T1weighted image.

2-117

In summary, TE controls T2-weighting and TR controls T1weighting of an image. Short T2 objects are dark on T2-weighted images,
but short T1 objects are bright on T1-weighted images.
Example NMR Images of Laboratory Cores
Figures 2.56 and 2.57 show NMR-derived porosity images of a
brine saturated sandstone core. Figure 2.56 shows the images at six
cross sections along the core whereas Figure 2.57 shows the images of
four, longitudinal vertical slices. The layered nature of the core is clearly
apparent from these images. Although the images are not calibrated with
numerical porosity values, nevertheless, the first three slices in Figure
2.56 indicate that the core appears to be less porous at the top than
elsewhere. The core is 10 cm long, 5 cm in diameter, and has a
permeability of 97 md and an average porosity of 15.9 %.
Figure

2.58

shows

NMR-derived

images

of

the

solvent

concentration for a first-contact miscible displacement conducted in the

core of Figures 2.56 and 2.57. In this experiment, a more viscous
deuterium oxide (D2O) was used to displace the less viscous brine from

2118

Figure 2.56. NMR images of transverse slices of a brine saturated

sandstone core.

the core at a favorable mobility ratio of 0.84. D2O is practically devoid of

protons, so the injection of D2O reduces the NMR signal in the voxels

2-119

invaded by the D2O. The reduced NMR signals can be used to image the
progress of the displacement as shown in Figure 2.58. Because the
mobility ratio is favorable, the displacement pattern is controlled entirely
by the permeability variations in the core. Note the chanelling of the
injected solvent due to permeability variation in the core. Clearly, the top
of the core is less permeable than the rest of the core. This correlates well
with the low porosity of the top of the core shown in Figure 2.56. Figure
2.59 shows one-dimensional solvent concentration profiles for the same
displacement. The information is quantitative and can be used to
calibrate a numerical model of the displacement.

Figure 2.57. NMR images of longitudinal, vertical slices of a brine

saturated sandstone core.

2120

Figure 2.58. Solvent concentration images of a first-contact miscible

displacement in the sandstone core of Figures 2.55 and 2.56.

2-121

Figure 2.59. Solvent concentration profiles of the first-contact miscible

displacement of Figure 2.57.

Figure 2.60 shows NMR-derived permeability images of another

layered sandstone core. The permeability for each voxel of the image was
calculated from T1 distributions using Eq.(2.69). Figure 2.61 shows a
comparison of NMR-derived permeability with flow-derived permeability
for five core samples. The agreement between the two sets of permeability
values is reasonable for four of the five measurements.

2122

Figure 2.60. Permeability images of a layered sandstone core.

2-123

Figure 2.61. A comparison of NMR-derived permeability with flow-derived

permeability of core samples.

2.7.8 A Comparison of Various Porosity Measurements for Shaly

Sand
Figure 2.62 shows the porosities measured by the various logging
tools along with the porosity from core analysis. This figure shows that
the total porosity measured by a neutron tool is larger than those
measured by the density tool, the NMR tool or the sonic tool. The total
porosity from the sonic tool is less than that of the density tool because
the density tool measures the porosity in isolated pore whereas the sonic
2124

tool does not. If isolated pores are present, the effective porosity
measured in core analysis will be less than the effective permeability
measured by NMR. Thus, Figure 2.62 could be helpful in reconciling
differences in the porosity measurements from the various methods.

Figure 2.62. A comparison of porosity measurements by various methods

for a shaly sand.

2.8 RESERVE ESTIMATION PROJECT

The objective of this project is to compute the recoverable oil
reserve and the anticipated undiscounted net cash flow for a new oilfield
discovery using Monte Carlo Simulation. The petrophysical parameters
that go into the reserve estimation are uncertain and as such should be
2-125

treated as random variables with distinct probability distributions. The

outcome of the simulation will be a range of reserve and net cash flow
estimates with their associated probabilities and uncertainties. This
project gives an example practical application of the petrophysical
properties of porosity and water saturation, which are the main subjects
of this chapter. The project also introduces the important subject of risk
analysis of petroleum development, which should be of interest to all
petroleum engineers.
2.8.1 Reserve Estimation
Based on volumetric considerations (Figure 2.63), the recoverable
oil reserve is given by

Nr

7758 Ah 1 S w
Bo

Rf

(2.78)

where
Nr

recoverable oil reserve (stock tank barrels, STB)

area of the reservoir (acres)

net pay thickness (feet)

porosity (fraction)

Sw

average water saturation (fraction)

Rf

recovery factor (fraction)

=
oil formation volume factor (reservoir barrels/stock tank
Bo
barrel, RB/STB)
7758 =

conversion constant (barrels/acre-foot)

2126

Figure 2.63. Reservoir volume.

To account for the uncertainties in the variables on the right side
of Eq.(2.78) various experts within the company have been requested to
provide their best estimates of these variables based on their professional
judgments. These estimates are shown in Table 2.8 along with their
assumed probability distributions.
Table 2.8 Reservoir parameter estimates from experts.
Property

Minimum (x1)

Most Likely (x2)

Maximum (x3)

Probability
Distributio
n

A (acres)

2500

6000

9000

Triangular

h (ft)

200

300

500

Triangular

0.15

0.25

0.35

Triangular

Bo (RB/STB)

1.20

1.30

1.35

Triangular

RF

0.20

0.40

Uniform

Oil Price ($/STB)

25

40

Triangular

30

2-127

Based on preliminary evaluation, the water saturation has been

determined to correlate with porosity as shown in Eq.(2.79).

Sw

0.325 0.500

(2.79)

2.8.2 Economic Evaluation

In order to assess the profitability of the proposed development, it
will be necessary to perform a detailed year-by-year discounted cash flow
projection for the field. However, for the purpose of this project, a
preliminary undiscounted net cash flow analysis will be sufficient. It is
assumed that the petroleum fiscal regime applicable to this field is a
royalty/tax system.
The undiscounted net cash flow is given by

Net Cash Flow (NCF) = (Gross Revenue - Royalty - Costs)(1 - Tax Rate)

(2.80)

Gross Revenue = Reserve x Price

(2.81)

For this project, assume the following:

Royalty = 12.5% of Gross Revenue
Costs (CAPEX + OPEX) = 38% of Gross Revenue
(CAPEX = capital expenditures, OPEX = operating expenses)
Tax Rate = 40%

2128

2.8.3 Simulation Procedure

You should draw a random sample for each variable of interest
from its probability distribution and compute the recoverable reserve and
the net cash flow for each iteration of the simulation. Each variable can
be sampled using a random number generator. A different random
number should be used to sample each variable because the variables
are assumed to be uncorrelated, except for the water saturation, which is
correlated to porosity. Normally, you should perform enough simulation
iterations so that the means and standard deviations of the reserve and
the net cash flow are approximately constant (i.e., they are no longer
sensitive to the number of iterations). This could require several
thousand iterations. For this exercise, you should perform at least 5,000
iterations.
2.8.4 Sampling Procedure
Presented herein is the procedure for sampling from a triangular
distribution and a uniform distribution using a random number
generator. Figure 2.64 shows the probability density function (pdf) for a
triangular distribution. The first step is to compute the cumulative
distribution function (F) as a function of x. Two cases are examined.
Case 1.

x1 x x2

For this case, the probability density function is given by

f1 ( x)

2 x x1

x3

x1 x2

2-129

x1

(2.82)

Figure 2.64. Probability density function for a triangular distribution.

The cumulative distribution function (F), which is the probability that x

is less than or equal to a prescribed value, is obtained by integrating
Eq.(2.82) to obtain

x1

f1 ( x)dx

x x1
x3

x1 x2

x1

(2.83)

Solving Eq.(2.83) for x gives

x

x1

F x3

x1

x2

x1

(2.84)

It turns out that F is uniformly distributed between 0 and 1, just like the
random number generator in spreadsheets or other computer software.
Therefore, to sample from the first part of a triangular distribution,
generate a uniformly distributed random number (Rn) between 0 and 1
and substitute it for F in Eq.(2.84) to obtain the sample value for x as
x

x1

Rn x3

x1 x2

2130

x1

(2.85)

Case 2.

x2 x x3

For this case, the probability density function is given by

2 x3

f 2 ( x)

x3

x1 x3

(2.86)

x2

The cumulative distribution function (F) is obtained by integrating

Eqs.(2.82) and (2.86) to obtain

x2
x1

f1 ( x)dx

x
x2

f 2 ( x)dx 1

x3

x3

x1 x3

x3

x2

x2

(2.87)

Solving Eq.(2.87) for x gives

x

x3

1 F

x3

x1

(2.88)

To sample from the second part of the triangular distribution, substitute

the random number for F in Eq.(2.88) to obtain
x

x3

1 Rn x3

x1

x3

x2

(2.89)

For each iteration, it is necessary to test the random number to

determine if Eq.(2.85) or Eq.(2.89) should be used to calculate x. Such a
test is straightforward. For x = x2, Eq. (2.85) gives the critical value of Rn
as

Rn

x2

x1

x3

x1

2-131

(2.90)

Eq.(2.85) should be used to calculate x if

Rn

x2

x1

x3

x1

(2.91)

Otherwise, Eq.(2.89) should be used to calculate x.

Figure 2.65 shows a graphical demonstration of Monte Carlo
sampling using the triangular distribution for net pay thickness of Table
2.8. The upper part of the figure shows the probability density function
whereas the lower part shows the cumulative distribution function. Also
shown in the lower part of the figure is the sampled value of 380 ft of net
pay for a random number of 0.760. The data used to construct Figure
2.65 are shown in Table 2.9.
Figure 2.66 shows the probability density function for a uniform
distribution. For this case, the probability density function is given by

f ( x)

1
x3

(2.92)

x1

The cumulative distribution function (F) is obtained by integrating

Eq.(2.92) to obtain

x1

f ( x)dx

x x1
x3

x1

(2.93)

Solving Eq.(2.93) for x gives

x

x1 F x3

2132

x1

(2.94)

0.007
0.006
0.005
f(x)

0.004
0.003
0.002
0.001
0.000
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

400

500

600

x (ft)

F
1.000
0.900
0.800
0.700
0.600
F 0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0

100

200

300
x (ft)

Figure 2.65. Graphical demonstration of Monte Carlo sampling

Table 2.9: Data for Monte Carlo Sampling of Net Pay Thickness
x

f(x)

200

0.000

0.0000
0

210

0.003

0.0006
7

220

0.013

2-133

0.0013

3
230

0.030

0.0020
0

240

0.053

0.0026
7

250

0.083

0.0033
3

260

0.120

0.0040
0

270

0.163

0.0046
7

280

0.213

0.0053
3

290

0.270

0.0060
0

300

0.333

0.0066
7

310

0.398

0.0063
3

320

0.460

0.0060
0

330

0.518

0.0056
7

340

0.573

0.0053
3

350

0.625

0.0050
0

360

0.673

0.0046
7

370

0.718

0.0043
3

380

0.760

0.0040
0

390

0.798

2134

0.0036

7
400

0.833

0.0033
3

410

0.865

0.0030
0

420

0.893

0.0026
7

430

0.918

0.0023
3

440

0.940

0.0020
0

450

0.958

0.0016
7

460

0.973

0.0013
3

470

0.985

0.0010
0

480

0.993

0.0006
7

490

0.998

0.0003
3

500

1.000

0.0000
0

2-135

Figure 2.66. Probability density function for a uniform distribution

To sample from a uniform distribution, substitute the random number

for F in Eq.(2.94) to obtain
x

x1 Rn x3

x1

(2.95)

The sampling procedure outlined above is the basic Monte Carlo

Sampling procedure. It is not a very efficient sampling technique because
there is no guarantee that all parts of the distribution will be sampled
equally. A more efficient and sophisticated stratified sampling procedure,
known as the Latin Hypercube Sampling, is available. This sampling
procedure ensures that all parts of the distribution are sampled equally
and will result in a faster convergence of the simulation to the final
results than the traditional Monte Carlo Sampling Method.
A brief description of the Latin Hypercube Sampling is as follows.
The cumulative distribution function, 0<F<1, for each variable is divided
into n subintervals of equal probability and numbered 0, 1, 2, 3, , n-1.

2136

The objective is to sample from each subinterval during the first n

iterations. However, the subinterval to be sampled is selected randomly.
For example, if n = 100, the subintervals will be numbered 0, 1, 2, 3, ,
99. Each subinterval can be selected randomly by generating a random
integer from 0 to 99. The subintervals could be picked at random in
advance and stored in a one-dimensional array of 100 elements. Lets
look at the array for the Area, A(100), as an example. The contents of this
array after the random selections might look like this:
A(1) = 45
A(2) = 2
A(3) = 7
A(4) = 92
A(5) = 23
A(6) = 0

A(100) = 8
Make sure every subinterval is represented in the array. A similar array
is generated with a new set of random numbers for each of the other
variables. During the first simulation iteration, the area will be sampled
from subinterval 45. To do so, generate a random number (r) between 0
and 1, say 0.263. The random number used to sample subinterval 45 is
computed as

Rn

A(1)
r
100 100

45
100

2-137

0.263
100

0.45263

(2.96)

In the second iteration, the area will be sampled from subinterval 2 by

generating another random number (r) between 0 and 1, say 0.950 and
computing

Rn

A(2)
r
100 100

2
100

0.950
100

0.02950

(2.97)

At the end of the first 100 iterations, each of the subintervals has been
sampled once. A similar sampling procedure is applied to the other
variables.
To perform the next 100 iterations of the simulation, the sequence
in which the subintervals are sampled is picked randomly. For example,
for the second 100 iterations, the array A may look like this:
A(1) = 3
A(2) = 86
A(3) = 50
A(4) = 14
A(5) = 6
A(6) = 99

A(100) = 72
The sampling for the second 100 iterations then proceeds in the same
manner as for the first 100 iterations. Thus, the entire simulation is
performed in increments of 100 iterations until the planned total number
of iterations is achieved. Figure 2.67 shows qualitatively the effect of
2138

stratification in Latin Hypercube sampling from a normal distribution for

n = 20. The bands get progressively wider towards the tails of the
distribution as the probability density drops off.

Figure 2.67. Effect of stratification in Latin Hypercube sampling.

2.8.5 Simulation Output

Based on your simulation results, calculate the following for the
Reserve (Nr) and Net Cash Flow (NCF) estimates:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Standard deviation
Skewness
Kurtosis
2-139

7. Mode (most likely value)

8. P90 value (There is a 90% probability that the variable of interest is
equal to or greater than the P90 value Low Value)
9. P50 value (median)
10. P10 value (There is a 10% probability that the variable of interest
is equal to or greater than the P10 value High Value)
Note: Based on the above definitions, P10 > P90.
Plot the following graphs:
1. Reserve histograms (Frequency vs N, and Frequency vs natural log
of N)
2. Net Cash Flow (NCF) histograms (Frequency vs NCF, and
Frequency vs natural log of NCF)
3. Cumulative Distribution Function (F) for the reserve (F vs N)
4. Expectation Curve for the reserve ( (1 F) vs N on the same graph
as F vs N)
5. Cumulative Distribution Function (F) for the net cash flow (F vs
NCF)
6. Expectation Curve for the net cash flow ( (1 F) vs NCF on the
same graph as F vs NCF)
7. Histograms for A, h, , Sw, Bo, RF and Oil Price based on your
sampling to see how close they are to their theoretical input
probability density functions .
Suggestion:
You can easily perform this simulation in Excel with VBA or by
writing a high level computer program in Fortran, C++ or Matlab. The
choice is yours. Please do not perform the simulation with a commercial
risk analysis software such as @Risk or Crystal Ball because I want you
to experience the simulation first hand rather than using the commercial
software as a black box.
Note that a similar simulation approach can be used to compute
the recoverable gas reserve in the case of a gas reservoir. In this case, the
appropriate equations are as follows:
2140

Gr

43560 Ah 1 S w
Bg

Bg

0.02827

RF

ZT
P

(2.98)

(2.99)

where
Gr

recoverable gas reserve (standard cubic feet, scf)

Bg

gas formation volume factor (reservoir cubic feet/scf)

gas compressibility factor (dimensionless)

absolute reservoir temperature (Rankine)

reservoir pressure (psia)

43560

conversion constant (ft2/acre)

2.9 PORE VOLUME COMPRESSIBILITY

Reservoir rock at in situ conditions is subjected to overburden
stress, whereas at the surface, recovered core has been relieved of the
overburden stress.

It is not usual to perform routine porosity

measurements under stress approaching reservoir conditions. Because

of this, laboratory-measured porosities are generally expected to be
higher than in situ values. Pore volume compressibility can be used to
correct laboratory-measured porosity to an in situ value and for other
reservoir engineering calculations.

2-141

In general, the isothermal coefficient of compressibility of a

material is defined as

1
V

V
P

(2.100)
T

where the negative sign convention is used to ensure that c is a positive

number because when a material is compressed, its volume decreases
thereby making

V
P

a negative quantity. Pore volume compressibility is

T

defined without the negative sign as

cf

1
Vp

Vp
P

(2.101)
T

where P is the pore pressure (internal pressure) rather than the

overburden pressure (external pressure). When the pore pressure
declines during production, the overburden pressure causes the reservoir
to compact. Thus, a decrease in pore pressure causes a decrease in the
pore volume or porosity thereby making

V
P

or
T

positive.
T

For many years, the petroleum industry has relied on Halls (1953)
correlation,

shown

in

Figure

2.68,

for

estimating

pore

volume

compressibility. This correlation was developed from measurements on

seven consolidated limestone and five consolidated sandstone samples, a
rather small dataset for a universal correlation.
Compressibilities, however, are highly affected by reservoir type
and overburden conditions. Newman (1973) has presented a more
comprehensive pore volume compressibility data based on 256 samples.
2142

Of the 256 samples, 197 were sandstones from 29 sandstone reservoirs,

and 59 were limestones from 11 limestone reservoirs. Figure 2.69 shows
a correlation of the pore volume compressibilities with initial sample
porosities for all 256 samples. Also shown is Hall's correlation. Viewed
collectively, the data show little or no correlation between pore volume
compressibility and initial sample porosity. The data show considerable
disagreement with Hall's correlation.

Figure 2.68. Pore volume compressibility versus porosity (Hall, 1953).

2-143

Figure 2.69. Pore volume compressibility at 75% lithostatic pressure

versus initial sample porosity for sandstone and limestone samples
(Newman, 1973).

Newman divided his data into four qualitative classifications in an

effort to improve the correlation between pore volume compressibility and
initial porosity. He classified the samples as (1) consolidated limestone,
(2) consolidated sandstone, (3) poorly consolidated (friable) sandstone,
and (4) unconsolidated sandstone. Poorly consolidated or friable
sandstone could be broken by hand whereas consolidated sandstone

2144

could not. Unconsolidated sandstone would collapse under its own

weight if it is not protected in a sleeve.
Figure 2.70 shows the correlation for consolidated limestones
along with the correlations from Hall and van der Knaap (1959).
Qualitatively, all three dataset show a general decrease in pore volume
compressibility

with

an

increase

in

porosity.

However,

there

considerable scatter in the data.

Figure 2.70. Pore volume compressibility at 75% lithostatic pressure

versus initial sample porosity for limestone samples (Newman, 1973).

2-145

is

Figure 2.71 shows the correlation for consolidated sandstones

along with Hall's correlation.

Qualitatively, the data show a general

decrease in pore volume compressibility with an increase in porosity with

some scatter. Newman's data decrease more rapidly with an increase in
porosity than Hall's data.

Figure 2.71. Pore volume compressibility at 75% lithostatic pressure

versus initial sample porosity for consolidated sandstone samples
(Newman, 1973).

2146

Figure 2.72 shows the correlation for poorly consolidated or friable

sandstones along with Hall's correlation.

There appears to be no

correlation between pore volume compressibility and porosity for this

class of sandstones.

Figure 2.72. Pore volume compressibility at 75% lithostatic pressure

versus initial sample porosity for poorly consolidated sandstone samples
(Newman, 1973).

2-147

Figure 2.73 shows the correlation for unconsolidated sandstones

along with Hall's correlation.

For this class of sandstones, the pore

volume compressibility increases with an increase in porosity, in contrast

to the trend for consolidated samples.

Figure 2.73. Pore volume compressibility at 75% lithostatic pressure

versus initial sample porosity for unconsolidated sandstone samples
(Newman, 1973).

2148

Newman's data clearly show that there is no universal correlation

for pore volume compressibility and porosity. For detailed analysis, pore
volume compressibility should be measured in the laboratory on core
samples of interest. Figure 2.74 shows a schematic diagram of a typical
device for measuring pore volume compressibility. These measurements
are fairly difficult to make, and must include calibrations for the
compressibilities of the fluids and the equipment.

Figure 2.74. Typical apparatus for measuring pore volume

compressibility (Hall, 1953).

Pore volume compressibility is not always constant. For example,

in abnormally pressured reservoirs, it is common to find that pore
volume compressibility at high reservoir pressures is much larger than

2-149

the pore volume compressibility at low pressures.

This is due to

compaction effects as the pore pressure declines.

Pore volume compaction can lead to undesirable operational
problems. A famous case of this is the subsidence of Ekofisk field in the
Norwegian sector of North Sea. The seafloor subsided about 3 meters
from 1971 to 1984 due to reservoir depletion. Continuous monitoring
indicated subsidence of 33 to 38 cm per year. By 1997, the cumulative
subsidence was 7.8 meters. In 1998, the operator undertook expensive
measures to jack up their platforms by 6 meters. On the other hand,
pore volume compaction provides valuable reservoir drive energy to
increase production from the field.
Total system compressibility is a parameter of importance in
pressure transient testing and reservoir material balance analysis,
especially above the bubble point pressure of the oil. Total system
compressibility is defined as the combined compressibility of the pore
volume and all the fluids saturating the medium:

ct

So co

S w cw

S g cg

NOMENCLATURE
amf =
aw
A

=
=

activity coefficient of mud filtrate

activity coefficient of formation water
atomic weight

Bg

gas formation volume factor

Bo

oil formation volume factor

B0

magnetic field strength

2150

cf

(2.102)

BVI =

bound fluid index

isothermal coefficient of compressibility

cf

isothermal coefficient of compressibility of pore volume

cg

isothermal coefficient of compressibility of gas

co

isothermal coefficient of compressibility of oil

cw

isothermal coefficient of compressibility of water

dh

borehole diameter

di

diameter of invaded zone

ds1 =

slice thickness

dxo =

diameter of flushed zone

diffusion coefficient

Ec

electrochemical potential

Ek

electrokinetic potential

Ekmc =

electrokinetic potential of mud cake

formation resistivity factor

FFI =

free fluid index

FOV =

field of view

gradient

GPE

phase encode gradient

GRO

readout gradient

Gss

slice selection gradient

Gr

recoverable gas reserve

net pay thickness

formation resistivity index

permeability

cementation factor

net magnetization

Mz

net magnetization in the z direction

saturation exponent

Nr

recoverable oil reserve

MNR

nuclear magnetic resonance

2-151

pressure

RF =

radiofrequency

Rf

recovery factor

Ri

resistivity of invaded zone

Rmf =

resistivity of mud filtrate

Rn =

random number

Ro

resistivity of water saturated zone

Rs

resistivity of surrounding formation

Rt

true formation resistivity

Rw

resistivity of formation water

Rxo =

resistivity of flushed zone

surface area of pore

Sh

hydrocarbon saturation

Sg

gas saturation

So

oil saturation

Soi

initial oil saturation

Sor =

residual oil saturation

Sxo =

water saturation of flushed zone

Sw

water saturation

Swirr =

irreducible water saturation

time

tpe

duration of phase encoding gradient pulse

tro

duration of frequency encoding gradient pulse

temperature

T1

longitudinal relaxation time or spin-lattice relaxation time

T2

transverse relaxation time or spin-spin relaxation time

T2gm =

geometric mean time

T2*

apparent transverse relaxation time spin-spin relaxation time

T2bulk

T2surface =
TE

transverse relaxation time of bulk fluid

transverse relaxation time of surface fluid

echo time
2152

TR

repetition time

compressional wave velocity

volume of pore

Vp

pore volume

Vb

bulk volume

Vs

grain volume

atomic number

porosity

effective porosity

total

total porosity

NMR T1 surface relaxivity

NMR T2 surface relaxivity

apparent density

bulk density

electron density

fluid density

rock matrix density

B0 =

magnetic field inhomogeneity

PE

pixel size in the phase encoding direction

RO

pixel size in the readout direction

voxel size

interval transit time

tf

fluid interval transit time

tm =

rock matrix interval transit time

tsh =

shale interval transit time

B =

magnetic field gradient

regularization constant or smoothing parameter

thickness of surface monolayer

(tj) =
=

noise
interpulse spacing time
2-153

=
=

air =

Lamor frequency
Lamor frequency at position r
gyromagnetic ratio
x-ray attenuation coefficient of air (= 0)

brine = x-ray attenuation coefficient of brine

dry

= x-ray attenuation coefficient of dry sample

m =

x-ray attenuation coefficient of rock matrix

wet = x-ray attenuation coefficient of brine saturated sample

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Amyx, J.W., Bass, D.M., Jr. and Whiting, R.L. : Petroleum Reservoir
Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1960.
Anderson, G. : Coring and Core Analysis Handbook, Petroleum Publishing
Company, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1975.
Archer, J.S. and Wall, C.G. : Petroleum Engineering, Graham & Trotman,
London, England, 1986.
Archie, G.E. :The Electrical Resistivity Log as an Aid in Determining
Some Reservoir Characteristics, Trans. AIME (1942) 146, 54-62.
Baker Atlas Publication: Introduction to Wireline Log Analysis, 1992.
Bassiouni, Z. : Theory, Measurement, and Interpretation of Well Logs,
SPE Textbook Series, Vol. 4, Society of Petroleum Engineers,
Richardson, TX, 1994.
Beard, D.C. and Weyl, P.K. : Influence of Texture on Porosity and
Permeability of Unconsolidated Sand, AAPG Bull. (Feb. 1973) 57,
349-369.
Bradley, H.B. (Editor-in-Chief) : Petroleum Engineering Handbook, SPE,
Richardson, Texas, 1987.
Calhoun, J.C. : Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering, University of
Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, 1982.

2154

Carman, P.C. : "Fluid Flow Through A Granular Bed, Trans. Inst. Chem.
Eng. London (1937) 15, 150-156.
Carman, P.C. : "Determination of the Specific Surface of Powders, J. Soc.
Chem. Indus (1938) 57, 225-234.
Carpenter, C.B. and Spencer, G.B. : Measurements of the
Compressibility of Consolidated Oil-Bearing Sandstones, RI 3540,
USBM (Oct. 1940).
Coats, G.R., Xiao, L. and Prammer, M.G. : NMR Logging: Principles and
Applications, Halliburton Energy Services, Houston, 1999.
Collins, R.E. : Flow of Fluids Through Porous Materials, Research &
Engineering Consultants Inc., 1990.
Core Laboratories Inc. : Special Core Analysis, 1976.
Corey, A.T. : Mechanics of Heterogeneous Fluids in Porous Media, Water
Resources Publications, Fort Collins, Colorado, 1977.
Cosse, R. : Basics of Reservoir Engineering, Editions Technip, Paris,
1993.
Dobrynin, V.M. : "The Effect of Overburden Pressure on Some Properties
of Sandstones, Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (Dec. 1962) 360-366.
Dunn, K.J., Bergman, D.J. and Latorraca, G.A.: Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance Petrophysical and Logging Applications, Handbook of
Geophysical Exploration, Seismic Exploration Vol. 32, Pergamon,
New York, 2002.
Fatt, I. : Pore Volume Compressibilities of Sandstone Reservoir Rocks,
Trans., AIME (1958) 213, 362-364.
Fraser, H.J. and Graton, L.C. : "Systematic Packing of Spheres - With
Particular Relation to Porosity and Permeability, J. Geol., Vol. 43,
No. 8, Nov. - Dec., 1935, 789-909.
Geertsma, J. : The Effect of Fluid Pressure Decline on Volumetric
Changes of a Porous Medium, Trans. AIME (1957) 210, 331-340.
Hall, H.N. : Compressibility of Reservoir Rocks, Trans., AIME (1953)
198, 309-311.
Haughey, D.P. and Beveridge, G.S.G. :Structural Properties of Packed
Beds - A Review, Can. J. Chem. Eng., Vol. 47 (April 1969) 130-149.
Jennings, H.J. : How to Handle and Process Soft and Unconsolidated
Cores, World Oil (June 1965) 116-119.
Jorden, J.R. and Campbell, F.L. : Well Logging I - Rock Properties,
Borehole Environment, Mud and Temperature Logging, Monograph
2-155

Vol. 9, Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME , Richardson,

Texas, 1984, Ch. 2.
Keelan, D.K. : "A Critical Review of Core Analysis Techniques The Jour.
Can. Pet. Tech. (April-June 1972) 42-55.
Kleinberg, I. : Probing Oil Wells with NMR, The Industrial Physicist,
(June/July 1996) 18-21.
Li, Ping: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Fluid Displacements in
Porous Media, PhD Dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin,
Austin, Texas, August 1997.
Mann, R.L. and Fatt, I. : Effect of Pore Fluids on the Elastic Properties of
Sandstones, Geophysics (1960) 25, 433-444.
Mayer-Gurr, A. : Petroleum Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1976.
Monicard, R.P. : Properties of Reservoir Rocks, Gulf Publishing Company,
Houston, TX, 1980.
Neasham, J.W.: "The Morphology of Dispersed Clay in Sandstone
Reservoirs and Its Effect on Sandstone Shaliness, Pore Space and
Fluid Flow Properties," SPE 6858, Presented at the 52nd Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition of the Society of Petroleum
Engineers, Denver, Oct. 9-12, 1977.
Newman, G.H. : "Pore-Volume Compressibility of Consolidated, Friable,
and Unconsolidated Reservoir Rocks Under Hydrostatic Loading,
J. Pet. Tech. (Feb. 1973) 129-134.
Peters, E.J. and Afzal, N. : Characterization of Heterogeneities in
Permeable Media with Computed Tomography Imaging, Journal of
Petroleum Science and Engineering, 7, No. 3/4, (May 1992) 283296.
Peters, E.J. and Hardham, W.D. : Visualization of Fluid Displacements
in Porous Media Using Computed Tomography Imaging, Journal of
Petroleum Science and Engineering, 4, No. 2, (May 1990) 155-168.
Pirson, S.J. : Oil Reservoir Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, 1958.
Ruth, D. and Pohjoisrinne, T. : "The Precision of Grain Volume
Porosimeters The Log Analyst (Nov.-Dec. 1993) 29-36.
Schlumberger Publication: Log Interpretation Principles/Applications,
Schlumberger Educational Series, 1987.

2156

Tamari, S. : "Optimum Design of the Constant-Volume Gas Pycnometer

for Determining the Volume of Solid Particles," Meas. Sci.
Tech.,Vol.15, 2004, 549-558.
Tiab, D. and Donaldson, E.C. : Petrophysics, Second Edition, Elsevier,
New York, 2004.
van der Knaap, W. : "Nonlinear Behavior of Elastic Porous Media, Trans.,
AIME (1959) 216, 179-187.
Vose, D. : Quantitative Risk Analysis: A Guide to Monte Carlo Simulation
Modeling, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1998.
Winsauer, W.O., Shearin, H.M., Jr., Masson, P.H. and Williams, M. :
"Resistivity of Brine-Saturated Sands in Relation to Pore
Geometry," AAPG Bull., Vol. 36, No. 2 (Feb. 1952) 253-277.
Wyllie, M.R.J. and Rose, W.D. : "Some Theoretical Considerations Related
to the Quantitative Evaluation of the Physical Characteristics of
Reservoir Rock from Electrical Log Data, Trans., AIME (1950)
189, 105-118.
Wyllie, M.R.J. and Spangler, M.B. : "Application of Electrical Resistivity
Measurements to Problems of Fluid Flow in Porous Media, AAPG
Bull., Vol. 36, No. 2 (Feb. 1952) 359-403.
Wyllie, M.R.J., Gregory, A.R. and Gardner, G.H.F. : "Elastic Wave
Velocities in Heterogeneous and Porous Media Geophysics, Vol.
21, No. 1 (1956) 41-70.

2-157

CHAPTER 3

PERMEABILITY
3.1 DEFINITION
Permeability gives an indication of the porous mediums ability to
transmit fluids (i.e., permit fluid flow). It is defined through Darcys law. For a
horizontal system, Darcys law for single phase flow in differential form is
q

kA dP
dx

(3.1)

For steady-state linear flow of a single phase liquid in a horizontal medium as

shown in Figure 3.1, Darcys Law may be integrated to give
q

kA P1 P2
L

kA P
L

Figure 3.1. Linear flow geometry.

3-1

(3.2)

Eq(3.2) can be solved for the absolute permeability of the porous medium as

q L
A P

(3.3)

The absolute permeability is the permeability of the medium when it is

saturated 100% by a single phase, non-reactive liquid. It is a property of the
porous medium and is independent of the fluid properties.
Eq.(3.2) can be written as

L
q
kA

(3.4)

Eq.(3.4) is useful for processing laboratory data to determine the absolute

permeability of a sample using a non-reactive liquid. If a steady state liquid
flow experiment is performed at several rates, Eq.(3.4) shows that a graph of
P versus q should be linear with a slope, m, given by

L
kA

(3.5)

from which the absolute permeability can be calculated as

L
mA

(3.6)

Table 3.1 shows the data from such an experiment performed on an

unconsolidated sandpack using Dow Corning mineral oil. The fluid and
sandpack properties were as follows:
= 105.363 cp
L = 115.6 cm
d = 4.961 cm
= 37.80%

3-2

Table 3.1: Pressure Drop and Flow Rate Data for Steady State Flow
Experiment in a Sandpack (from Peters, 1979).
q

(cc/s)

(atm)

0.0014

0.0476

0.0556

1.9284

0.0889

3.0573

0.1333

4.5439

0.2222

7.5303

0.3111

10.465

Figure 3.2 shows the graph of P versus q from the experiment. The data plot
as a straight line through the origin, thereby verifying the validity of Darcy's
law for the experiment. The slope of the line is m = 33.658. The permeability
is calculated with Eq.(3.6) as

105.363 115.6
33.658

4.961
2

18.72 darcys.

If the graph of Figure 3.2 were nonlinear, then Darcy's law would not be
valid for the experiment. This situation would occur if the liquid reacted with
the porous medium. An example of such a reaction would occur if the
experiment were performed on a sandstone containing a significant amount of
montmorrillonite-type clays using fresh water. Can you sketch how P would
vary with q in such an experiment?

3-3

Figure 3.2. Graph of P verus q for steady state flow of a non-reactive liquid
through an unconsolidated sandpack.

Table 3.2 compares Darcy units with oilfield units. Using the
information in the table, Eq.(3.2) can be written in oilfield units as

0.001127 kA P
B
L

(3.7)

1 kA P
887.2 B L

(3.8)

or

For radial flow into a wellbore as shown in Figure 3.3, Darcys law may
be expressed in radial coordinates in oilfield units as

3-4

0.00708kh Pe

Pw

(3.9)

r
B ln e
rw

or

1 kh Pe Pw
141.2
r
B ln e
rw

(3.10)

Table 3.2 Comparison of Darcy and Oilfield Units

Variable
Pressure
Time
Flow rate
Wellbore radius
Well drainage radius
Porosity
Permeability
Pay thickness
Fluid viscosity
Compressibility

Darcy Unit
atm
second
cm3/s
cm
cm
fraction
darcy
cm
cp
atm-1

Oilfield Unit
psia
day
STB/D
ft
ft
fraction
millidarcy
ft
cp
psi-1

Figure 3.3. Radial flow into a wellbore.

3-5

3.2 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS OF PERMEABILITY

Eq.(3.2) can be rearranged to determine the dimensions of permeability
as follows:

(3.11)

where the square brackets refer to the dimensions of the enclosed variable.
Using mass (M), length (L) and time (T) as the fundamental dimensions, the
dimensions of the variables on the right side of Eq.(3.11) are

L3
T

M
LT
L

L2

M
LT 2

Thus,

L3
T
L2

M
L
LT
M
LT 2

or
k

L2

(3.12)

Eq.(3.12) shows that the permeability of a porous medium has the dimensions
of length squared. This means that permeability is proportional to the square
of some characteristic dimension of the porous medium.
3-6

Based on Eq.(3.12), a rational unit for permeability would be foot

squared or centimeter squared. Both units were found to be too large for use
with porous media. Therefore, the petroleum industry adopted the darcy as
the unit of permeability. It can be shown that

1darcy

9.869 x10 9 cm 2

9.869 x10

13

m 2 1.062 x10

11

ft 2

(3.13)

3.3 LABORATORY DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY

Permeability is an empirical parameter, which must be determined by
measuring all the parameters in Darcys law. Core permeabilities are usually
measured in the laboratory using dry gas (air, nitrogen or helium) as the
flowing fluid to minimize rock-fluid reaction.

In this case, another form of

Darcys law for steady-state flow of an ideal gas must be used, recognizing
that the volumetric flow rate of a gas varies with pressure. For an ideal gas at
a constant temperature, Boyle's law can be written for a fixed mass of gas at
two conditions as

qP

(3.14)

qsc Psc

where qsc is the gas volumetric flow rate at a reference pressure Psc.
Substituting Eq.(3.14) into (3.1) and rearranging gives
qsc

k g A 1 dP 2
Psc 2 dx

(3.15)

where kg is the permeability to gas of the medium. Eq.(3.15) can be integrated

to give the working equation for a gas permeameter as
kg A

qsc

P12

2 Psc

P22
L

(3.16)

which can be used to calculate the permeability to gas as

kg

2qsc LPsc
A P12 P22
3-7

(3.17)

The permeability to gas determined from Eq.(3.17) at the low pressures

typically used in the laboratory measurement is usually higher than the
absolute permeability of the porous medium because of an electro-kinetic
phenomenon known as the Klinkenberg (1941) effect. Klinkenberg effect is
due to the fact that at low mean pressures, the mean free path of the gas
molecules is about the same size as the pores in the rock. This gives rise to
gas slippage at the wall of the pores. As a result, the permeability to gas at
low pressure is higher than the absolute permeability of the porous medium.
Klinkenberg found that the permeability to gas, kg, is related to the absolute
permeability of the medium, kL, by the equation

kL 1

kg

b
P

(3.18)

where P is the mean gas pressure given by

P1 P2
2

(3.19)

and b is a constant, which depends on the gas used in the measurement. The
absolute permeability (liquid permeability) of the medium can be determined
in the laboratory by measuring permeabilities to gas, kg, at different average
core pressures.

A graph of kg versus

1
yields a straight line with an
P

intercept equal to kL and a slope equal to kLb as shown in Figure 3.4.

Figue 3.5 shows the Klinkenberg correction plots for a core for gas
permeabilities measured with hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide. It
should be noted that the degree of gas slippage varies with the nature of the
gas. Hydrogen with the smallest molecules has the most gas slippage and
carbon dioxide with the largest molecules has the least gas slippage. All three
straight lines extrapolate to the absolute permeability of the core at infinite
mean pressure. The Klinkenberg effect is a laboratory scale phenomenon. It
is usually not important at the high mean pressures of a petroleum reservoir.
3-8

Figure 3.4. Klinkenberg permeability correction.

Figure 3.5. Permeability of a core sample to hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon

dioxide. Absolute permeability of the core to isooctane = 2.55 md (from
Klinkenberg, 1941).

3-9

Figure 3.6 shows a schematic diagram of a gas permeameter. In this

figure, the gas volumetric flow rate, qsc, is measured at the outlet pressure, P2.
Therefore, in this case, P2 is the reference pressure, Psc.

Figure 3.6. Schematic diagram of a gas permeameter.

In general, permeability is an anisotropic property of a porous medium,

that is, it is directional.

Routine core analyses are usually made on core

plugs drilled horizontally from a core. It is sometimes possible to specify that

plugs be cut along bedding planes. Plugs are sometimes cut vertically if it is
desired to obtain vertical as well as horizontal permeabilities. These plugs are
shown in Figure 3.7.

3-10

Figure 3.7. Possible core plug samples.

Because of interactions of fluids with reservoir rocks, absolute

permeabilities to different fluids may not always be the same.

The

permeability to brine, for example, is often somewhat less than the

Klinkenberg-corrected gas permeability.

For this reason, it is usually

beneficial to obtain at least a few brine permeability measurements, especially

if waterflooding is anticipated. These measurements are time-consuming, and

3-11

thus are more costly. Another permeability that is sometimes referenced is

the permeability to oil at irreducible water saturation (kor). This permeability
is known as the effective permeability to oil at irreducible water saturation. Its
value is typically around 80% to 98% of the absolute permeability depending
on the quality of the porous medium. Table 3.3 presents typical values for
clean, unconsolidated sandpacks.

Table 3.3: Petrophysical Data of Sandpacks (from Peters, 1979)

Sample

kor

No

(cm)

(cm)

22.9

(%)

(darcy)

(darcy)

4.81

38.98

16.43

15.82

0.96

11.20

23.6

4.84

36.37

18.36

17.99

0.98

8.66

112.8

4.96

38.38

21.89

18.05

0.82

9.18

23.7

4.81

38.94

18.93

18.33

0.97

11.34

110.5

4.83

38.91

20.52

18.50

0.90

10.83

110.0

4.81

37.61

21.91

19.40

0.89

10.48

23.6

4.84

37.49

14.19

11.03

0.78

15.26

116.1

4.96

34.66

18.28

15.57

0.85

8.32

113.0

4.96

39.62

22.99

19.90

0.87

8.61

10

115.9

4.96

35.86

19.22

15.49

0.81

12.53

11

22.8

4.84

37.52

16.23

15.19

0.94

11.20

12

110.4

4.81

37.46

20.85

18.48

0.89

10.00

13

115.9

4.97

37.80

18.54

15.53

0.84

9.29

14

110.0

4.81

38.11

22.50

18.62

0.83

8.91

15

112.8

4.97

35.48

22.72

20.90

0.92

9.92

16

23.4

4.84

34.61

14.51

9.58

0.66

11.03

17

23.6

4.84

38.60

20.87

18.49

0.89

10.15

18

23.7

4.81

35.44

12.11

11.94

0.99

12.02

3-12

kor/k

Swirr
(%)

Example 3.1
The permeability of a clean, dry core plug is to be determined. The core is
cylindrical with a diameter of 24 mm and a length of 32 mm. The core was
installed in a gas permeameter and air was flowed through it at an average
rate of 100 cm3 in 2 minutes 20 seconds, measured at atmospheric pressure
(Figure 3.8). The pressure differential across the sample was kept constant at
12 cm of mercury. The upstream gauge pressure (at the inlet of the core) was
76 cm of mercury. The gas viscosity at the test temperature was 0.01808 cp.
The barometric pressure was 76 cm of mercury.

Figure 3.8. Gas permeameter for Example 3.1.

1. Calculate the permeability to air at the test conditions.

2. Does the permeability calculated in part 1 represent the true absolute
permeability of this core? If yes, why? If no, why not?

3-13

Solution to Example 3.1

d = 24 mm = 2.4 cm
L = 32 mm = 3.2 cm
qsc = 100cm3/(2 minutes 20 seconds) = (100/140) cm3/s
P1 = 76cm of Hg gauge = 76+76 = 152 cm of Hg absolute
= 152/76 = 2 atm absolute
P2 = (P1 - 12) = 152 - 12 = 140 cm of Hg absolute
= 140/76 = 1.842 atm absolute
Psc = 1 atm
g

= 0.0808 cp

Substituting into Eq.(3.17) gives

kg

2 100 /140 0.01808 1 3.2

2.4 / 2

22 1.8422

0.0301 darcy = 30.1 md

No. The calculated permeability to gas of 30.1 md is not the true absolute
permeability of the core because of Klinkenberg effect. It is larger than the
absolute permeability of the core.

3.4 FIELD DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY

Permeability can be determined in the field by use of pressure transient
tests, essentially measuring the permeability of the in-situ reservoir rock on a
large scale. A transient pressure test consists of changing the flow rate of a
well and then recording the bottomhole pressure response as a function of
time. The pressure data can be analyzed to obtain formation permeability and
other reservoir and well parameters.

Oil permeability at irreducible water

saturation is normally used for comparison with the permeability from most
pressure transient tests that involve only oil flow.

3-14

3.4.1 Diffusivity Equation for Slightly Compressible Liquid

The partial differential equation that describes the transient pressure
response of a reservoir undergoing single phase flow is obtained by combining
the law of mass conservation, Darcys law and an equation of state for the
fluid. The mass conservation equation, also known as the continuity equation,
is

(3.20)

Darcy's law is given by

(3.21)

The equation of state for a slightly compressible liquid such as oil or water is
given by
o

where

c P Po

(3.22)

is the density at a reference pressure Po. Eqs.(3.20) through (3.22)

can be combined to give

2

where

ct P
k
t

1 P
t

(3.23)

is a constant and is given by

k
ct

(3.24)

Eq. 3.23 is known as the diffusivity equation in the petroleum engineering

community.

Others may recognize it as the diffusion equation or the heat

conduction equation. Thus, Eq.(3.23) is a standard partial differential

equation of mathematical physics. It is a second order, parabolic, linear
partial differential equation. The solutions of this equation for specific initial

3-15

and boundary conditions are used for transient pressure analysis and for
natural water influx calculations.
The constant, , is known as the diffusivity constant and can be written
as
kh
k
ct

T
S

hct

(3.25)

where T is the transmissibility of the reservoir given by

kh

(3.26)

and S is the storativity of the reservoir given by

(3.27)

hct

Thus, the diffusivity constant is the ratio of the transmissibility to the

storativity (storage capacity) of the reservoir.
The mathematical model (initial-boundary value problem) for transient
pressure analysis is as follows:
2

P
r2

ct P
k
t

1 P
r r
P r, 0

lim r
r

2 kh

lim P r , t
r

(3.29)

Pi
qsf

P
r

(3.28)

Pi

(3.30)
(3.31)

Eq.(3.28) is Eq.(3.23) for one-dimensional radial flow. Eq.(3.29) is the initial

condition, which specifies that before production commenced, the pressure in
the reservoir was constant and equal to the initial reservoir pressure, Pi.
3-16

Eq.(3.30) is the internal boundary condition at the wellbore, which specifies a

constant instantaneous sandface rate upon commencement of production.
This instantaneous constant sandface boundary condition is unrealistic
because we expect that when a well is put on production, the sandface rate
should increase from zero to the final constant rate over a finite time.
Eq.(3.29) also specifies a vanishingly small wellbore radius thereby treating
the well as a line source. These two specifications, though unrealistic, have
been made for mathematical expediency because with them, we can obtain a
simple approximate solution to the partial differential equation. Eq.(3.31) is
the external boundary condition, which specifies that far away from the
wellbore, the reservoir is undisturbed and as such, the reservoir pressure will
remain at the initial pressure, Pi. This boundary condition is the infinite
acting reservoir boundary condition.
Eqs.(3.28) through (3.31) constitute the initial-boundary value problem
that describes the transient pressure response of a reservoir that has been
put on instantaneous constant sandface rate production. It is useful to put
these equations in dimensionless forms. This will reduce the number of
variables and also will facilitate the use of existing solutions from other fields
for pressure transient analysis. For example, there is a wealth of solutions of
linear, second order, parabolic partial differential equation in the heat
conduction literature. Casting our model in dimensionless variables allows
the immediate use of these existing solutions from other disciplines for our
purpose.
In dimensionless forms, Eqs.(3.28) through (3.31) become
2

PD
rD2

1 PD
rD rD

PD rD , 0

PD
tD
0

3-17

(3.32)
(3.33)

lim rD

rD

PD
rD

lim PD rD , t D

rD

(3.34)

(3.35)

where the dimensionless variables are defined as

Pi

PD

P r, t
qsf

(3.36)

2 kh

rD

r
rw

(3.37)

kt
cr rw2

(3.38)

and

tD

In oilfield units, the dimensionless pressure and dimensionless time are given
by

PD

Pi

P r, t
q B
141.2
kh

(3.39)

and

tD

0.0002637 kt
cr rw2

(3.40)

In Eq.(3.39), q is surface rate and qB is the sandface rate.

Eqs.(3.32) through (3.35) can be solved, for example, by Laplace
transformation. It can be shown that the solution is of the form

PD x

1
Ei ( x)
2

3-18

(3.41)

where

rD2
4t D

(3.42)

and
Ei

(3.43)

dy

Ei(-x) is the exponential integral function, which is tabulated in mathematical

handbooks. Table 3.4 gives the Ei function for various values of the argument,
x. The solution given in Eq.(3.41) can be written as
PD rD , t D

1
Ei
2

rD2
4t D

(3.44)

1
4t D

(3.45)

at any dimensionless radius and time, and

PD 1, t D

1
Ei
2

at the wellbore, where rD = 1. In terms of actual pressure, radius and time in

oilfield units, Eq.(3.44) and (3.45) become

P r, t

Pi

141.2q B
kh

1
Ei
2

ct r 2

948

(3.46)

kt

and

Pwf t

P rw , t

Pi

141.2q B
kh

1
Ei
2

ct rw2

948
kt

(3.47)

3.4.2 Pressure Drawdown Equation

For x 0.01 , the exponential integral function can be accurately
approximated as

3-19

Ei

(3.48)

ln x 0.5772

This approximation is usually valid at the wellbore in all well testing

situations. Using the approximation, the dimensionless solution at the
wellbore, Eq.(3.45), can be written as

1
ln t D
2

PD 1, t D

0.80907 for t D

(3.49)

25

Eq.(3.49) can be written in terms of log to base 10 as

PD 1, t D

1.1513 log t log

k
ct rw2

(3.50)

3.23

Eq.(3.50) gives the flowing bottomhole pressure as

Pwf t

P rw , t

Pi

162.6q B
log t log
kh

k
ct rw2

3.23

(3.51)

Eq.(3.51) provides the theoretical basis for the semilog analysis of drawdown
pressure data. It shows that if the well is produced instantaneously at a
constant sandface rate, then a graph of Pwf versus logt will be linear with a
negative slope given by

162.6q B
kh

(3.52)

and a pressure intercept at logt = 0 given by

Pint

Pi

m log

k
ct rw2

3.23

(3.53)

The formation permeability can be calculated from the slope of the semilog
line as

162.6q B
mh
3-20

(3.54)

Table 3.4: Exponential Integral Function

3-21

and the initial pressure can be calculated from the pressure intercept as

Pi

Pint

m log

k
ct rw2

3.23

(3.55)

3.4.3 Pressure Buildup Equation

We wish to solve the diffusivity equation for the case of a well, which
has been producing at a constant instantaneous rate q for a time and then
shut in at time tp as shown in Figure 3.9C. Since the diffusivity equation is a
linear partial differential equation, superposition principle can be used to
construct this solution from the constant rate solution that we already have.
Figure 3.9 shows a graphical construction of how two constant rates can be
used to generate the rate schedule for a pressure buildup test. If the constant
production rate A is added to the constant injection rate B, the outcome will
be the rate in C, which simulates the rate for a pressure buildup test for a
well that had produced for time tp before it was shut in for the buildup test.

Figure 3.9. Rate schedule for pressure buildup test.

3-22

Using Eq.(3.49), the dimensionless pressure for the buildup test can easily be
derived by applying superposition principle as follows:

PDC
1
ln t p
2

PDA

PDA
t

1
ln t D
2

PDB

(3.56)

PDB

(3.57)

0.80907

(3.58)

0.80907

Substituting Eqs.(3.57) and (3.58) into Eq.(3.56) gives the dimensionless

pressure for the buildup test as
PDBU

PDC

tp
t
1
ln
2
t

(3.59)

Eq.(3.59) gives the following pressure buildup equation

Pws

Pi

tp
t
162.6q B
log
kh
t

(3.60)

Eq.(3.60) is known as the Horner pressure buildup equation for an infinite

acting reservoir. It shows that if the sandface rate (qB) can be reduced to zero
instantaneously as shown in Figure 3.8C, then a graph of the buildup
bottomhole pressure, Pws( t), versus Horner time,

tp

t
t

, will be linear with

a negative slope given by Eq.(3.54) and a pressure intercept equal to Pi. The
formation permeability can be calculated from the slope of the Horner line and
the initial reservoir pressure can be determined by extrapolating the Horner
line to an infinite shut in time. For a bounded reservoir (in contrast to an
infinite acting reservoir), Horner pressure buildup equation takes the form
Pws

P*

tp
t
162.6q B
log
kh
t

3-23

(3.61)

where the extrapolated pressure, P*, is less than the initial reservoir pressure,
Pi .
3.4.4 Diagnostic Plots
The drawdown equation, Eq.(3.51), was derived using an internal
boundary condition in which the sandface rate increased instantaneously
from zero to a constant value. The buildup equation, Eq.(3.60), was derived
using an internal boundary condition in which the sandface rate decreased
from a constant value to zero instantaneously. Given that the wellbore
contains compressible fluids, when the well is opened for production, the
surface rate may be constant but the sandface rate will increase from zero to
a constant value over a definite period of time as shown in Figure 3.10.
Similarly, when the well is shut in at the wellhead for a pressure buildup test,
the surface rate is zero but the sandface rate will decline from its constant
value to zero over a finite period of time as shown in Figure 3.9. This
phenomenon, whereby the sandface rate lags behind the surface rate, is
known as wellbore unloading during drawdown and afterflow during buildup.
The term wellbore storage is normally used to describe the phenomenon either
during drawdown or during buildup.

Figure 3.10. Idealized and actual sandface rates during drawdown and
buildup.
3-24

The consequence of neglecting the effect of wellbore storage in our

mathematical model is that the very early time pressure data will deviate from
the semilog line of Eq.(3.51) for the drawdown test or from the Horner semilog
line of Eq.(3.60) for the buildup test as shown in Figures 3.11 and 3.12. It is
therefore necessary to perform preliminary diagnostic plots of the pressure
data to identify those data that should be fitted to the semilog lines if any. The
function normally used to diagnose the presence of wellbore storage in the
pressure data is the welltest derivative function defined as

PD'

dPD
d ln t D

tD

dPD
dt D

(3.62)

Figure 3.11. Semilog plot for pressure drawdown test showing deviation from
semilog line due to wellbore storage effect.

3-25

Figure 3.12. Horner plot for pressure buildiup test showing deviation from
semilog line due to wellbore storage effect.
The welltest derivative function is defined in the manner shown in Eq.(3.62) to
take advantage of the fact that the data that fit the welltest model for a
drawdown test fall on the semilog line of Eq.(3.42). Along this semilog line, the
dimensionless welltest derivative function will be a constant as shown below:

PD'

dPD
d ln t D

tD

dPD
dt D

1
2

a constant

(3.63)

In actual variables, the welltest derivative function becomes

P'

d P
d ln t

d P
dt

70.6

q B
kh

a constant

(3.64)

Thus, after the effect of wellbore storage has subsided, the welltest derivative
function will become constant along the semilog line. It is only the pressure
data that have a constant welltest derivative (making allowance for
fluctuations due to noise) that should be fitted to the drawdown semilog line.
3-26

The diagnostic plots consist of log-log plots of

P versus t and

P' versus t

superimposed on the same graph. Figure 3.13 shows typical diagnostic plots
for a pressure drawdown test affected by wellbore storage.

Figure 3.13. Diagnostic plots for pressure drawdown data affected by wellbore
storage.

The diagnostic plots can be divided into three time segments. In the first
time segment, P and P' are equal and have a unit slope on the log-log scale.
The data in this time segment are dominated 100% by wellbore storage. They
cannot be used to estimate reservoir properties. They can only be used to
estimate wellbore storage coefficient. In the second time segment,

P and

P'

separate from each other. The derivative function has a characteristic hump
indicative of wellbore storage. The magnitude of the hump is a measure of the
severity of the wellbore storage problem (and skin damage). The pressure data
3-27

in this time segment are still affected by wellbore storage but to a lesser
degree than in the first time segment. The data in this segment can be
analyzed by type curve matching to estimate approximate formation
properties. In the third time segment, the welltest derivative becomes constant
in accordance with Eq.(3.64). Data in this time segment are no longer affected
by wellbore storage and will plot on the correct semilog line of Eq.(3.51). Note
that the constant value of the welltest derivative function in this time segment
is equal to 70.6

q B
kh

as shown in Eq.(3.64). This fact can be used to estimate

the formation permeability from the derivative function. If the test ended
during the second time segment, which happens in many tests, such a test
cannot be analyzed with a semilog plot.
Figure 3.14 shows typical diagnostic plots for a pressure buildup test
affected by wellbore storage. In general, the diagnostic plots are similar to
those of a drawdown test. The only difference is that in the third time
segment, when the pressure data are no longer affected by wellbore storage,
the welltest derivative function for a buildup may not be constant but may be
distorted as shown in Figure 3.14. This distortion is caused by the fact that
an approximate

P is used to calculate the derivative function for a buildup

test instead of the true P, which is not accessible.

The welltest derivative function can be calculated with the following
central difference approximation:

'

d P
ti
dt

ti
ti

Pi
Pi
ti ti 1

ti

ti ti

3-28

Pi
ti

ti
1

ti

Pi

1
1

ti

ti

ti ti

(3.65)

Figure 3.14. Diagnostic plots for pressure buildup data affected by wellbore
storage.

Figure 3.15 shows the pressures used to define P for drawdown and buildup
tests. For drawdown test, P is defined as
P

Pi

(3.66)

Pwf t

For buildup test, P should be defined as

Pws

Pwf t p

However, because Pwf(tp+ t) is not available,

approximated by

3-29

(3.67)
P for buildup test is

Pws

Pwf t p

(3.68)

This approximation could distort the welltest derivative function after the
effect of wellbore storage has subsided. The derivative function for a pressure
buildup test can be calculated with Eq.(3.65) using actual shut in time, t, or
Horner time,

tp

t
t

, or effective shut in time, te, defined as

te

t tp
t tp

(3.69)

Figure 3.15. Pressures used to define P for drawdown and buildup.

3.4.5 Skin Factor

During drilling operations, the near wellbore permeability could be
reduced by formation damage caused by mud filtrate invasion. Also, if the well
is treated by an acid job, the near wellbore permeability could be enhanced
and the well is said to be stimulated. Thus, for a damaged or stimulated well,

3-30

there is a region of altered permeability near the wellbore as shown in Figure

3.16.
The additional pressure change near the wellbore caused by the region
of altered permeability can be incorporated into the welltest model through
the concept of a skin factor. The skin factor, S, is a dimensionless pressure
change at the wellbore given by

Pskin
q
2 kh

(3.70)

in Darcy units or

Pskin
q B
141.2
kh

(3.71)

in oilfield units where Pskin is defined as

Pskin

Pwfundamaged

Pwfdamaged

(3.72)

Pskin

Pwfundamaged

Pwfstimulated

(3.73)

for a damaged well or

for a stimulated well. It can be seen from Figure 3.16 that Pskin and hence, S,
is positive for a damaged well and negative for a stimulated well. It can be
shown that the permeability of the altered zone, ks, is related to the true
formation permeability, k, by the equation
S

r
k
1 ln s
ks
rw

(3.74)

Eq.(3.74) contains two unknowns, ks and rs, an as such is not as useful for
estimating the skin factor as it appears to be.

3-31

Figure 3.16. Schematic diagram showing skin.

Skin factor can be incorporated into the welltest model as

PD 1, t D

1
ln t D
2

0.80907 +S for t D

25

Eq.(3.75) can be written in terms of log to base 10 as

3-32

(3.75)

PD 1, t D

k
ct rw2

1.1513 log t log

3.23 0.87 S

(3.76)

Eq.(3.76) gives the flowing bottomhole pressure in the presence of a skin as

Pwf t

P rw , t

162.6q B
log t log
kh

Pi

k
ct rw2

3.23 0.87 S

(3.77)

Eq.(3.77) can be solved for the skin factor from the drawdown semilog line as

S 1.1513

Pwf 1hr Pi
162.6q B
kh

log

k
ct rw2

3.23

(3.78)

where Pwf(1hr) is read on the semilog straight line or its extrapolation as

shown in Figure 3.10. For a buildup test, the skin factor is given by

S 1.1513

Pwf t p

Pws 1hr

162.6q B
kh

log

k
ct rw2

3.23

(3.79)

where Pws(1hr) is read on the Horner straight line or its extrapolation as

shown in Figure 3.12. Thus, the skin factor, S, can be determined from a
drawdown or a buildup test. Note that the presence of a skin factor does not
affect the shape of the welltest derivative function and as such, it can still be
used to perform its diagnostic function.
3.4.6 Homogeneous Reservoir Model with Wellbore Storage and Skin
The welltest model can be reformulated to include wellbore storage and
skin. The resulting initial-boundary value problem to be solved consists of the
following equations in Darcy units

3-33

P
r2

ct P
k
t

1 P
r r
P r, 0

Pwf

P
r

dPwf

r rw

P r, t

(3.31)

Pi

(3.29)

Pi

lim P r , t
2 kh

(3.28)

S r

dt

P
r

(3.80)

(3.81)
r rw

The previous single internal boundary condition, Eq.(3.30), has now

been replaced by two internal boundary conditions, Eqs.(3.80) and (3.81).
Eq.(3.80) states that the constant surface rate, q, consists of the sum of the
sandface rate, given by the first term on the left side of the equation, and the
wellbore storage rate, given by the second term on the left side of the
equation. The constant, C, is the wellbore storage coefficient defined as
C

V
P

Vi V (t )
Pi Pwf (t )

where
C

= wellbore storage coefficient, reservoir cm3/atm

= change in wellbore fluid volume, reservoir cm3

= change in bottomhole pressure, atm

Vi

= initial wellbore fluid volume before unloading, reservoir cm3

V(t)

= wellbore fluid volume during unloading, reservoir cm3

Pi

= initial wellbore pressure before unloading, atm

Pwf(t) = wellbore pressure during unloading, atm

3-34

(3.82)

The wellbore storage coefficient, C, is a measure of the severity of the wellbore

storage problem and can be determined from the unit slope line of the first
time segment on the diagnostic plots. The unit slope line in oilfield units is
given by

qB
t
24C

(3.83)

from which C can be calculated in RB/psi as

qB
24

t
P

(3.84)
unit slope line

Eq.(3.81) states that the pressure change at the wellbore, (Pi-Pwf),

consists of the sum of the pressure change for the undamaged or
unstimulated well, given by the first term on the right side of the equation,
and Pskin, given by the second term on the right side of the equation.
The initial-boundary value problem can be put in dimensionless form as
2

PD
rD2

1 PD
rD rD

PD rD , 0

PD
tD

lim PD rD , t D

PwD

dPwD
dt D

PD

rD

(3.33)

PD
rD

S rD

(3.35)

rD

CD

(3.32)

(3.85)

rD 1

PD
rD

(3.86)
rD

where the dimensionless wellbore storage coefficient is defined as

3-35

CD

C
2 ct hrw2

(3.87)

CD

5.615C
2 ct hrw2

(3.88)

in Darcy units or

in oilfield units. The larger the dimensionless wellbore storage coefficient, the
more severe is the wellbore storage problem.
The initial-boundary value problem represented by Eqs.(3.32), (3.33),
(3.35), (3.85) and (3.86) can be solved by Laplace transformation. It can be
shown that the dimensionless pressure at the wellbore in Laplace space is
given by

PwD 1, z

Ko
z 3/ 2 K1

S zK1

z 2C D K o

S zK1

(3.89)

where z is the Laplace parameter and Ko and K1 are Bessel functions of the
second kind of order 0 and 1. Eq.(3.89) can easily be inverted numerically, by
say Stehfest algorithm, to obtain the PwD function in the time domain. To
obtain the welltest derivative function, the Calculus derivative with respect to
tD in Laplace space is first obtained, inverted and multiplied by tD. The
Calculus derivative in Laplace space is given by

'
1, z
PwD

zPwD 1, z

z Ko
z 3/ 2 K1

S zK1

z 2CD K o

z
S zK1

(3.90)

Figure 3.17 shows the solutions and welltest derivative functions for
various values of CDe2S plotted on log-log scales. This family of solutions
constitutes Bourdet et al.'s wellbore storage type curves, which can be used to
analyze transient pressure tests that fit a homogeneous reservoir model with
wellbore storage and skin by type curve matching.
3-36

3.4.7 Type Curve Matching

A type curve is a graph of dimensionless pressure together with the
corresponding welltest derivative function versus dimensionless time, often on
a log-log scale. Such a graph is a convenient way to present the solution to
the diffusivity equation obtained by numerical computations. Figure 3.17 is
an example of type curves obtained by solving the diffusivity equation in the
presence of wellbore storage and skin. From the definitions of PwD, tD and CD,

BOURDET TYPE CURVES

CDe

100

2S

1060
1050
1040
1030
1020
1015
1010
108
106
104
103
102

PwD - PwD'

10

0.1
0.1

10

100

1000

10000

tD/CD

Figure 3.17. Bourdet et al type curves for a homogeneous reservoir with

wellbore storage and skin for CDe2S from 102 to 1060.

3-37

log PwD

log P log

kh
141.2q B

(3.91)

2.951x10 4 kh
log t log
C

t
log D
CD

(3.92)

Eqs.(3.91) and (3.92) show that the graph of log PwD versus log

tD
CD

is the

same as the graph of log P versus log t with the axes shifted by the constants

log

kh
141.2q B

and log

2.951x10 4 kh
. Thus, the
C

P versus t obtained from a

transient pressure test can be matched graphically with the appropriate type
curve to estimate the reservoir and well parameters.
The procedure for using the Bourdet et al.'s type curves to analyze a
transient pressure test is as follows:
1. Prepare a log-log plot of

P versus t on tracing paper using the same

scale as the type curves. Use only major grid lines on this plot. This is
the field plot.
2. Slide the field plot over the type curves both vertically and horizontally
to obtain the best match of the PD function and the corresponding
welltest derivative function. Trace the matched type curve on the field
plot to obtain a visual record of the best match.
3. Choose a convenient match point and record PDM ,
CD e 2 S

tD
CD

, tM and
M

4. Calculate the formation permeability from the pressure match as

141.2q B PDM
h
PM
3-38

(3.93)

5. Calculate the wellbore storage coefficient from the time match as

0.0002951kh
C

tD
CD

tM
(3.94)

6. Calculate the dimensionless wellbore storage coefficient.

7. Calculate the skin factor as

1
ln
2

CD e 2 S

CD

(3.95)

Figure 3.18 shows qualitatively a type match using the Bourdet et al.'s type
curves.

Figure 3.18. Example type curve match.

3-39

3.4.8 Radius of Investigation of a WellTest

An approximate equation for estimating the radius investigated by a
welltest is given by
rinv

0.03248

kt
ct

(3.96)

where the variables are in oilfield units.

3.4.9 Field Example of a Well Test Analysis
A pressure buildup test was conducted on a new well in a new reservoir with
the results shown in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5: Pressure Buildup Data for Field Example

t
(hrs)
15.33000
15.33417
15.33833
15.34250
15.34667
15.35083
15.35500
15.35917
15.36333
15.36750
15.37583
15.38000
15.38833
15.39667
15.40500
15.41333
15.42583
15.43833
15.45083
15.46333
15.47583
15.49250
15.50917
15.52583
15.54250
15.55917
15.58000

t
(hrs)
0.00000
0.00417
0.00833
0.01250
0.01667
0.02083
0.02500
0.02917
0.03333
0.03750
0.04583
0.05000
0.05833
0.06667
0.07500
0.08333
0.09583
0.10833
0.12083
0.13333
0.14583
0.16250
0.17917
0.19583
0.21250
0.22917
0.25000

3-40

Pws

(psia)
3086.33
3090.57
3093.81
3096.55
3100.03
3103.27
3106.77
3110.01
3113.25
3116.49
3119.48
3122.48
3128.96
3135.92
3141.17
3147.64
3161.95
3170.68
3178.39
3187.12
3194.24
3205.96
3216.68
3227.89
3238.37
3249.07
3261.79

15.62167
15.66333
15.70500
15.74667
15.78833
15.83000
15.87167
15.91333
15.95500
15.99667
16.03833
16.08000
16.14250
16.20500
16.26750
16.33000
16.39250
16.45500
16.51750
16.58000
16.64250
16.70500
16.76750
16.83000
16.95500
17.08000
17.20500
17.33000
17.58000
17.70500
17.83000
18.08000
18.33000
18.58000
18.83000
19.08000
19.33000
19.58000
19.83000
20.08000
20.33000
20.58000
20.83000
21.08000
21.33000
21.58000
22.08000
22.58000
23.08000
23.58000

0.29167
0.33333
0.37500
0.41667
0.45833
0.50000
0.54167
0.58333
0.62500
0.66667
0.70833
0.75000
0.81250
0.87500
0.93750
1.00000
1.06250
1.12500
1.18750
1.25000
1.31250
1.37500
1.43750
1.50000
1.62500
1.75000
1.87500
2.00000
2.25000
2.37500
2.50000
2.75000
3.00000
3.25000
3.50000
3.75000
4.00000
4.25000
4.50000
4.75000
5.00000
5.25000
5.50000
5.75000
6.00000
6.25000
6.75000
7.25000
7.75000
8.25000

3-41

3287.21
3310.15
3334.34
3356.27
3374.98
3394.44
3413.90
3433.83
3448.05
3466.26
3481.97
3493.69
3518.63
3537.34
3553.55
3571.75
3586.23
3602.95
3617.41
3631.15
3640.86
3652.85
3664.32
3673.81
3692.27
3705.52
3719.26
3732.23
3749.71
3757.19
3763.44
3774.65
3785.11
3794.06
3799.80
3809.50
3815.97
3820.20
3821.95
3823.70
3826.45
3829.69
3832.64
3834.70
3837.19
3838.94
3838.02
3840.78
3843.01
3844.52

24.08000
24.58000
25.08000
25.58000
26.08000
26.58000
27.08000
27.58000
28.08000
28.58000
29.08000
29.83000
30.58000
31.33000
32.08000
32.83000
33.58000
34.33000
35.08000
35.83000
36.58000
37.58000
38.58000
39.58000
40.58000
41.58000
42.58000
43.83000
45.33000

8.75000
9.25000
9.75000
10.25000
10.75000
11.25000
11.75000
12.25000
12.75000
13.25000
13.75000
14.50000
15.25000
16.00000
16.75000
17.50000
18.25000
19.00000
19.75000
20.50000
21.25000
22.25000
23.25000
24.25000
25.25000
26.25000
27.25000
28.50000
30.00000

3846.27
3847.51
3848.52
3850.01
3850.75
3851.76
3852.50
3853.51
3854.25
3855.07
3855.50
3856.50
3857.25
3857.99
3858.74
3859.48
3859.99
3860.73
3860.99
3861.49
3862.24
3862.74
3863.22
3863.48
3863.99
3864.49
3864.73
3865.23
3865.74

Other pertinent data are as follows:

Producing time before the test =

15.33 hours

Production rate before the test =

174 STB/D

Wellbore radius

0.29 ft

Formation thickness

107 ft

Porosity

25 %

Total compressibility

4.2x10-6 psi-1

Formation volume factor

1.06 RB/STB

Oil viscosity

2.5 cp

3-42

a.

Screen the pressure data using appropriate diagnostic plots.

b.

Analyze the test data and determine the formation permeability, the
total skin factor and the initial reservoir pressure.

c.

Calculate the radius of investigation of the test.

d.

Simulate the buildup test assuming a homogeneous reservoir with

wellbore storage and skin. Show the best match graphically by
superimposing the simulated and the test data on the plots of P versus
t, log-log diagnostic plots and the Horner plot. What are the values of k,
S and CD , Pwf(tp) and Pi that gave the best match?

The pertinent data for the diagnostic plots and Horner plot are shown in
Table 3.6.
Table 3.6: Calculated Values of P and P'

te
(hrs)

Horner

Pws

Time

(psia)

(hrs)

(hrs)

(psi)

15.33000

0.00000

15.33417

0.00417

0.00417

3677.26

3090.57

4.24

15.33833

0.00833

0.00833

1841.34

3093.81

15.34250

0.01250

0.01249

1227.40

15.34667

0.01667

0.01665

15.35083

0.02083

15.35500

P ' wrt te

P ' wrt t

(psi)

(psi)

7.48

5.98

5.98

3096.55

10.22

9.33

9.32

920.62

3100.03

13.70

13.46

13.45

0.02080

736.96

3103.27

16.94

16.88

16.85

0.02500

0.02496

614.20

3106.77

20.44

20.24

20.20

15.35917

0.02917

0.02911

526.54

3110.01

23.68

22.73

22.69

15.36333

0.03333

0.03326

460.95

3113.25

26.92

25.98

25.93

15.36750

0.03750

0.03741

409.80

3116.49

30.16

23.96

23.91

15.37583

0.04583

0.04569

335.50

3119.48

33.15

27.55

27.46

15.38000

0.05000

0.04984

307.60

3122.48

36.15

37.07

36.95

15.38833

0.05833

0.05811

263.82

3128.96

42.63

47.21

47.03

3086.33

3-43

15.39667

0.06667

0.06638

230.94

3135.92

49.59

49.03

48.82

15.40500

0.07500

0.07463

205.40

3141.17

54.84

53.03

52.76

15.41333

0.08333

0.08288

184.97

3147.64

61.31

77.43

76.99

15.42583

0.09583

0.09523

160.97

3161.95

75.62

88.83

88.32

15.43833

0.10833

0.10757

142.51

3170.68

84.35

71.73

71.24

15.45083

0.12083

0.11989

127.87

3178.39

92.06

80.09

79.46

15.46333

0.13333

0.13218

115.98

3187.12

100.79

85.25

84.53

15.47583

0.14583

0.14446

106.12

3194.24

107.91

92.29

91.40

15.49250

0.16250

0.16080

95.34

3205.96

119.63

110.52

109.37

15.50917

0.17917

0.17710

86.56

3216.68

130.35

119.27

117.89

15.52583

0.19583

0.19336

79.28

3227.89

141.56

129.06

127.44

15.54250

0.21250

0.20959

73.14

3238.37

152.04

136.87

135.00

15.55917

0.22917

0.22579

67.89

3249.07

162.74

146.06

143.92

15.58000

0.25000

0.24599

62.32

3261.79

175.46

155.10

152.61

15.62167

0.29167

0.28622

53.56

3287.21

200.88

172.44

169.27

15.66333

0.33333

0.32624

46.99

3310.15

223.82

192.65

188.52

15.70500

0.37500

0.36605

41.88

3334.34

248.01

212.55

207.52

15.74667

0.41667

0.40564

37.79

3356.27

269.94

208.64

203.21

15.78833

0.45833

0.44502

34.45

3374.98

288.65

216.24

209.94

15.83000

0.50000

0.48421

31.66

3394.44

308.11

241.12

233.50

15.87167

0.54167

0.52318

29.30

3413.90

327.57

265.11

256.05

15.91333

0.58333

0.56195

27.28

3433.83

347.50

247.95

239.07

15.95500

0.62500

0.60052

25.53

3448.05

361.72

253.29

243.21

15.99667

0.66667

0.63889

23.99

3466.26

379.93

283.06

271.37

16.03833

0.70833

0.67705

22.64

3481.97

395.64

243.76

233.17

16.08000

0.75000

0.71502

21.44

3493.69

407.36

258.62

246.28

16.14250

0.81250

0.77160

19.87

3518.63

432.30

298.44

283.73

16.20500

0.87500

0.82775

18.52

3537.34

451.01

258.25

244.44

16.26750

0.93750

0.88347

17.35

3553.55

467.22

273.98

258.07

16.33000

1.00000

0.93876

16.33

3571.75

485.42

278.26

261.44

16.39250

1.06250

0.99363

15.43

3586.23

499.90

283.74

265.20

16.45500

1.12500

1.04809

14.63

3602.95

516.62

301.05

280.62

16.51750

1.18750

1.10213

13.91

3617.41

531.08

288.60

267.90

16.58000

1.25000

1.15576

13.26

3631.15

544.82

253.30

234.50

16.64250

1.31250

1.20899

12.68

3640.86

554.53

247.56

227.85

3-44

16.70500

1.37500

1.26182

12.15

3652.85

566.52

281.16

258.06

16.76750

1.43750

1.31426

11.66

3664.32

577.99

263.46

241.04

16.83000

1.50000

1.36631

11.22

3673.81

587.48

247.74

225.68

16.95500

1.62500

1.46926

10.43

3692.27

605.94

227.42

206.12

17.08000

1.75000

1.57070

9.76

3705.52

619.19

210.56

188.93

17.20500

1.87500

1.67066

9.18

3719.26

632.93

224.74

200.33

17.33000

2.00000

1.76919

8.67

3732.23

645.90

208.37

184.96

17.58000

2.25000

1.96203

7.81

3749.71

663.38

162.84

142.20

17.70500

2.37500

2.05641

7.45

3757.19

670.86

150.46

130.44

17.83000

2.50000

2.14947

7.13

3763.44

677.11

140.26

120.70

18.08000

2.75000

2.33172

6.57

3774.65

688.32

140.46

119.19

18.33000

3.00000

2.50900

6.11

3785.11

698.78

138.98

116.46

18.58000

3.25000

2.68151

5.72

3794.06

707.73

115.07

95.49

18.83000

3.50000

2.84944

5.38

3799.80

713.47

133.68

108.08

19.08000

3.75000

3.01297

5.09

3809.50

723.17

150.18

121.27

19.33000

4.00000

3.17227

4.83

3815.97

729.64

107.37

85.60

19.58000

4.25000

3.32750

4.61

3820.20

733.87

64.24

50.83

19.83000

4.50000

3.47882

4.41

3821.95

735.62

40.75

31.50

20.08000

4.75000

3.62637

4.23

3823.70

737.37

56.31

42.75

20.33000

5.00000

3.77029

4.07

3826.45

740.12

79.61

59.90

20.58000

5.25000

3.91071

3.92

3829.69

743.36

87.17

65.00

20.83000

5.50000

4.04777

3.79

3832.64

746.31

74.57

55.11

21.08000

5.75000

4.18157

3.67

3834.70

748.37

72.12

52.33

21.33000

6.00000

4.31224

3.56

3837.19

750.86

70.51

50.88

21.58000

6.25000

4.43987

3.45

3838.94

752.61

34.46

25.33

22.08000

6.75000

4.68648

3.27

3838.02

751.69

19.52

12.42

22.58000

7.25000

4.92217

3.11

3840.78

754.45

53.06

36.18

23.08000

7.75000

5.14764

2.98

3843.01

756.68

43.29

28.98

23.58000

8.25000

5.36355

2.86

3844.52

758.19

41.52

26.89

24.08000

8.75000

5.57049

2.75

3846.27

759.94

40.82

26.16

24.58000

9.25000

5.76902

2.66

3847.51

761.18

33.25

20.81

25.08000

9.75000

5.95963

2.57

3848.52

762.19

40.20

24.38

25.58000

10.25000

6.14279

2.50

3850.01

763.68

37.65

22.86

26.08000

10.75000

6.31892

2.43

3850.75

764.42

32.21

18.81

26.58000

11.25000

6.48843

2.36

3851.76

765.43

33.95

19.69

3-45

27.08000

11.75000

6.65168

2.30

3852.50

766.17

36.54

20.56

27.58000

12.25000

6.80901

2.25

3853.51

767.18

38.36

21.44

28.08000

12.75000

6.96074

2.20

3854.25

767.92

36.51

19.89

28.58000

13.25000

7.10716

2.16

3855.07

768.74

30.55

16.56

29.08000

13.75000

7.24854

2.11

3855.50

769.17

27.64

14.43

29.83000

14.50000

7.45173

2.06

3856.50

770.17

32.70

16.92

30.58000

15.25000

7.64495

2.01

3857.25

770.92

30.23

15.15

31.33000

16.00000

7.82892

1.96

3857.99

771.66

32.51

15.89

32.08000

16.75000

8.00429

1.92

3858.74

772.41

34.83

16.64

32.83000

17.50000

8.17164

1.88

3859.48

773.15

30.98

14.58

33.58000

18.25000

8.33152

1.84

3859.99

773.66

33.60

15.21

34.33000

19.00000

8.48442

1.81

3860.73

774.40

27.78

12.67

35.08000

19.75000

8.63077

1.78

3860.99

774.66

23.22

10.01

35.83000

20.50000

8.77100

1.75

3861.49

775.16

40.28

17.08

36.58000

21.25000

8.90548

1.72

3862.24

775.91

39.27

16.70

37.58000

22.25000

9.07644

1.69

3862.74

776.41

26.72

10.90

38.58000

23.25000

9.23853

1.66

3863.22

776.89

21.33

8.60

39.58000

24.25000

9.39243

1.63

3863.48

777.15

24.52

9.34

40.58000

25.25000

9.53875

1.61

3863.99

777.66

33.76

12.75

41.58000

26.25000

9.67803

1.58

3864.49

778.16

25.91

9.71

42.58000

27.25000

9.81077

1.56

3864.73

778.40

23.88

8.48

43.83000

28.50000

9.96817

1.54

3865.23

778.90

30.25

10.62

45.33000

30.00000

10.14560

1.51

3865.74

779.41

The diagnostic plots depicted in Figure 3.19 show the classic response of a
homogeneous reservoir model with wellbore storage and skin. From the
welltest derivative function, it would appear that the effect of wellbore storage
had subsided at about 10 hrs, in which case, the pressure data beyond 10 hrs
might be fitted to the Horner semilog line. Notice the noise in the derivative
function. This is not surprising because numerical differentiation is a noisy
process. The wellbore storage coefficient can be calculated from the unit slope
line as

3-46

174 1.06
24

1
800

0.0096 RB/psi

The dimensionless wellbore storage coefficient is given by

CD

5.615 0.0096
2

0.25 4.20 x10

107 0.29

9.09 x102

Figure 3.19. Diagnostic plots for field example.

Figure 3.20 shows the Horner plot. The Horner straight line is given by

Pws

3880.60 78.52 log

3-47

15.33
t

The slope of the Horner line is

78.52 psi/log cycle

from which the permeability is calculated as

162.6 174 2.5 1.06

78.52 107

8.92 md

Figure 3.20. Horner plot for field example.

From the Horner line,

Pws 1hr

3785.35 psia

The skin factor can be calculated as

3-48

S 1.1513

3086.33 3785.35
78.52

S 1.1513 8.90 7.61 3.23

log

8.92
0.25 2.5 4.20 x10

0.29

3.23

5.21

Thus, the well is damaged. The initial reservoir pressure is given by

Pi

P*

3880.6 psia.

The radius of investigation for the drawdown portion of the test is given by
rinv

0.03248

8.92 15.33
0.25 2.5 4.20 x10

234 ft

The radius of investigation for the buildup portion of the test is given by
rinv

0.03248

8.92 30
0.25 2.5 4.20 x10

330 ft

The buildup test cannot investigate what the drawdown did not investigate.
Therefore, the radius of investigation of the buildup test test is obtained from
the drawdown portion of the test as 234 ft. The reservoir bulk volume
investigated by the test is given by

2
rinv
h

2342 107

18.406 x106 ft 3

The estimated permeability of 8.92 md can be assigned to this volume of the

reservoir. This is in contrast to the core permeability, which is measured on a
minute portion of the reservoir.
The last step in a pressure transient analysis is to simulate the test. A
successful simulation of the test, though non-unique, tends to lend credibility
to the results of the analysis. Using the k, S and CD obtained from the semilog
analysis as preliminary estimates, the homogeneous reservoir model with

3-49

wellbore storage and skin can be used to simulate the test by a trial and error
procedure.
Figures 3.21 through 3.23 show graphical comparisons of the simulated
test and the field test. Figure 3.21 compares the pressure buildup responses;
Figure 3.22 compares the log-diagnostic plots; and Figure 3.23 compares the
Horner plots. Clearly, the agreement between the simulated test and the field
test is good. The best match was obtained with the following parameters:
k

9.4 md

CD

9 x102

CD e 2 S
Pwf t p
Pi

1.46 x108
3089.46 psia

3880.60 psia

Thus, the simulation serves to fine tune the parameters obtained by the
conventional semilog analysis of the test.

Figure 3.21. A comparison of the simulated and the measured pressure

buildup response for field example.
3-50

Figure 3.22. A comparison of the simulated and the measured

diagnostic plots for field example.

Figure 3.23. A comparison of the simulated and the measured Horner

plots for field example.
3-51

3.4.10 Welltest Model for Dry Gas Reservoir

The diffusivity equation for real gas flow is given by
2

ct M
k
t

1 M
t

(3.97)

The dependent variable in Eq.(3.97), M(P), is defined as

P

M ( P)

Po

2P
dP
Z

(3.98)

where Po is a reference pressure. M(P) is known as the real gas potential or

the real gas pseudo pressure. Eq.(3.97) is similar in structure to Eq.(3.23)
that formed the basis for the welltest model for oil (and water) reservoirs. This
suggests that all the equations used to analyze transient pressure tests in an
oil reservoir can be adapted to analyze transient pressure tests in a dry gas
reservoir provided the pressure data from the gas well test are first
transformed into the real gas potential, M(P).
The dimensionless pressure for real gas flow in oilfield units is defined
as

PD

M Pi

M Pwf

(3.99)

1422qscT
kh

where
qsc = gas production rate, Mscf/D
T = absolute temperature of the reservoir, Rankine (R = F+460)
The semilog drawdown line is given

M Pwf

M Pi

1637qscT
log t log
kh

3-52

k
ct rw2

3.23 0.87 S

(3.100)

The gas velocity in the reservoir can be quite high given the low viscosity of
gas. This could lead to non-darcy flow with an additional pressure drop above
that of darcy flow. The effect of non-darcy flow can be expressed as a skin
factor as shown in Section 3.12. As a result, the total skin factor for a gas well
test, S, is normally split into the sum of two skin factors S* and Dqsc, where D
is a non-darcy coefficient and S* is the part of the total skin factor that does
not include the non-darcy effect. With this modification, Eq.(3.100) becomes

M Pwf

M Pi

1637qscT
log t log
kh

k
2
i cti rw

3.23 0.87 S * 0.87 Dqsc (3.101)

The slope of the semilog line is given by

1637 qscT
kh

(3.102)

from which the formation permeability can be determined. The total skin
factor for drawdown test is given by

S 1.1513

M Pwf

1hr

M Pi

1637 qscT
kh

log

k
2
i cti rw

(3.103)

3.23

Horner's buildup equation is given by

M Pws

M P*

tp
t
1637 qscT
log
kh
t

Eq.(3.104) suggests that a graph of M Pws

versus log

(3.104)

tp

t
t

will be linear

with a negative slope, m, given by

1637 qscT
kh

(3.96)

from which the formation permeability can be determined. The total skin
3-53

factor for a buildup test is given by

S 1.1513

M Pwf

M Pws

1hr

1637 qscT
kh

k
cr

log

* * 2
t w

(3.105)

3.23

where M(Pws)1hr is obtained from the semilog straight line or its extrapolation,
and

and ct* are obtained at the pressure intercept, P*.

Diagnostic plots

should be used to screen the M(P) data for wellbore storage in the manner
described for oil welltests to determine the correct semilog lines if any.
The M(P) function for a dry gas reservoir can be computed in advance
using the gas properties. To do so requires the ability to estimate the gas Z
factor and viscosity as functions of pressure and temperature. Correlations
exist for these functions in the literature. Table 3.7 shows the gas properties
and the M(P) function for a dry gas reservoir with the following properties:
Reservoir temperature

= 246 F + 459.67 = 705.67 R

Pseudocritical pressure

= 665.0 psia

Pseudocritical temperature

= 374.9 R

Apparent molecular weight of gas

= 18.870 lb mass/lb mole

Apparent molecular weight of air

= 28.9625 lb mass/lb mole

Density of fresh water

= 62.368 lb mass/cu ft

Table 3.7: Variation of Gas Properties with Pressure

Pressure

P/Z

Bg

cg

M(P)

(psia)

(psia)

(ft3/Mscf)

(lbm/ft3)

(106/psi)

(cp)

(psia2/cp)

200

0.986

203

98.120

0.505

5066.65

0.01393

2.8933E+06

400

0.974

411

48.428

1.024

2562.91

0.01413

1.1625E+07

600

0.962

624

31.895

1.554

1725.07

0.01437

2.6130E+07

800

0.951

841

23.656

2.095

1303.13

0.01466

4.6298E+07

1000

0.942

1062

18.736

2.646

1047.10

0.01498

7.1964E+07

3-54

1200

0.934

1285

15.477

3.203

873.69

0.01534

1.0292E+08

1400

0.927

1511

13.169

3.764

747.30

0.01573

1.3890E+08

1600

0.921

1737

11.456

4.327

650.20

0.01616

1.7962E+08

1800

0.917

1962

10.140

4.888

572.64

0.01661

2.2476E+08

2000

0.915

2186

9.102

5.446

508.85

0.01710

2.7397E+08

2200

0.914

2406

8.267

5.996

455.22

0.01760

3.2690E+08

2400

0.915

2623

7.583

6.537

409.42

0.01813

3.8321E+08

2600

0.917

2836

7.015

7.066

369.82

0.01868

4.4254E+08

2800

0.920

3043

6.538

7.582

335.30

0.01924

5.0455E+08

3000

0.925

3244

6.133

8.082

305.01

0.01982

5.6894E+08

3200

0.931

3438

5.786

8.567

278.31

0.02040

6.3540E+08

3400

0.938

3626

5.486

9.036

254.68

0.02100

7.0367E+08

3600

0.945

3808

5.225

9.488

233.71

0.02159

7.7350E+08

3800

0.954

3982

4.995

9.923

215.03

0.02220

8.4466E+08

4000

0.964

4150

4.793

10.341

198.36

0.02280

9.1697E+08

4200

0.974

4312

4.614

10.744

183.45

0.02340

9.9024E+08

4400

0.985

4467

4.454

11.130

170.07

0.02400

1.0643E+09

4600

0.997

4616

4.310

11.501

158.03

0.02460

1.1391E+09

4800

1.009

4759

4.181

11.857

147.19

0.02520

1.2144E+09

5000

1.021

4896

4.063

12.199

137.39

0.02579

1.2901E+09

5200

1.034

5028

3.957

12.528

128.52

0.02637

1.3662E+09

5400

1.048

5154

3.859

12.843

120.47

0.02695

1.4426E+09

5600

1.061

5276

3.770

13.147

113.14

0.02753

1.5192E+09

5800

1.075

5393

3.689

13.439

106.46

0.02810

1.5959E+09

6000

1.090

5506

3.613

13.719

100.37

0.02866

1.6727E+09

6200

1.104

5614

3.543

13.990

94.79

0.02921

1.7496E+09

6400

1.119

5719

3.479

14.250

89.67

0.02976

1.8265E+09

6600

1.134

5820

3.418

14.501

84.96

0.03030

1.9033E+09

6800

1.149

5917

3.362

14.743

80.63

0.03084

1.9801E+09

7000

1.165

6011

3.310

14.977

76.64

0.03137

2.0568E+09

3-55

3.5 FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY

Permeability is affected by compaction, pore size, sorting, cementation,
layering and clay swelling.
3.5.1 Compaction
Just as compaction reduces porosity, it also reduces permeability. As a
result of compaction, the permeability of rocks tends to decrease with depth of
burial.
3.5.2 Pore Size (Grain Size)
In general, for a sand, the permeability is proportional to the square of
the mean pore size. For a well sorted sand, the pore size is proportional to the
grain size. Therefore, for well sorted sands, the permeability is proportional to
the square of the grain size. Thus, a well sorted sand with a larger grain size
will have a higher permeability than a well sorted sand with a smaller grain
size (Table 3.8).
Table 3.8: Measured Porosities and Permeabilities of Artificial Sandpacks
(adapted from Beard and Weyl, 1973)

3-56

To see why grain size affects the permeability of a medium, let us

compare the wetted surface area per unit bulk volume (specific surface area)
for flow through a pipe with no grains and through a porous medium with two
grain sizes. Figure 3.24 shows a cube of each medium of volume L3 meter3.
Let the porous medium consist of uniform spherical sand grains of radius r
meter and porosity

The wetted surface area of the pipe per unit bulk

volume (S) is
S

Surface Area
Bulk Volume

4 L2
L3

4
m 2 / m3
L

(3.106)

Figure 3.24. Comparison of flow in a pipe with flow in a porous medium.

For the porous medium, the number of grains, N, contained in the L3

meter3 of bulk volume is given by

Total Solid Volume

Volume of 1 sand grain

The wetted surface area is given by

3-57

L3 1
4 3
r
3

(3.107)

Area

L3 1
x4 r 2
4 3
r
3

NxArea of 1sand grain

3L3 1
r

(3.108)

The wetted area per unit bulk volume (specific surface area) is given by

3L3 1
r

31
r

1
L3

m 2 / m3

(3.109)

Let us examine some numerical values. Let L = 1 meter and let the porous
medium consist of very fine sand with a grain diameter of 100 x10

50 x10

meter (r =

meter) and a porosity of 28%. Figure 1.1 gives the diameters of the

grains of various clastic rocks. The specific surface area for the pipe flow is

4m 2 / m3

The specific surface area for the porous medium is

3 1 .28
50 x10 6

43200 m 2 / m3

Thus, the specific surface area of the porous medium is 10,800 times that of
the pipe. Since the fluid velocity is zero at the wetted surface during flow (no
slip condition), it is obvious that much more energy will be required to sustain
the same volumetric flow rate through the porous medium than through the
pipe, everything else being equal. Put another way, it is obvious that the
porous medium is much less permeable than the pipe.
Let us examine the effect of grain size on the specific surface area of the
porous medium, and hence the permeability, by changing the grain size to a
fine silt with a grain diameter of 10 x10

meter (r = 5 x10

the specific surface area is

3 1 .28
5 x10 6

432000 m 2 / m3

3-58

meter). In this case,

Thus, the specific surface area of the fine silt has increased by a factor of 10
compared to the very fine sand. Using the same argument as before, it is
obvious that the silt will be less permeable than the fine sand. Therefore,
permeability decreases as the grain size decreases.

Example 3.2
An idealized petroleum reservoir consists of an unconsolidated sand of
uniform grain size. The sand grains were deposited in such a way as to give
the closest packing possible with spherical grains. This extremely well-sorted,
homogeneous and isotropic reservoir has the following dimensions:
Length

3 miles

Width

2 miles

Thickness

250 feet

Grain diameter

1/8 mm (fine sand)

Estimate the following properties for the reservoir:

a. Porosity.
b. Surface area per unit bulk volume (specific surface area).
c. Wetted surface area of the sand grains in square miles.
Notes:
1 mile = 5280 ft
1 ft = 30.48 cm
Solution to Example 3.2
L = 3 miles = (3)(5280)(30.48) = 482803.20 cm
W = 2 miles = (2)(5280)(30.48) = 321868.80 cm
h = 250 ft = (250)(30.48) = 7620.00 cm
3-59

d = 1/8 mm = 0.0125 cm (fine sand)

Rhombohedral packing with a porosity of 25.9% is the closest packing.
The specific surface area based on bulk volume is given by Eq.(3.109) as

3 1 0.259
0.0125 / 2

355.68 cm 2 / cm3

The wetted surface are is given by

Wetted Surface Area

SxVb

Wetted Surface Area

355.68 482803.20 x321868.80 x7620.00

4.212 x1017 cm 2
5280 x30.48

cm / mile

4.212 x1017 cm 2

1.626 x107 square miles.

It should be observed that the wetted surface area for the idealized
reservoir is enormous and would be considerably more if the grains were of
clay sized particles. This enormous surface area has implications for the
occurrence of surface phenomena in reservoir rocks.
3.5.3 Sorting
Poor sorting reduces the pore size and consequently reduces the
permeability of a medium (Table 3.8).
3.5.4 Cementation
Cementation reduces the pore size and consequently reduces the
permeability of the rock.
3.5.5 Layering
Permeability is a tensor and can therefore be different in different
directions. Because of layering in sedimentary rocks, horizontal permeabilities
in petroleum reservoirs tend to be higher than vertical permeabilities in the
absence of vertical fractures.

3-60

3.5.6 Clay swelling

Many consolidated sandstones contain clay and silt, e.g., arkoses and
graywackes. Since montmorillonite-type clays absorb fresh water and swell,
the permeabilities of such sandstones will be greatly reduced when measured
with fresh water. The addition of salts, such as sodium chloride or potassium
chloride, will in most cases, eliminate the clay swelling.

3.6 TYPICAL RESERVOIR PERMEABILITY VALUES

Reservoir permeabilities vary widely, from 0.001 md for a tight gas sand
in East Texas to 4000 md for an unconsolidated sand in the Niger Delta.
Reservoir permeabilities may be loosely described as follows:
Very low: k < 1md
Low: 1md < k < 10 md
Fair: 10 md < k < 50 md
Average: 50 md < k < 200 md
Good: 200 md < k < 500 md
Excellent: k > 500 md
Because of low gas viscosity, gas reservoirs with permeabilities less than 1 md
can still produce at economic rates if the reservoir is hydraulically fractured.
Because of the higher oil viscosities compared to gas viscosities, oil reservoirs
with permeabilities less than 1 md are unlikely to produce at economic rates
even with hydraulic fracturing.

3.7 PERMEABILITY-POROSITY CORRELATIONS

Since permeability depends on the continuity of pore space, there is not
in theory, or in fact, a unique relationship between the porosity of a rock and
its permeability. For unconsolidated sands, it is possible to establish
relationships between porosity and either some measure of apparent pore
3-61

diameter or specific surface area and permeability. However, these have very
limited applications.
In the same depositional and diagenetic environment, there is
sometimes a reasonable relationship between porosity and permeability,
although for a given porosity, permeabilities can vary widely.

Figure 3.25

shows a typical permeability-porosity correlation obtained from core analysis.

The figure shows a correlation of permeability versus porosity for 500 samples
from a uniform sandstone reservoir in Pennsylvania. The permeabilities were
measured with gas and corrected for Klinkenberg effect. The porosity was
measured by saturating a well machined core with a wetting liquid. The
scatter in the data is not the result of experimental errors. Apart from
showing the general increase of permeability with an increase in porosity, the
correlation shows the wide spread, or lack of a close relationship, between
porosity and permeability.

Nelson (1994) has presented a comprehensive

review of permeability - porosity correlations using data from the open

literature.
Attempts have been made to correlate permeability and porosity using
an equation of the form:

ln k

(3.110)

where a and b are constants. This relationship is at best applicable at a local

level. Nevertheless, where it exists, it does provide one method of estimating
permeability from well logs and even possibly from drill cuttings. To test the
strength of the linear relationship between lnk and , let us examine the data
from sandstone cores shown in Table 3.9. Figure 3.26 shows the regression
line for the permeability - porosity correlation. The regression line is given by

ln k

0.327

3.049

with the square of the correlation coefficient (R2) equal to 0.3514. The
correlation is weak.
3-62

Figure 3.25. Permeability-porosity correlation for a sandstone reservoir

(Ryder, 1948).

Table 3.9: Permeability - Porosity Data for Sandstone

Cores (from Kenyon et al., 1986)
k

Sample
No

(%)

(md)

31.2

2719

30.4

1382

24.8

3.3

28.5

215

33

151

3-63

31

426

30.3

1072

9.2

0.0012

22

32.1

10

22.8

83.2

11

20.4

4.56

12

19

311

13

18.6

7.47

14

20.9

20.5

15

21.7

52.5

16

14.8

4.17

17

17.6

10.9

18

11.3

4.5

19

11

20

10.1

2.8

21

10.4

3.4

22

13.7

2.1

23

12.8

1.3

24

12.2

7.3

25

11.7

4.8

26

17.2

91.9

27

16.7

190.4

28

18.6

424.9

29

18.3

270.3

30

18.3

137.3

31

16.3

28.5

32

15.6

200.5

33

17.2

36.5

34

16.4

243.2

35

18.3

337.3

36

18.1

39.9

37

14.9

64.6

38

19.6

669.5

39

18.3

540.5

40

18.8

890.4

3-64

41

17.8

429.8

42

16.1

0.011

43

18

0.52

44

16.6

0.52

45

16.1

0.087

46

17.2

12.1

47

22.5

5.97

48

19.6

1.72

49

12.7

0.063

50

15.2

0.93

51

19.1

20.3

52

14.8

4.72

53

20.5

45

54

20.5

45

55

23.9

663

56

23.8

591

57

22.9

511

58

21.6

478

59

22.2

131

60

22.3

1305

61

16.8

621

62

6.3

10.4

63

24.6

1425

64

24.3

2590

65

20

0.849

66

21.9

67

6.3

0.003

68

19.8

0.499

69

31.3

139

70

25.7

12.6

71

14.7

1.68

3-65

Figure 3.26. Permeability-porosity correlation for sandstone cores (from

Kenyon et al., 1986).
Figure 3.27 shows permeability - porosity correlations in which an effort
was made to classify the grain size of the sandstones. Samples containing
more than 50% of 1-2 mm grain size were classified as very coarse-grained;
0.5-1 mm, coarse-grained; 0.25-0.5 mm, medium-grained; and 0.1-0.25 mm,
fine-grained. Samples containing more than 10% of silt (<0.1 mm) were called
silty, whereas samples with clay (<0.004 mm) content greater than 7% were
classified as clayey. Both the absolute permeabilities and the effective
permeabilities to gas at irreducible water saturations were measured.
Permeabilities also were corrected for Klinkenberg effect. The permeabilities
shown in Figure 3.27 are the effective permeabilities to the nonwetting gas at
irreducible wetting phase saturation. These end point permeabilities are not
functions of the porous medium alone as in the case of the absolute
permeabilities. They are functions of the porous medium and the wetting and
nonwetting fluids. It would appear that accounting for the grain size
3-66

distribution improved the correlation of the end point effective permeabilites

with porosity. The author indicates that the correlations of the absolute
permeabilities with porosity showed the usual scatter regardless of the grain
size classification but the data were not presented.

Figure 3.27. Effect of grain size on the permeability-porosity correlations for

various sandstones (from Chillingar, 1964).
The permeability - porosity correlation for unconsolidated sands is even
weaker than for consolidated sandstones. Figure 2.28 shows the correlations
based on the data of Table 3.3 for clean, unconsolidated and well sorted
sandpacks. The data are highly scattered. The R2 for the regression line for
the absolute permeability - porosity correlation is only 0.1742, which is a very
weak correlation. The R2 of 0.2305 for the correlation of the effective
3-67

permeability at irreducible water saturation versus porosity is higher than for

the absolute permeability. Thus, the effective permeability in the presence of
irreducible water saturation correlates better with porosity than the absolute
permeability of the medium. This observation is consistent with the
observation of the author of Figure 3.27.

Figure 3.28. Permeability - porosity correlations for unconsolidated

sandpacks (from Peters, 1979).

3-68

3.8 CAPILLARY TUBE MODELS OF POROUS MEDIA

3.8.1 Carman-Kozeny Equation
Because rock pore space is made up of a network of interconnected,
tortuous, flow conduits, attempts have been made to calculate permeability by
modeling pore-level flow as if through cylindrical capillary tubes.

Such

models are sometimes termed bundle-of-capillary-tubes models and can

provide some insights into permeability - porosity relationships and the effect
of grain size on permeability. Figure 2.29 shows such a porous medium model
with n cylindrical and tortuous pores (capillary tubes). The Hagen-Poiseuilles
law for steady flow through a single tortuous, circular capillary tube of radius
r is

qi

r 4 p1 p2
8
Le

r4 p
8 Le

(3.111)

where
q1 = volumetric flow rate for a single capillary tube, cm3/s
r = the radius of the capillary tubes, cm
P = pressure drop across the medium, dynes/cm2
= fluid viscosity, poise
Le = tortuous length of the capillary tube, cm
For n capillary tubes,

qT

n r 4 p1 p2
8
Le

n r4 p
8
Le

(3.112)

where qT is the total volumetric flow rate for the porous medium. The porosity
of the medium is given by

3-69

Vp
Vb

n r 2 Le
AT L

(3.113)

Figure 3.29. Bundle of capillary tubes model of a porous medium with

tortuous pores.

where AT is the total cross-sectional area and L is the length of the porous
medium. Solving Eq.(3.113) for AT gives
AT

n r 2 Le
L

(3.114)

The integrated form of Darcy's law for single phase flow through the medium
is given by

qT

kAT

P
L

(3.115)

A comparison of Eq.(3.115) with Eq.(3.112) shows that the permeability of the

bundle of capillary tube model is given by
3-70

n r4 L
8 AT Le

(3.116)

Substituting Eq.(3.114) into (3.116) gives the permeability for the model as

r2

8 Le / L

(3.117)

The tortuosity of the porous medium is defined as

Le
L

(3.118)

Thus, the permeability is given by

r2
8

(3.119)

Eq.(3.119) shows once again that permeability is proportional to the square of

a characteristic dimension of the porous medium. In addition, it shows that
the permeability is also proportional to the porosity of the medium. The
tortuosity, , is a parameter that is greater than 1. Note that some authors
define tortuosity as (Le/L) instead of (Le/L)2 as defined here.
To enable the bundle of capillary tubes model to describe a porous
medium made of granular material, we introduce specific surface area into the
model. Let Sp be the wetted surface area of the pores per unit pore volume of
the porous medium. For cylindrical pores,

2 nrLe
nr 2 Le

Sp

2
r

(3.120)

Substituting for r in Eq.(3.119) using Eq.(3.120) gives

k

2 S p2

3-71

(3.121)

What if the pore is not circular in cross-section? In that case, the 2 in

Eq.(3.121) can be replaced by an empirical numerical factor, ko , to give
k

ko S p2

(3.122)

Eq.(3.122) is one version of the Carman-Kozeny equation. The factor, ko , is

known as the Kozeny constant. Based on laboratory measurements, Carman
suggested that for granular material, the Kozeny constant, ko , is equal to 5.
Thus, to estimate the permeability of such materials, Eq.(3.122) can be
written as
k

(3.123)

5S p2

The permeability in Eq.(3.123) is in units of length squared. It can be easily

converted to darcy or millidarcy using Eq.(3.13).
Other versions of the Carman-Kozeny equation can be obtained
depending on how the specific surface area is defined. Let S be the wetted
surface area per unit bulk volume of the porous medium. Then

(3.124)

Sp

Substituting Eq.(3.124) into (3.122) gives the following alternative version of

the Carman-Kozeny equation:
3

ko S 2

(3.125)

Eq.(3.125) shows that the permeability is proportional to the porosity cubed.

Let Ss be the wetted surface area per unit grain volume of the porous
medium. S and Ss are related by
S

Ss

3-72

(3.126)

Substituting Eq.(3.126) into (3.122) gives yet another version of the CarmanKozeny equation as
3

ko S s2 1

(3.127)

The three versions of the Carman-Kozeny equation, Eqs.(3.122), (3.125) and

(3.127) show that permeability is inversely proportional to the square of the
specific surface area of the grains. Since small grains have a higher specific
surface area than large grains, a medium composed of small grains will have
a lower permeability than one composed of large grains, a conclusion we
arrived at previously. All three versions of the Carman-Kozeny equation will
give the same permeability. Which one to use depends on what information is
on hand.
Two more versions of the Carman-Kozeny equation can be obtained by
introducing the concept of hydraulic radius into the model and introducing
the grain diameter in the case of granular material. The hydraulic radius, rH,
is defined as
rH

Volume of Pore
Wetted Surface Area of Pore

1
Sp

(3.128)

For cylindrical pores,

rH

n r 2 Le
2 nrLe

r
2

(3.129)

Substituting Eq.(3.129) into (3.119) gives

rH2
2

(3.130)

It is unfortunate that the hydraulic radius of a circular pore is equal to (r/2)

instead of r.

3-73

For granular material with spherical grains of diameter, Dp,

4
4
3

Ss

Dp / 2
Dp / 2

6
Dp

(3.131)

Substituting Eq.(3.131) into (3.127) gives

D p2

3
2

36ko 1

(3.132)

If ko = 2 is substituted into Eq.(3.132), then

D p2

72 1

(3.133)

Eq.(3.133) suggests that permeability is proportional to the square of the

grain size, an assertion we have encountered before.
To apply any of the Carman-Kozeny equations to estimate permeability,
the porosity, specific surface area and the Kozeny constant must be known.
Several techniques have been proposed for the determination of the specific
surface area of porous media.

These include (1) a statistical method, (2)

adsorption methods, (3) the heat of wetting method and (4) a method based on
fluid flow developed by Kozeny.

Example 3.3
Estimate the permeability of the idealized petroleum reservoir of Example 3.2.
Solution to Example 3.3
Since the specific surface area with respect to bulk volume (S) is available
from Example 3.2, Eq.(3.125), which contains S is the most convenient
version of the Carman-Kozeny equation to use for the permeability
esstimation. Substituting numerical values into Eq.(3.125) gives
3-74

0.259

5 355.68

2.7467 x10 8 cm 2

2.7467 x10 8 cm 2
9.869 x10 9 cm 2 / darcy

2.78 darcys

where the Kozeny constant of 5 has been used.

3.8.2 Tortuosity
Based on the bundle of capillary tube model, we see that tortuosity is a
geometric property of the porous medium that reflects the length of the flow
path at the pore level as the fluid flows around the grain obstacles relative to
the length of the porous medium. Therefore, the lower the porosity, the higher
the tortuosity should be. Winsauer et al. (1952) have measured the tortuosity
of sandstones along with other properties. The tortuosity was measured
electrically based on the analogy between the flow of electrical current and
fluid flow. Their results are shown in Table 3.10. They defined tortuosity as
(Le/L). Their original data have been squared to obtain the more current
definition of tortuosity.

Table 3.10: Tortuosity and Other Data from Winsauer et al., 1952.
Porosity

Permeability

Resistivity

Factor

md

(Le/L)

(Le/L)2

17.0

90

23.3

2.30

5.29

14.7

51.0

3.30

10.89

6.7

67.0

3.20

10.24

17.6

220

16.6

2.00

4.00

26.3

1920

8.6

1.60

2.56

25.6

4400

9.4

1.60

2.56

13.9

145

33.0

2.40

5.76

18.6

25

22.9

2.30

5.29

18.8

410

18.6

2.00

4.00

Core
No

3-75

Tortuosity

10

16.1

42.0

3.20

10.24

11

15.0

41.0

2.90

8.41

12

22.1

200

13.1

1.90

3.61

13

20.6

36

16.6

2.10

4.41

14

30.7

70

8.4

1.70

2.89

15

16.4

330

21.1

2.10

4.41

16

18.8

98

19.3

2.20

4.84

17

24.8

1560

10.8

1.80

3.24

18

19.1

36

17.2

2.30

5.29

19

29.8

1180

8.4

1.75

3.06

20

27.1

3200

11.7

2.05

4.20

21

28.2

2100

10.9

2.05

4.20

22

19.4

24.0

2.50

6.25

23

19.7

18

20.8

2.35

5.52

24

31.5

2200

6.9

1.50

2.25

25

19.3

19

24.4

2.70

7.29

26

27.3

88

12.4

2.20

4.84

27

25.1

370

11.6

1.97

3.88

28

15.0

115

37.3

2.90

8.41

29

18.4

130

19.0

2.00

4.00

4.7

1.37

1.88

30
31

39.5

Figure 3.30 shows the correlation between tortuosity and porosity. As

expected, there is a negative correlation between the two variables. The lower
the porosity, the longer is the length of the flow path that the fluid particles
must take to flow from one end of the porous medium to the other. The longer
the flow path, the larger the tortuosity of the medium.
Figure 3.31 shows the correlation between tortuosity and the formation
resistivity factor. As expected, there is a strong positive correlation between
the two variables. Resistivity factor represents the obstacle to the flow of
electric current in the medium whereas tortuosity represents the obstacle to
the flow of fluid in the medium. Since there is a close relationship between the
3-76

flow path for electric current and for fluid flow, a property that obstructs one
will also obstruct the other. Hence, tortuosity and formation resistivity factor
should be positively correlated.

Figure 3.30. Tortuosity-porosity correlation (from Winsauer et al.,

1952).

3-77

Figure 3.31. Tortuosity-formation resistivity factor correlation (from Winsauer

et al., 1952).

An

approximate

relationship

between

tortuosity

and

formation

resistivity factor can be derived as follows. Consider the flow of electric

current through a core sample of porosity , length L and cross-sectional area
A saturated with water of resistivity Rw. The electrical resistance of the core is
given by

ro

Ro

L
A

(3.134)

where Ro is the resistivity of the core fully saturated with the water. The
electrical current in the core is conducted by the water alone since the rock
minerals are nonconductors. Let us replace the core with the same volume of
water in a test tube such that the resistance of the water is equal to that of
the saturated core. Since the electrical current in the core follows a tortuous
path in flowing from one end to the other, the length of the equivalent water

3-78

circuit Le will be longer than L. Let Ae be the cross-sectional area of the

equivalent water circuit. Then

Ae Le

AL

(3.135)

The equivalent water circuit must have the same volume as the water in the
core to maintain the same salinity. The resistance of the equivalent water
circuit is given by
rw

Le
Ae

Rw

(3.136)

Substituting Eq.(3.135) into (3.136) gives

rw

L2e
AL

Rw

(3.137)

Since the equivalent water circuit has the same resistance as the saturated
core, Eqs.(3.134) and (3.137) give
Ro

L
A

L2e
AL

Rw

(3.138)

Eq.(3.138) can be rearranged as

Ro
Rw

Le
L

(3.139)

Thus, an approximate relationship between turtuosity and the formation

resistivity factor is

(3.140)

3.8.3 Calculation of Permeability from Pore Size Distribution

The bundle of capillary tubes model presented in Section 3.7.1 assumed
that the n capillary tubes had the same pore size. Here, we extend the model
to include an arbitrary pore size distribution. Given the probability density
3-79

function (pdf) for the pore size (pore diameter) distribution, we wish to
calculate the permeability of the bundle of capillary tubes model.
Consider the probability density function for pore diameter distribution
as shown in Figure 3.32. The probability density function satisfies

Let n be the number of pores with diameter between

(3.141)
and +d and n be the

total number of pores. Then

n

nf

(3.142)

Figure 3.32. Probability density function for pore size distribution.

The cross-sectional area occupied by pores with diameter between

is given by

3-80

and +d

dAc

nf

(3.143)

The cross-sectional area occupied by all the pores is obtained by integrating

Eq.(3.143) as

Ac

n
4

nR 2
4

(3.144)

where R 2 is a constant defined as

R2

(3.145)

The cross-sectional area occupied by all the pores is related to the crosssectional area of the porous medium by the porosity as

Ac

(3.146)

AT

Substituting Eq.(3.144) into (3.146) and solving for n, one obtains

4 AT
R2

(3.147)

The volumetric flow rate for pores with diameter between

and

+d

is

obtained from Hagen-Poiseuille's law as

4

dqT

128

P
nf
Le

(3.148)

The total volumetric flow rate for the porous medium is obtained by
integrating Eq.(3.148) as

qT

n P
128 Le

Substituting Eq.(3.147) into (3.149) gives

3-81

(3.149)

qT
A

comparison

of

AT P
32 Le R 2

Eq.(3.150)

with

(3.150)

Darcy's

law,

Eq.(3.115),

gives

the

permeability of the bundle of capillary tube model as

k

32 Le / L R 2

(3.151)

Substituting Eq.(3.118) into (3.151) gives

32

(3.152)

Substituting Eq.(3.145) into (3.152) gives the final result

32

(3.153)

Example 3.4
The probability density function for the pore size distribution of a bundle of
capillary tubes model is given by a triangular distribution as shown in Figure
3.33. The porosity of the medium is 15%. If the minimum pore diameter ( 1) =
0 m, the most likely pore diameter ( 2) = 8 m and the largest pore diameter
( 3) = 10 m, calculate the permeability of the medium. Assume a tortuosity of
1.0.

3-82

Figure 3.33. Probability density function for pore size distribution for Example

Solution to Example 3.4

The required permeability is given by Eq.(3.153). All we need to do is to
evaluate the two integrals on the right of the equation for the triangular
probability density function. Eq.(3.153) then takes the form
2

32

2
1

f1

f1

2
3

f2

f2

(3.154)

Eqs.(2.82) and (2.86) give

f1
3

1
1

f2
3

(3.155)

3
1

(3.156)

Substituting Eqs.(3.155) and (3.156) into Eq.(3.154) and performing the

integrations gives

3-83

0.15 2.241x103
1
32 1.0 4.067 x10

m2

2.583x10 13 m 2
9.869 x10 13 m 2 / darcy

0.2617 darcy

261.7md

3.9 STEADY STATE FLOW THROUGH FRACTURES

To increase the productivities of certain reservoirs, it is often necessary
to hydraulically fracture the reservoirs. Consider the single vertical fracture
shown in Figure 3.34. It can be shown that Hagen-Poiseuilles law for steady
state flow through the fracture of width w in cgs units is given by
q

w2 A P
12 L

(3.157)

where A = wh is the cross-sectional area of the fracture. A comparison of

Eq.(3.157) with Darcys law, Eq.(3.115), shows that the permeability of the
fracture is given by

w2 2
cm
12

(3.158)

Example 3.5
Calculate the permeability of a fracture of width 2 millimeters.
Solution to Example 3.5
The fracture permeability is given by Eq.(3.158) as
2

0.20 cm 2
1
x
9
12
9.869 x10 cm 2 / darcy

3.378 x105 darcys

The permeability of the fracture is enormous and therein lies the benefit of
fracturing for the improvement of the productivity of a well.

3-84

Figure 3.34. Flow through a fracture (Flow between parallel plates).

3.10 AVERAGING PERMEABILITY DATA

Because of heterogeneity, different portions of the same reservoir may
have different permeabilities. It becomes necessary to be able to estimate the
apparent or average permeability of various permeability combinations.
For linear beds in series (Figure 3.35), the volumetric flow rate is the
same for each bed and the total pressure drop is equal to the sum of the
pressure drop across each bed. For n beds in series, the average permeability
is given by
n

i 1
n
i 1

Li
Li
ki

L
Li
1 ki

n
i

(3.159)

where L Is total length of the porous medium in the flow direction, Li is the
length of bed i and ki is the permeability of bed i.

3-85

Figure 3.35. Linear beds in series

For radial beds in series (Figure 3.36), the volumetric flow rate is the
same for each bed and the total pressure drop is equal to the sum of the
pressure drop across each bed. For n beds in series, the average permeability
is given by
k

ln re / rw
ln ri / ri
ki
1

n
i

(3.160)
1

where re is the well's drainage radius and r0 is equal to the wellbore radius, rw

Figure 3.36. Radial beds in series

3-86

For linear beds in parallel (Figure 3.37), the total volumetric flow rate is
the sum of the flow rate of each bed and the pressure drop is the same for all
the beds. For n beds in parallel, the average permeability is given by
n

ki Ai
(3.161)

i 1
n

Ai

i 1

where Ai is the area of bed i and ki is the permeability of bed i. If the beds
have the same width, then
n

ki hi

i 1
n

(3.162)

hi

i 1

Figure 3.37. Linear beds in parallel.

For radial beds in parallel (Figure 3.38), the total volumetric flow rate is
the sum of the flow rate of each bed and the pressure drop is the same for all
the beds.

For n beds in parallel, the average permeability is given by

Eq.(3.162).

3-87

Figure 3.38. Radial beds in parallel.

3.11 DARCY'S LAW FOR INCLINED FLOW

For inclined flow, Darcy's Law in differential form can be written as

kA dP
g
dz
6
ds 1.0133 x10 ds

(3.163)

where
q

volumetric flow rate, cm3/s

absolute permeability of the porous medium, darcy

total area of the medium normal to the flow direction, cm2

fluid viscosity, centipoise

absolute pressure, atm

distance in the direction of flow and is always positive, cm

dP
ds

pressure gradient along s, atm/cm

fluid density, gm/cm3

acceleration of gravity, 981 cm/s2

1 atm =

1.0133x106 dynes/cm2

The sign convention for applying Darcy's law for inclined flow is as follows. If
the z direction is positive upwards as shown in Figure 3.39, then the positive
3-88

sign is used in the term in parenthesis in Eq.(3.163) and the equation

becomes

Figure 3.39. Coordinate system for applying Darcy's law for z positive
upwards.

kA dP
g
dz
6
ds 1.0133 x10 ds

(3.164)

On the other hand, if the z coordinate is positive downwards as shown in

Figure 3.40, then the negative sign is used in the term in parenthesis in
Eq.(3.163) to obtain

kA dP
g
dz
6
ds 1.0133 x10 ds

3-89

(3.165)

Figure 3.40. Coordinate system for applying Darcy's law for z positive
downwards.

dz
in Eqs.(3.163) to (3.165) could be written as sin , where
ds

is the angle the

porous medium along s makes with the horizontal plane. Alternatively, it

could be written as cos , where

is the angle that the porous medium makes

with the upward vertical z axis and is equal to

Eq.(3.163) can be written in oilfield units as

q
where

0.001127

kA dP
dz
0.433
ds
ds

(3.166)

is the specific gravity of the fluid and 0.433 is the pressure gradient of

fresh water in psi/ft.

Eq.(3.163) also can be written in terms of a velocity potential as

kA d
ds
3-90

(3.167)

where the velocity potential is defined by

gz
1.0133x106

(3.168)

in Darcy units or
(3.169)

P 0.433 z

in oilfield units. Eq.(3.167) shows that flow will occur in the direction of
decreasing velocity potential. Note that for inclined systems, flow does not
necessarily occur in the direction of decreasing pressure. For example, for a
static system in which the porous medium is oriented vertically, the pressure
at the top of the medium is less than at the bottom and yet there is no flow.
Eq.(3.156) may also be written as
vs

q
A

k g
1.0133 x106

d 1.0133 x106 P
ds
g

(3.170)

where vs is known as the Darcy velocity or superficial velocity. An interstitial

velocity can be defined as

vi

vs

(3.171)

Eq.(3.170) can be further written in terms of the hydraulic conductivity, K,

and hydraulic or piezometric head, h, as

vs

q
A

dh
ds

(3.172)

where

k g
1.0133x106

and

3-91

(3.173)

P
g

(3.174)

Eq.(3.172) is the form of Darcy's law normally used in the groundwater

community. Note that hydraulic head has dimension of length and the
hydraulic conductivity has dimension of length/time. Possible units of
hydraulic conductivity are cm/s, m/s, m/d, US gal/day ft2 and US gal/min
ft2. Useful conversion factors are as follows:

1US gal/day ft 2
1 darcy

4.75 x10 5 cm/s

9.613x10

4.08 x10 2 m / d

cm/s (for water at 20 C )

1 darcy 1.4156 x10 2US gal/min ft 2 (for water at 20 C )

(3.175)
(3.176)
(3.177)

Table 3.11 shows typical hydraulic conductivity values for various rock types
and soils. Figure 3.41 shows the range of hydraulic conductivity and
permeability for various rock types and soils. Clearly, rocks and soils have a
wide range of permeability and hydraulic conductivity values.
Sometimes, it is easier to solve single phase flow problems in terms of
hydraulic head (piezometric head) rather than in terms of pressure. This is
especially true for inclined or vertical flow in which gravity plays a role.
Figure 3.42 shows the definition of the hydraulic head (piezometric head) for a
point O in an inclined porous medium located above a datum level at which z
is zero. The hydraulic head is given by

3-92

(3.178)

Table 3.11: Typical Hydraulic Conductivity for Various Rock Types

3-93

Figure 3.41. Range of permeability and hydraulic conductivity of various rock

types and soils.

where h is the hydraulic head, z is the height of O above (or below) an

arbitrary datum and

is the pressure head. It should be emphasized that z in

Eq.(3.178) is not a cartesian coordinate in the flow direction but rather the
elevation of the point P above or below a reference datum. In a sense, z is a
gravity head that reflects the potential energy of the fluid at O in the earths
gravitational field. The datum at which z = 0 is arbitrary and can be selected
anywhere in the system. If the point O is below the datum, then z is negative.
The pressure head is given by

P
g
3-94

(3.179)

It should be observed in Figure 3.42 that the hydraulic head at point O is

given by the elevation of a liquid manometer at point O above (or below) the
arbitrary datum.

Figure 3.42. Definition of hydraulic head h, pressure head

head z for a laboratory manometer.

and elevation

Consider the flow in an inclined porous medium shown in Figure 3.43.

Darcys law for 1D flow is given by

KA h

KA

dh
ds

(3.180)

Examination of the manometer levels (hydraulic heads) immediately shows

the direction of flow. Flow always occurs from a high hydraulic head to a low
hydraulic head. Eq.(3.180) may be integrated to obtain
q

h2 h1
s2 s1

KA

(3.181)

Eq.(3.174) can be rewritten as

q

KA

h1 h2
s2 s1

KA

3-95

h
L

(3.182)

Figure 3.43. Darcys experiment for inclined flow.

where

h is the positive difference in the hydraulic heads at points 1 and 2

and L is the positive length of the porous medium between points 1 and 2 in
the flow direction. It should be observed that the elevations of points 1 and 2
(z1 and z2) do not appear explicitly in Eq.(3.182) although they do appear
implicitly in the hydraulic heads. However, Eq.(3.182) can be rewritten such
that z1 and z2 appear explicitly as follows. From Figure 3.43,

L cos
where

z1 z2

(3.183)

is the angle the porous medium makes with the vertical direction.

Substituting Eq.(3.183) into Eq.(3.182) gives

q

KA

h1 h2
cos
z1 z2

3-96

(3.184)

In the special case in which the porous medium is vertical,

is zero, cos

is

1.0 and z1 z2 = L. Substituting these values into Eq.(3.184) gives

h
L

KA

(3.185)

which is identical to Eq.(3.182). Thus, Eq.(3.182) applies for all angles of

inclination. The hydraulic conductivity is related to the permeability of the
porous medium in consistent units by

k g

(3.186)

Figure 3.44 shows schematic diagrams of two types of liquid

permeameters normally used to measure permeability in groundwater
hydrology. Figure 3.44 (a) is a constant head permeameter whereas Figure
3.44 (b) is a falling head permeameter. Using the principles of inclined flow
outline above, the working equations for the permeameters can easily be
derived as follows. For the constant head permeameter, Eq.(3.182) gives

KA

h
L

k g

h
L

(3.187)

in consistent units, where A is the cross-sectional area of the porous medium.

For the falling head permeameter, Darcy's law at time t is

KA

h
L

(3.188)

The volumetric balance for flow in the manometer gives

dh
dt

(3.189)

where a is the cross-sectional area of the manometer. Substituting Eq.(3.187)

into (3.186) gives the differential equation for the falling head, h, as

3-97

Figure 3.44. Schematic diagram of liquid permeameters; (a) constant head

permeameter, (b) falling head permeameter.

dh
dt

KA
h
aL

(3.190)

with the initial condition

h 0

ho

(3.191)

Eq.(3.190) along with (3.191) can easily be solved to obtain the working
equation for the falling head permeameter as

3-98

ln

h
ho

KA
t
aL

k gA
t
aL

(3.192)

in consistent units.

3.12 VALIDITY OF DARCY'S LAW

Darcy's law is valid for slow, laminar flow in porous media without
chemical reaction. Figure 3.45 shows the Fanning friction factor versus
Reynolds number for single phase flow in a porous medium. For flow through
porous media, Reynolds number is defined as
Re

v Dp

(3.193)

where
v = Darcy velocity, cm/s
Dp = mean grain diameter of the granular porous medium, cm
= fluid density, gm/cm3
= fluid viscosity, poise

Figure 3.45. Fanning friction factor factor for flow in porous media (Rose,
1945)
3-99

For laminar flow, in which Darcy's law is valid, the friction factor versus
Reynolds number is given by the line shown in Figure 3.45 having the
equation

1000
Re

(3.194)

It can seen in the figure that the experimental data begin to deviate from the
line at a Reynolds number of about 1.0. Thus, Darcy's law is valid for flow in
porous media for Reynolds number up to about 1. At Reynolds numbers
greater than 1, Darcy's law is no longer valid. Therefore, flow at Reynolds
number greater than 1 can be characterized as non-darcy flow.
Based on analogy with flow in pipes, the flow regimes for non-darcy flow
can be classified as shown in Figure 3.46 as transition flow for Reynolds
number in the range 1 to 100, and turbulent flow for Reynolds number
greater than 100.

Figure 3.46. Classification of flow in porous media.

3-100

3.13 NON-DARCY FLOW

Darcys law is inadequate for modeling high velocity flow in porous
media such as high velocity gas flow near the wellbore in a natural gas
reservoir in which the Reynolds number is greater than 1. For this non-darcy
flow, Forchheimer has proposed a flow equation of the form

dP
dx

v
k

v2

(3.195)

where the variables are in Darcy units. The first term on the right-side of
Eq.(3.195) gives the viscous component of the pressure gradient (Darcy flow)
whereas the second term gives the inertial-turbulent component of the
pressure gradient, which constitutes the non-darcy flow effect. Because the
non-darcy flow effect is most severe near the wellbore, this additional effect is
usually incorporated into the gas flow equation as a rate-dependent skin
factor. The velocity coefficient ( ) is a function of the permeability and porosity
of the porous medium and is independent of rate. Figure 3.47 shows a
correlation of the velocity coefficient with permeability from core analysis.
Consider radial steady state flow of a real gas from the reservoir into the
well. For this case, Eq.(3.195) can be written as

dP
dr

v
k

v2

(3.196)

Let us multiply Eq.(3.196) by (2p/ Z) and integrate to get

Pe
Pwf

2P
dP
Z

re
rw

2P v
dr
Z k

re
rw

2P
Z

v 2 dr

(3.197)

The gas density in Eq.(3.197) is at reservoir conditions. We would like to

evaluate the density at standard conditions. The density at reservoir
conditions and at standard conditions are related by the gas formation
volume factor as

3-101

Figure 3.47. Velocity coefficient in Forchheimer equation (Firoozabadi and

Katz, 1979.

sc

Bg

where Bg is the gas formation volume factor and

(3.198)

sc is the gas density at

standard conditions. For real gas flow, the gas formation volume factor is
given by

Bg

Psc ZT
Tsc P

The Darcy velocity at radius r is given by

3-102

(3.199)

q
2 rh

(3.200)

The equation of state for real gas flow is given by

Psc qsc
Z scT

Pq
ZT

(3.201)

Substituting Eqs.(3.198) to (3.201) into (3.197) gives

Pe
Po

2P
dP
Z

Pwf
Po

qsc PscT
khTsc

2P
dP
Z

re
rw

qsc PscT
khTsc

dr
r

kqsc
2 h

re

sc

rw

dr
r2

(3.202)

where Po is an arbitrary base pressure. In Eq.(3.202), the lefthand side of

Eq.(3.197) has been split into two integrals for convenience. Integration of
Eq.(3.202) gives
M Pe

qsc PscT
r
ln e
khTsc
rw

M Pw

qsc PscT
khTsc

kqsc
2 h
sc

1
rw

1
re

(3.203)

where M(P) is the real gas potential or real gas pseudo pressure. At field scale,
(1/re)

is

normally

negligibly

small

compared

to

(1/rw).

With

approximation, Eq.(3.203) becomes

M Pe

M Pwf

qsc PscT
r
ln e
khTsc
rw

qsc PscT
khTsc

kqsc
2 h
sc

1
rw

(3.204)

Eq.(3.204) can be written in dimensionless form as

PD

ln

re
rw

Dqsc

(3.205)

where the dimensionless pressure in terms of M(P) is defined as

PD

M Pe M Pwf
qsc PscT
khTsc

3-103

(3.206)

this

and a non-darcy flow coefficient is defined as

k
hrw

(3.207)

sc

Eq.(3.205) can be modified to include the mechanical skin factor S* to give

PD

ln

re
rw

S*

Dqsc

(3.208)

Eq.(3.208) can be rewritten in the form of an inflow performance relationship

in Darcy units as

qsc

khTsc
PscT

M Pe
r
ln e
rw

M Pwf
S

(3.209)

Dqsc

In oilfield units, Eq.(3.209) becomes

qsc

kh
1422T

M Pe
r
ln e
rw

M Pwf
S

(3.210)

Dqsc

It should be noted that the skin factor normally determined from well
test analysis is the total skin factor given by

S*

Dqsc

(3.211)

Therefore, the total skin factor determined from a gas well test should be
investigated further to determine the contribution of the non-darcy flow
component. The non-darcy flow component of the total skin factor cannot be
eliminated by well stimulation. It can be estimated by conducting drawdown
tests at two different flow rates.
3-104

It can be shown that the additional potential drop due to non-darcy flow
occurs mostly near the wellbore. This additional potential drop at any radius r
can be obtained from Eq.(3.203) as
M r

qsc PscT
khTsc

kqsc
2 h
sc

1
rw

1
r

(3.212)

At r =re,
M re

qsc PscT
khTsc

kqsc
2 h
sc

1
rw

(3.213)

where (1/re) is negligibly small compared to (1/rw). Thus,

M (r )
M re

Table 3.12 shows the variation of

rw
r

(3.214)

m(r)/ m(re) with r as calculated from

Eq.(3.214). It can be observed that 90% of the total non-darcy flow potential
drop occurs within r = 10rw. Thus, if rw is 0.3 ft, then 90% of the total nondarcy flow potential drop occurs within 3 ft of the well. This is the justification
for treating the non-darcy flow effect as a flow-dependent skin factor.
Table 3.12: Non-Darcy Potential Drop

r
rw

M (r )
M re

1
2
5
10

0
0.50
0.80
0.90

3-105

3.14 DARCYS LAW FOR ANISOTROPIC POROUS MEDIA

3.14.1 Definition of Homogeneity and Anisotropy
A medium is homogeneous with respect to a certain property if that
property is independent of position within the medium. Otherwise, the
medium is heterogeneous. A medium is isotropic with respect to a certain
property if that property is independent of direction within the medium. If at a
point in the medium, a property of the medium varies with direction, the
medium is said to be anisotropic with respect to that property. Figure 3.48
shows the principal values of permeability anisotropy at two locations (x1, z1)
and (x2, z2) in a vertical cross-section of a porous medium. Although arrows

Figure 3.48. Diagrams showing heterogeneity and anisotropy (Freeze and

Cherry, 1979).

3-106

and arrow lengths have been used to indicate the directions and magnitudes
of the principal values of the permeability anisotropy, they should not be
misinterpreted as vectors. Permeability is a tensor, not a vector. The special
form of the permeability tensor shown in the figure is
k x, z

kx

kz

(3.215)

and not
kx
kz

k x, z

(3.216)

3.14.2 Darcy's Law for Homogeneous and Anisotropic Medium

For a homogeneous and anisotropic porous medium, Darcys Law is
given by
k

(3.217)

Eq.(3.217) can be expanded in 3D Cartesian coordinates as

vx
vy
vz

k xx

k xy

k xz

k yx
k zx

k yy
k zy

k yz
k zz

(3.218)

z
The permeability tensor given by

k x, y , z

k xx

k xy

k xz

k yx
k zx

k yy
k zy

k yz
k zz

3-107

(3.219)

is a second rank tensor with nine elements. The tensor is symmetric and as
such kxy = kyx, kxx = kzx and kyz = kzy. The corresponding equations for 2D flow
are

vx
vy

1 k xx
k yx

k xy

k yy

(3.220)

and
k x, y

k xx
k yx

k xy
k yy

(3.221)

Darcy's law can also be written in terms of hydraulic conductivity and

hydraulic head as

K. h

(3.222)

where K is the hydraulic conductivity tensor. All the properties of the

permeability tensor are applicable to the hydraulic conductivity tensor.
An important property of a symmetric tensor is that by a suitable
change of axes, it is possible to transform the full tensor into another tensor
consisting of only diagonal terms with the off-diagonal terms being zero. This
is a considerable simplification. The axes that permit this transformation of
the tensor to diagonal form are called the principal axes of the permeability
anisotropy of the porous medium. These principal axes contain the maximum
and minimum values of the directional permeabilities which are the diagonal
terms of the transformed tensor. When viewed in the coordinates of the
principal axes of anisotropy, the permeability (hydraulic conductivity) tensor
in 3D becomes

3-108

k u, v

ku

0
0

kv
0

0
kz

(3.223)

where u, v, w are the coordinates in the directions of the principal axes of the
anisotropy. When viewed in the coordinates of the principal axes of the
anisotropy, Darcy's law for homogeneous and anisotropic media in 3D
simplifies to
ku

vu
vv
vw

kv

(3.224)

kw

In this special coordinate system, the Darcy velocity vector and the velocity
potential gradient vector are collinear and the equation can be written as

vu i vv j vw w

ku

i kv

j kw

(3.225)

where i, j and w are unit vectors. The corresponding equations for 2D flow are
ku
0

k u, v

vx
vy

ku

0
kv

(3.226)

(3.227)

kv

and

vu i vv j

ku

i kv

3-109

(3.228)

Example 3.5
Steady state flow of a single phase liquid occurs in a horizontal, 2D,
homogeneous and anisotropic reservoir, which has a permeability tensor
given by
k(x,y)=

200 50 md
50 750

The pressure in the reservoir has been measured at three observations wells
whose coordinates are given in Table 3.13. The liquid viscosity is 1 cp. Do the
negative entries in the permeability tensor bother you?
Table 3.13: Data from Observation Wells
Observation

x Coordinate

y Coordinate

Pressure

Well

(ft)

(ft)

(psia)

2000

800

1800

800

1500

1. Calculate the magnitude (in ft/day) and the direction of the Darcy
velocity for the flow. Give the direction in terms of the angle the Darcy
velocity vector makes with the positive x- axis.
2. Sketch two vectors with one pointing in the flow direction and the other
pointing in the direction of the pressure gradient. What is the angle
between the two vectors in degrees?
3. Sketch the flow field and the pressure gradient field.
Solution to Example 3.5
Figure 3.49 shows the positions of the wells and their bottomhole pressures.

3-110

Figure 3.49. Positions of the observation wells and their bottomhole

pressures.

We apply Eq.(3.217) in oilfield units to obtain

v

0.001127 5.615

(3.229)

. P

For the 2D flow, Eq.(3.229) can be expanded to give

vx

0.001127 5.615

vy

From the given data,

P
x

1500 2000
800

5
8

psi/ft

P
y

1800 2000
800

1
4

psi/ft

3-111

k xx

k xy

k yx

k yy

P
x
P
y

(3.230)

5 1
i
j
8 4

0.625

0.625i 0.250 j
2

0.250

0.6731 psi/ft

with the negative x-axis. Then

Let the pressure gradient make an angle

0.625i 0.250 j .

cos

0.625

0.625

0.250

1 cos

0.9285

0.6252 0.2502
21.80

The components of the Darcy velocity are given by

vx
vy

200
50
50 750

0.001127 5.615
1

vx

0.001127 5.615

200

5
8

50

vy

0.001127 5.615

50

5
8

750

5
8
1
4
1
4

0.7120 ft/D

1
4

0.9888 ft/D

The Darcy velocity vector is

v
v

0.7120i 0.9888 j
0.7120

0.9888

1.2185 ft/D

Let the Darcy velocity make an angle

tan

with the positive x-axis.

0.9888
1.3888
0.7120

3-112

54.24
Figure 3.50 shows the magnitudes and the directions of the darcy velocity and
the pressure gradient vectors. The figure shows that the Darcy velocity and
pressure gradient vectors are not collinear for flow in the anisotropic porous
medium.

Figure 3.50. Directions and magnitudes of Darcy velocity and pressure

gradient vectors for flow in an anisotropic reservoir.
The angle between the Darcy velocity vector and the pressure gradient vector
is 147.56. This angle can also be calculated directly from vector calculus as
v. P

v . P cos

3-113

where

is the angle between the two vectors. Thus,

0.7120i 0.9888 j . 0.625i 0.25 j

1.2185 0.6731

cos

0.6922
0.8202

0.8440

147.56
Figure 3.51 shows sketches of the flow field and the pressure gradient field.

Figure 3.51. Flow and pressure gradient fields for Example 3.5.

3.14.3 Transformation of Permeability Tensor from one Coordinate

System to Another
The

objective

is

to

derive

the

equations

for

transforming

the

permeability tensor (hydraulic conductivity tensor) for an anisotropic reservoir

from one coordinate system to another coordinate system that makes and
angle

with the first coordinate system, where

3-114

is considered positive for

anticlockwise rotation. This can be achieved by first establishing the

geometric relationship between the two coordinate systems and then
transforming Darcys Law from the first coordinate system to the second
coordinate system. Such a transformation can be used to (1) determine the
principal values of the permeability anisotropy, (2) determine the principal
axes of the permeability anisotropy and (3) examine the flow field in any
coordinate system.
Figure 3.52 shows the relationship between the two coordinate systems.
It should be emphasized that the (u,v) coordinates shown in Figure 3.52 are
not the principal axes of the permeability anisotropy. The two coordinate
systems are related by the following equations:
x u cos

v sin

(3.231)

v cos

(3.232)

u sin

Eqs.(3.231) and (3.232) can be written in matrix form as

x
y

cos

sin

sin

cos

u
v

(3.233)

Using the inverse of the rotation matrix of Eq.(3.233), the relationship

between the two coordinate systems also can be written as

u
v

cos
sin

sin
cos

x
y

Darcys law in the xy coordinate system is given by

3-115

(3.234)

Figure 3.52. Relationship between the two coordinate systems.

vx
vy

1 k xx
k yx

k xy

k yy

(3.220)

The Darcy velocity in the uv coordinate system is related to the Darcy velocity
in the xy coordinate system by Eq.(3.234) as

3-116

vu
vv

cos

sin

vx

sin

cos

vy

(3.235)

Substituting Eq.(3.220) into (3.235) gives

vu
vv

cos

sin

k xx

k xy

sin

cos

k yx

k yy

(3.236)

The flow potential in the xy coordinate system is related to the flow potential
in the uv coordinate system by Eq.(2.233) as

cos

sin

sin

cos

(3.237)

Substituting Eq.(3.237) into (3.236) gives

vu

vv

cos
sin

k xx
k yx

sin
cos

k xy
k yy

cos
sin

sin
cos

(3.238)

v
Eq.(3.238) is Darcys law in the uv coordinate system and is of the form

vu
vv

1 kuu
kvu

kuv
kvv

(3.239)

v
A comparison of Eqs.(3.238) and (3.239) shows that the permeability tensor in
the uv coordinate system is related to the tensor in the xy coordinate system
as follows:
kuu

kuv

cos

sin

kvu

kvv

sin

cos

k xx
k yx

3-117

k xy
k yy

cos

sin

sin

cos

(3.240)

Carrying out the matrix multiplications on the right side of Eq.(3.240) and
equating the result to the left side matrix gives
kuu

k xx cos 2

kuv

k xx sin cos

k yx sin 2

k xy cos 2

k yy sin cos

(3.242)

kvu

k xx sin cos

k yx cos 2

k xy sin 2

k yy sin cos

(3.243)

k yx sin cos

k xx sin 2

kvv

k yy sin 2

k xy sin cos

k yx sin cos

k yy cos 2

k xy sin cos

(3.241)

(3.244)

From trigonometry,

cos 2

1
2

(1 cos 2 )

(3.245)

sin 2

1
2

(1 cos 2 )

(3.246)

sin cos

1
2

(3.247)

sin 2

Substituting Eqs.(3.245) to (3.247) into Eq.(3.241) gives

kuu

1
2

(1 cos 2 )k xx

1
2

sin 2 k yx

1
2

sin 2 k xy

1
2

(1 cos 2 )k yy

(3.248)

Since kxy = kyx, Eq.(3.248) can be simplified to

kuu

k xx

k yy
2

k xx

k yy
2

cos 2

(3.249)

k xy sin 2

A comparison of Eqs.(3.242) and (3.243) shows that kuv = kvu. Substituting

Eqs. Eqs.(3.245) to (3.247) into Eq.(3.242) gives

kuv

1
2

sin 2 k xx

1
2

(1 cos 2 )k yx

1
2

(1 cos 2 )k xy

1
2

sin 2 k yy

.Since kxy = kyx and kuv = kvu, Eq.(3.250) can be simplified to

3-118

(3.250)

kuv

k xx

kvu

k yy

sin 2

k xy cos 2

(3.251)

Substituting Eqs.(3.245) to (3.247) into Eq.(3.244) gives

kvv

1
2

(1 sin 2 )k xx

1
2

sin 2 k yx

1
2

sin 2 k xy

1
2

(1 cos 2 )k yy

(3.252)

which can be simplified to

kvv

k xx

k yy

k xx

k yy

cos 2

k xy sin 2

(3.253)

One of the principal axes of the permeability anisotropy is obtained from

kuv

kvu

(3.254)

Substituting Eq.(3.254) into Eq.(3.251) gives

k xx

k yy

sin 2

k xy cos 2

(3.255)

Eq.(3.255) yields

2k xy

sin 2
cos 2

tan 2

k xx k yy

(3.256)

or
1
2

tan

2k xy
k xx

k yy

(3.257)

The other principal axis of the permeability anisotropy is given by (

degrees.
Example 3.6
For the flow field of Example 3.5,
1. Calculate the principal axes of the permeability anisotropy.
3-119

+90)

2. Calculate the principal values of the permeability anisotropy. Show the

transformed permeability tensor for the principal coordinate system.
3. Calculate the components of the Darcy velocity vector in the principal
directions of the permeability anisotropy.
Solution to Example 3.6
One of the principal axes of the permeability anisotropy is given by Eq.(3.257)
as
tan

tan

10.3048
2

50

200 750

tan

0.1818

10.3048

5.15

The principal values of the permeability anisotropy are given by Eqs.(3.249)

and (3.253) as

ku
ku

200 750 200 750

cos 10.3048 50sin 10.3048
2
2
475 270.5642 8.9443 195.49md

kv

200 750
2

200 750
cos 10.3048
2

kv

475 270.5642 8.9443 754.51md

50sin 10.3048

The transformed permeability tensor is given by

k u, v

ku
0

0
kv

195.5

754.5

md , where ku and kv are the principal values of

the permeability anisotropy. Figure 3.53 shows that the coordinate system
along the principal axes of the permeability anisotropy (u,v) makes an angle of
+5.15 with the x,y coordinate system.

3-120

Figure 3.53. Relationship between the principal axes of the permeability

anisotropy and the (x,y) coordinates.

Also shown in Figure 3.53 is the Darcy velocity vector in relation to the x,y
and the u,v coordinate systems, where the u,v coordinates are the principal
axes of the permeability anisotropy.
The components of the Darcy velocity in the u,v coordinates can be
calculated as follows.

vu

1.2185cos(54.24

5.15 ) 1.2185cos 49.09

0.7980 ft/D

vv

1.2185sin 54.24

5.15

0.9209 ft/D

1.2185sin 49.09

The components of the Darcy velocity in the u,v coordinates also can be
calculated from Eq.(3.234) as
3-121

vu
vv

cos 5.15

sin 5.15

0.7120

sin 5.15

cos 5.15

0.9888

vu

0.7980 ft/D

vv

0.9209 ft/D

0.7120

cos 5.15
sin 5.15

0.9888

sin 5.15

0.7980

cos 5.15

0.9209

These are the results obtained previously. It should be noted that because the
flow is invariant with a rotation of the axes, the magnitude of the Darcy
velocity (1.2185 ft/D) remains the same in the new coordinate system. The
direction of the Darcy velocity also remains the same. Only the components of
the Darcy velocity change in the new coordinate system.
3.14.4 Alternative Calculation of the Principal Values and the Principal
Axes of the Permeability Anisotropy
From linear algebra, the principal values of the permeability tensor are
given by the eigenvalues of the permeability tensor whereas the principal axes
of the permeability anisotropy are given by the eigenvectors of the
permeability tensor. This can be demonstrated by reworking Example 3.6 as
an eigenvalue problem.
Example 3.7
Rework Example 3.6 by calculating the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the
permeability tensor.

Solution to Example 3.7

Let the eigenvalues of the permeability tensor be . The characteristic
equation is given by

det

200
50

200

50
750
750

0
50

50

3-122

950

147500 0

950

9502

4 1 147500

950 559.0170
2

2
1

195.5md
754.5md

These principal values are the same as obtained in Example 3.6. For
1

195.5 , the eigenvector is obtained by solving the following simultaneous

equations:

200 195.5
50
50
750 195.5

x
y

4.5085

50

50

554.5085

4.5085 x 50 y

50 x 554.5085 y
x
y

11.0902
1

0
0

The eigenvector is

11.0902
1

This eigenvector makes an angle

tan

1
11.0902

with the positive x-axis given by

0.0902

5.15

3-123

For

754.5 ,

the

eigenvector

is

obtained

by

solving

the

following

simultaneous equations:

200 754.5
50
50
750 754.5
554.5
50

50
4.5

x
y

554.5 x 50 y

50 x 4.5 y
x
y

x
y

0
0

0
0

0.0902
y
1

The eigenvector is

0.0902
1

We can easily show that the two eigenvectors are orthogonal.

u .v

11.0902

0.0902

1 0

The eigenvectors point in the directions of the principal axes of the

permeability anisotropy. These are the same results obtained in Example 3.6.
3.14.5 Directional Permeability
For an isotropic medium, the Darcy velocity vector and the velocity
potential gradient vector are collinear as shown in Figure 3.54. Because the
two vectors lie along the same line with an angle of 180 between them, we
ordinarily do not specify whether the permeability is in the direction of flow or
in the direction of the velocity potential gradient. For this case, the
"directional" permeability in the direction of flow (kdf) is equal to the

3-124

"directional" permeability in the direction of the velocity potential gradient

(kdp) and is calculated in Darcy units as

kdf

kdp

(3.258)

Figure 3.54. Collinear relationship between the direction of flow and the
direction of the velocity potential gradient for an isotropic medium.
For an anisotropic medium, in general, the Darcy velocity vector and
the velocity potential gradient vector are not collinear as shown in Figure
3.55. The concept of directional permeability seeks to extend the definition of
permeability of an isotropic medium expressed in Eq.(3.258) to an anisotropic
medium. Accordingly, the directional permeability in the direction of flow is
defined in Darcy units by the equation

kdf
where

cos

v
cos

(3.259)

is the component of the velocity potential gradient vector that

is collinear with the Darcy velocity. Similarly, the directional permeability in

the direction of the velocity potential gradient is defined in Darcy units by the
equation

3-125

v cos

kdp
where v cos

(3.260)

is the component of the Darcy velocity vector that is collinear

with the velocity potential gradient vector.

Figure 3.55. Relationship between the direction of flow and the direction of
the velocity potential gradient in an anisotropic porous medium.
Example 3.8
Calculate the directional permeabilities for the flow field of Example 3.5.
Solution to Example 3.8
The directional permeability in the direction of flow is calculated with
Eq.(3.259) in oilfield units as

kdf

v
(0.001127(5.615)

cos
1 1.2185

(0.001127(5.615) 0.6731 cos 180

147.56

3-126

338.96 md

The directional permeability in the direction of the velocity potential gradient

is calculated with Eq.(3.260) in oilfield units as

kdp

v cos
(0.001127(5.615)
1 1.2185 cos 180

147.56

(0.001127(5.615) 0.6731

241.46 md

We now derive the relationship between the directional permeabilities

and the principal values of the permeability anisotropy. Let kx and ky be the
principal values of the permeability anisotropy where the x,y coordinates are
the principal axes of the anisotropy in a 2D reservoir. Let kdf be the directional
permeability in the direction of flow (in the direction of the Darcy velocity
vector) that makes an angle

with the positive x-axis as shown in Figure

3.56. The permeability tensor for this medium in the x,y coordinate system is
k x, y

kx

ky

(3.261)

Figure 3.56. Darcy velocity vector in the flow direction that makes an
angle with the positive x axis.
3-127

Darcys law can be written in the x, y and s directions as

kx

vx

(3.262)

x
ky

vy

(3.263)

y
kdf

vs

(3.264)

where s is the flow direction. Figure 3.56 shows the relationships between the
Darcy velocity in the flow direction vs and its x and y components vx and vy.
From Figure 3.56, we find

vx

vs cos

(3.265)

vy

vs sin

(3.266)

Eqs. (3.362) and (3.263) give the potential gradients in the x and y directions
as

Because

kx

ky

vs cos

(3.267)

vs sin

(3.268)

(x,y), from Calculus,

dx
x ds

dy
x ds

(3.269)

From Figure 3.56,

dx
ds

cos
3-128

(3.270)

dy
ds

(3.271)

sin

Substituting Eqs.(3.267) to (3.271) into Eq.(3.264) and rearranging gives the

directional permeability in the direction of flow as

cos 2
kx

1
kdf

sin 2
ky

(3.272)

Given the principal values of the permeability anisotropy (kx, ky) and the
principal coordinate system (x,y), Eq.(3.272) can be used to calculate the
directional permeability in the flow direction that makes an angle

with the

positive x-axis.
Eq.(3.272) can be put in rectangular coordinates by choosing a vector r
in the s direction (flow direction) and noting that
x

r cos

(3.273)

r sin

(3.274)

cos 2

x2
r2

(3.275)

sin 2

y2
r2

(3.276)

Substituting Eqs.(3.275) and (3.276) into (3.272) gives

r2
kdf

x2
kx

y2
ky

If we make the magnitude of the vector r

x2
kx

y2
ky

3-129

(3.277)

kdf , then Eq.(3.277) becomes

(3.278)

or
x2

kx

y2
2

ky

(3.279)

Eq.(3.279) is the cannonical equation of an ellipse with major semiaxes

k x and

k y . Thus, by constructing the permeability ellipse as shown in

Figure 3.57, the directional permeability can easily be determined graphically

for any given flow direction.

Figure 3.57. Permeability ellipse for calculating the directional

permeability in the direction of flow.
For flow 3D, the directional permeability in the direction of flow will be given
by the permeability ellipsoid
1

x2
kx

with semiaxes

k x , k y and

y2
2

ky

z2
2

kz .

3-130

kz

(3.280)

Let the velocity potential gradient vector make an angle

with the

positive x-axis. It can be shown that the directional permeability in the

direction of the gradient vector is given by

cos 2
1
kx

1
1
kdp

sin 2

(3.281)

1
ky

The permeability ellipse in 2D is

x2
1
kx

y2

(3.282)

1
ky

or

x2

1
kx
with semiaxes 1/ k x

y2
2

(3.283)

1
ky

and 1/ k y . The permeability ellipsoid in 3D is

x2
1
kx

with semiaxes 1/ k x , 1/ k x

y2
2

y2
2

1
ky

1
kz

(3.284)

and 1/ k z .

In an anisotropic medium, the directional permeability in the direction

of the velocity potential gradient is distinct from the directional permeability
in the direction of flow. Thus, there are two distinct definitions of directional
permeability for an anisotropic medium. It should be noted that principal
values of the permeability anisotropy (kx, ky and kz) are the true permeabilities
in the principal directions (x, y and z). They are also the directional
3-131

permeabilities in the direction of flow and the direction of the potential

gradient because in the principal coordinate system, the Darcy velocity and
the velocity potential gradient are collinear.
Figures 3.58 shows a polar plot of permeability data from Scheidegger
(1954) for permeabilities measured around a full-sized core. The measured
permeability data appear to fit a complicated curve. However, when the same
data are plotted as

k and

1
k

as shown in Figures 3.59 and 3.60, they fit on

ellipses. This observation verifies the tensorial nature of permeability. These

data can be used to identify the principal axes and the principal values of the
permeability anisotropy.

Figure 3.58. Permeability data measured around a cylindrical core

(Data from Scheidegger, 1954).

3-132

Figure 3.59. Permeability ellipse for permeability in the direction of flow

for the data of Figure 3.58.

3-133

Figure 3.60. Permeability ellipse for permeability in the direction of the

velocity potential gradient for the data of Figure 3.58.

3-134

Example 3.9
Calculate and plot the permeability ellipses for the flow field of Example 3.5.
Solution to Example 3.9
The permeability ellipses are given by Eqs.(3.279) for the flow direction and
(3.283) for the potential gradient direction, where x and y are the principal
axes of the permeability anisotropy. These equations can be adapted for our
purpose as follows:
1

u2
ku

v2
2

kv

u2
2

v2

195.5

754.5

and
1

u2
1
ku

v2
2

1
kv

u2
2

1
195.5

v2
2

1
754.5

These ellipses are plotted in Figures 3.61 and 3.62.

3-135

Figure 3.61. Permeability ellipse for permeability in the direction of flow

for Example 3.9.

3-136

Figure 3.62. Permeability ellipse for permeability in the direction of the

velocity potential gradient for Example 3.9.

3.14.6 Measurement of Transverse Permeability of a Cylindrical Core

If the transverse permeabilities around a full-sized core could be
measured, then the permeability anisotropy of the core could be determined.
Figure 3.63 shows a schematic diagram of an apparatus that can be used to
make the measurements. After a permeability measurement, the sleeve is
rotated to a new angle and the measurement is repeated. Using conformal
mapping, Collins (1961) has derived the following equation for calculating the
transverse permeability from a gas flow experiment (in Darcy units):

Pq
1 1
b
2 PL 1
P

G
P

3-137

(3.285)

Figure 3.63. Apparatus for measuring transverse permeability of a full-sized

cylindrical core.
where P1 is the inlet pressure, q1 is the gas volumetric flow rate measured at
P1, P is the mean pressure

P1 P2
,
2

P is the pressure drop between the

inlet and the outlet P1 P2 , b is the Klinkenberg parameter, L is the height of

the core, G( ) is a geometric correction factor to account for the complex flow
3-138

geometry of the gas from inlet to outlet and

is equal to

. Figure 3.64

shows the plot of G( ) versus .

Figure 3.64. Geometric factor for transverse permeability calculation (from

Collins, 1961).

By making such measurements around the core, a polar plot of the

permeability can be made as shown in Figure 3.65. Such a plot can be used
to determine the principal values and the principal directions of the
permeability anisotropy. The permeability tensor of the medium can then be
constructed from this information for any coordinate system.

3-139

Figure 3.65. Polar plot of transverse permeabilities around a core (from

Scheidegger, 1954).

3.15 EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS OF PERMEABILITY

Permeability is used in numerical reservoir simulations to predict
reservoir performance. Permeability (absolute and relative permeability) must
be assigned to every one of the approximately one million grid blocks in a fullfield simulation, often with a full tensor representation. The purpose of this
3-140

section is to present simple examples of how permeability could be used to

predict reservoir performance. We examine the productivity indices of a
horizontal well and a hydraulically fractured well with infinite fracture
conductivity. The analysis shows that a horizontal well and a fractured well
are similar in the manner in which they affect reservoir performance.
3.15.1 Productivity of a Horizontal Well
Introduction
Horizontal wells are increasingly being drilled for petroleum recovery.
One of the major advantages of a horizontal well over a vertical well is the
larger contact area between a horizontal well and the reservoir compared to a
vertical well in the same reservoir. This larger areal contact can significantly
enhance the productivity of a horizontal well compared to a vertical well
draining the same reservoir volume. However, the productivity of a horizontal
well can be affected significantly by the permeability anisotropy of the
reservoir.
The objectives of this section are: (1) to provide a simple formula for
estimating the productivity index of a horizontal well for single phase flow in
terms of the reservoir permeability and other relevant factors, (2) to compare
the productivities of a horizontal well and a vertical well in the same reservoir
to determine if a horizontal well is superior to a vertical well under the
particular circumstance, and (3) to examine how the permeability anisotropy
of the reservoir affects the productivity of a horizontal well.
Homogeneous and Isotropic Reservoirs
The steady state productivity index (PI) for a horizontal well in a
homogeneous and isotropic reservoir is given by Giger et al. (1984) as

3-141

2
PI H

FD
L
ln
h

kL
B
L
2re

(3.286)

L
2re

ln

h
2 rw

where
PIH

productivity index of a horizontal well, surface rate/unit

pressure drop

FD

units conversion constant

effective permeability to oil

total length of the horizontal well

oil viscosity

oil formation volume factor, reservoir volume/surface volume

formation thickness

rw

wellbore radius

re

well drainage radius

Figure 3.66 shows the flow geometry. The horizontal well of length L is located
half-way between the top and the bottom of the reservoir of thickness h. L is
assumed to be small relative to 2re. The units conversion constant, FD, is
given in Table 3.14.

3-142

Figure 3.66: Flow geometry for steady state productivity index equation.

Table 3.14: Units and Dimensions

SI Units

Oilfield
Units

Field
Metric
Units

cm

ft

L2

cm2

m2

ft2

m2

Pressure

ML-1T-2

atm

Pa

psi

MPa

Permeability

L2

darcy

m2

millidarcy
(md)

m2

Fluid
Viscosity

ML-1T-1

cp

Pa.s

cp

mPa.s

Liquid Flow
Rate

L3T-1

cm3/s

m3/s

B/D

m3/D

0.001127

86.4

Dimension

Darcy
Units

Distance

Area

FD

The steady state productivity index of a vertical well can be obtained by

integration of Darcys Law as

3-143

kh
B

2
PIV

FD

(3.287)

r
ln e
rw

Therefore, the ratio of the productivity index of a horizontal well to a vertical

well draining the same reservoir volume is obtained from Eqs.(3.286) and
(3.287) as

PI H
PIV

ln
FD
L
ln
h

re
rw

L
2re

(3.288)

L
2re

ln

h
2 rw

Note that because the right side of Eq.(3.288) involves ratios of lengths,
Eq.(3.288) is valid in any system of units.
Example 3.10
Given the following data for an isotropic reservoir, calculate (a) the
productivity index for a horizontal well, (b) the productivity index for a vertical
well, and (c) the ratio of the productivity indices of the horizontal and the
vertical wells.
Length of horizontal well (L)

500 m

Formation thickness (h)

40 m

Drainage radius (re)

1000 m

Wellbore radius (rw)

0.12 m

Horizontal permeability (kH)

400 md

Vertical permeability (kV)

400 md

3-144

Oil viscosity ( o)

5 cp

Oil formation volume factor (B)=

1.2 RB/STB

Solution to Example 3.10

In oilfield units, FD = 0.001127. Substituting the numerical values into
Eq.(3.286) gives the productivity index for the horizontal well as

400 x500 x3.2808

5 x1.2

2
PI H

0.001127
500
ln
40

500
1
2 x1000
500
2 x1000

26.02 STB/D/psi

ln

40
2 x0.12

Substituting the numerical values into Eq.(3.287) gives the productivity index
for the vertical well as

400 x 40 x3.2808
5 x1.2
1000
ln
0.12

2
PIV

0.001127

6.86 STB/D/psi

The ratio of the horizontal to vertical well productivity indices is

PI H
PIV

26.02
6.86

3.8

Clearly, in this isotropic reservoir, the productivity of the horizontal well is

much higher than that of the vertical well.
Homogeneous and Anisotropic Reservoirs
Many

petroleum

reservoirs

are

anisotropic

and

have

different

permeabilities in the different directions. For example, in a layered reservoir,

the

vertical

permeability

is

usually

much

less

than

the

horizontal

permeability. Also, a reservoir that is intersected by a large number of vertical

3-145

fractures will have a higher vertical permeability than the horizontal

permeability. Permeability anisotropy can have a significant effect on the
productivity of a horizontal well. This effect is examined in this section.
Consider

an

anisotropic

reservoir

with

horizontal

and

vertical

permeabilities kH and kV, respectively. These are the principal values of the
permeability anisotropy and x and z are the principal axes of the anisotropy.
The diffusivity equation for steady state single phase flow for the anisotropic
medium is given by

kH

P
x2

kV

P
z2

(3.289)

By a suitable change of coordinates, Eq.(3.289) can be transformed into a

form that describes the flow in an equivalent isotropic medium having a
permeability k * . The required transformation equations are as follows:

k*

k H kV

(3.290)

k*
kH

(3.291)

k*
z
kV

(3.292)

and

where X and Z are the transformed spatial coordinates. With these

transformations, Eq.(3.289) becomes

k*

P
X2

P
Z2

Since k * is nonzero, Eq.(3.293) yields

3-146

(3.293)

P
X2

P
Z2

(3.294)

which is the diffusivity equation for an equivalent isotropic medium with a

permeability of k * . Eqs.(3.290) to (3.292) can be used in conjunction with
Eq.(3.286) to calculate the productivity index of a horizontal well in an
anisotropic reservoir as shown in the following example.
Example 3.11
Given the following data for an anisotropic reservoir, calculate (a) the
productivity index for a horizontal well, (b) the productivity index for a vertical
well, and (c) the ratio of the productivity indices of the horizontal and the
vertical wells.
Length of horizontal well (L)

500 m

Formation thickness (h)

40 m

Drainage radius (re)

1000 m

Wellbore radius (rw)

0.12 m

Horizontal permeability (kH)

400 md

Vertical permeability (kV)

25 md

Oil viscosity ( o)

5 cp

Oil formation volume factor (B)

1.2 RB/STB

Solution to Example 3.11

From Eq.(3.290),

k*

400 x 25 100 md

From Eq.(3.291),
L*

500

100
400

250 m

3-147

re* 1000

100
400

500 m

From Eq.(3.292),
h*

40

100
25

80 m

Substituting these numerical values into Eq.(3.286) gives the productivity

index for the horizontal well in the anisotropic reservoir as

100 x 250 x3.2808

5 x1.2

2
PI H

0.001127
250
ln
80

250
2 x500
250
2 x500

8.71 STB/D/psi

ln

80
2 x0.12

The productivity index for the vertical well in the anisotropic reservoir is given
by Eq.(3.287) with k = kH. Thus, for the vertical well,

2
PIV

0.001127

400 x 40 x3.2808
5 x1.2
1000
ln
0.12

6.86 STB/D/psi

The ratio of the horizontal to the vertical well productivity indices in the
anisotropic medium is

PI H
PIV

8.71
1.27
6.86

Thus, the productivity advantage of a horizontal well is reduced considerably

in an anisotropic reservoir in which the vertical permeability is significantly
lower than the horizontal permeability.

3-148

In a naturally fractured reservoir, if the azimuth of the horizontal is

such that it intersects the vertical fractures, then the productivity of the well
will enhanced as shown in the following example.

Example 3.12
A horizontal well has intersected a large number of vertical fractures as
shown in Figure 3.67 such that the vertical permeability is larger than the
horizontal permeability. Given the following data for this anisotropic reservoir,
calculate (a) the productivity index for a horizontal well, (b) the productivity
index for a vertical well, and (c) the ratio of the productivity indices of the
horizontal and the vertical wells.
Length of horizontal well (L)

500 m

Formation thickness (h)

40 m

Drainage radius (re)

1000 m

Wellbore radius (rw)

0.12 m

Horizontal permeability (kH)

400 md

Vertical permeability (kV)

800 md (Due to the vertical fractures)

Oil viscosity ( o)

5 cp

Oil formation volume factor (B)

3-149

1.2 RB/STB

Figure 3.67. A horizontal well that intersects vertical fractures.

Solution to Example 3.12

From Eq.(3.290),

k*

400 x800

565.69 md

From Eq.(3.291),
L*

565.69
400

500

re* 1000

594.60 m

565.69
400

1189.21 m

From Eq.(3.292),
h*

40

565.69
800

33.64 m

Substituting these numerical values into Eq.(3.286) gives the productivity

index for the horizontal well in the fractured anisotropic reservoir as

3-150

2
PI H

0.001127
594.60
ln
33.64

565.69 x594.60 x3.2808

5 x1.2
1

594.60
2 x1189.21
250
2 x1189.21

32.34 STB/D/psi

ln

33.64
2 x0.12

The productivity index for the vertical well in the anisotropic reservoir is given
by Eq.(3.286) with k = kH. Thus, for the vertical well,

2
PIV

0.001127

400 x 40 x3.2808
5 x1.2
1000
ln
0.12

6.86 STB/D/psi

The ratio of the horizontal to the vertical well productivity indices in the
anisotropic medium with vertical fractures is

PI H
PIV

32.34
6.86

4.71

Clearly, the advantage of a horizontal well that intersects vertical fractures in

an anisotropic reservoir compared to a vertical well is apparent from this
example. Note, however, that if the horizontal well was wrongly drilled parallel
to the fractures instead of normal to the fractures as shown in Figure 3.67,
the productivity of the horizontal well will not be enhanced by the fractures.
The horizontal well placement relative to the fracture azimuth is therefore
important to take advantage of the fractures.
The change in coordinates given by Eqs.(3.290) to (3.292) also
transforms the circular wellbore into an elliptical wellbore with the same cross
sectional area as the circular wellbore. This change in the shape of the
wellbore has been neglected in the calculations in Examples 3.11 and 3.12
because its effect is negligibly small.

3-151

There are more elaborate equations for calculating the productivity

index of a horizontal well in the literature. These more complicated equations
and their associated assumptions may be found in the references.
3.14.2 Productivity of a Vertically Fractured Well
The productivity index of a vertically fractured well with an infinite
fracture conductivity in a homogeneous and isotropic reservoir as shown in
Figure 3.68 is given by Karcher et al. (1986) as

2
PI F

FD
L
ln
h

kH L
B
L
2re

(3.295)

L
2re

where L is the total length of the fracture. The assumptions underlying the
above equation are:
Fracture height is equal to the reservoir pay thickness
The fracture is plane and is centered on the well
The well drainage radius is large compared to the fracture length
The fracture has infinite conductivity
The fracture conductivity is defined as

FC

kf w

(3.296)

where kf is the fracture permeability and w is the fracture width. A

dimensioless fracture conductivity is defined as

3-152

FCD

where Lf is the fracture half-length

kf w
kH L f

(3.297)

L
. A hydraulic fracture behaves as if it
2

has an infinite conductivity for

FCD

300

Figure 3.68. Vertically fractured well.

3-153

(3.298)

If

L
2re

1 , then Eq.(3.295) simplifies to

kH h
B
4re
ln
L

2
PIV

FD

(3.299)

which is the productivity index of a vertical well with an equivalent wellbore

radius given by

L
4

rw

(3.300)

The ratio of the productivity index of the fracture well to the unfractured well
is given by

PI F
PIV

ln
FD
L
ln
h

re
rw
L
2re

(3.301)

L
2re

Eq.(3.301) can be used to demonstrate the increased productivity of a

fractured well compared to the unfractured well.
A comparison of Eqs.(3.295) and (3.286) shows that the productivity
index of a vertical fracture with an infinite conductivity is similar to but
somewhat higher than the productivity index of a horizontal well.
horizontal well has a positive pseudo skin represented by the term ln

h
2 rw

The
in

Eq.(3.286) compared to the fractured well. The pseudoskin is caused by the

convergence of flow into the horizontal wellbore whereas the flow into the
fracture occurs over the entire fracture face with no convergence of flow. The
3-154

similarity in the productivity index equations for a fracture and a horizontal

well indicates that fracturing a vertical well is an alternative to drilling a
horizontal well.

NOMENCLATURE
A

cross sectional area in the flow direction

Ai =

Area of bed i

AT =

total area

Klinkenberg empirical constant dependent on rock and gas

core diameter

oil formation volume factor

Bg =

gas formation volume factor

cf

compressibility of porous medium

ct

total compressibility

wellbore storage coefficient

CD =

dimensionless wellbore storage coefficient

non-Darcy coefficient

Dp =

grain diameter, mean grain diameter

Ei =

exponential integral function

f( ) =

probability density function for pore diameter for a bundle of

capillary tubes model

formation resisitivity factor

FC =

fracture conductivity

FCD=

dimensionless fracture conductivity

gravitational acceleration

G( ) = geometric factor for calculating transverse permeability of a

cylindrical porous medium
h

pay thickness, hydraulic head

hi =

thickness of bed i

hydraulic conductivity

absolute permeability of the medium

kdf =

directional permeability in the direction of flow

3-155

kdp =

directional permeability in the direction of the velocity potential

gradient

ki =

permeability of bed i

permeability tensor, average permeability

kij =

individual entries in the permeability tensor

kg =

measured gas permeability

kL =

permeability to liquid (absolute permeability of medium)

kor =

permeability to nonwetting phase at irreducible wetting phase

saturation

ko =

Kozeny constant

kx, ky, kz = principal values of permeability anisotropy where xyz is the

principal coordinate system
ku, kv, kw = principal values of permeability anisotropy where uvw is the
principal coordinate system
L

length

Li =

length of bed i

Le =

tortuous length of flow path

ln =

natural logarithm (log to base e)

log =

log to base 10

M =

real gas potential or real gas pseudo pressure

pressure

PD =

dimensionless pressure

PD' =

dimensionless welltest derivative function

Pi

initial reservoir pressure

P* =

extrapolated pressure from a Horner plot

Psc =

reference pressure

Pe =

pressure at external radius

Pw =

pressure at the wellbore

PwD=

dimensionless wellbore pressure

PwD =

dimensionless wellbore pressure in Laplace space

'
PwD
=

Calculus derivative of dimensionless wellbore pressure in Laplace

space
3-156

Pwf =

flowing bottomhole pressure

Pws =

shut-in bottomhole pressure

P1 =

inlet pressure

P2 =

outlet pressure

mean pressure

P1 P2
2

dP
=
ds

pressure gradient

PI =

productivity index

PIH =

productivity index of a horizontal well

PIV =

productivity index of a vertical well

volumetric flowrate

qsf =

sandface rate

qsc =

volumetric rate at a reference pressure, Psc

qT =

total volumetric flow rate

radial distance from the wellbore

rD =

dimensionless radius

re =

external drainage radius

rH =

hydraulic radius

ri

radius of bed i

rinv =

radius of investigation of a welltest

ro

resistance of a porous medium fully saturated with water

rw =

resistance of water

rw =

wellbore radius

Re =

Reynolds Number

Ro =

resistivity of a porous medium fully saturated with water

Rw =

resistivity of water

cartesian coordinate in the flow direction.

skin factor

storativity

surface area per unit bulk volume (specific surface area)

3-157

Sp =

surface area per unit pore volume (specific surface area)

Ss =

surface area per unit grain volume (specific surface area)

Swirr = irreducible wetting phase saturation

S* =

mechanical skin facor

time

tD =

dimensionless time

tp

producing time before shut-in

absolute temperature

transmissibility

Tsc =
=

reference temperature
flux vector, Darcy velocity vector

vx, vy, vz = components of Darcy velocity in the xyz Cartesian coordinate

system.
vu, vv, vw = components of Darcy velocity in the uvw Cartesian coordinate
system.
w

fracture width

height above (or below) an arbitrary datum

Cartesian coordinate in the vertical direction

gas Z-factor

non-darcy velocity coefficient

fluid density.

viscosity

porosity, fraction

tortuosity

liquid specific gravity

velocity flow potential function

pressure head
gradient operator

P =

pressure change

P' =

welltest derivative function

t =

shut-in time

te =

effective shut-in time

3-158

h =

positive difference in the hydraulic heads at points 1 and

2.

L =

positive length of the porous medium between points 1

and 2 in the flow direction.

REFEREENCES
Amyx, J.W., Bass, D.M., Jr. and Whiting, R.L. : Petroleum Reservoir
Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1960.
Anderson, G. : Coring and Core Analysis Handbook, Petroleum Publishing
Company, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1975.
Archer, J.S. and Wall, C.G. : Petroleum Engineering, Graham & Trotman,
London, England, 1986.
Archie, G.E. :The Electrical Resistivity Log as an Aid in Determining Some
Reservoir Characteristics, Trans. AIME (1942) 146, 54-62.
Archie, G.E. :Introduction to Petrophysics of Reservoir Rocks, AAPG Bull.,
Vol. 34, No. 5 (May 1950) 943-961.
Babu, D.K. and Odeh, A.S. : "Productivity of a Horizontal Well," SPE Reservoir
Engineering (November, 1989) 417-421.
Bear, J. : Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Elsevier, New York, 1972.
Berg, R.R. : Method for Determining Permeability from Reservoir Rocks,
Trans., Gulf Coast Assoc. of Geol. Soc., Vol. XX (1970) 303-335.
Bradley, H.B. (Editor-in-Chief) : Petroleum Engineering Handbook, SPE,
Richardson, Texas, 1987.
Butler, R.M. : Horizontal Wells for the Recovery of Oil, Gas and Bitumen,
Petroleum Society, Canadian Inst. Min., Met. and Pet., Calgary, 1994.
Carslaw, H.S. and Jaeger, J.C. : Conduction of Heat in Solids, 2nd edition,
Clarendon Press, Oxford (1959).
Carman, P.C. : "Fluid Flow Through A Granular Bed, Trans. Inst. Chem. Eng.
London (1937) 15, 150-156.
Carman, P.C. : "Determination of the Specific Surface of Powders, J. Soc.
Chem. Indus (1938) 57, 225-234.
Carpenter, C.B. and Spencer, G.B. : Measurements of the Compressibility of
Consolidated Oil-Bearing Sandstones, RI 3540, USBM (Oct. 1940).
Chilingar, G.V.: Relationship Between Porosity, Permeability and Grain Size
Distribution of Sands and Sandstones, Proceedings of the Sixth
International Sedimentological Congress, The Netherlands and Belgium,
3-159

1963, Deltaic and Shallow Marine Deposits, L.M.J.U van Straatan, Ed.,
Elsevier, New York, 72 75.
Clarke, R.H. :"Reservoir Properties of Conglomerates and Conglomeratic
Sandstones," AAPG Bulletin, Vol. 63 (1979) 799-809.
Collins, R.E. : Flow of Fluids Through Porous Materials, Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company, 1961. Reprinted by the Petroleum Publishing
Company, 1976. Reprinted by Research & Engineering Consultants
Inc., 1990.
Core Laboratories Inc. : Special Core Analysis, 1976.
Corey, A.T. : Mechanics of Heterogeneous Fluids in Porous Media, Water
Resources Publications, Fort Collins, Colorado, 1977.
Cosse, R. : Basics of Reservoir Engineering, Editions Technip, Paris, 1993.
De Boodt, M.F. and Kirkham, D. : "Anisotropy and Measurement of Air
Permeability of Soil Clods," Soil Sci., Vol. 76 (1953) 127-313.
Dobrynin, V.M. : "The Effect of Overburden Pressure on Some Properties of
Sandstones, Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (Dec. 1962) 360-366.
Dullien, F.A.L. : Porous Media - Fluid Transport and Pore Structure, Academic
Press, New York, 1979.
Firoozabadi, A. and Katz, D.L. : "An Aanlysis of High Velocity Gas Flow
Through Porous Media," JPT (Feb. 1979) 221.
Freeze, R.A. and Cherry, J.A. : Goundwater, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
1979.
Giger, F.M., Reiss, L.H. and Jourdan, A.P. : "The Reservoir Engineering
Aspects of Horizontal Wells," paper SPE 13024, presented at the 59th
SPE Annual Technical Meeting, Dallas, Texas, September 16-19, 1984.
Gilman, J.R. and Jargon, J.R. : "Evaluating Horizontal Versus Vertical Well
Performance," World Oil (April, 1992) 67-72.
Gilman, J.R. and Jargon, J.R. : "Evaluating Horizontal Versus Vertical Well
Performance: Part 2," World Oil (June, 1992) 55-60.
Goode, P.A. and Kuchuk, F.J. : "Inflow Performance for Horizontal Wells," SPE
Reservoir Engineering (August, 1991) 319-323.
Hutta, J.J. and Griffiths, : "Directional Permeability of Sandstones: A Test
Technique," Producers Monthly, Nov. 26, Vol.34 and Oct.24, Vol. 31,
1955.
Jennings, H.J. : How to Handle and Process Soft and Unconsolidated Cores,
World Oil (June 1965) 116-119.

3-160

Johnson, W.E. and Hughes, R.V.: "Directional Permeability Measurements

and their Significance," Producers Monthly, No. 1, Vol. 18 (November
1948) 17-25.
Joshi, S. D. : "A Review of Horizontal Well and Drainhole Technology," paper
SPE 16868, presented at the 62nd SPE Annual Technical Meeting,
Dallas, Texas, September 27-30, 1987.
Joshi, S. D. : "Production Forecasting Methods for Horizontal Wells," paper
SPE 17580, presented at the SPE International Meeting on Petroleum
Engineering, Tianjin, China, November 1-4, 1988.
Joshi, S. D. : Horizontal Well Technology, PennWell Publishing Co., Tulsa,
1991.
Karcher, B.J., Giger, F.M. and Combe, J. : "Some Practical Formulas to
Predict Horizontal Well Behavior," paper SPE 15430, presented at the
61st SPE Annual Technical Meeting,New Orleans, LA, October 5-8,
1986.
Keelan, D.K. : "A Critical Review of Core Analysis Techniques The Jour. Can.
Pet. Tech. (April-June 1972) 42-55.
Klinkenberg, L.J. : The Permeability of Porous Media to Liquids and Gases,
Drilling and Production Practices, American Petroleum Institute (1941)
200.
Krumbein, W.C. and Monk, G.D. : Permeability as a Function of the Size
Parameters of Unconsolidated Sand, Amer. Int. Mining and Met. Tech.
Pub. 1492, 1942.
Kuchuk, F.J., Goode, P.A., Brice, B.W., Sherrard, D.W. and Thambynayagam,
R.K.M.: "Pressure Transient Analysis and Inflow Performance for
Horizontal Wells," paper SPE 18300, presented at the 63rd SPE Annual
Technical Meeting, Houston, Texas, October 2-5, 1988.
Leva, M., Weintraub, M., Grummer, M. Pollchick, M. and Storch, H.H. : "Fluid
Flow Through Packed and Packed and Fluidized Systems," US Bureau
of Mines Bull. No. 504, 1951.
Maasland, M. and Kirkham, D. : "Theory and Measurement of Anisotropic Air
Permeability in Soil Clods," Proc. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer., No. 4, Vol. 19
(1955) 395-400.
Mayer-Gurr, A. : Petroleum Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1976.
Monicard, R.P. : Properties of Reservoir Rocks, Gulf Publishing Company,
Houston, TX, 1980.
Nelson, P.H. :Permeability-Porosity Relationships in Sedimentary Rocks, The
Log Analyst (May-June 1994) 38-62.

3-161

Ozkan, E. : "Performance of Horizontal Wells," PhD Dissertation, University of

Tulsa, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1988.
Peters, E.J. : Stability Theory and Viscous Fingering in Porous Media, PhD
Dissertation, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada,
January 1979.
Peters, E.J. and Afzal, N. : Characterization of Heterogeneities in Permeable
Media with Computed Tomography Imaging, Journal of Petroleum
Science and Engineering, 7, No. 3/4, (May 1992) 283-296.
Pirson, S.J. : Oil Reservoir Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1958.
Poston, S.W., Ysreal, S.C., Hossain, A.K.M.S., Montgomery, E.F., III, and
Ramey, H.J., Jr. : The Effect of Temperature on Irreducible Water
Saturation and Relative Permeability of Unconsolidated Sands, Soc.
Pet. Eng. J. (June 1970) 171-180; Trans., AIME (1970) 249.
Richardson, J.G. : Flow Through Porous Media, Section 16, Handbook of
Fluid Dynamics, Edited by V.I. Streeter, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, 1961.
Rose, H.E. : An Investigation into the the Laws of Flow of Fluids Through
Granular Material, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. (1945) 153, 141-148.
Ryder, H.M. : "Permeability, Absolute, Effective, Measured
1948) 173-177.

World Oil (May

Scheidegger, A.E. : The Physics of Flow Through Porous Media, University of

Toronto Press, Toronto, 1960.
Stehfest, H. : Algorithm 368, Numerical Inverse of Laplace Transforms, D-5,
Communications of the ACM, Vol. 13, No.1 (1970) 47- 48.
Vose, D. : Quantitative Risk Analysis: A Guide to Monte Carlo Simulation
Modeling, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1998.
Winsauer, W.O., Shearin, H.M., Jr., Masson, P.H. and Williams, M. :
"Resistivity of Brine-Saturated Sands in Relation to Pore Geometry,"
AAPG Bull., Vol. 36, No. 2 (Feb. 1952) 253-277.
Wyllie, M.R.J. and Spangler, M.B. : "Application of Electrical Resistivity
Measurements to Problems of Fluid Flow in Porous Media, AAPG Bull.,
Vol. 36, No. 2 (Feb. 1952) 359-403.
Wyllie, M.R.J. and Gregory, A.R.: "Fluid Flow Through Unconsolidated Porous
Aggregates Industrial and Engineering Chem. Vol. 47 (1955) 1379-1388.

3-162

CHAPTER 4

HETEROGENEITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Petroleum reservoir rocks are, in general, heterogeneous and very
often anisotropic in nature. This means that the petrophysical properties
of interest such as permeability, porosity, fluid saturation, lithology and
others

vary

in

space

both

vertically

and

laterally.

Evidence

of

heterogeneity was seen in the results of the core analysis presented in

Table 2.2. It was found that the permeability, porosity and fluid
saturations varied from top to bottom within the same reservoir.
Variability of rock and fluid properties is a reality that must be dealt with
in petroleum resource assessment and reservoir performance prediction.
Suppose it has been decided to model reservoir performance
through numerical simulation. In the construction of the simulation
model, every one of the nearly one million grid blocks requires the
assignment of porosity, absolute permeability, relative permeability,
capillary pressure and various fluid properties. How can one generate the
values of the rock and fluid properties to be used in the simulation
model? One may assume that the reservoir is homogeneous and use the
same value of each property in every grid block. Such a simulation model
4-1

ignores the geology of the reservoir and will consequently yield

misleading and optimistic results. One may resort to populating the grid
blocks with property values from a random number generator. This
model also ignores the geology of the reservoir and the general
observation that data from nearby locations tend to be similar whereas
data from locations that are far apart tend to be dissimilar. In other
words, petrophysical data tend to be correlated. Of course, some of these
properties can be estimated from core analysis and well logs. However,
because wells sample only a very minute volume of the reservoir, the
properties in the bulk of the reservoir remain unknown and must be
estimated by other means. There is therefore a need to devise a rational
way to estimate the petrophysical properties for the reservoir simulation
model.
The estimation of reservoir properties at locations for which no
measurements have been made can be accomplished with a new type of
statistics known as geostatistics (compare with geochemistry and
geophysics). Geostatistics is the practical applications of the Theory of
Regionalized Variables developed by Georges Matheron in Fontainebleau.
The main difference between ordinary statistics and geostatistics is that
ordinary statistics is typically based on random, independent and
uncorrelated data whereas geostatistics is based on random and spatially
correlated data.
The basic concepts of geostatistics are presented in this chapter.
Before estimating the values of the properties of the heterogeneous
reservoir, one must first characterize the heterogeneity from the samples
of the property that have been collected from core analysis, well logs and
other sources. After characterizing the nature of the heterogeneity, an

42

estimation is undertaken that honors both the measured data (samples)

and the structure of the heterogeneity observed from the samples.

4.2 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND

VARIABILITY (HETEROGENEITY)
4.2.1 Measures of central tendency
Mean
The mean (arithmetic mean) is the best known measure of central
tendency. Given N sample data

,...,

, the mean (arithmetic

mean) of the sample data is defined as

i N

1
N

(4.1)

i
i 1

Geometric Mean
The geometric mean is a better measure of central tendency for
data from a log normal distribution than the arithmetic mean. The
geometric mean is defined as

ln

geom

1
N

i N

ln

(4.2)

i 1

Taking antilog in Eq.(4.2) gives the geometric mean as

geom

...

(4.3)

Median
The median of a sample data set is found by determining that
value of

which has equal number of values above it and below it. To

determine the median, the data are arranged in ascending (or

4-3

descending) order. If the number of data N is odd, then the median is

determined from the sorted data as

median

( N 1) / 2

(4.4)

for N odd

If N is even, then the mean of the two most central values is used to
calculate the median as

1
2

median

N /2

for N even

N /2 1

(4.5)

Mode
The mode of a probability distribution p

is the value of

at

which the probability distribution is a maximum. The mode is useful

primarily when there is a single sharp maximum, in which case the mode
estimates the central value. Sometimes, a distribution is bimodal, with
two relative maxima. In such a case, one may wish to know the two
modes individually. For a bimodal distribution, the mean and median are
not very useful as measures of central tendency.
4.2.2 Measures of Variability (Heterogeneity or Spread)
Variance
The most useful measure of variability around the central value is
the variance defined for sample data as

Var

...

i N

N 1i

(4.6)

The standard deviation is the positive square root of the variance and is
given by
44

...

Var

...

(4.7)

Dykstra-Parsons Coefficient of Variation

A measure of permeability variability that is widely used in the
petroleum industry is the Dykstra-Parsons (1950) coefficient of variation,
V. This coefficient of variation is determined based on the assumption
that permeability data are drawn from a log normal distribution. The
calculation of the Dykstra-Parsons coefficient of permeability variation
involves plotting the frequency distribution of the permeability data on a
log-normal probability graph paper.

This is done by arranging the

permeability values in descending order and then calculating for each

permeability, the percent of the samples with permeabilities greater than
or equal to that value. Table 4.1 shows an example calculation.

Note

that to avoid values of 0 or 100%, which are not present on the

probability scale, the percent greater than or equal to value is normalized
by N+1, where N is the number of samples.
The data are plotted on a log-normal probability graph paper as
shown in Figure 4.1. Normally, such a plot gives a straight line, at least
when the central portion is used.
distribution

% 50

The midpoint of the permeability

is the median permeability.

The Dykstra-Parsons

coefficient of permeability variation, V, is defined as

k50 k84.1
k50

where k50 is the permeability value at

(4.8)

% 50 , which is the log mean

permeability and k84.1 is the permeability value at % 84.1 , which is one

4-5

standard deviation from the mean. For the data of Table 4.1 and Figure
4.1,
N+1 = 20
k50 = 17.8 md
k84.1 = 6.1 md

k50 k84.1
k50

17.8 6.1
0.66
17.8

Table 4.1. Calculation of Dykstra-Parsons Coefficient of Variation (V)

k
(md)
100
65
50
32
29
27
27
23
23
18
17
17
16
8
7
7
6
4
1

No of Samples >= k

% >= k

1
2
3
4
5

5
10
15
20
25

35

9
10

45
50

12
13
14

60
65
70

16
17
18
19

80
85
90
95

46

Figure 4.1. Log normal permeability distribution.

Dykstra-Parsons coefficient of variation is a dimensionless number

that ranges from 0 to 1. A homogeneous reservoir has a coefficient of
permeability

variation

that

approaches

whereas

an

extremely

heterogeneous reservoir has a coefficient of permeability variation that

approaches 1. Petroleum reservoirs typically have Dykstra-Parsons
coefficients of permeability variation between 0.5 and 0.9.

Figure 4.2

shows theoretical log normal permeability distributions and their

corresponding Dykstra-Parsons coefficients.

4-7

Figure 4.2. Theoretical log normal permeability distributions and their

corresponding Dykstra-Parsons coefficients (Carlson, 2003).

Lorenz Coefficient
Another measure of heterogeneity used in the petroleum industry
is the Lorenz coefficient . The Lorenz coefficient of variation is obtained
by plotting a graph of cumulative kh versus cumulative h, sometimes
called a flow capacity plot.

Table 4.2 shows an example calculation

whereas Figure 4.3 shows the plot of cumulative kh versus cumulative

h for determining the Lorenz coefficient.

The Lorenz coefficient is

defined from Figure 4.2 as

Lorenz Coefficient

48

area ABCA
area ADCA

(4.9)

where ABCA is the cross-hatched area in the figure and ADCA is the
triangle below the cross-hatched area. From Figure 4.2, the Lorenz
coefficient of the data of Table 4.2 is about 0.65.
The Lorenz coefficient of variation also varies from 0 to 1.
Unfortunately, the Lorenz coefficient is not a unique measure of reservoir
heterogeneity. Several different permeability distributions can give the
same

value

of

Lorenz

coefficient.

For

log-normal

permeability

distribtutions, the Lorenz coefficient is very similar to the DykstraParsons coefficient of permeability variation.
Table 4.2 . Calculation of Lorenz Coefficient of Variation
h

kh

kh

kh/Sumk

(ft)

(ft)

h/Sum h

h
(ft)

(md)

(fraction)

(md-ft)

(md-ft)
0.000

8.1
2.0

4388
2640

0.22
0.22

35542.

35542.

5280.0

40822.

0.000

0.399

1.782

1.782

0.062

0.459

0.440

2.222

0.078

0.564

0.777

2.999

0.105

0.653

1.000

3.999

0.140

0.695

0.800

4.799

0.168

0.766

1.824

6.623

0.232

0.798

1.280

7.903

0.277

0.810

0.432

8.335

0.292

8
3.7

2543

0.21

9409.1

50231.
9

5.0

1579

0.20

7895.0

58126.
9

4.0

930

0.20

3720.0

61846.
9

9.6

662

0.19

6355.2

68202.
1

6.4

441

0.20

2822.4

71024.
5

2.7

402

0.16

1085.4

72109.
9

4-9

5.6

401

0.20

2245.6

74355.

0.836

1.120

9.455

0.331

0.870

1.440

10.895

0.381

0.882

0.840

11.735

0.411

0.924

3.171

14.906

0.522

0.940

1.003

15.909

0.557

0.948

0.616

16.525

0.578

0.964

1.258

17.783

0.622

0.978

1.840

19.623

0.687

0.987

1.444

21.067

0.737

0.992

1.919

22.986

0.804

0.995

1.728

24.714

0.865

0.997

0.595

25.309

0.886

0.998

1.056

26.365

0.923

1.000

2.212

28.577

1.000

Sum h =

28.577

5
8.0

378

0.18

3024.0

77379.
5

4.0

267

0.21

1068.0

78447.
5

15.1

250

0.21

3775.0

82222.
5

5.9

249

0.17

1469.1

83691.
6

2.8

232

0.22

649.6

84341.
2

7.4

200

0.17

1480.0

85821.
2

9.2

136

0.20

1251.2

87072.
4

7.6

98

0.19

744.8

87817.
2

10.1

47

0.19

474.7

88291.
9

9.6

30

0.18

288.0

88579.
9

3.5

28

0.17

98.0

88677.
9

6.6

16

0.16

105.6

88783.
5

15.8

13

0.14

205.4

88988.
9

Sumkh =

88988.
9

410

Figure 4.3. Flow capacity distribution.

While

the

Dykstra-Parsons

and

Lorenz

coefficients

give

quantitative measures of the permeability variation, they provide no

information on the spatial relationship between the permeability values.
It is well known that permeability and other petrophysical properties of
reservoir rocks are not randomly distributed but are spatially correlated.
There is a need for other measures of heterogeneity that take into
account the spatial correlation of the data.

4.3 MEASURES OF SPATIAL CONTINUITY

Figure 4.4 shows the spatial distributions of a petrophysical
property,

, measured at equally spaced coordinates in two linear

reservoirs A and B. Which of the two reservoirs is more heterogeneous

with respect to the property

? Most professionals will say that reservoir

4-11

A is more heterogeneous than reservoir B. However, a careful

examination of the numerical values of the property shows them to be
the same in both reservoirs. For both reservoirs, the mean of

is 5.0,

the variance is 6.67 and the standard deviation is 2.58. Thus, by the
usual measure of ordinary statistics, the degree of heterogeneity of the
two reservoirs is the same. Yet, there is something about the two
reservoirs that leads one to conclude that A is more heterogeneous than
B. It is the spatial arrangement of the values of the property relative to
each that leads one to conclude that A is more heterogeneous than B. In
reservoir A, the property appears to be randomly distributed in space
whereas in reservoir B, it is distributed in an orderly and continuous
fashion. Thus, to fully characterize heterogeneity, the spatial correlation
structure of the property must be taken into account.
Three related functions are normally used to characterize the
spatial continuity of the data from a heterogeneous reservoir. These are
(1) the variogram (semi-variogram), (2) the covariance function and (3)
the correlation coefficient function.

412

Figure 4.4. Spatial distribution of a petrophysical property in two linear

reservoirs A and B.
4-13

4.3.1. Variogram
Definition
The variogram is a function obtained by plotting the semivariance
of the differences between the properties at two locations separated by a
distance h versus h. The variogram is defined as

Var

x h
2

x h

(4.10)

2Nh

where

semivariance

lag distance

value of property at location x

x h =

Nh

value of property at location x+h

number of data pairs separated by the distance h.

Examination of Eq.(4.10) shows that each numerical value of

variance

of

x h

value of

x h

by

2,

where

the

mean

of

is normally assumed to be zero. Thus, each numerical

is the semivariance of

the function

divided

is the

x h

for a lag distance h and

(h) is the variogram or semivariogram.

Figure 4.5 shows an ideal variogram. It starts at zero and increases

with increasing lag distance until a certain distance is reached at which
it levels off and becomes constant. The lag distance at which the
variogram levels off (a in the figure) is defined as the correlation length,
414

or the range of influence, and the value of the variogram at this point is
called the sill. The sill is the semivariance of the entire data set. Thus,

Figure 4.5. Typical variogram

hidden in the variogram are the variance and standard deviation of the
data set, the usual measures of heterogeneity of ordinary statistics. If the
correlation length is zero, the spatial distribution of the property is fully
random. With increasing correlation length, the range of influence of one
value on its neighbors increases up to the correlation length. At lag
distances beyond the correlation length, the data are no longer
correlated.
The variogram and correlation length are directional quantities
(anisotropy again), and in general, will be different in different directions.
4-15

Sometimes, the variogram has a discontinuity at the origin as shown in

Figure 4.5. The value of the variogram at the discontinuity (Co in the
figure) is known as the nugget effect, a term that originates from the
mining industry which was the first industry to widely apply geostatistics
to estimate ore grade.
It should be emphasized that not all variograms have a nugget
effect, a sill or even a correlation length. Variograms come in different
shapes depending on the underlying geological structure of the
heterogeneity. Figure 4.5 was presented as one possible variogram shape
to introduce the general features of the function and the associated
nomenclature.
In order to demonstrate that the variogram does capture the
spatial continuity of the data from a heterogeneous reservoir, let us
compare the variograms for reservoirs A and B as shown in Figure 4.6.
The variogram for reservoir A is cyclical with a constant average value of
about 5.5 for all lag distances. The constant average value can be viewed
as a pure nugget effect, which indicates that the values of the property
are randomly distributed in space as is apparent from Figure 4.4. By
contrast, the variogram for reservoir B is continuous for all lag distances,
an indication of the orderly and continuous spatial distribution of the
property as evident in Figure 4.4. Therefore, the variogram (and later the
covariance and correlation functions) does capture the spatial continuity
of the data.

416

Figure 4.6. Comparison of the variograms for reservoirs A and B of Figure

4.4.

How to Calculate the Variogram

Let us consider the simple case of a linear reservoir in which the
property

is measured at 10 equally spaced locations with a distance of

x between each datum. Let the values of the property at locations 1

through 10 be

,...,

10

. To compute the semivariance at each lag

distance, one can generate a table of

and

x h for each lag

distance as shown in Table 4.3. Using the entries in the table, the
semivariances can easily be calculated with Eq.(4.10). In fact, the
semivariance for h = 0 can be obtained by inspection as (0) = 0. The

4-17

semivariance at h = 0 is always equal to 0 even if the variogram has a

nugget effect.
Table 4.3. Table of

(x) and

(x+h) for Computing Semivariances of

Sample Data
h=0

h= x

h=2 x

h=3 x

h=4 x

h=5 x

Nh = 10

Nh = 9

Nh = 8

Nh = 7

Nh = 6

Nh = 5

(x
)

(x
(x+h)

(x
(x+h)

(x
(x+h)

(x+h)

(x)

(x+h)

(x)

(x+h)

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

The following observations can be made about the calculation of

semivariances and the variogram.
1.

The number of data pairs, Nh, decreases as h increases. Beyond h

= N x/2, the reduction in Nh causes the variogram to fluctuate
excessively and unmeaningfully. Therefore, the variogram is
typically truncated beyond h = N x /2.

2.

The variogram is a non-negative function.

418

3.

The variogram can be computed even for irregularly spaced data.

In this case, a different computational strategy must be used. Here
is one possible algorithm. Consider the non-uniformly distributed
data at ten locations in a linear reservoir as shown in Figure 4.7. If
there are N data points, there will be

NC2

data pairs in the set

where NC2 is the combination of N things taken 2 at a time and is

given by

N!
N 2 !2!

C2

N N 1
2

(4.11)

For 10 data points, there will be 45 data pairs. The first task is to
compute and store the lag distances, hij, and the corresponding
2
i

values of

for all the data pairs. The algorithm is as

follows:
1.

Create two one-dimensional arrays of size equal to the

number of data pairs. Let these be H(M) and B(M) where M is
the number of data pairs as determined from Eq.(4.11).

2.

Visit location 1, compute and store sequentially, the

following data pairs:
2

x2

x1 ,

x1 ,

2
2

x3

...
2

x10

x1 ,

10

2
4-19

Figure 4.7. Irregularly spaced data.

where the first number is stored in array H and the second

number is stored in array B.
3.

Eliminate

4.

Move to location 2 and continue to compute and store the

from the data set to prevent duplication.

following data in the arrays

420

x3

x2 ,

x2 ,

2
2

x4

...
2

x10

10

x2 ,

5.

Eliminate

6.

Continue to compute and fill the arrays by visiting each

from the data set to avoid duplication.

location in the manner described above until the last data

pair is added to the array. The last data pair for our example
will be
2

x10

7.

10

x9 ,

Perform a scatter plot of B(i) versus H(i), where array H now

contains the lag distances, hij, that were computed as

x j . Such a scatter plot is shown in Figure 4.8.

xi
8.

Divide the data in the scatter diagram into bins as shown in

Figure 4.8. For each bin, compute and plot

1
n

2
i
n

versus

1
n

hij
n

where n is the number of data points in the bin, which can

be different for each bin. In constructing the bins, there
should be enough data points in each bin to prevent the

4-21

variogram from fluctuating excessively.

Several bin sizes

may be tried to determine the optimum bin sizes.

9.

The plot in step 8 is the experimental variogram as shown in

Figure 4.8.

Figure 4.8. Scatter plot for computing experimental variogram.

422

4.

If there is an underlying trend in the data, the trend should be

subtracted from the data before computing the variogram. For
example, the following data set from a linear reservoir C has an
underlying trend or drift of the form
3

12

15

trend

15

1 x:
14

13

12

This data set is presented in Figure 4.9. This trend or drift should
be subtracted from the data before the variogram is computed.
Figure 4.10 compares the variograms for reservoir C with and
without the underlying trend or drift. The variogram with the drift
is an ever increasing function of h because of the underlying trend
and will never reach the sill, whereas after removing the drift, the
resulting variogram is lower and reaches the sill at h = 4 km. This
is the true experimental variogram for reservoir C. In this example,
after subtracting the drift, the resulting distribution is the same as
in reservoir B. Thus, the true variogram for reservoir C is the same
as for reservoir B.
5.

If data are missing from some locations, those locations should be

skipped over. Resist the temptation to interpolate and fill in the
missing data.

Table 4.4 shows a data set in which data are

missing from location 7. Calculate the semivariance of the

permeability (NOT the natural log of permeability) at lag distances
of 1 foot and 2 feet. Start your calculations from the top of the
reservoir and work your way down.

4-23

Figure 4.9. Spatial distribution of a petrophysical property in a linear

reservoir C with an underlying trend or drift.

Figure 4.10. Variograms for reservoir C with and without the underlying
trend or drift.
424

Table 4.4. Porosity and Permeability Distributions with Missing Data.

Relativ

Porosit

Permeabilit

(ft)

(%)

(md)

20

93

16.3

18

9.7

8.4

16.2

21

14.9

10

12.7

1.7

5.5

25

5.8

17

10

6.5

4.8

11

4.7

22

12

7.3

5.6

Depth

6.

If the data are distributed in 2D or 3D, the variogram can still be

computed using the basic method outlined for 1D data. In this
case, the variogram should be computed in several directions to
reveal any anisotropy that may be present. Figure 4.11 shows the
distribution of a petrophysical property in a 2D reservoir. In this
case, variograms should be computed in the following directions:
N-S, E-W, NE-SW and NW-SE.

4-25

Figure 4.11. Distribution of a petrophysical property in a twodimensional reservoir.

7.

Unless you are already familiar with the variogram, you may not
see what it has to do with spatial correlation of the data. We can
see that the entries in Table 4.3 have a lot to do with spatial
correlation by plotting the scatter diagrams of
for each value of h. For h = 0,

(x+h) and

(x+h) versus

(x)

(x) are perfectly

correlated and the data will follow the 45 line on the scatter plot
as shown in Figure 4.12. As h increases, the cloud of data points
scattered about the 45 line increases, indicating less and less
correlation between

(x+h) and

4.14.

426

(x) as shown in Figures 4.13 and

Figure 4.12. Scatter plot of

(x+h) versus
B.

(x) for h = 0 km for reservoir

Figure 4.13. Scatter plot of

(x+h) versus
B.

(x) for h = 1 km for reservoir

4-27

Figure 4.14. Scatter plot of

(x+h) versus
B.

(x) for h = 3 km for reservoir

Physical Meaning of the Variogram

The scatter plot of

(x+h) versus

(x) at a fixed h can be used to

derive the physical meaning of the variogram. Consider the scatter plot
shown in Figure 4.15. The distance d from a datum point to the 45 line
is given by

x cos 45

x h

x h

cos 45

x h

(4.12)

2
x h

From statistics, the expectation of d2 is given by

428

x
2

(4.13)

E d2

x h

x h
2Nh

(4.14)

Thus, the variogram is the mean of d2 about the 45 line at each lag
distance as a function of the lag distance h.

Figure 4.15. The h-scatter plot.

Variogram Models
The variogram is a means to an end not an end in itself. The
variogram is used to quantify the correlation structure of the variable of
interest for the purpose of estimation and conditional simulation. The
variogram of the sample data is known as the experimental variogram.
After computing the experimental variogram, a smooth theoretical

4-29

variogram model is usually fitted to the experimental variogram and the

model is then used for estimation. As will be shown later, the estimation
process involves the solution of a set of linear simultaneous algebraic
equations, whose coefficients are derived from the variogram. Unless the
variogram is well behaved, the simultaneous equations may not have a
solution. Hence, the need to fit a smooth and well behaved theoretical
model to the rough experimental variogram for the purpose of estimation.
Popular variogram models include (1) the spherical model, (2) the
exponential model, (3) the guassian model, (4) the linear model, (5) the
generalized linear model, (6) the nugget effect model, and (7) the cardinal
sine model (also known as the hole effect model).
1.

The Spherical Model

The spherical model is given by

3 h
C
2 a

Co

Co C for h

1 h
2 a3

for h

(4.15)

where a is the correlation length or range, Co is the nugget effect if

present and C is the sill minus Co.
2.

The Exponential Model

The exponential model is given by
h

Co C 1 e

430

(4.16)

Figure 4.16 compares the spherical and the exponential models

with the same range and sill whereas Figure 4.17 compares the
two models with the same initial slope and sill. Note that there is
no nugget effect in these figures.

Figure 4.16. A comparison of the spherical and exponential models with

the same range and sill.

4-31

Figure 4.17. A comparison of the spherical and exponential models with

the same initial slope and sill.

3.

The Gaussian Model

The Gaussian model is given by

Co C 1 e

(4.17)

Figure 4.18 shows an example of a Gaussian model with Co = 0, C

= 10 and a = 4 units.

432

Figure 4.18. Example Gaussian model.

4.

The Linear Model

The linear model is given by
h

Co

(4.18)

mh

where m is the slope. This model does not have a sill.

5.

The Generalized Linear Model

The generalized linear model is given by

Co

mh

4-33

for 0

(4.19)

where m is a constant and

When

is an exponent between 0 and 2.

= 1, the model degenerates to the linear model. This model

does not have a sill. Figure 4.19 compares the linear model to the
generalized linear model.

Figure 4.19. The linear model and the generalized linear model.

5.

The Nugget Effect Model

The nugget effect model is given by

Co for h

(4.20)

This model gives the variogram of a property that has a random

spatial distribution. It is basically a spherical model with a very
434

small range of influence. Figure 4.20 shows an example nugget

effect model.

Figure 4.20. The nugget effect model.

6.

The Cardinal Sine Model (Hole Effect Model)

The cardinal sine model or hole effect model is given by

Co C 1

sin h / a
h/a

(4.21)

Figure 4.21 shows an example cardinal sine model with Co = 0, C =

10 and a = 1 unit. The sinusoidal nature of the variogram is an
indication of the periodic nature of the underlying heterogeneity.

4-35

Figure 4.21. The cardinal sine model (hole effect model).

Fitting a Theoretical Variogram Model to an Experimental

Variogram
Every experimental variogram can be fitted with a theoretical
variogram model. If one model does not fit the experimental variogram,
several models can be combined or nested to fit the experimental
variogram. The only restriction is that each of the combined models must
be applied to all the lag distances. It is not permissible to apply a model
up to a certain lag distance and then switch to a different model for the
remaining lag distances. The procedure for fitting a theoretical model to
an experimental variogram is a trial and error procedure.
To demonstrate the procedure for fitting a theoretical model to an
experimental variogram, let us compute the experimental variogram for
the permeability data from the results of the core analysis of Table 2.2
and then fit a theoretical model to it. To keep the magnitude of the
436

variogram manageable, we compute the variogram for the natural log of

the

permeability

rather

than

the

permeability

itself.

Such

transformation is frequently done in geostatistics to make the data more

manageable. The transformation affects the magnitude of the variogram
but not its shape. It is not unusual to transform the data, compute the
variogram, fit a theoretical model to the experimental variogram, use the
model to perform estimation and then transform the estimated data back
to its original units. It should be noted that the transformation in this
example does not imply that the permeability data is log normally
distributed. The transformation has been done purely for convenience.
The results of the calculations are summarized in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5. Variograms for Permeability Data of Table 2.2.
1

Depth

Uncorrecte

Correcte

lnk

lnk

2.5

0.916

59

6
(h)

(h)

h (ft)

With Drift

Without Drift

-3.812

0.000

0.000

4.078

-0.688

0.038

0.362

221

5.398

0.596

0.049

0.488

211

5.352

0.512

0.051

0.468

275

5.617

0.740

0.057

0.618

384

5.951

1.037

0.057

0.591

108

4.682

-0.269

0.050

0.545

XCoord

4807.
5
4808.
5
4809.
5
4810.
5
4811.
5
4812.
5
4813.

4-37

5
4814.

147

4.990

0.002

0.054

0.574

290

5.670

0.644

0.061

0.630

170

5.136

0.073

0.060

0.623

10

278

5.628

0.528

10

0.065

0.632

11

238

5.472

0.335

11

0.065

0.641

12

167

5.118

-0.057

12

0.068

0.728

13

304

5.717

0.505

13

0.075

0.780

14

98

4.585

-0.664

14

0.064

0.605

15

191

5.252

-0.034

15

0.074

0.684

16

266

5.583

0.260

16

0.077

0.628

17

40

3.689

-1.672

17

0.057

0.485

18

260

5.561

0.163

18

0.084

0.632

19

179

5.187

-0.248

19

0.086

0.642

20

312

5.743

0.271

20

0.097

0.720

21

272

5.606

0.097

21

0.098

0.655

22

395

5.979

0.432

22

0.105

0.769

23

405

6.004

0.420

23

0.115

0.787

5
4815.
5
4816.
5
4817.
5
4818.
5
4819.
5
4820.
5
4821.
5
4822.
5
4823.
5
4824.
5
4825.
5
4826.
5
4827.
5
4828.
5
4829.
5
4830.

438

5
4831.

24

275

5.617

-0.004

24

0.109

0.701

25

852

6.748

1.089

25

0.135

0.946

26

610

6.413

0.718

26

0.136

0.830

27

406

6.006

0.274

27

0.132

0.880

28

535

6.282

0.513

28

0.149

0.965

29

663

6.497

0.690

29

0.164

1.170

30

597

6.392

0.548

31

434

6.073

0.192

32

339

5.826

-0.092

33

216

5.375

-0.580

34

332

5.805

-0.188

35

295

5.687

-0.343

36

882

6.782

0.715

37

600

6.397

0.292

38

407

6.009

-0.133

40

479

6.172

-0.044

5
4832.
5
4833.
5
4834.
5
4835.
5
4836.
5
4837.
5
4838.
5
4839.
5
4840.
5
4841.
5
4842.
5
4843.
5
4844.
5
4845.
5
4847.
5

4-39

4848.

41

42

139

4.934

-1.356

43

135

4.905

-1.422

44

5
4849.
5
4850.
5
4851.
5

Figure 4.22 shows the experimental variogram for the natural log of
permeability, lnk. The graph is the plot of the data in columns 6 and 7 of
Table 4.5. The ever increasing nature of the variogram indicates an
underlying trend or drift in the permeability data. Before addressing the
problem of the underlying trend, let us fit a theoretical model to the
experimental variogram to demonstrate the procedure.

Figure 4.22. Experimental variogram for natural log of permeability for

core analysis data.
440

Figure 4.23 shows the fitted theoretical model from trial and error.
The nested model is

3 h
0.027 0.025
2 3

1 h
2 33

0.000101h 2

The nested model is of the form

h

Spherical Model Generalized Linear Model

Figure 4.23. Theoretical variogram model fit to the experimental

variogram of core analysis data.

4-41

Let us now deal with the underlying trend in the permeability data.
Figure 4.24 shows a scatter plot of the log permeability data versus
relative depth together with the regression line. Clearly, there is an
underlying trend or drift in the permeability data. The trend line is
ln k

0.0372 x 4.7281

where x is the relative depth. This trend was subtracted from the lnk
data to obtain the corrected lnk data shown in column 5 of Table 4.5.

Figure 4.24. Permeability data showing underlying trend or drift.

442

Figure 4.25 shows the scatter plot for the corrected permeability data
together with the regression line. Clearly, the underlying trend has been
removed.
Figure 4.26 shows the experimental variogram and the theoretical
model fit after the drift has been removed. The experimental variogram is
the graph of the data in columns 6 and 8 of Table 4.5. We see that after
removing the underlying trend, the experimental variogram can be fitted
with a spherical model of the form

3 h
0.31 0.35
2 9

1 h
.
2 93

Figure 4.25. Permeability data after the drift has been removed.

4-43

The true variogram of the natural log of permeability has a nugget effect
of 0.31, a sill of 0.66 and a correlation length of 9 ft.
Variogram Anisotropy
Variograms computed in different directions can show anisotropy.
Figure 4.27 shows two such anisotropies. In Figure 4.27a, the sills of the
variograms in the two directions are the same but the correlations
lengths are different. In Figure 4.27b, the slopes of the variograms in the
two directions are different. We can compute the correlation lengths or
the slopes of the variograms in different directions and plot them as

Figure 4.26. Variogram of natural log of permeability after removing the

underlying trend.

444

shown in Figure 4.28. If the plot turns out to be an ellipse as shown in

the figure, then a simple coordinate transformation can be used to
compute an equivalent isotropic variogram. If

1(h)

is the variogram in

direction 1, then the equivalent isotropic variogram is given by

2
1

a1
a2

h22

(4.22)

for the case of the correlation length anisotropy and

2
1

slope1
slope2

h22

for the case of the slope anisotropy.

Figure 4.27. Geometric anisotropy.

4-45

(4.23)

Figure 4.28. Ellipses showing variogram anisotropy.

Figure 4.28b shows the importance of computing the variograms in at

least four directions in a 2D data set to reveal possible anisotropy. If the
variograms were computed only in the horizontal and vertical directions,
the anisotropy would be missed because, in the case shown in the figure,
the principal axes of the anisotropy make an angle of 45 with the
vertical and horizontal axes. As a result, the correlation lengths in the
vertical and horizontal directions are the same and would not reveal the
presence of the anisotropy.
In sedimentary rocks, because of layering, the sill of the variogram
in the vertical direction is usually different from that in the horizontal
direction because the degree of heterogeneity normal to the layers is
higher than along the layers. In this case, the variogram can be split into
two components, an isotropic component given by
vertical component given by

h12 h22 h32 and a

h3 . The overall variogram is then given

by

h12 h22

446

h32

h3

(4.24)

Example Experimental Variograms

Presented in this section are the experimental variograms for the
sandpack and Berea sandstone cores whose porosity distributions were
presented in Figures 2.7 to 2.10. Experimental variograms can be
computed for any property that varies in space. Here, we present the
variograms for the CT numbers of the dry scans of the sandpack and the
Berea sandstone. The CT number is proportional to the bulk density of
the sample and is similar to the measurements from a density log. Each
3D image data set consisted of 128x128x50 voxels (volume elements) for
a total of 812,200 data points. For each sample, variograms were
computed in three orthogonal directions (Z, Y and X) as shown in Figure
4.29.

Figure 4.29. Orthogonal directions in which variograms were computed

for CT data.

4-47

Figure 4.30 shows CT images for a vertical slice and a typical

cross-sectional slice of the sandpack. The packing method introduced
radial and longitudinal heterogeneities into the sandpack. Figures 4.31
and 4.32 show the experimental variograms for the sandpack in the
transverse and longitudinal directions.

Figure 4.31 shows that the

vertical and horizontal variograms are essentially the same, confirming

the radial symmetry observed in the CT images of the sandpack. The
variogram in the longitudinal direction (Figure 4.32) has a wavy or
sinusoidal

characteristic.

This

is

caused

by

the

longitudinal

heterogeneity introduced into the sandpack by the packing method. This

characteristic is known as a trend surface.

448

Figure 4.30. Vertical and cross-sectional slices of CT image of dry

sandpack (Peters and Afzal, 1992).

Figure 4.31. Experimental variograms for sandpack in the transeverse

directions (Y, Z) (Peters and Afzal, 1992).

4-49

Figure 4.32. Experimental variogram for sandpack in the longitudinal

direction (X) (Peters and Afzal, 1992).

Figure 4.33 shows CT images for a vertical slice and a typical

cross-sectional slice of the Berea sandstone. Figures 4.34 and 4.35 show
the experimental variograms for the Berea sandstone in the transverse
and longitudinal directions. Figure 4.34 shows a wavy characteristic in
the vertical direction (Y-direction). This is caused by the layering in that
direction. As expected, the magnitudes of the variograms show that the
medium is more heterogeneous in the Y-direction (across the layers) than
in the Z-direction (along the layers). Figure 4.35 shows that the
correlation length in the longitudinal direction (X-direction) is about 40
cm.
Clearly, the variograms are able to characterize the spatial
structure of the heterogeneity in the property of interest, in this case, the
x-ray absorption coefficient of a sandpack and a Berea sandstone.

450

4-51

Figure 4.33. Vertical and cross-sectional slices of CT image of dry Berea

sandstone (Peters and Afzal, 1992).

Figure 4.34. Experimental variograms for Berea sandstone in the

transeverse directions (Y, Z) (Peters and Afzal, 1992).

452

Figure 4.35. Experimental variogram for Berea sandstone in the

longitudinal direction (X) (Peters and Afzal, 1992).
4.3.2. Covariance (Autocovariance) Function
Definition
For sample data, the covariance function at a lag distance h is
defined as

C h

x h

x h
(4.25)

Nh 1

The following observations can be made about the covariance function:

1.

The

covariance

function

relationship between
2.

gives

(x) and

the

strength

of

the

linear

(x+h).

The covariance function can be positive or negative. Recall that the

variogram function was non-negative.

4-53

3.

Because the covariance function depends on the units of

measurement of

(x), it is not always possible to tell from the

magnitude of the covariance if the linear correlation is strong or

weak. A better measure of the strength of the linear correlation is
a

dimensionless

covariance

function

known

as

correlation

coefficient to be discussed next.

4.

The table of data used to calculate the variogram can also be used
to calculate the covariance function. The algorithm for computing
the covariance function for unequally spaced data is similar to that
for computing the variogram. In this case, three one-dimensional
arrays should be used to store hij,

and

as the locations are

visited.
5.

It will be shown that for a stationary random field, the variogram

and the covariance function are related by the equation
h

C 0

(4.26)

C h

where C(0) is the covariance at a zero lag distance and is equal the
variance of the data, s2. The fact that C(0) is the variance of the
data set is apparent from the entries in Table 4.3 for h = 0. The
variance of the data is given by
x
C 0

N 1

x
N 1

s2

(4.27)

Thus, like the variogram, the covariance function also has hidden
in it the usual measure of variability by ordinary statistics.

454

Figure 4.36 shows a comparison of the covariance functions for

reservoirs A and B. The covariance function for reservoir A is periodic
indicating the random spatial distribution of the property in reservoir A
whereas the covariance function for reservoir B is smooth and orderly,
indicating the continuous nature of the spatial distribution of the
property in reservoir B. These are the same features observed in the
variograms. In fact, a comparison of Figures 4.36 and 4.6 shows that the
covariance function is roughly the variogram turned up-side-down about
the h-axis in the spirit of Eq.(4.26). This observation is more apparent in
Figures 4.37 and 4.38, which compare the variogram and the covariance
function for each reservoir. Thus, like the variogram, the covariance
function captures the correlation structure of the spatial distribution of
the property of interest and can be used for the purpose of estimation
instead of the variogram.

Figure 4.36. A comparison of the covariance functions for reservoirs A

and B.

4-55

Figure 4.37. A comparison of the variogram and the covariance function

for reservoir A.

456

Figure 4.38. A comparison of the variogram and the covariance function

for reservoir B.

Physical Meaning of Covariance Function

The covariance function measures the covariation of

(x) and

(x+h) about their respective means. Figure 4.39 shows the scatter plot
for the covariation of

x h

x h

versus

at a fixed

lag distance h. The sum of the shaded areas divided by (Nh-1) is the
covariance function at that lag distance. Because the areas can be
positive or negative depending on which quadrant the scatter plot data
fall in, the covariance can be positive or negative. If the scatter plots are
concentrated along the axis AB in Figure 4.40, then all the areas will be
positive and the covariance will show a strong positive correlation. If the
scatter plots are concentrated along the axis CD, then all the areas are
negative and the covariance will show a strong negative correlation.

4-57

Figure 4.39. Scatter plot of covariation at a fixed lag distance.

458

Figure 4.40. Patterns of covariation at a fixed lag distance.

Figure 4.41 shows the scatter plot of the covariation for reservoir A at a
lag distance of 1 unit. The data are concentrated in the quadrants in
which all the areas are negative. Therefore, the covariance function will
be negative at this lag distance as can be confirmed in Figure 4.36 or
4.37.

4-59

Figure 4.41. Covariation for reservoir A at a lag distance of 1 unit.

A cross covariance function can be computed between two different

variables such as permeability and porosity. In that case, the cross
covariance is defined as

ki
C k,

k
N 1

(4.28)

4.3.3. Correlation Coefficient Function (Autocorrelation Function)

Definition
The correlation coefficient function is the dimensionless version of
the covariance function and is defined as

460

where s

C h
s xs x

is the standard deviation of

deviation of

(4.29)
h

x and s

x h

is the standard

x h .

The following observations can be made about the correlation

coefficient function.
1.

Like the covariance function, the correlation coefficient function

gives the strength of the linear relationship between

(x) and

(x+h).
2.

The correlation coefficient function is dimensionless and can vary

in value from 1 to +1 as may be seen in Figure 4.42, which shows
the correlation coefficient function for reservoir A.

Figure 4.42. Correlation coefficient function for reservoir A.

4-61

3.

The magnitude of the correlation coefficient function is a measure

of the strength of the linear relationship between

4.

(x+h).

The sign of the correlation coefficient indicates the nature of the

correlation. If low
paired with high
If low

If

(x) are paired with low

(x+h) or high

(x) are

(x+h), the correlation coefficient will be positive.

(x) are paired with high

with low
5.

(x) and

(x+h) or high

(x) are paired

(x+h), the correlation coefficient will be negative.

(x) and

(x+h) are independent, then the correlation

coefficient (and the covariance) will be zero.

6.

A zero correlation coefficient (or covariance) does not necessarily

mean that

(x) and

(x+h) are independent. They could be related

as a quadratic or other nonlinear function. Remember that the

correlation coefficient is a test for a linear relationship not a
quadratic relationship.
A cross correlation function between two variables such as
permeability and porosity can be computed as

C k,
sk s

k,

(4.30)

4.4 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS

There are several probability distributions in statistics, but only
the normal and the log normal distributions are presented in this section
because they are the two distributions most commonly observed in
petrophysical

properties.

Based

on

462

core

analyses

and

field

measurements, it has been observed that porosity tends to follow a

normal distribution (see Figures 2.9 and 2.10) whereas permeability
tends to follow a log normal distribution.
4.4.1 Normal (Gaussian) Distribution
The probability density function for a normal distribution, also
commonly known as the Gaussian, is given by

P x

x
2

1
exp
2

where x is a random variable and

for

is the mean,

(4.31)

is the variance and

is the standard deviation of the distribution. The distribution is

characterized by two parameters, the mean ( ) and the standard
deviation ( ). Figure 4.43 shows a normal distribution with
standard

= 5 and

= 4. The distribution is centered on the mean and is

symmetric about the mean. For this distribution, all the measures of the
central tendency of the distribution (mean, median and mode) have the
same numerical value. Note that the distribution extends from

to

Using the transformation

(4.32)

all normal distributions can be can standardized as

P z

1
exp
2

z2
2

4-63

for

(4.33)

where z is a random variable with

= 0 and

= 1. Figure 4.44 shows a

standard normal distribution with the horizontal axis calibrated in units

Figure 4.43. Normal (Gaussian) distribution with

= 5 and

= 4.

of standard deviation. Also shown are the areas under the curve for
certain ranges of the horizontal axis. For example, about 68% of the data
are contained within one standard deviation below and above the mean.
Thus, for a normal distribution, the following are true

0.6826

P z

P z

P z

1.96

464

0.9500

0.9544

(4.34)

(4.35)

(4.36)

P z

(4.37)

0.9973

0.1588

(4.38)

0.8413

(4.39)

Figure 4.44. Standard normal distribution with baseline in standard

deviation units.

The cumulative distribution function for a normal distribution is

defined as

F x

1
2

exp

4-65

x
2

2
2

dx

(4.40)

Figure 4.45 shows the cumulative distribution plot on linear graph

paper. When potted on a special probability graph paper, the cumulative
distribution function plots as a straight line as shown in Figure 4.46.

Figure 4.45. Cumulative normal distribution, mean

deviation .

and standard

The cumulative distribution function is difficult to compute because the

integration called for in Eq.(4.40) cannot be performed analytically. Only
numerical integration is possible. It is not particularly convenient to
integrate any function numerically from

to + . To overcome this

difficulty, we undertake a transformation that allows the integration of

Eq.(4.40) using the complementary error function, which is tabulated in
mathematical handbooks.

466

Figure 4.46. Cumulative normal distribution plotted on probability

paper.

4-67

Let

(4.41)

2
dx
2

du

(4.42)

Substituting Eqs.(4.41) and (4.42) into (4.40) gives the cumulative

distribution function as

F u

The function

u2

(4.43)

du

u2

is symmetric about u = 0. Therefore,

u2

du 1

u2

du

(4.44)

Substituting Eq.(4.44) into (4.43) and rearranging gives

F u

1
2
2

2
u

u2

du

(4.45)

Eq.(4.45) can be written as

F u

1
2 erfc u
2

where

468

(4.46)

erfc u

u2

(4.47)

du

The function, erfc(u), is the complementary error function, which arises

frequently in the solutions of certain partial differential equations of
mathematical physics such as the diffusivity equation, heat conduction
equation, diffusion equation and convection-dispersion equation. The
error function, erf(u), is defined as

erf u

u
0

u2

(4.48)

du

Thus,
erf u

(4.49)

1 erfc u

Table 4.6 gives the error and the complementary error functions whereas
Figure 4.48 shows graphs of the two functions. Using the information in
Table 4.6, the cumulative distribution function F(x) can be computed
with Eq.(4.46) instead of Eq.(4.40) and plotted against x. Figure 4.48
shows the F(x) obtained from such a computation for the normal
distribution of Figure 4.43.
Table 4.6. Error and Complementary Error Functions
x

erf(x)

erfc(x)

0.00

0.05

0.05637

0.94362

0.11246

0.88753

Useful

relationships

0.16799

0.83200

0.10
0.15

4-69

0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00

0.22270

0.77729

0.27632

0.72367

0.32862

0.67137

0.37938

0.62061

0.42839

0.57160

0.47548

0.52451

0.52050

0.47950

0.56332

0.43667

0.60385

0.39614

0.64202

0.35797

0.67780

0.32219

0.71115

0.28884

0.74210

0.25789

0.77066

0.22933

0.79690

0.20309

0.82089

0.17910

0.84270

0.15729

470

erfc(-x) = 1 + erf(x)

erf(-x) = -erf(x)

erfc(x) = 1 - erf(x)

1.10
1.20
1.30
1.40
1.50
1.60
1.70
1.80
1.90
2.00
2.10
2.20
2.30
2.40
2.50
2.60
2.70

0.88020

0.11979

0.91031

0.08968

0.93400

0.06599

0.95228

0.04771

0.96610

0.03389

0.97634

0.02365

0.98379

0.01621

0.98909

0.01090

0.99279

0.00721

0.99532

0.00467

0.99702

0.00297

0.99813

0.00186

0.99885

0.00114

0.99931

0.00068

0.99959

0.00040

0.99976

0.00023

0.99986

0.00013

4-71

2.80
2.90
3.00

0.99992

0.00007

0.99995

0.00004

0.99997

0.00002

Figure 4.47. Graphs of error and complementary error functions.

472

Figure 4.48. Cumulative distribution function calculated with the

complementary error function for the normal distribution of Figure 4.43.
Generation of Random Deviates from a Normal (Gaussian)
Distribution
Sometimes, we wish to generate sample data from a normal
distribution. Two methods are presented for generating such data. The
first method is based on the Central Limit Theorem (CLT) and the second
method is the Box Muller method.
The Central Limit Theorem shows that the mean of a group of
numbers drawn randomly from any distribution tends to a normal
(Gaussian) distribution as the number of means increases. Thus, if we
calculate many times the sums of N variates drawn from a uniform
distribution, we should expect the sums to fall into a truncated normal
(Gaussian) distribution bounded by 0 and N, with a mean value of N/2. If
we generate N values of a random number ri from a uniform distribution
0 ri

1 and calculate

4-73

N
2

ri
i 1

(4.50)

the random variable z will be drawn from an approximately Gaussian

distribution with a mean

and a standard deviation

given by

(4.51)

N
12

(4.52)

The choice of N = 12 is particularly convenient because z will be a normal

(Gaussian) distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.
Such a random variate can be used to draw a random sample, x, from a
normal (Gaussian) distribution of mean

and standard deviation

as
(4.53)

Eqs.(4.51) and (4.52) can be proved as follows. For a uniform

distribution of r between a and b, the mean or expectation of the
distribution is given by

E r

b a

dr

a b
2

(4.54)

The variance or second moment is given by

2

Var r

r E r

But

474

E r2

E r

(4.55)

E r2

r2

b a

dr

a2

ab b 2
3

(4.56)

Substituting Eqs.(4.54) and (4.56) into (4.55) gives

Var r

a2

ab b 2
3

a b
4

b a
12

(4.57)

The mean of the variable z is given by

E z

i N

ri

i 1

N
2

E r1

E r2

... E rN

N
2

(4.58)

For the case of a = 0 and b = 1, Eq.(4.54) gives E[r]=1/2. Thus,

substituting this into Eq.(5.58) gives

E z

1
2

1
1
...
2
2

N
2

N
2

N
2

(4.59)

The variance of z is given by

Var z

Var r1 r2 ... rN

N
2

(4.60)

Since r1, r2, , rN are independent, then

Var z

Var r1

Var r2

... Var rN

Var

N
2

(4.61)

Substituting Eq.(4.57) with a = 0 and b = 1 into Eq.(4.61) gives

Var z

1 1
1
N
...
0
12 12
12
12
4-75

(4.62)

The standard deviation for z is

N
12

(4.63)

Eqs.(4.59) and (4.63) are the same as Eqs.(4.51) and (4.52).

The method of Box and Muller for generating normal deviates from
a uniform random number generator is as follows. Select two random
numbers r1 and r2 from a uniform distribution 0 ri

1 . Calculate

z1

2 ln r1 cos 2 r2

(4.64)

z2

2 ln r1 sin 2 r2

(4.65)

It can be shown that z1 and z2 are random deviates from a normal

(Gaussian) distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.
The deviates can be used to draw two random variates (x1 and x2) with
and standard deviation

mean

as

x1

z1

(4.66)

x2

z2

(4.67)

4.4.2 Log Normal Distribution

The probability density function for a log normal distribution is
given by

476

1
2

P x

ln x
2

1
exp
x

where x is a random variable and

(4.68)

is the mean,

is the variance and

is the standard deviation of lnx. The mean, , and the variance,

2,

of the

log normal distribution are related to the parameters of lnx as

2

exp

(4.69)

1 exp 2

(4.70)

It should be noted that x has a log normal distribution whereas lnx has a
normal distribution.
Figure 4.49 shows a log normal distribution. The distribution is
positively skewed with a long tail towards the high values of x. Note that
x is always positive. Because of the high values in the tail, the mean is
larger than the median, which in turn is larger than the mode or
geometric mean. Note that in this case, the geometric mean is a better
measure of central tendency than the mean or the median.

4-77

Figure 4.49. Log normal distribution.

Figure 4.50 shows the cumulative distribution function for a log

normal distribution plotted on a log normal probability graph paper. On
this scale, the log normal distribution plots as a straight line. Such a plot
was used in Figure 4.1 to determine the Dykstra-Parsons coefficient of
permeability variation on the assumption the data were drawn from a log
normal distribution.

478

Figure 4.50. Cumulative log normal distribution plotted on log normal

probability paper.

4.5 ESTIMATION
4.5.1 Introduction
Estimation is one of the major applications of geostatistics, the
other being conditional simulation. The objective is to estimate the
4-79

variable of interest at a location xo for which no datum has been

measured, using the data measured at other locations xi distributed in
space.

Suppose you are given some petrophysical data from a linear

reservoir as shown in Figure 4.51 and requested to estimate the values at

locations 3, 5 and 8 at which no measurements were made. What would
you do? Most professionals would construct the diagram shown

Figure 4.51. Sample data from a linear reservoir.

in Figure 4.52 to estimate

estimate

*
8

*
3

and

*
5

but would be at a loss about how to

, where the asterisk is used in the symbols to distinguish

the estimated from the measured values. In fact, some would claim that
there was not enough information to estimate
measured beyond location 8.

480

*
8

because no data were

Figure 4.52. Estimation of unmeasured values by linear interpolation.

Let us write the equation for the estimator

*
3

. From linear

interpolation

*
3

x3
x4

x2
x2

(4.71)

Let
x3
x4

x2
x2

h23
h42

(4.72)

where hij are lag distances. Substituting Eq.(4.72) into (4.71) and
rearranging gives the estimator as

4-81

*
3

(4.73)

where

(4.74)

(4.75)

or

We can easily generalize the estimator of Eq.(4.73) and the constraint of

Eq.(4.75) as follows:
i N

*
o

(4.76)

i 1

subject to the constraint

N
i

(4.77)

i 1

In Eq.(4.76), the subscript o has been used to indicate the location at

which an estimate is to be made and N could be the entire available data
set or a subset of the available data depending on the structure of the
heterogeneity. Let us now use Eqs.(4.76) and (4.77) to estimate
*
3

*
3

*
5

and

*
8

. For

0.50 30

*
3

0.50 50

= 0.5 and

40

Similarly

482

*
5

0.50 50

To estimate

0.50 20
*
8

35

, we proceed as follows. The weights,

i,

in Eq.(4.76)

should be assigned to each measured value used in the estimation

depending on how close the measured value is to the point xo at which
the estimate is to be made. Unfortunately, there is no mathematical
expression for closeness. We can measure how far away each sample is
from the point of estimation but we cannot measure how close it is to the
point of estimation. Let us measure the lag distances of the measured
data from the point of estimation as

xo

x2

6 x

xo

x4

4 x

xo

x6

2 x

Total = 12 x
Based on the above lag distances, it is clear that
weight, followed by

and

should have the most

. We can adopt several different strategies

to accomplish this. Here is one strategy. Let us make the weights

proportional to the inverse lag distances as follows:

0.1667
0.2500
0.5000

Total = 0.9167

where

is to be chosen to satisfy the constraint of Eq.(4.77). In this case,

= 1.0909. Thus,

4-83

0.1667

0.1667 1.0909

0.1819

0.2500

0.2500 1.0909

0.2727

0.5000

0.5000 1.0909

0.5455

Total

= 1.0000

Therefore,
*
8

0.1819 30

0.2727 50

0.5455 20

30
*
3

It should be noted that in estimating

and

*
5

measured data was used whereas in estimating

, only a subset of the

*
8

, all the measured

data were used. However, there was no good reason to use the subset of
*
3

the measured data to estimate

have been used to estimate
estimation of

*
8

*
3

*
5

and

and

*
5

. All the measured data could

in the manner similar to the

Having completed the estimation, the next question is what is the

reliability of the estimates? What are the error bounds on the estimates?
Most professionals would give up at this point. This is where geostatistics
can help. Before presenting the geostatistical estimation technique
known as ordinary kriging, it is worthwhile to mention the major
limitation of the estimation undertaken above. It is that the structure of
the heterogeneity as represented by either the variogram, the covariance
function or the correlation coefficient function has not be taken into
account in the estimation.
Geostatistics uses a probabilistic framework to make estimations
and in so doing provides estimates that honor the correlation structure of
484

the heterogeneity. It also provides quantitative assessment of the

reliability of the estimates. Let us demonstrate a simple geostatistical
estimation using a probabilistic framework. Suppose we wish to estimate
the missing datum in Figure 4.53. Proceeding in the spirit of Eqs.(4.76)
and (4.47), let us use the first "ring" of data around the missing datum
(or rather first "square" of data) to obtain an estimate as
*
o

19

18

17

15

18

15

15

18

(4.78)

The error of the estimation, which is unknown, is given by

i 8

*
o

eo

19

18

17

15

18

15

15

18

(4.79)

i 1

where

is the unknown missing datum. Notice that the constraint of

Eq.(4.47) has been used in Eq.(4.79). The error can be expanded as

eo

*
o

19
18

18

o
o

15

17

o
o

4-85

15

15

o
o

18

o
o

(4.80)
8

Figure 4.53. Missing data from a 2D reservoir.

To simplify the calculations, let us choose

0 and

= 1. This is not the optimum choice of the weights and will not

lead to the best estimate. However, because the weights sum to 1, we

have not violated the estimation model given by Eqs.(4.46) and (4.47) and
as such the estimation is legitimate. With this simplification, our
estimate is
*
o

19

and the error is now given by

486

(4.81)

*
o

eo

19

(4.82)

Although the error given by Eq.(4.82) is unknown, there is enough

information in the available data for us to determine its statistics. If we
accept the premise that the error is a function of the lag distance,

x 2,

then we can look at the field of data in the SW-NE direction to find
similar errors and from them determine the statistics of our error. There
are in fact 47 such errors in the data set. They are tabulated in column 4
of Table 4.7.
Table 4.7. Errors in the SW-NE Direction of the Data Set at a Lag
Distance of

x 2.
5

1
Error

(x)

(x+h)

(x+h -

(x)

[ (x+h)- (x)]2

#
1

23

22

-1

22

20

-2

20

19

-1

21

17

-4

16

17

17

17

14

-3

19

15

-4

16

15

18

18

20

10

20

16

-4

16

11

18

18

12

19

14

-5

25

13

14

19

25

14

17

16

-1

15

16

15

-1

16

15

18

4-87

17

18

18

18

18

23

25

19

23

16

-7

49

20

15

14

-1

21

14

10

-4

16

22

10

15

25

23

15

20

25

24

20

25

25

25

25

21

-4

16

26

21

14

-7

49

27

13

10

-3

28

10

16

36

29

16

18

30

18

20

31

20

20

32

20

17

-3

33

11

13

34

13

14

35

14

23

81

36

23

18

-5

25

37

18

19

38

10

13

39

13

18

25

40

18

22

16

41

22

13

-9

81

42

17

15

-2

43

15

20

25

44

20

20

45

16

14

-2

46

14

18

16

47

15

17

Mean

0.128

Variance

15.766

488

15.447

Std Dev

3.971

3.930

Semivarianc

7.723

As shown at the bottom of Table 4.7, the mean, variance and standard
deviation of the error are

0.128
2

(4.83)

15.766
3.791

If we assume that the error is normally distributed, then we are 95%

confident that the error of our estimation is given by

1.96

eo

1.96

(4.84)

0.128 1.96 3.791

(4.85)

Thus,
0.128 1.96 3.791
7.272

19

19

7.558

(4.86)

or

11.442

26.272

(4.87)

Given our knowledge of the missing datum, is the statement of Eq.(4.87)

true? You bet. Of course, it would have been nice if the 95% confidence
interval was narrower than that given by Eq.(4.87). It would have been
narrower if we had chosen the weights to minimize the variance of the
4-89

error of Eq.(4.80) instead of choosing them arbitrarily as we did to

simplify the calculations. Figure 4.54 shows the histogram of the errors
of Table 4.7, which indicates that the assumption of a normal
distribution of the errors in the calculation of the 95% confidence
interval is reasonable.

Figure 4.54. Histogram of errors in the SW-NE direction at h =

x 2.

It should be noted that the data in columns 2 to 5 of Table 4.7 are

the same data needed to calculate the semivariance at a lag distance of

x in the SW-NE direction. From the calculations, we have

x 2

490

7.723

(4.88)

Thus, geostatistics gives the mean, variance and standard deviation of

the error as

0.000
2

(4.89)

15.447
3.930

These statistics of the error are very similar to those given in Eq.(4.83).
Applying Eq.(4.89) gives the following 95% confidence interval:
0.000 1.96 3.930

7.703

19

19

0.000 1.96 3.930

(4.90)

7.703

(4.91)

or

11.297

(4.92)

26.703

The result given in Eq.(4.92) is essentially the same as that given by

Eq.(4.87). Therefore, in geostatistics, the variogram (or the covariance
function)

is

used

to

calculate

the

error

variance.

Having

now

demonstrated a simple geostatistical estimation that gave both the

estimate and the confidence limits for the estimate, we are ready to
formally derive ordinary kriging equations for geostatistical estimation.
4.5.2 Ordinary Kriging Equations
The objective is to estimate an unknown variable at the location x0 at
which no measurement has been made using the measured data at
locations xi as shown in Figure 4.55. In geostatistical estimation, the
variable of interest is treated as a stationary random function with a

4-91

normal probability distribution. If the measured data do not exhibit a

normal distribution, they must first be transformed into a normal
distribution before proceeding further. Such a transformation can always
be done by using the cumulative distribution function of the data and
the cumulative distribution function of a standard normal distribution
with a mean of zero and a standard deviation of 1.0 as shown
schematically in Figure 4.56. After the estimation, the estimated value is
transformed back to its original distribution by using the same two
cumulative distribution functions in reverse order.

Figure 4.55. Schematic showing the locations sample data and the
location at which an estimation is to be made.
Figure 4.57 shows two random functions Z A x and Z B x together
with their probability density functions at four locations, x1, , x4. The
mean of random function Z A x

is constant throughout the field. As a

result, Z A x is described as a stationary random function. By contrast,

492

the mean of random function Z B x is not constant throughout the field.

In fact, it increases as x increases. As a result, random function Z B x is
described as a non-stationary random function.

Figure 4.56. Transformation of sample data to a standard normal

distribution.

The kriging estimate is calculated as the weighted average of the

measured data as in Eq.(4.76). The challenge is to determine the weights
i

in such a way as to obtain the best estimate in some sense. The

criteria used in ordinary kriging to obtain the best estimate are (1) the
estimate should be unbiased and (2) the estimation error should have

4-93

minimum variance. Thus, ordinary kriging is a Best Linear Unbiased

Estimator (BLUE).

Figure 4.57. Stationary ( Z A x ) and non-stationary ( Z B x ) random

functions.

Derivation in Terms of the Covariance Function

The estimated value at the unsampled location xo is given by

494

Z * ( xo )

N
i

(4.93)

Z ( xi )

i 1

where Z*(xo) is the estimated value at location xo, Z(xi) are the measured
data, Z(x) is the assumed random function model, i are the weights to
be determined and xi are the locations where the variable of interest has
been measured (i.e., the data). Note that in this model, the Z(xi) are just
samples drawn from the random function Z(x). Moreover, Z(x) is a
stationary random function with a constant mean, m, which is
independent of the locations xo and xi. Also, Eq.(4.93) is valid in 1D, 2D
or 3D.
Let the true but unknown value at xo be Z(xo). The estimation error
is given by

e( xo )

Z * ( xo ) Z ( xo )

(4.94)

This error is a random variable with a probability distribution. In order to

obtain an unbiased estimate, on average, the mean estimation error
must be zero. Thus, for an unbiased estimate, the expectation of the
error must be zero:

E e( xo )

E Z * ( xo ) Z ( xo )

(4.95)

What is an unbiased or biased estimator? Figure 4.58 shows three

estimators for a petrophysical property whose value is know to

Estimator 1 is unbiased but not very precise. Estimator 2 is unbiased

4-95

and more precise than estimator 1. Estimator 3 is biased and more

precise than estimator 1.

Figure 4.58. Biased and unbiased estimators.

Substituting Eq.(4.93) into Eq.(4.94) gives the condition for an

unbiased estimate as

N
i

Z ( xi ) Z ( xo )

i 1

Changing the order of the summation and the expectation gives

496

(4.96)

N
i

E Z ( xi )

E Z ( xo )

(4.97)

i 1

But the expectations of the random variables, Z(xi) and Z(xo) are equal
and is given by the mean of Z(x), m, which is a constant for the
stationary random function model used in the estimation. Eq.(4.97) can
now be written as
N

m
im

i 1

1 m 0

(4.98)

i 1

The condition for an unbiased estimate is therefore given by

N
i

(4.99)

i 1

which is the same as Eq.(4.77).

The error variance is given by
2
e

Z * ( xo ) Z ( xo )

(4.100)

Substituting Eq.(4.93) into Eq.(4.100) gives the error variance as

2
e

N
i

Z ( xi ) Z ( xo )

(4.101)

i 1

Let us add and subtract the mean, m, from the inner bracket in
Eq.(4.101) and make use of Eq.(4.99) (

4-97

i = 1) to obtain

2
e

N
i

Z ( xi ) m

(4.102)

( Z ( xo ) m)

i 1

Expanding the right side of Eq.(4.102) gives the estimation variance as

2
e

Z ( xi ) m

Z ( xo ) m

i 1

N
i

( Z ( xi ) m)( Z ( xo ) m) (4.103)

i 1

Algebraically, the square of the simple summation in Eq.(4.103) can be

rewritten in terms of a double summation to obtain

2
e

N
i

i 1

( Z ( xi ) m)( Z ( x j ) m)

Z ( xo ) m

j 1

N
i

Z ( xi ) m Z ( xo ) m

i 1

.(4.104)

Changing the order of the summation and the expectation in Eq.(4.104)

gives

2
e

N
i

i 1

E ( Z ( xi ) m)( Z ( x j ) m)

Z ( xo ) m

j 1

(4.105)

N
i

Z ( xi ) m Z ( xo ) m

i 1

The expectations in Eq.(4.105) can be expressed in terms of the

covariance function as follows:

2
e

N
i

i 1

C (0) 2
j C ( hij )

j 1

i
i 1

498

C (hio )

(4.106)

where C(hij) is the covariance function, hij is the lag distance between
locations i and j, and hio is the lag distance between locations o and i.
Recall that the location of the point at which an estimate is to be made is
o and the locations of the data to be used in the estimation are at points
i. Eq.(4.106) can be rearranged as
N

2
e

C (0)

2
j C ( hij )

i
i 1

j 1

C (hio )

(4.107)

i 1

But C(0), the covariance function at a lag distance of 0, is the same as

2. Therefore, Eq.(4.107) can be written in the

the variance of the data,

following final form:

2
e

N
i

i 1

C (hij ) 2

j 1

C (hio )

(4.108)

i 1

The estimation problem now boils down to determining the values

of

i, which will minimize the estimation variance given by Eq.(4.108)

subject to the unbiasedness constraint given by Eq.(4.99). This is a

classical problem of optimization, which can be solved by the method of
Lagrange multipliers.
Derivation in Terms of the Variogram
Eq.(4.108) can be derived in terms of the variogram instead of the
covariance function. To do so, we first derive the relationship between
the variogram and the covariance function for a stationary random
function, Z(x). By definition, the variogram is given by
(h)

1
2

Z ( x ) Z ( x h)

4-99

(4.109)

Adding and subtracting the mean of the random function from the inner
bracket of Eq.(4.109) gives

( h)

1
2

Z ( x) m

Z ( x h) m

(4.110)

Expanding the right side of Eq.(4.110) gives

(h)

1
2

Z ( x) m

Z ( x h) m

2 Z ( x ) m Z ( x h) m

(4.111)

Eq.(4.111) can be rewritten as

( h)

1
2

E
2
2

Z ( x) m Z ( x) m
E

1
2

Z ( x h) m Z ( x h) m

Z ( x h) m Z ( x ) m

(4.112)

The expectations in Eq.(4.112) can be expressed in terms of the

covariance function as follows:

(h)

1
2

C (0)

1
2

C (0) C (h)

(4.113)

Finally, Eq.(4.113) yields the required relationship as

(h) C (0) C (h)

(4.114)

which is the same as Eq.(4.26). For large lag distances, Eq.(4.114)

becomes

( ) C (0) C ( )

(4.115)

For a stationary random function, ( ) is the sill of the variogram, C( ) is

0 because there is no more correlation beyond the correlation length and
4100

C(0) is the variance of the data ( 2) as previously stated. Substituting

these facts into Eq.(4.115) gives

( ) C (0)

sill of the variogram

(4.116)

Figure 4.59 compares the variogram and the covariance function for a
stationary random function.

Figure 4.59. A comparison of the variogram and the covariance function

for a stationary random function.

We are now ready to rewrite the error variance equation, Eq.(4.108), in

terms of the variogram. From Eq.(4.114), we have

C (hij ) C (0)

(hij )

(4.117)

C (hio ) C (0)

(hio )

(4.118)

4-101

Substituting Eqs.(4.117) and (4.118) into Eq.(4.108) gives the error

variance as

2
e

i 1

j 1

C (0)

C (0)

(hij )

N
i

C (0)

(4.119)

(hio )

i 1

Eq.(4.119) can be rearranged as

2
e

C (0) C (0)

N
i

i 1

j 1

i 1

(hij ) 2C (0)

j 1

i
i 1

N
i

(hio ) (4.120)

i 1

Eq.(4.120) can be simplified to

2
e

C (0) C (0)

N
i

i 1

(hij ) 2C (0) 2

j 1

N
i

(hio )

(4.121)

i 1

Further simplification of Eq.(4.121) gives the error variance in terms of

the variogram in final form as

2
e

i 1

j 1

(hij ) 2

N
i

(4.122)

(hio )

i 1

Solution of the Kriging Equations in terms of the Covariance

Function
The problem to be solved is to choose the weights ( i) to minimize
the error variance given by Eq.(4.108) subject to the constraint given by
Eq.(4.99). The problem statement is as follows:

Minimize

2
e

( i)

i 1

j 1

4102

2
j C ( hij )

N
i
i 1

C (hio )

(4.123)

Subject to

(4.124)

i 1

This problem can be solved by the method of Lagrange multipliers. The

solution steps are as follows:
1. Convert all constraints into equality constraints.
2. Multiply each equality constraint by a new variable i, where i is
the Lagrange multiplier for the ith constraint.
3. Add (or subtract) the resulting constraint equations to the original
objective function to obtain the Lagrangian function, L. This step
relaxes the constraint and converts the constrained optimization to
an unconstrained optimization.
4. Differentiate the Lagrangian function and equate to zero to
determine the stationary points, which constitute the required
solution.
Applications of steps 1 to 3 to the problem at hand will result in the
following Lagrangian function:

L( i , )

i 1

j 1

2
j C ( hij )

2
i C ( hio )

i 1

(4.125)

i 1

Consider the case for N = 2. The Lagrangian can be expanded to obtain

L( 1 ,

, )

2
1
2
2

C (h11 )

1 2

C (h12 )

C (h21 )

2 1

C (h22 ) 2 1C (h10 ) 2 2C (h20 )

1

(4.126)

Differentiating Eq.(4.126) and equating to zero will give the following

linear simultaneous equations:
4-103

C (h21 ) 2C (h10 ) 2

(4.127)

C (h21 ) 2 2C (h22 ) 2C (h20 ) 2

(4.128)

2 1C (h11 )

C (h12 )

C (h12 )

(4.129)

2 0

Eqs.(4.127) to (4.129) can be rewritten in matrix form as

2C (h11 )
C (h12 ) C ( h21 ) 2
2C ( h22 )
2
C ( h12 ) C ( h21 )
2
2
0

1
2

2C (h10 )
2C (h20 )
2

(4.130)

Because C(h12) = C(h21), Eq.(4.130) can be rewritten as

2C (h11 ) 2C (h12 ) 2
2C (h21 ) 2C (h22 ) 2
2
2
0

1
2

2C (h10 )
2C (h20 )
2

(4.131)

Upon dividing by 2, Eq.(4.131) simplifies to

C (h11 ) C (h12 ) 1
C (h21 ) C (h22 ) 1
1
1
0

1
2

C (h10 )
C (h20 )
1

(4.132)

Eq.(4.132) can be solved by standard techniques such as matrix

inversion or Gaussian elimination.

4104

After solving Eq.(4.132),

1,

2 and

can be substituted into

Eq.(4.123) to calculate the minimum estimation error variance. Let us

derive an algebraic expression for the minimum error variance.
Expanding Eq.(4.123) for N = 2 gives the error variance as
2
e

( 1,

, )

2
1
2
2

C (h11 )

1 2

C (h12 )

C (h21 )

2 1

(4.133)

C (h22 ) 2 1C (h10 ) 2 2C (h20 )

Eq.(4.133) can be rearranged as

2
e

( 1,

, )

C (h11 )

C (h12 )

C (h21 )

C (h22 )

(4.134)

2 1C (h10 ) 2 2C (h20 )

From Eq.(4.132), it can be seen that

C (h11 )

C (h12 ) C (h10 )

(4.135)

C (h21 )

C (h22 ) C (h20 )

(4.136)

and

Substituting Eqs.(4.135) and (4.136) into Eq.(4.134) gives the minimum

estimation error variance as
2
e min

2
1

C (h10 )

C (h20 )

2 1C (h10 ) 2 2C (h20 )

4-105

(4.137)

which simplifies to

2
e min

C (hio )

(4.138)

i 1

Eq.(4.138) can be used to calculate the minimum error variance directly

instead of substituting

1,

2 and

into Eq.(4.123) to calculate the

minimum estimation error variance. Eq.(4.132) and (4.138) can easily be

generalized to any value of N. For example, for N = 4, Eqs.(4.132) and
(4.138) will become

C (h11 )
C (h21 )
C (h31 )
C (h41 )
1

C (h12 )
C (h22 )
C (h32 )
C (h42 )
1

C (h13 )
C (h23 )
C (h33 )
C (h43 )
1

C (h14 )
C (h24 )
C (h34 )
C (h44 )
1

1
1
1
1
0

1
2
3
4

C (h10 )
C (h20 )
C (h30 )
C (h40 )
1

(4.139)

and

2
e min

C (hio )

i 1

(4.140)

For any value of N, Eq.(4.132) can be generalized to the following N+1

linear simultaneous equations:
N
j

C (hij )

C (hio ) for i = 1, 2, ..., N

j 1

(4.141)

N
j

j 1

4106

The minimum estimation error variance can be generalized to

2
e min

C (hio )

(4.142)

i 1

The following observations can be made about the ordinary kriging

model in terms of the covariance function.
1.

In order to set up the simultaneous equations to be solved, one

must first compute the lag distance matrix, hij. For N = 4, the
lag distance matrix will look like this:

hij

2.

h11

h12

h13

h14

h12

h13

h14

h21

h22

h23

h24

h21

h23

h24

h31
h41

h32
h42

h33
h43

h34
h44

h31
h41

h32
h42

0
h43

h34
0

(4.143)

Except for the one zero at the bottom corner, the diagonal
entries of the matrix equation to be solved are given by

C (h11 ) C (h22 )
3.

... C (hNN ) C (0)

(4.144)

All the off diagonal entries of the matrix equation are less than
the diagonal entries. Thus, the matrix is diagonally dominant.
This is a desirable structure for solving the system of linear
simultaneous equations.

4.

The matrix to be inverted is full. Therefore, a lot of calculations

could be involved, depending on the value of N.

5.

The solution 1, 2, , N and

depends only on the spatial

coordinates of the data and not on the values of the data.

4-107

6.

The estimation error variance depends only on the spatial

coordinates of the data and not on the values of the data.

7.

Kriging is an exact estimator and will return the measured

value if it is applied to the location for which datum was
measured.

Solution of the Kriging Equations in terms of the Variogram

In this case, the problem statement is

Minimize

2
e

( i)

i
i 1

Subject to

(hij ) 2

j 1

(4.145)

(hio )

i 1

N
i

(4.146)

i 1

The Lagrangian is given by

L( i , )

i 1

j 1

(hij ) 2

(hio ) 2

i 1

(4.147)

i 1

For the case of N = 2, the Lagrangian can be expanded to obtain

L( 1 ,

, )

2
1

(h11 )
2
2

1 2

(h22 ) 2
1

(h12 )
1

(h21 )

2 1

(h10 ) 2

(h20 )

(4.148)

Differentiating the Lagrangian and equating to zero will give the following
linear simultaneous equations:

4108

(h11 )

(h12 )

(h21 ) 2 (h10 ) 2

(4.149)

(h22 ) 2 (h20 ) 2

(4.150)

L
1

(h12 )

(h21 ) 2

(4.151)

2 0

Eqs.(4.149) to (4.151) can be rewritten in matrix form as

2 (h11 )
(h12 ) (h21 )

(h12 ) (h21 )
2 (h22 )

2
2

2 (h10 )
2 (h20 )

1
2

(4.152)

Upon dividing by 2 and noting that (h12) = (h21), Eq.(4.152) can be

rewritten as
(h11 )

(h12 )

(h10 )

(h21 )

(h22 )

(h20 )

1,

2 and

can be substituted into

After solving Eq.(4.153),

(4.153)

Eq.(4.145) to calculate the minimum estimation error variance. Let us

derive an algebraic expression for the minimum error variance.
Expanding Eq.(4.145) for N = 2 gives the error variance as
2
e

( 1,

, )

2
1
2
2

(h11 )

1 2

(h22 ) 2

4-109

(h12 )

2 1

(h10 ) 2

(h21 )
(h20 )

(4.154)

Eq.(4.154) can be rearranged as

2
e

( 1,

, )

(h11 )

(h10 ) 2

(h12 )

(h21 )

(h22 )

(4.155)

(h20 )

From Eq.(4.153), it can be seen that

(h11 )

(h12 )

(h10 )

(4.156)

(h21 )

(h22 )

(h20 )

(4.157)

and

Substituting Eqs.(4.156) and (4.157) into Eq.(4.155) gives the minimum

estimation error variance as
2
e min

(h10 )
2

2
1

(h10 ) 2

(h20 )
2

(h20 )

(4.158)

which simplifies to

2
e min

2
i

(hio )

i 1

(4.159)

Eqs.(4.153) and (4.159) can easily be generalized to any value of N. For

example, for N = 4, Eqs.(4.153) and (4.159) will become

4110

(h11 )
(h21 )
(h31 )
(h41 )
1

(h12 )
(h22 )
(h32 )
(h42 )
1

(h13 )
(h23 )
(h33 )
(h43 )
1

(h14 )
(h24 )
(h34 )
(h44 )
1

1
1
1
1
0

1
2
3
4

(h10 )
(h20 )
(h30 )
(h40 )
1

(4.160)

and

2
e min

4
i

(hio )

(4.161)

i 1

For any value of N, Eq.(4.153) can be generalized to the following N+1

linear simultaneous equations:
N
j

(hij )

(hio ) for i = 1, 2, ..., N

j 1

(4.162)

N
j

j 1

The minimum estimation error variance can be generalized to

2
e min

N
i

(hio )

i 1

(4.163)

The following observations can be made about the kriging model in

terms of the variogam.
1.

The diagonal entries of the matrix equation to be solved are given

by

(h11 )

(h22 )

... (hNN ) 0
4-111

(4.164)

All the diagonal entries of the matrix equation are zero. This is an
undesirable structure for the solution of the system of linear
simultaneous equations. This is why the formulation and solution
of the estimation problem in terms of the covariance function is
usually preferred over the formulation in terms of the variogram.
2.

Most of the entries in the matrix equation are numbers computed

from the variogram. It is essential that these numbers be
consistent and well behaved for the system of equations to have a
solution. Inconsistent numbers from an experimental variogram
could lead to a system of equations without a solution. This is why
a well behaved theoretical variogram model is usually fitted to the
experimental variogram and the theoretical variogram model is
then used instead of the experimental variogram for the estimation
calculations.

Example 4.1
The porosities at locations 1 and 4 in a linear reservoir have been
measured as shown Figure 4.60. The locations are evenly spaced 10
meters apart. The variogram for the porosity distribution in this reservoir
is shown in Figure 4.61. We are required to estimate the porosity at
location 3 at which no measurement was made.

4112

Figure 4.60. Measured porosity values and their locations.

1.

Calculate the best estimate of the porosity at location 3 based on

the available information and determine the 95% confidence
interval assuming a normal distribution.

2.

Assuming a stationary random function model, carefully sketch on

Figure 4.60 the covariance function for the porosity distribution for
this reservoir showing important features of your sketch.

4-113

Figure 4.61. Variogram for Example 4.1.

3.

Show that kriging is an exact interpolator. An exact interpolator

will return the measured value if it is applied at a location
containing a measured value. In other words, if kriging is applied
to estimate the porosity at location 1, it should return a value of
10% with a minimum error variance of 0.
Solution to Example 4.1

The best estimate of the porosity at location 3 can be obtained using

ordinary kriging. The kriging equations to be solved can be written by
inpection in terms of the covariance function as
C12

C10

C21 C22

C20

C11
1

4114

(4.165)

Let us adopt the following subscripts: Location 1 = 1, location 3 = 0 and

location 4 = 3. The matrix of lag distances for location 3 is (subscript 0) is
h11

h12

h10

30 20

h21

h22

h20

30

10

meters

(4.166)

For a stationary random function, the variogram and the covariance

function are related by Eq.(4.114). Therefore, the covariances needed in
Eq.(4.165) can easily be computed from the variogram. Thus, the matrix
equation to be solved is
5 2 1

2 5 1
1 1 0

3
4
1

Eq.(4.167) can easily be solved by elimination to obtain

1
3
2
3
0

The estimated porosity is given by

*
0

1
3

*
3

2
3

1
10
3

2
3

25

20%

The minimum error variance is computed from Eq.(4.140) as

2
e min

2
i
i 1

C (hio ) 5 0

1
2
x3
x4
3
3

4-115

4
3

(4.167)

The minimum standard deviation is

e min

4
3

1.1547

The 95% confidence interval is given by

0

1.96 1.1547

2.26

20

20

1.96 1.1547

2.26

or

17.74

22.26 or 20% 2.26%

The problem could also be solved in terms of the variogram. In this case,
the corresponding equations are

11

12

21

22

1
1
0

0 3

3 0
1 1

1
0

10

20

(4.168)

1
2

The solution of Eq.(4.169) gives

4116

2
1
1

(4.169)

1
3
2
3
0

The estimated porosity is given by

*
0

1
3

*
3

2
3

1
10
3

2
3

25

20%

The minimum error variance is obtained from Eq.(4.159) as

2

2
e min

(hio )

i 1

1
2
x2
x1
3
3

4
3

The minimum standard deviation is

e min

4
3

1.1547

The 95% confidence interval is given by

0

1.96 1.1547

2.26

20

20

1.96 1.1547

2.26

or

17.74

22.26 or 20% 2.26%

4-117

Thus, as expected, the kriging equations based on the covariance

function and the variogram give the same results. The sketch of the
covariance function on Figure 4.61 is left as an exercise for the reader.
To demonstrate that kriging is an exact interpolator, we solve the
kriging equation at location 1, which contains a sample datum. We
should recover the sample value of 10% with an error variance of 0. The
matrix of lag distances is
h11
h21

h12
h22

h10
h20

30

30

30

meters

(4.170)

Substituting these numbers into Eq.(4.165) gives the matrix equation to

be solved as
5 2 1

2 5 1

1 1 0

Eq.(4.171) can be solved to obtain

1
0

0
*
0

*
1

1 10

0 25

10%

The minimum error variance is computed from Eq.(4.140) as

2
e min

2
i

C (hio ) 5 0

1x5 0 x 2

i 1

4118

(4.171)

Therefore, kriging is an exact interpolator.

Example 4.2
Estimate the petrophysical property shown in Figure 4.51 at locations 1,
3, 5, 7 and 8 at which no measurements were made. The correlation
structure of the heterogeneous property is given by

C h

100e

0.3 h

(4.172)

Solution to Example 4.2

To begin the calculations, we must determine the order in which the
estimates will be made. This order is determined by a random drawing.
Using a random number generator for integer values from 1 to 8, it has
been determined that the order for the estimations is 8, 1, 5, 7 and 3.
After estimating

*
8

, this value is treated as a known sample and is used

along with the measured data for the subsequent estimations. Thus, the
number of equations to be solved increases as the estimation progresses.
We begin the calculations by visiting location (node) 8. In order to
generate a compact matrix equation, we renumber the known values as
shown in Figure 4.62. Next, we construct the lag distance matrix for
location 8 as shown in Table 4.8. The entries in Table 4.8 should be read
as follows. The indices 1, 2, 3 represent the locations of the renumbered
known values. The index 0 represents the location at which an estimate
is to be made. The other entries are lag distances. For example, h10 is the
lag distance (6 x) from the point of estimation to the renumbered sample
1, h20 is the lag distance (4 x) from the point of estimation to the
renumbered sample 2 and h30 is the lag distance (2 x) from the point of
estimation to the renumbered sample 3. These are the lag distances
needed to construct the right hand side vector of the system of equations
4-119

to be solved. Therefore, they have been transferred into the last column
of the table under the heading hi0. The other entries in the table should
be self explanatory. For example, h11 is the lag distance between the
renumbered sample 1 and itself, which is zero.

Figure 4.62. Renumbered sample values for the estimation at location 8.

Table 4.8. Lag Distance Matrix hij for Location 8

1

6 x

4 x

2 x

hi0

0 x

2 x

4 x

6 x

2 x

0 x

2 x

4 x

4 x

2 x

0 x

2 x

The matrix equation to be solved is

4120

C11 C12
C21 C22
C31 C32
1
1
In this problem,

C13
C23
C33
1

1
1
1
0

1
2
3

C10
C20
C30
1

(4.173)

x = 1 unit. Using the matrix of lag distances in Table

4.8 and Eq.(4.172), the entries of the covariance matrix of Eq.(4.173) can
easily be computed. For example, C12 is given by

C12 h12

C 2

100e

0.3 2

54.8812

The results of the other calculations are shown in Eq.(4.174).

100.0000 54.8812 30.1194 1

54.8812 100.0000 54.8812 1
30.1194 54.8812 100.0000 1
1
1
1
0

1
2
3

16.5299
30.1194
54.8812
1

(4.174)

Eq.(4.174) can be solved by any standard method of solving a system of

linear simultaneous equations, for example, by matrix inversion.

The

inverse matrix for Eq.(4.174) is

Cij 1

0.0117
0.0090
0.0026

0.0090
0.0181
0.0090

0.0026
0.0090
0.0117

0.4080
0.1841
0.4080

0.4080

0.1841

0.4080

63.1862

(4.175)

Multiplying the right hand side of Eq.(4.174) into the inverse matrix of
Eq.(4.175) gives the solution vector as

4-121

1
2
3

0.1841
0.0830

(4.176)

0.7329
28.5088

The kriged value is calculated as

*
0

*
8

0.1841 30

0.0830 50

0.7329 20

24.3321

The minimum error variance (estimation variance) is computed from

Eq.(4.140) as

2
e min

C (hio ) 100

28.5089

i 1

0.1841x16.5299 0.0830 x30.1194 0.7329 x54.8812

The minimum standard deviation (estimation standard deviation) is

e min

82.7435

9.0963

The 95% confidence interval is given by

*
8

24.3321

1.96 9.0963

24.33 17.83

The estimated value at location 8 is then added to the sample data set in
preparation for the estimation at location 1 as shown in Figure 4.63.

4122

82.7434

Figure 4.63. Sample data set for the estimation at location 1.

Next, we visit location 1 and construct the lag distance matrix shown in
Table 4.9.
Table 4.9. Lag Distance Matrix hij for Location 1
1

1 x

3 x

5 x

7 x

hi0

0 x

2 x

4 x

6 x

1 x

2 x

0 x

2 x

4 x

3 x

4 x

2 x

0 x

2 x

5 x

6 x

4 x

2 x

0 x

7 x

4-123

The matrix equation to be solved is

C11
C21
C31
C41
1

C12
C22
C32
C42
1

C13 C14
C23 C24
C33 C34
C43 C44
1
1

1
1
1
1
0

1
2
3
4

C10
C20
C30
C40
1

(4.177)

Using the matrix of lag distances in Table 4.9 and Eq.(4.170), Eq.(4.177)
becomes

100.0000 54.8812 30.1194 16.5299 1

54.8812 100.0000 54.8812 30.1194 1
30.1194 54.8812 100.0000 54.8812 1
16.5299 30.1194 54.8812 100.0000 1
1
1
1
1
0

1
2
3
4

74.0818
40.6570
22.3130
12.2456
1

(4.178)

The inverse matrix for Eq.(4.178) is

Cij 1

0.0121
0.0089
0.0010
0.0022

0.0089
0.0182
0.0083
0.0010

0.0010
0.0083
0.0182
0.0089

0.0022
0.0010
0.0089
0.0121

0.3445
0.1555
0.1555
0.3445

0.3445

0.1555

0.1555

0.3445

53.3636

(4.179)

Multiplying the right hand side of Eq.(4.178) into the inverse matrix of
Eq.(4.179) gives the solution vector as

1
2
3
4

0.8301
0.0403
0.0403
0.0893
13.8309
4124

(4.180)

The kriged value is calculated as

*
0

*
1

0.8301 30

0.0403 50

0.0403 20

0.0893 24.3321

29.8968

The estimation variance is computed from Eq.(4.140) as

2
e min

C (hio ) 100

13.8309

i 1

0.8301x74.0819 0.0403 x 40.6570 0.0403 x 22.3130 0.0893x12.2456

48.7035

The estimation standard deviation is

e min

48.7035

6.9788

The 95% confidence interval is given by

*
8

29.8968

1.96 6.9788

29.99 13.68

The estimated value at location 1 is then added to the sample data set in
preparation for the estimation at location 5 as shown in Figure 4.64.
Next, we visit location 5 and construct the lag distance matrix shown in
Table 4.10.

4-125

Figure 4.64. Sample data set for the estimation at location 5.

Table 4.10. Lag Distance Matrix hij for Location 5

1

3 x

1 x

1 x

3 x

4 x

hi0

0 x

2 x

4 x

6 x

1 x

3 x

2 x

0 x

2 x

4 x

3 x

1 x

4 x

2 x

0 x

2 x

5 x

1 x

6 x

4 x

2 x

0 x

7 x

3 x

1 x

3 x

5 x

7 x

0 x

4 x

4126

The matrix equation to be solved is

C11
C21
C31
C41
C51
1

C12
C22
C32
C42
C52
1

C13 C14
C23 C24
C33 C34
C43 C44
C53 C54
1
1

C15
C25
C35
C45
C55
1

1
1
1
1
1
0

1
2
3
4
5

C10
C20
C30
C40
C50
1

(4.181)

Using the matrix of lag distances in Table 4.10 and Eq.(4.170), Eq.(4.181)
becomes

100.0000 54.8812 30.1194 16.5299 74.0818 1

54.8812 100.0000 54.8812 30.1194 40.6570 1
30.1194 54.8812 100.0000 54.8812 22.3130 1
16.5299 30.1194 54.8812 100.0000 12.2456 1
74.0818 40.6570 22.3130 12.2456 100.0000 1
1
1
1
1
1
0

1
2
3
4
5

40.6570
74.0818
74.0818
(4.182)
40.6570
30.1194
1

The inverse matrix for Eq.(4.182) is

Cij 1

0.0262
0.0082
0.0003
0.0007
0.0170
0.1088

0.0082
0.0182
0.0083
0.0009
0.0008
0.1440

0.0003
0.0083
0.0182
0.0088
0.0008
0.1440

0.0007
0.0009
0.0088
0.0122
0.0018
0.3192

0.0170
0.0008
0.0008
0.0018
0.0205
0.2840

0.1088
0.1440
0.1440
(4.183)
0.3192
0.2840
49.4359

Multiplying the right hand side of Eq.(4.182) into the inverse matrix of
Eq.(4.183) gives the solution vector as

4-127

0.0047
0.4846

1
2

0.4846
0.0138
0.0123
2.1441

3
4
5

(4.184)

The kriged value is calculated as

*
0

*
5

0.0047 30

0.4846 50

0.0123 29.8968

0.4846 20

0.0138 24.3321

34.7659

The estimator variance is computed from Eq.(4.140) as

2
e min

3
i

C (hio ) 100

i 1

2.1441

0.0047 x 40.6570 0.4846 x74.0818 0.4846 x74.0818

0.0138 x 40.6570 0.0123x30.1194

29.2243

The estimator standard deviation is

e min

29.2243

5.4059

The 95% confidence interval is given by

*
8

34.7659

1.96 5.4059

34.77 10.60

The estimated value at location 5 is then added to the sample data set in
preparation for the estimation at location 7 as shown in Figure 4.65.

4128

Figure 4.65. Sample data set for the estimation at location 7.

Next, we visit location 7 and construct the lag distance matrix shown in
Table 4.11.
Table 4.11. Lag Distance Matrix hij for Location 7
1

5 x

3 x

1 x

1 x

6 x

2 x

hi0

0 x

2 x

4 x

6 x

1 x

3 x

5 x

2 x

0 x

2 x

4 x

3 x

1 x

3 x

4 x

2 x

0 x

2 x

5 x

1 x

1 x

6 x

4 x

2 x

0 x

7 x

3 x

1 x

1 x

3 x

5 x

7 x

0 x

4 x

6 x

2 x

1 x

1 x

3 x

4 x

0 x

2 x

4-129

The matrix equation to be solved is

C11
C21
C31
C41
C51
C61
1

C12
C22
C32
C42
C52
C62
1

C13 C14
C23 C24
C33 C34
C43 C44
C53 C54
C63 C64
1
1

C15
C25
C35
C45
C55
C65
1

C16
C26
C36
C46
C56
C66
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
0

1
2
3
4
5
6

C10
C20
C30
C40
C50
C60
1

(4.185)

Using the matrix of lag distances in Table 4.11 and Eq.(4.170), Eq.(4.185)
becomes

100.0000 54.8812 30.1194 16.5299 74.0818 40.6570 1

54.8812 100.0000 54.8812 30.1194 40.6570 74.0818 1
30.1194 54.8812 100.0000 54.8812 22.3130 74.0818 1
16.5299 30.1194 54.8812 100.0000 12.2456 40.6570 1
74.0818 40.6570 22.3130 12.2456 100.0000 30.1194 1
54.8812 74.0818 74.0818 40.6570 30.1194 100.0000 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0

1
2
3
4
5
6

22.3130
40.6570
74.0818
74.0818
16.5299
54.8812
1
...

The inverse matrix for Eq.(4.186) is

Cij 1

0.0322
0.0023
0.0073
0.0006
0.0207
0.0159
0.0993

0.0023
0.0239
0.0008
0.0009
0.0044
0.0155
0.1348

0.0073
0.0008
0.0279
0.0087
0.0055
0.0202
0.1320

0.0006
0.0009
0.0087
0.0122
0.0019
0.0002
0.3191

4130

0.0207
0.0044
0.0055
0.0019
0.0228
0.0097
0.2898

0.0159
0.0155
0.0202
0.0002
0.0097
0.0420
0.0251

0.0993
0.1348
0.1320
0.3191 (4.187)
0.2898
0.0251
49.4209

(4.186)

Multiplying the right hand side of Eq.(4.186) into the inverse matrix of
Eq.(4.187) gives the solution vector as

0.0047
0.0058
0.4841
0.4921
0.0123
0.0009
2.1422

1
2
3
4
5
6

(4.188)

The kriged value is calculated as

*
0

*
7

0.0047 30

0.0058 50

0.0123 29.8968

0.4841 20

0.0009 34.7659

0.4921 24.3321
22.4886

The estimation variance is computed from Eq.(4.140) as

2
e min

3
i

C (hio ) 100

i 1

2.1422

0.0047 x 22.3130 0.0058 x 40.6570 0.4841x74.0818

0.4921x74.0818 0.0123x16.5299 0.0009 x54.8812

The estimation standard deviation is

e min

29.2242

5.4059

The 95% confidence interval is given by

*
7

22.4886

1.96 5.4059

22.4886 10.60

4-131

29.2242

The estimated value at location 7 is then added to the sample data set in
preparation for the estimation at location 3 as shown in Figure 4.66.

Figure 4.66. Sample data set for the estimation at location 3.

Next, we visit location 3 and construct the lag distance matrix shown in
Table 4.12.
Table 4.12. Lag Distance Matrix hij for Location 3
1

1 x

1 x

3 x

5 x

2 x

2 x

4 x

hi0

0 x

2 x

4 x

6 x

1 x

3 x

3 x

1 x

2 x

0 x

2 x

4 x

3 x

1 x

1 x

1 x

4 x

2 x

0 x

2 x

5 x

1 x

1 x

3 x

6 x

4 x

2 x

0 x

7 x

3 x

3 x

5 x

1 x

3 x

5 x

7 x

0 x

4 x

4 x

2 x

2 x

1 x

1 x

3 x

4 x

0 x

0 x

2 x

2 x

1 x

1 x

3 x

4 x

0 x

0 x

4 x

4132

The matrix equation to be solved is

C11
C21
C31
C41
C51
C61
C71
1

C12
C22
C32
C42
C52
C62
C72
1

C13
C23
C33
C43
C53
C63
C73
1

C14
C24
C34
C44
C54
C64
C74
1

C15
C25
C35
C45
C55
C65
C75
1

C16
C26
C36
C46
C56
C66
C76
1

C17
C27
C37
C47
C57
C67
C77
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

C10
C20
C30
C40
C50
C60
C70
1

(4.189)

Using the matrix of lag distances in Table 4.12 and Eq.(4.170), Eq.(4.189)
becomes

100.0000 54.8812 30.1194 16.5299 74.0818 40.6570 22.3130 1

54.8812 100.0000 54.8812 30.1194 40.6570 74.0818 40.6570 1
30.1194 54.8812 100.0000 54.8812 22.3130 74.0718 74.0818 1
16.5299 30.1194 54.8812 100.0000 12.2456 40.6570 74.0818 1
74.0818 40.6570 22.3130 12.2456 100.0000 30.1194 16.5299 1
54.8812 74.0818 74.0818 40.6570 30.1194 100.0000 54.8812 1
22.3130 40.6570 74.0818 74.0818 16.5299 54.8812 100.0000 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0

The inverse matrix for Eq.(4.190) is

4-133

74.0818
74.0818
2
40.6570
3
22.3130
4
54.8812
5
54.8812
6
30.1194
7
1

(4.190)
1

Cij 1

0.0322
0.0023
0.0074

0.0023
0.0239
0.0007

0.0074
0.0007
0.0359

0.0006
0.0008
0.0006

0.0207
0.0044
0.0053

0.0159
0.0155
0.0202

0.0001
0.0002
0.0166

0.0990
0.1343
0.0965

0.0006
0.0207
0.0159
0.0001

0.0008
0.0044
0.0155
0.0002

0.0006
0.0053
0.0202
0.0166

0.0205
0.0017
0.0001
0.0168

0.0017
0.0228
0.0097
0.0004

0.0001
0.0097
0.0420
0.00004

0.0168
0.0004
0.00004
0.0342

0.2830
0.2888
0.0250
0.0733

0.0990

0.1343

0.0965

0.2830

0.2888

0.2306

0.0733

49.2637

(4.191)

Multiplying the right hand side of Eq.(4.190) into the inverse matrix of
Eq.(4.191) gives the solution vector as

0.4841
0.5972
0.1170
0.0151
0.0151
0.2325
0.0039
2.6342

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

(4.192)

The kriged value is calculated as

*
0

*
3

0.4841 30

0.5972 50

0.0151 29.8968

0.1170 20

0.2325 34.7659

0.0151 24.3321
0.0039 22.4886

39.5490

The estimation variance is computed from Eq.(4.140) as

2
e min

3
i

C (hio ) 100

2.6342

i 1

0.4841x74.0818 0.5972 x74.0818 0.1170 x 40.6570

0.0.0151x 22.3130 0.0151x54.8812 0.2325 x54.8812 0.0039 x30.1194
The estimation standard deviation is
4134

29.2455

29.2455

e min

5.4079

The 95% confidence interval is given by

*
7

39.5490

1.96 5.4079

39.55 10.60

Table 4.13 presents a summary of the results of the estimation. Figure

4.67 shows the estimated values along with the measured values. It
should be noted that kriging gives the estimated values of

*
3

and

*
5

that

are essentially the same as those obtained from the linear interpolation
of Figure 4.52.
Table 4.13. Results of Estimations for Example 4.2.
Location

*
i

2
e min

e min

1.96

e min

*
i

1.96

e min

*
i

1.96

29.90

48.72

6.98

13.68

16.22

43.58

39.55

29.27

5.41

10.60

28.95

50.15

34.77

29.27

5.41

10.60

24.17

45.37

22.49

29.27

5.41

10.60

11.89

33.09

24.33

82.81

9.10

17.84

6.49

42.17

30

3
4

50

5
6

20

4-135

e min

Figure 4.67. Graph of the measured and the kriged values for Example
4.2.

Using kriging, we are now able to estimate the petrophysical

properties for all the grid blocks of our reservoir simulation model that
honor the measured data and the correlation structure of the
heterogeneous

properties.

Further,

we

are

able

to

estimate

the

uncertainty associated with the estimates at each grid block. We have

made significant progress in dealing with the heterogeneities of our
reservoir rock.
We have studied ordinary kriging. There are other types of kriging
such as simple kriging, universal kriging, block kriging and ordinary
4136

cokriging. These other types of kriging are usually covered in a

geostastistics course.

4.6 CONDITIONAL SIMULATION

4.6.1 Introduction
Kriging gives a smooth estimate because the estimate is a weighted
average of the sample data. Such a weighted average can never be larger
than the largest sample value nor can it be smaller than the smallest
sample value. Thus, kriging eliminates local variability. If such local
variability is important, then it can be incorporated into the estimated
values using conditional simulation. Conditional simulation also is
referred to as stochastic simulation or Monte Carlo simulation is the
other major application of geostatistics. The simulation is conditioned on
the measured data.
The idea behind conditional simulation is as follows. Each of the
estimates obtained from kriging was associated with an uncertainty in
the estimated value measured by the estimation variance or the
estimation standard deviation. Thus, the kriged estimate is a random
variable with a known variance or standard deviation. If the kriged value
comes from a normal distribution, then it is possible to draw a simulated
value from this distribution that is centered on the kriged value and has
a variance that is equal to the estimation variance and a standard
deviation that is equal to the estimation standard deviation.
4.6.2 Sequential Gaussian Simulation
The objective is to perform a stochastic simulation to estimate the
values of a petrophysical property in a heterogeneous reservoir at

4-137

locations for which no sample data have been measured. The simulated
values should honor the measured sample data and the correlation
structure of the heterogeneity as revealed by the analysis of the sample
data. Further, it should retain the local variability. Here is an algorithm
for performing such a stochastic simulation known as Sequential
Gaussian Simulation (SGS).
1.

Select at random a location or node not yet simulated in the grid.

2.

Use ordinary kriging to compute the local estimate at the node

along with the estimation variance and the estimation standard
deviation.

3.

Draw a random value from a normal distribution with a mean

equal to the kriged estimate and a standard deviation equal to the
estimation standard deviation at that node. This is the simulated
value at that node. This step can be accomplished by using either
Eq.(4.50, (4.64) or (4.65) to draw a sample from a standard normal
distribution and then applying either Eq.(4.53), (4.66) or (4.67) to
compute the simulated value as

si

where

si

*
i

is the simulated value at location i,

at location i,

ei

(4.193)

ei i

*
i

is the kriged value

is the standard deviation or the square root of the

estimation variance at location i and zi is a standard normal

variate with

= 0 and

= 1 drawn for location i. Note that upon

moving to a new location, a new zi must be drawn for that

location.

4138

4.

Include the newly simulated value in the set of conditioning data

and use the expanded data set to simulate the value at the next
location.

5.

Proceed to the next location, which of course was selected

randomly at the start, and repeat the calculations to simulate the
value at this location.

6.

Repeat the calculations until all grid nodes have a simulated value.

7.

This completes one realization of the simulation. Other realizations

can be obtained by repeating the calculations from step 1. To do
so, the order of the simulation is first determined using a random
number generator. This order should be different from all previous
orders. The calculations will then yield a new realization, whose
simulated values will be different from the previous realizations. If
there are N nodes to be simulated, there will be N! (N factorial)
possible realizations.
Example 4.3

Simulate values at the locations 1, 3, 5, 7 and 8 of Figure 4.51 at which

no samples were taken using Sequential Gaussian Simulation.
Solution to Example 4.3.
Let us simulate one realization. The first part of the calculations was
done in Example 4.2 in which kriged estimates were computed in the
following random order: 8, 1, 5, 7 and 3. The estimation variance and
standard deviations also were computed and presented in Table 4.13. To
simulate values at the five nodes, we draw five variates from a standard
normal distribution using Eq.(4.50, (4.64) or (4.65). For example, using

4-139

Eq.(4.64) the following five variates were drawn from a standard normal
distribution:
0.8821
-1.1679
0.6419
2.8546
0.91009

Using these numbers, we can simulate the values at nodes 8, 1, 5, 7 and

3 as follows:
*
s8

*
8

e8 8

*
s1

*
1

e1 1

*
s5

*
5

e5 5

*
s7

*
7

e7 7

*
s3

*
3

e3 3

24.33

9.10 0.8821

29.90

6.98

34.77

5.41 0.6419

38.24

22.49

5.41 2.8546

37.92

39.55

5.41 0.9009

44.42

1.1679

32.36
21.75

Figure 4.68 shows the measured values, kriged values and the simulated
values.

4140

Figure 4.68. A comparison of the measured, kriged and simulated values

for Example 4.3.

4.6.3 A Practical Application of Sequential Gaussian Simulation

A laboratory waterflood experiment was conducted to determine
the oil recovery curve for a viscous oil reservoir (

= 100 cp). The

coreflood experiment was performed in an unconsolidated sandpack.

The task at hand is to use the laboratory test in a sandpack to forecast
the oil recovery curve for a heterogeneous reservoir. Figure 4.69 shows
the CT images of the laboratory waterflood at three times just before
water breakthrough. It is shows a fairly uniform displacement of oil by

4-141

the water. Figure 4.70 shows the oil recovery curve from the experiment.
It should observed that even for a fairly uniform sandpack, the oil
recovery after 3 pore volumes of water injection is less than 60% of the
initial oil in place. What will be the oil recovery in a reservoir with
significant permeability heterogeneity?

Figure 4.69. CT images of a laboratory waterflood in a sandpack: (a) 0.05

pore volume injected, (b) 0.10 pore volume injected, ( c) 0.25 pore volume
injected (Gharbi and Peters, 1993)
.
4142

Figure 4.70. Oil recovery curve for a laboratory waterflood in a sandpack

(Gharbi and Peters, 1993)
.
The problem of forecasting the oil recovery curve in the field based
on a laboratory waterflood boils down to investigating the effect of
permeability heterogeneity on the waterflood performance. To address
this question, we generated twelve synthetic reservoirs with varying
degrees of permeability heterogeneity and correlation structures and then
scaled the laboratory waterflood to the synthetic reservoirs through
numerical simulation. Figure 4.71 shows the twelve heterogeneous, 2D

4-143

permeability fields generated to cover a wide range of Dykstra-Parsons

coefficient
Simulation.

and

correlation

lengths

using

Sequential

Gaussian

Permeability fields were generated at Dykstra-Parsons

coefficients (V) of 0.01, 0.55 and 0.87 and dimensionless correlation

lengths of 0, 0.2, 0.7 and 2.0.

The correlation length was made

dimensionless by dividing the correlation length by the length of the

reservoir in that direction.

A Dykstra-Parsons coefficient of 0.01

represents a nearly homogeneous medium whereas a Dyktra-Parsons

coefficient of 0.89 represents an extremely heterogeneous

medium.

Petroleum reservoirs typically have Dykstra-Parsons coefficients that

range from 0.5 to 0.9.

A dimensionless correlation length of zero

represents an uncorrelated or random permeability distribution; a

correlation length of 0.2 represents mild correlation; a correlation length
of 2.0 represents extremely strong correlation. Depending on the
depositional environment, petroleum reservoirs can have widely different
correlation lengths. The value of dimensionless correlation length in the
y direction (Ly) was constant at 0.2 for the permeability fields shown in
Figure 4.71.
Two observations can be made from the permeability distributions
of Figure 4.71.

First, as the correlation length (Lx) increases, the

permeability distributions become more and more stratified.

number of layers is inversely proportional to Ly.

The

In fact, as Lx

approaches infinity, for Ly = 0.2, the permeability distribution will

consist of exactly five (1/0.2) distinct homogeneous layers. Second, with
increasing Dykstra-Parsons coefficient at a given Lx, the contrast in the
permeability values increases while their spatial arrangements remain
similar. Figure 4.72 shows the permeability histograms, which indicate
that the permeability fields are log-normally distributed in accordance

4144

with observations in sedimentary rocks.

Figure 4.73 shows the

variograms for the twelve permeability fields, which give a visual

impression of the degree of correlation in each permeability field.

Figure 4.71. Simulated permeability distributions (Gharbi and Peters,

1993)

Figure 4.74 shows a comparison of the recovery curve for the waterflood
experiment and the numerical simulation of the experiment. The
agreement between the two recovery curves is good. The simulation was
used to determine the relative permeability curves to be used to scale the
laboratory waterflood to the synthetic heterogeneous reservoirs.

4-145

Figure 4.72. Simulated permeability histograms (Gharbi and Peters,

1993).

4146

Figure 4.73. Simulated permeability variograms in the x-direction

(Gharbi and Peters, 1993).

4-147

Figure 4.74. A comparison of the oil recovery curves of the experiment

and the numerical simulation of the experiment (Gharbi and Peters,
1993).

Figure 4.75 compares the simulated oil recovery curves for each of
the twelve heterogeneous synthetic reservoirs with that of the laboratory
waterflood experiment. The following observations can be made from
these results.

If the heterogeneous reservoir is characterized by low

variability

the

in

permeability

distribution

(low

Dykstra-Parsons

coefficient), the waterflood response will be essentially the same as in the

laboratory sandpack regardless of the correlation structure of the
4148

heterogeneity. This is indicated by the agreement between the simulated

and the experimental recovery curves in the first column of Fig. 4.75 (V =
0.01). If the heterogeneous reservoir is characterized by a low correlation
length in the permeability distribution (low Lx), the waterflood response
will be essentially the same as in the laboratory sandpack regardless of
the variability in the permeability distribution. This is indicated by the
agreement between the simulated and the experimental recovery curves
in the first row of Figure 4.75 (Lx = 0). If the heterogeneous reservoir is
characterized by high variability and high correlation length in the
permeability distribution, the waterflood response could be significantly
different from that of the laboratory sandpack.

This is most clearly

shown by the response in the last permeability field in Figure 4.75 (Lx =
2 and V = 0.87). In this case, the waterflood effeciency is significantly
less in the heterogeneous reservoir than in the laboratory sandpack.
To

investigate

performance

between

the
the

reason

for

laboratory

the

significant

waterflood

in

disparity
a

in

relatively

homogeneous sandpack and in certain kinds of heterogeneous reservoirs,

we examine the simulated water saturation maps. Figures 4.76 and 4.77
show the simulated water saturation maps for each of the twelve
heterogeneous reservoirs at 0.10 and 0.25 pore volume injected. We see
that the displacements in the heterogeneous media with high DykstraParsons coefficient and high correlation length are dominated by
channeling of the injected water due to the permeability stratification.
This results in significant bypassing of the oil in some layers, resulting in
a low oil recovery. These channels provide easy pathways for the water to
flow from the injection well to the producing well, essentially leaving
much of the reservoir unswept. By contrast, the displacements in the
reservoirs with low Dykstra-Parsons coefficients are characterized by

4-149

excellent sweep comparable with that observed in the CT images of the

laboratory waterflood experiment (Figure 4.69). This results in a
displacement

performance

that

is

comparable

to

the

laboratory

waterflood experiment in the sandpack.

We conclude from this study that the performance of an enhanced
oil recovery (EOR) displacement in a heterogeneous reservoir could be
significantly lower than in a laboratory experiment depending on the
degree and structure of the heterogeneity of the reservoir. This
conclusion

underscores the need for proper scaling when using the

results of laboratory coreflood experiments in relatively homogeneous

porous media to forecast the expected performance of an EOR process in
heterogeneous reservoirs. The methodology developed and presented in
this study can be used to accomplish this scaling and prevent erroneous
performance forecasts.

4150

Figure 4.75. A comparison of the experimental and simulated oil recovery

curves (Gharbi and Peters, 1993).

4-151

Figure 4.76. Simulated water saturation maps at 0.10 pore volume

injected (Gharbi and Peters, 1993).

Figure 4.77. Simulated water saturation maps at 0.25 pore volume

injected (Gharbi and Peters, 1993).

NOMENCLATURE
a

correlation length (range of influence)

covariance function
4152

C0 =

nugget effect

erf =

error function

erfc =

complementary error function

cumulative probability distribution

pay thickness

lag distance

absolute permeability of the medium

ln =

natural logarithm (log to base e)

Lx =

dimensionless correlation length in the x-direction

Ly =

dimensionless correlation length in the y-direction

probability density function

standard deviation of sample data

s2 =

variance of sample data

Dykstra-Parsons coefficient of variation

linear coordinate

random variable

variate from a standard normal distribution

correlation coefficient function

population mean

Lagrange parameter

population standard deviation

population variance

porosity, fraction

mean of log normal distribution

variogram

kriging weights

sample data

sample mean

standard deviation of a log normal distribution

variance of a log normal distribution

4-153

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Armstrong, M. : Basic Linear Geostatistics, Springer-Verlag, New York,
1998.
Caers, J. : Petroleum Geostatistics, Society of Petroleum Engineers,
Richardson, 2005.
Carlson, M.R. : Practical Reservoir Simulation, PennWell, Tulsa, 2003.
Chambers, R.L., Yarus, J.M. and Hird, K.B. : Petroleum Geostatistics for
Nongeostatisticians Part 1, The Leading Edge (May 2000) 474479.
Chambers, R.L., Yarus, J.M. and Hird, K.B. : Petroleum Geostatistics for
Nongeostatisticians Part 2, The Leading Edge (June 2000) 592599.
Clark, I. : Practical Geostatistics, Applied Science Publishers, London,
1979.
Clark, I. and Harper, W.V. : Practical Geostatistics 2000, Ecosse North
America Llc, Columbus, 2000.
Clark, I. : "Does Geostatistics Work? ", Proc. 16th APCOM, Thomas J
O'Neil, Ed., Society of Mining Engineers of AIME Inc, New York,
1979, 213-225.
Deutsch, C.V.: "What in the Reservoir is Geostatistics Good For ?", Jour.
Cand. Pet. Tech. (April 2006) 14-20.
Deutsch, C.V.: Geostatistical Reservoir Modeling, Oxford University Press,
New York, 2002.
Deutsch, C.V. and Journel, A.G. : GSLIB Geostatistical Software Library
and Users Guide, Oxford University Press, New York, 1992.
Dykstra, H. and Parsons, R.L. : The Prediction of Oil Recovery by
Waterflood, Secondary Recovery of Oil in the United States,
American Petroleum Institute (1950) 160-175.
Gharbi, R. and Peters, E.J. : Scaling Coreflood Experiments to
Heterogeneous Reservoirs, Journal of Petroleum Science and
Engineering, 10, (1993) 83-95.
Gharbi, R.: Numerical Modeling of Fluid Displacements in Porous Media
Assisted by Computed Tomography Imaging, PhD Dissertation, The
University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, August 1993.

4154

Gotway, C.A. and Hergert, G.W. : "Incorporating Spatial Trends and

Anisotropy in Geostatistical Mapping of Soil Properties," Soil
Science of America Journal, Vol. 61 (1977) 298-309.
Hohn, M.E. : Geostatistics and Petroleum Geology, Van Nostrand Reinhold,
New York, 1988.
Hirsche, K., Porter-Hische, J., Mewhort, L. and Davis, R. : "The Use and
Abuse of Geostatistics," The Leading Edge (March 1997) 253-260.
Holbrook, P. : Pore Pressure Through Earth Mechanical Systems, Force
Balanced Petrophysics, 2001.
Isaaks, E.H. and Srivastava, R.M. : An Introduction to Applied
Geostatistics, Oxford University Press, New York, 1989.
Jensen, J.L., Lake, L.W., Corbett, P.W.M. and Goggin, D.J. : Statistics for
Petroleum Engineers and Geoscientists, 2nd Edition, Elsevier, New
York, 2000.
Kerbs, L. : GEO-Statistics: The Variogram, Computer Oriented Geological
Society Computer Contributions (August 1986) 2, No. 2, 54-59.
Metheron, G. : "Principles of Geostatistics," Economic Geology, Vol. 58
(1963) 1446-1266.
Peters, E.J., Afzal, N. and Gharbi, R. : On Scaling Immiscible
Displacements in Permeable Media, Journal of Petroleum Science
and Engineering, 9, (1993) 183-205.
Peters, E.J. and Gharbi, R. : Numerical Modeling of Laboratory
Corefloods, Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 9, (1993)
207-221.
Peters, E.J. and Afzal, N. : Characterization of Heterogeneities in
Permeable Media with Computed Tomography Imaging, Journal of
Petroleum Science and Engineering, 7, No. 3/4, (May 1992) 283296.
Peters, E.J. and Hardham, W.D. : Visualization of Fluid Displacements
in Porous Media Using Computed Tomography Imaging, Journal of
Petroleum Science and Engineering, 4, No. 2, (May 1990) 155-168.
Zirschy, J.H. and Harris, D.J. : "Geostatistical Analysis of Hazardous
Waste Site Data," J. of Environmental Engineering, Vol. 112 (1986)
770784.

4-155

4156

CHAPTER 5

DISPERSION IN POROUS MEDIA

5.1 INTRODUCTION
When a miscible fluid displaces another in a porous medium, the
displacing fluid tends to mix with the displaced fluid. The result is that a
mixing

or

transition

zone

develops

at

the

front

in

which

the

concentration of the injected fluid decreases from one to zero.

Experiment shows that the mixing zone grows as the displacement
progresses. This mixing and spreading of the injected fluid is known as
dispersion.
Bear (1972) describes dispersion as the "macroscopic outcome of
actual movement of individual tracer particles through pores...".
Essentially, dispersion is the mixing caused by single-phase fluid
movement through a porous medium. What is "mixed" is usually called
a tracer, but can be thought of as a concentration of any chemical
component within a given phase that is transported through the system.

5-1

Dispersion has practical consequences in contaminant transport in

aquifers and in improved oil recovery from petroleum reservoirs. If a
miscible contaminant is accidentally introduced into an aquifer at a site,
dispersion will cause the contaminant to spread to a larger area as it is
being transported by groundwater flow. Even though the concentration
of the contaminant is reduced by dispersion, a much larger area of the
aquifer will become contaminated as a result of dispersion than the
original spill area. Thus, a much larger area than the original spill will
need to be cleaned up by any contaminant remediation measure.
Miscible displacement is the most efficient improved oil recovery
method. Because there is no capillary force to trap the displaced oil, it is
theoretically possible to recover 100% of the oil by miscible displacement.
However, because the injected solvent is usually more expensive than the
oil that is to be displaced, it is usually injected in small quantities as
slugs and chased by a less expensive fluid such as water or gas.
Dispersion will dilute and reduce the effectiveness of the miscible slug as
it is propagated through the reservoir. In this case, dispersion is
detrimental to the recovery process. On the other hand, dispersion
causes a solvent to mix, spread and contact the displaced fluid even after
it had been originally bypassed by the injected solvent. In this case,
dispersion improves the displacement efficiency.
Other industrial processes that involve dispersion include (1) use
of tracers such as dyes, electrolytes and radioactive isotopes to
characterize reservoir and aquifer properties, (2) development of a
transition zone between salt water and fresh water in coastal aquifers, (3)
radioactive and reclaimed sewage waste disposals into aquifers, (4) use of
reactors packed with granular material in the chemical industry, and (5)

52

movement of fertilizers in the soil and the leaching of salts from the soil
in agriculture.

5.2 LABORATORY FIRST-CONTACT MISCIBLE

DISPLACEMENTS
Before embarking on the mathematics of dispersion in porous
media, it is instructive and illuminating to view images of miscible
displacements that show dispersion at work. The images presented in
this section are for first-contact miscible displacements. This means that
the two fluids used in the experiment are fully miscible upon first
contact. This is in contrast to developed miscibility encountered in
certain enhanced oil recovery process in which the injected fluid is not
initially miscible with the displaced fluid. However, after a certain time
has elapsed, mass transfer between the injected and the displaced fluids
causes the two fluids to become miscible. First-contact miscible
displacements are the most efficient type of displacements.
The efficiency of a miscible displacement or an immiscible
displacement for that matter, is controlled by, among other factors, the
mobility ratio, the effect of gravity, dispersion and the heterogeneity of
the porous medium. Mobility ratio is a dimensionless number that is
characteristic of a displacement. The mobility of a fluid phase in a porous
medium is defined as

k phase

(5.1)

phase
phase

where k phase is the effective permeability to that phase and

viscosity of that phase. Mobility ratio is defined as
5-3

phase

is the

displacing fluid

(5.2)

displaced fluid

For a first-contact miscible displacement, we have single phase flow and

as a result, the effective permeability to each fluid is equal to the
absolute permeability of the porous medium. Therefore, for first-contact
miscible displacements, the mobility ratio simplifies to
k
M

displacing fluid

displaced fluid

(5.3)

displacing fluid

displaced fluid

Thus, for a first-contact miscible displacement, the mobility ratio is the

viscosity ratio given by the viscosity of the displaced fluid divided by the
viscosity of the displacing fluid. A mobility ratio of 1 or less is favorable
to the displacement efficiency whereas a mobility ratio greater than 1 is
unfavorable to the displacement efficiency. The lower the mobility ratio,
the higher is the displacement efficiency. The higher the mobility ratio,
the lower is the displacement efficiency.
Gravity can be as a double-edged sword in displacements. Gravity
override and gravity underride or tonguing can significantly reduce the
displacement efficiency. However, by careful engineering, gravity override
can be used to enhance the displacement efficiency if the less dense
solvent is injected up dip while the denser displaced fluid is withdrawn
down dip.
Dispersion can also be as a double-edged sword in displacements.
If a miscible slug is used in a displacement process to reduce cost,

54

dispersion will dilute and degrade the effectiveness of the slug as the
process progresses. On the other hand, mixing caused by dispersion can
allow the injected solvent to spread and contact more of the displaced
fluid than if dispersion was absent. In this case, dispersion is favorable
to the displacement efficiency.
Permeability heterogeneity of the porous medium tends to reduce
the displacement efficiency for the most part. Because the heterogeneity
has a correlation structure, high permeabilities tend to occur next to
high permeabilities and low permeabilities tend to occur next to low
permeabilities as the porous medium is traversed from one point to
another. These permeability arrangements cause the injected fluid to
channel through the high permeability layers, thereby leaving the low
permeability layers unswept.
Figure

5.1

shows

CT

images

of

first-contact

miscible

displacement in an unconsolidated sandpack at a favorable mobility ratio

of 0.82. In the experiment, a brine containing sodium chloride was used
to displace another brine containing barium chloride, which is an x-ray
doppant. The images show the concentrations of the injected solvent in a
vertical slice of the 3D sandpack at dimensionless times of 0.13, 0.50
and 1.0 pore volume injected. Mixing caused by dispersion is clearly
visible at the displacement front. The mixing zone length, defined as the
distance between the solvent concentrations of 0.90 and 0.10, is slightly
tilted in Figure 5.1B because of a small density difference between the
injected brine and the displaced brine. The injected brine was slightly
less dense that the displaced brine. Thus, the tilt is a small gravity
override. Because of the favorable mobility ratio, the displacement is very
efficient with almost 100% displacement efficiency at 1 pore volume
injected. The displacement efficiency is slightly less than 100% because
5-5

of the small gravity override problem. This experiment shows that a

miscible displacement can be quite susceptible to gravity instability in
the form of gravity override if the injected fluid is less dense than the
displaced fluid and gravity tonguing if the injected fluid is denser than
the displaced fluid.

Figure 5.1. CT images of solvent concentration for a first-contact miscible

displacement in a sandpack. A: tD = 0.13, B: tD = 0.50, C: tD = 1.0 pore
volume injected. M = 0.82, = 35.26%, k = 15.76 darcies, v = 0.154x10-2
cm/s, BT recovery = 96.53% (Peters and Hardham, 1990).
56

Figure 5.2 shows the 1D profiles of the 3D solvent concentration

distributions at the three dimensionless times. The profiles have the
classical shapes predicted by the convection-dispersion model of
dispersion to be presented later in this chapter. The profiles can be used
to characterize the dispersion phenomenon in the direction of flow.

Figure 5.2. Average solvent concentration profiles for the miscible

displacement experiment of Figure 5.1 (Peters and Hardham, 1990).

Figure

5.3

shows

the

images

of

first-contact

miscible

displacement at an unfavorable mobility ratio of 74. Here, brine with an

x-ray doppant was used to displace a mixture of glycerine and brine. The
injected brine was less dense than the displaced fluid. It can be seen that
the density difference results in a significant gravity override. Such an
override is detrimental to the displacement efficiency. Mixing caused by
dispersion is also clearly evident. The transverse or lateral dispersion is
quite orderly as one moves from the pure solvent to the pure displaced
5-7

fluid. There is also viscous instability or viscous fingering caused by the

adverse mobility ratio. At a mobility ratio greater than 1, the displacing
fluid is more mobile than the displaced fluid. As a result, at the interface
between the two fluids, the displacing fluid tends to penetrate the
displaced fluid due to the inevitable imperfections in the porous medium.
These perturbations may grow to form viscous fingers as shown in Figure
5.3B. Figure 5.4 shows the corresponding solvent concentration profiles
for this displacement. The shapes of the profiles are significantly different
from those of Figure 5.2 and cannot be predicted by the idealized
convection-dispersion model. Clearly, this displacement is less efficient
than that of Figure 5.1.

58

Figure 5.3. CT images of solvent concentration for a first-contact miscible

displacement in a sandpack. A: tD = 0.13, B: tD = 0.50, C: tD = 1.0 pore
volume injected. M = 74, = 35.68%, k = 16.69 darcies, v = 0.014x10-2
cm/s, BT recovery = 31.23% (Peters and Hardham, 1990).

Figure 5.4. Average solvent concentration profiles for the miscible

displacement experiment of Figure 5.3 (Peters and Hardham, 1990).

5-9

Figure

5.5

shows

the

images

of

first-contact

miscible

displacement at an unfavorable mobility ratio of 54 with gravity override.

The images show that portions of the porous medium that were initially
bypassed by the solvent due to gravity override, were subsequently
displaced with continued solvent injection. This is a testament to the
efficiency of miscible displacements. By contrast, in an immiscible
displacement, portions of the porous medium initially bypassed for
whatever reason typically remain unswept with continued injection.
Figure 5.6 shows the corresponding solvent concentration profiles. Notice
how the disturbances in the profiles propagate in time and space. This is
characteristic of miscible displacements. Such disturbances typically
remain stationary in immiscible displacements.
Figure 5.7 shows a first-contact miscible displacement in a quarter
five-spot pattern at a mobility ratio of 1. Here, dyed water was used to
displace clear water in a thin porous medium consisting of uniform glass
beads. The images were obtained with a home-built imaging system
described by Peters and Reid (1990). As expected, the displacement is
efficient. The mixing zone length caused by dispersion is also visible. The
areal sweep efficiency can easily be measured. The areal sweep efficiency
is the ratio of the area contacted by the injected fluid and the total area
of the pattern. Note that because of the geometry of the displacement
pattern, there are dead spots between the injector and the producing
wells. In a field flood, such dead spots would be potential candidates for
infill drilling. In this experiment, the thin porous medium was oriented
horizontally. As a result, gravity effect was negligibly small.

510

Figure 5.5. CT images of solvent concentration for a first-contact miscible

displacement in a sandpack. M = 54, = 31.70%, k = 9.5 darcies, v =
0.850x10-2 cm/s, BT recovery = 28.80% (Peters and Afzal, 1992).

5-11

Figure 5.6. Average solvent concentration profiles for the miscible

displacement experiment of Figure 5.5 (Peters and Afzal, 1992).

Figure 5.7. Video images of solvent concentration in a miscible

displacement in a glass bead pack. M = 1(Peters and Reid, 1990).
512

Figure 5.8 shows the images of another first-contact miscible

displacement in the same porous medium as in Figure 5.7 at a mobility
ratio of 100. The porous medium was oriented horizontally. There is
significant mixing due to dispersion and viscous fingering due to the
adverse mobility ratio. Clearly, this displacement is less efficient than
that of Figure 5.7.

Figure 5.8. Video images of solvent concentration in a miscible

displacement in a glass bead pack. M = 100 (Peters and Reid, 1990).

5-13

Figure 5.9 shows images of a first-contact miscible displacement in

the same porous medium and at the same mobility ratio as in Figure 5.8
but with the medium oriented vertically to take advantage of the
beneficial effect of gravity override. This experiment was designed to
simulate a horizontal injection well at the top left corner and a horizontal
producing well at the bottom right corner of the medium. With this
arrangement, gravity override is beneficial to the displacement efficiency
in contrast to the displacement of Figure 5.3 in which gravity segregation
was detrimental to the displacement efficiency. It can be seen that here,

Figure 5.9. Video images of solvent concentration in a gravity-assisted

miscible displacement experiment in a glass bead pack (Peters and Reid,
1990).

514

gravity override delays the solvent breakthrough thereby significantly

enhancing the displacement efficiency compared to the displacement of
Figure 5.8. There is viscous fingering due to the adverse mobility ratio as
well as significant mixing due to dispersion. Clearly, this displacement is
more efficient than that of Figure 5.8.
Figure 5.10 shows NMR images of a first-contact miscible
displacement in the layered sandstone core of Figure 2.57 at a favorable
mobility ratio of 0.84. One can see mixing due to dispersion. However,
the dominate effect is channeling due to the permeability heterogeneity of
the layered medium. It can be concluded from these images that
permeability stratification in a porous medium can have a significant
adverse effect on any displacement, miscible or immiscible. Figure 5.11
shows the corresponding solvent concentration profiles.
Figure 5.12 shows a miscible displacement is the same layered
sandstone core as in Figure 5.10 but at an unfavorable mobility ratio of
95. Here, the effect of viscous fingering due to the adverse mobility ratio
is superimposed on the channeling due to the heterogeneity of the core.
Notice that the channels created by the injected solvent are thinner than
in Figure 5.10 indicating a less efficient displacement than in Figure
5.10. Figure 5.13 shows the corresponding solvent concentration
profiles.

5-15

Figure 5.10. NMR images of a first-contact miscible displacement in a

layered sandstone core at a mobility ratio of 0.84 (Peters and Li, 1996).

516

Figure 5.11. Average solvent concentration profiles for the miscible

displacement of Figure 5.9 (Peters and Li, 1996).

5-17

Figure 5.12. NMR images of a first-contact miscible displacement in a

layered sandstone core at a mobility ratio of 95 (Peters and Li, 1996).

518

Figure 5.13.Average solvent concentration profiles of a first-contact

miscible displacement in a layered sandstone core at a mobility ratio of
95 (Peters and Li, 1996).

Finally, Figure 5.14 shows the effect of mobility ratio on the

efficiency of miscible displacements. The figure shows the recovery
curves for miscible displacements in the same layered sandstone core as
in Figure 5.10 for mobility ratios ranging from 0.84 to 95. Clearly,
mobility ratio has a significant impact on the efficiency and the timing of
a miscible displacement. Displacements at adverse mobility ratios suffer
from early solvent breakthroughs and require more pore volumes of

5-19

injection to attain the same displacement efficiency as favorable mobility

ratio displacements.

Figure 5.14. Recovery curves for a first-contact miscible displacement in

a layered sandstone core at various mobility ratios (Peters and Li, 1996).

5.3 ORIGINS OF DISPERSION IN POROUS MEDIA

Dispersion is the net result of (a) molecular diffusion, (b) local
velocity gradients within given pores, (c) locally heterogeneous streamline
lengths and velocities, and (d) mechanical mixing in pore bodies.

520

Dispersion can be viewed as consisting of two components: molecular

diffusion and mechanical dispsersion.
5.3.1 Molecular Diffusion.
Molecular diffusion is a physiochemical dispersion caused by
chemical potential gradient, which is correlated to the chemical
concentration of the solute being transported. It is mixing caused by
random motions of the fluid particles due to the thermal kinetic energy of
the solute. This motion is known as Brownian motion. Molecular
diffusion is isotropic and occurs equally in all directions. Molecular
diffusion can easily be demonstrated in the laboratory. If a drop of blue
ink is carefully added to a beaker of water and allowed to sit, after
sometime, the water in the beaker will turn blue as a result of molecular
diffusion. Thus, molecular diffusion occurs whether there is flow or not.
Molecular diffusion will contribute to both longitudinal and transverse
dispersions. Molecular diffusion in a porous medium is less than it
would be in the absence of the porous medium. The solid grains hinder
diffusion just as they hindered the flow of electrical current and fluid
flow. Because of the larger molecular spacing, molecular diffusion in a
gas is much larger than in a liquid.
5.3.2 Mechanical Dispersion.
The second component of dispersion may be described as
mechanical dispersion. The origins of mechanical dispersion can be seen
in Figure 5.15. The figure shows marked fluid particles at time t and at
time t+ t. When a fluid flows in a porous medium, its velocity
distribution within a pore is not uniform, due to boundary effects acting
in three different ways as shown in Figure 5.15. In Figure 5.15a, the no
slip condition at the pore wall creates a velocity gradient in the fluid. This
5-21

velocity gradient causes the marked fluid particles to be spread out in

the flow direction. This is longitudinal dispersion in the flow direction. In
Figure 5.15b, the variation in pore dimensions (recall k

r2) causes flow

to occur faster (further) in some pores than in others. This causes the
marked fluid particles to be spread out in the direction of flow. This is
longitudinal dispersion in the direction of flow. In Figure 5.15c, the
streamlines fluctuate with respect to the mean flow direction as the fluid
particles navigate around the solid grains. This effect of the tortuosity of
the porous medium causes the fluid particles to be spread out in the
transverse direction with respect to the mean flow direction. This is
transverse dispersion, perpendicular to the direction of flow.

Finally,

there is local mixing of the fluids within the pores as shown in Figure
5.16. This contributes to the mechanical dispersion.

Figure 5.15.Origins of mechanical dispersion.

522

Figure 5.16.Local mechanical mixing of fluid particles.

5.4 CONVECTION-DISPERSION EQUATION

5.4.1 Generalized Equation in Vector Notation
Chemical species are transported in a flowing system by two
transport mechanisms: (a) advection or convection and (b) dispersion.
Advection is mass transport due to the bulk motion of the carrying fluid
and is given by
Ja

uC

(5.4)

where J a is the mass flux vector (mass/area/time) of species i due to

advection,

is the porosity of the porous medium, u is the interstitial

velocity vector (Darcy velocity vector/porosity) and C is the concentration

(mass/unit volume of solution) of species i in the solution. The mass flux
due to dispersion is given by
Jd

D C

5-23

(5.5)

where J d is the mass flux vector (mass/area/time) of species i due to

dispersion and D is the dispersion coefficient tensor. The dispersion
coefficient tensor characterizes molecular diffusion and mechanical
dispersion and is given by
D

Dd

(5.6)

Dm

where Dd is the molecular diffusion coefficient and Dm is the mechanical

dispersion tensor. The continuity equation for mass transport is given by
C
t

.J

(5.7)

where t is time and J is the total mass flux vector of species i due to
advection and dispersion and is given by the vector sum
J

Ja

(5.8)

Jd

Substituting Eqs.(5.4) and (5.5) into (5.7) gives the mass transport
equation for a constant porosity medium as

C
t

. uC

. D C

(5.9)

Eq.(5.9) is a well known equation of mathematical physics, which

is known by a variety of names such the advection-dispersion equation,
convection-dispersion

equation,

first-contact

miscible

displacement

equation, solute transport equation and mass transport equation. It is a

linear, second order, parabolic partial differential equation. It can be

524

used to solve a variety of transport problems. If the transport is by pure

convection with no dispersion, then Eq.(5.9) simplifies to

C
t

. uC

(5.10)

If there is no convection (static fluid), then there will be no mechanical

dispersion. In this case, transport is by molecular diffusion only and
Eq.(5.9) becomes

C
t

Dd

(5.11)

which is the diffusion or diffusivity equation.

5.4.2 One-Dimensional Convection-Dispersion Equation
For 1D transport in the x direction, Eq.(5.9) becomes

C
t

ux

C
x

DL

C
x2

(5.12)

where vx is the interstitial velocity in the x direction and DL is the

principal value of the dispersion coefficient in the x direction known as
the longitudinal dispersion coefficient. In this case, the flow direction is a
principal axis of the dispersion coefficient anisotropy. Eq.(5.12) can be
written in terms of Darcy velocity instead the interstitial velocity as
C
t

vx C
x

DL

5-25

C
x2

(5.13)

where ux is the Darcy velocity also known as the superficial velocity. It is

possible to extend the mass transport equation to include retardation of
the

solute

due

to

adsorption,

chemical

reaction,

biological

transformations or radioactive decay. In the case of retardation due to

adsorption of the chemical species on the surface of the porous medium,
Eq.(5.12) becomes

C
t

ux C
Rf x

DL 2C
R f x2

(5.14)

where Rf is a retardation factor that accounts for adsorption. If Rf is

equal to 1, there is no adsorption whereas if Rf is greater than 1, there is
adsorption and the transport of the chemical species will be retarded.
This means that in the presence of adsorption, the concentration profiles
of the chemical species will travel at a speed that is lower than if there
was no adsorption. This fact is obvious from Eq.(5.14) in which the speed
of convection has been reduced from vx to vx/Rf. Also, retardation
reduces the effective dispersion coefficient as shown in Eq.(5.14).
5.4.3 Solution of the One-Dimensional Convection-Dispersion
Equation
The initial-boundary value problem for 1D transport consists of
Eq.(5.12) together with appropriate initial and boundary conditions. For
transport in a semi infinite medium, the initial-boundary value problem
consists of the following equations:

C
t

ux

C
x

DL

C x, 0

526

Ci

C
x2

(5.12)

(5.15)

C 0, t

Cj

(5.16)

Ci

(5.17)

,t

Eq.(5.15) is the initial condition, which specifies the initial concentration

of the injected species in the solution domain at time zero. A convenient
initial concentration in laboratory experiments is Ci equal to zero, which
means there is no injected chemical species in the initial saturating fluid.
Eq.(5.16)

is

the

inlet

boundary

condition,

which

specifies

the

concentration of the injected species at all times. A convenient inlet

boundary condition is Cj is equal to 1 at all times, although this is
difficult to arrange in an actual laboratory experiment. Eq.(5.17) is the
external boundary condition, which specifies that far away from the inlet,
the concentration of the injected species is equal to its initial value at
time zero. Such a boundary condition was used in the welltest model of
Chapter 3 for an infinite acting reservoir.
The initial-value problem can be put in dimensionless form as
follows:

CD
tD

CD
xD

1
N Pe

CD
xD2

(5.18)

C xD , 0

(5.19)

CD 0, t D

(5.20)

(5.21)

, tD

5-27

where

CD

tD

C x, t Ci
C j Ci

(5.22)

uxt
L

(5.23)

xD

N Pe

qt
A L
x
L

ux L
DL

(5.24)

qL
A DL

(5.25)

Eq.(5.23) gives the dimensionless time in pore volumes injected. Eq.(5.25)

defines a relevant dimensionless number for the transport known as the
Peclet Number. It is the ratio of the two transport mechanisms involved,
advection and dispersion. In the definition of Peclet Number in Eq.(5.25),
the length of the porous medium, L, has been used as a characteristic
dimension of the system. Of course, in a semi infinite medium, the length
of the porous medium would not be a convenient characteristic
dimension of the system. In general, Peclet Number is defined as

N Pe

ux Dp
DL

(5.26)

where Dp is a characteristic dimension of the porous medium. A

convenient characteristic dimension could be the grain diameter in the
case in which the porous medium is composed of granular material.

528

Another possible characteristic dimension of a porous medium could be

in the spirit of Eq.(3.119).

Eqs.(5.12), (5.15), (5.16) and (5.17) or their dimensionless versions,

Eqs.(5.18) through (5.21), can be solved by Laplace transformation.
Ogata and Banks (1961) give the solution of Eqs.(5.12), (5.15), (5.16) and
(5.17) as

C x, t

vx x
DL

Ci
x uxt
erfc
2
2 DLt

e erfc

x uxt
2 DLt

(5.27)

where erfc is the complementary error function defined by Eq.(4.47) and

reproduced here for convenience as

erfc u

u2

du

(5.28)

The error function and the complementary error function are related by
erf u

erfc u

(5.29)

erfc

1 erf u

(5.30)

erf

erf u

(5.31)

Also,

The solution given by Eq.(5.27) can be written in dimensionless form as

5-29

C D xD , t D

1
x t
erfc D D
2
t
2 D
N Pe

e xD N Pe erfc

xD t D
t
2 D
N Pe

(5.32)

Ogata and Banks (1961) demonstrated that the second term in the
square bracket of the right hand sides of Eqs.(5.27) and Eq.(5.32) can be
neglected in comparison to the first term. The solution given by Eq.(5.27)
then becomes

C x, t

Ci
x uxt
erfc
2
2 DLt

(5.33)

A careful examination of the solution given by Eq.(5.33) shows that it is

related to the cumulative normal probability distribution with mean vx t ,
variance 2 DLt and standard deviation

2 DLt . Eq.(5.33) in dimensionless

form is

C D xD , t D

1
erfc
2

xD t D
t
2 D
N Pe

(5.34)

or

C D xD , t D

1
erfc
2

530

N Pe

xD t D
2 tD

(5.35)

Eq.(5.34) or (5.35) also is related to the cumulative normal probability

distribution with mean t D , variance

2t D
and standard deviation
N Pe

2t D
.
N Pe

Figure 5.17 shows the evolution of the solution predicted by

Eq.(5.34) or (5.35) for a Peclet Number of 100. It should be observed that
the solution at each dimensionless time is given by
C D xD , t D

1 Cumulative Normal Pr obability Distribution

with mean t D and standard deviation

(5.36)

2t D
. The shape of the solution is
N Pe

that of an inverted S. Note also that because of dispersion, the

breakthrough time is less than 1 pore volume injected. The concentration
CD = 0.5 travels at the advection speed all times. Although it has not be
stated explicitly, the solution given by Eq.(5.34) or (5.35) is valid for an
idealized system under very restrictive conditions. The conditions are (1)
homogeneous and isotropic porous medium, (2) the injected fluid has the
same density as the displaced fluid, and (3) the injected fluid has the
same viscosity as the displaced fluid. These conditions preclude
channeling due to gross permeability heterogeneity, gravity override or
gravity tonguing and viscous fingering, all of which phenomena are not
included in the convection-dispersion equation. If these restrictions are
met, then Eq.(5.34) or (5.35) gives a good representation of the solvent
concentration profiles observed in laboratory experiments. For example,
although the experiment shown in Figures 5.1 and 5.2 does not quite
meet all the restrictions because of the small gravity override,
nevertheless Eq.(5.34) or (5.35) can be used to approximately reproduce
5-31

the laboratory measured solvent concentration profiles of Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.18 shows the result of a first attempt to reproduce the solvent
concentration profiles of Figure 5.1 using Eq.(5.34). The agreement
between laboratory measured profiles and those predicted by Eq.(5.34) is
good. Of course, the experimental profiles are distorted by the small
gravity override observed in the experiment. As a result, the experimental
profiles and the calculated profiles do not match exactly at the
displacement front. There is also evidence of retardation in the
experiment as the experimental profiles seem to lag behind the
calculated profiles.
Let us focus on the solution at a dimensionless time of 0.50 pore
volume injected shown in Figure 5.19. Marked on the figure are the

Figure 5.17. Solutions of the convection-dispersion equation for a Peclet

Number of 100.

532

Figure 5.18. A comparison of the simulated and the measured solvent

concentration profiles for the miscible displacement of Figure 5.1 and
5.2.
advection front, the dimensionless mixing zone length between CD = 0.90
and 0.10 and the dimensionless mixing zone length equal to twice the
standard deviation between CD = 0.8413 and 0.1588. It should be
observed that at tD = 0.5 pore volume injected, the advection front has
traveled exactly half the distance of the porous medium. This is as it
should be because the advection front travels at the advection speed or
at the interstitial velocity. Both the mixing zone length and the length
that represents twice the standard deviation grow in proportion to t D ,
although this is not obvious from looking at the solution at one time. In

5-33

fact, it can be shown that the dimensionless mixing length between CD =

0.90 and CD = 0.10 is given by

xD

3.625

tD
N Pe

(5.37)

or in dimensional form by

x 3.625 DL t

(5.38)

Eq.(5.38) shows that if the mixing zone length can be measured as a

function of time during an experiment, then a graph of

x versus

t could be used to determine the longitudinal dispersion coefficient.

Figure 5.19. Solution of the convection-dispersion equation for a Peclet

Number of 100 at tD = 0.50 pore volume injected.

534

Let us replot the solutions of Figure 5.19 as CD versus z, where z is

defined as

remarkable

thing

happens

xD t D
tD
to

the

(5.39)

solutions

at

the

various

dimensionless times. They collapse into one dimensionless curve that is

characteristic of the displacement as shown in Figure 5.20. The slope of
this curve reflects the Peclet Number or the longitudinal dispersion
coefficient. The steeper the curve, the higher is the Peclet Number or the
lower is the longitudinal dispersion coefficient. This transformation can
be used to test if the concentration profiles measured in an experiment
obey the complementary error function solution of the convectiondispersion equation. The transformation was derived from Eq.(5.35),
which shows that CD is a function of the parameter NPe and the
independent variable

xD t D
.
tD

Figure 5.21 shows the effect of Peclet Number or longitudinal

dispersion coefficient on the solutions of the convection-dispersion
equation. At low Peclet Numbers or high longitudinal dispersion
coefficient, the mixing zone length is large whereas at high Peclet
Numbers or low longitudinal dispersion coefficient, the mixing zone
length is small.

5-35

Figure 5.20. Transformation of the solutions at a fixed Peclet Number.

536

Figure 5.21. The effect of Peclet Number or longitudinal dispersion

coefficient on the solution of the convection-dispersion equation.
The breakthrough curve obtained by observing the concentration
at the outlet end of the porous medium (where xD

1 ) for the case of a

finite length medium is given by

CD 1, t D

1
erfc
2

N Pe

1 tD
2 tD

(5.40)

Eq.(5.40) is the cumulative normal distribution with mean 1, variance

2
and standard deviation
N Pe

2
. Figure 5.22 shows the breakthrough
N Pe

curve given by Eq.(5.40) for a Peclet Number of 100. It is S-shaped and a

mirror image of the solvent concentration profiles. Thus, Eq.(5.40) can be
used in conjunction with the breakthrough curve measured in an
experiment to determine the Peclet Number
longitudinal dispersion coefficient DL .

5-37

N Pe and hence, the

Figure 5.22. Breakthrough curve.

Figure 5.23 shows the transformed breakthrough curve, where the

transformation equation is

1 tD
tD

(5.41)

It is similar to the solvent concentration profiles. This curve, if plotted on

a linear normal probability graph paper, will be a straight line as shown
in Figure 5.24. Such a plot can be used to fit the breakthrough curve to
the normal distribution for the purpose of determining the Peclet
Number, and hence, the longitudinal dispersion coefficient.

538

Figure 5.23. Transformed breakthrough curve.

5-39

Figure 5.24. Transformed breakthrough curve plotted on normal

probability scale.

540

In the presence of retardation due to adsorption, the solution given

by Eq.(5.34) can be modified to include the retardation factor as

C D xD , t D

1
erfc
2

xD

tD
Rf

tD
2
R f N Pe

(5.42)

5.5 DISPERSION COEFFICIENT AND DISPERSIVITY

The dispersion coefficient is a second rank tensor. The dispersion
coefficient tensor in the xyz coordinate system is given by

D x, y , z

Dxx

Dxy

Dxz

Dyx
Dzx

Dyy
Dzy

Dyz
Dzz

(5.43)

in 3D, and by

D x, y

Dxx
Dyx

Dxy
Dyy

(5.44)

in 2D. The dispersion coefficient tensor like the permeability or hydraulic

conductivity tensor is symmetric. Using the same transformation
equations presented in Chapter 3 for permeability and hydraulic
conductivity, the principal values of the dispersion coefficient tensor and
the principal axes of the dispersion coefficient anisotropy can be
determined. Along the principal coordinates of the anisotropy uvw, the
dispersion coefficient tensor becomes
5-41

D u , v, w

DL

0
0

DT
0

0
DW

(5.45)

in 3D, and

D u, v

DL

DT

(5.46)

in 2D, where DL is the longitudinal dispersion coefficient in the direction

of mean flow and DT is the transverse dispersion coefficient in the
direction perpendicular to the mean flow.
The relative magnitudes of DL and DT and the tensorial nature of
the dispersion can be demonstrated qualitatively by the following
experiment. Suppose a tracer is injected at time zero as a point source
into a homogeneous and isotropic reservoir in which there is steady flow
as shown in Figure 5.25. At times t1 and t2, the concentration of the
tracer would be as shown in Figure 5.25. The tracer has spread and the
concentration distribution has become elliptical. There is more spreading
or dispersion in the direction of mean flow than in the direction
perpendicular to it. Thus, the direction of mean flow and the direction
perpendicular to the mean flow are principal axes of the dispersion
coefficient anisotropy. The principal value of the dispersion coefficient
tensor in the direction of mean flow is DL and the one perpendicular to
the direction of mean flow is DT. In general, DL

542

DT .

Figure 5.25. Variation in tracer concentration in 2D for a constant

velocity flow system.

Using

Eq.(5.6),

the

longitudinal

and

transverse

dispersion

coefficients can be written as

DL

DLd

DLm

(5.47)

DT

DTd

DTm

(5.48)

where the two terms on the right sides of Eqs.(5.46) and (5.47) represent
the contributions of molecular diffusion and mechanical dispersion to
the

dispersion

coefficients.

Based

on

experimental

observations,

Eqs.(5.47) and (5.48) may be written in dimensionless form as

where C1, C2, C3 and

DL
Do

C1 C2

DT
Do

C1 C3

uD p
Do

uD p
Do

(5.49)

(5.50)

are properties of the porous medium and the flow

regime, Do is the effective binary molecular diffusion coefficient between

the miscible displacing fluid and the displaced fluid, and Dp is the mean
5-43

particle diameter of the porous medium. It has been found also from
experiments that C1 is given by

C1

1
F

(5.51)

where F is the formation resistivity factor and

is the tortuosity of the

porous medium. Therefore, Eqs.(5.49) and (5.50) can be written as

DL
Do

DT
Do

C2

C3

uD p

(5.52)

Do
uD p

(5.53)

Do

Perkins and Johnson (1963) have shown that

is of the order of 1 to

1.25.

Figure 5.26 shows the correlations for

Number,

vD p
Do

DL
D
and T with the Peclet
Do
Do

, for unconsolidated porous media obtained by Perkins and

Johnson (1963). Figure 5.26a shows that at Peclet Numbers less than
0.02,

molecular

diffusion

dominates

the

longitudinal

dispersion

coefficient and the dispersion coefficient is equal to the diffusion

coefficient in the porous medium. In this regime, the mechanical
dispersion term on the right side of Eq.(5.52) is negligible compared to
the molecular diffusion term. In this regime, the dimensionless molecular
term is about 0.67. This means that the diffusion coefficient for a tracer
in a porous medium is less than the diffusion coefficient in the same

544

liquid in the absence of the porous medium. This difference is caused by

the tortuosity of the porous medium. In fact, 1/0.67 or 1.5 is an estimate
of the tortuosity of unconsolidated porous media. At the transition Peclet
Numbers between 0.02 and 6, both molecular diffusion and mechanical
dispsersion contribute to the dispersion coefficient. At Peclet Numbers
above 6, the dispersion coefficient is dominated by mechanical dispersion
and the effect of molecular diffusion can be neglected.
The shape of the correlation for the dimensionless transverse
dispersion coefficient is similar to that of the dimensionless longitudinal
dispersion coefficient. However, it should be noted that the scale of the
Peclet Number in Figure 5.26b starts at 0.1 compared to 0.001 in Figure
5.26a. This means that the regime dominated by molecular diffusion
occurs over a larger range of Peclet Numbers for transverse dispersion
than for longitudinal dispersion. Thus, molecular diffusion is much more
important to transverse dispersion than to longitudinal dispersion. At
high Peclet Numbers, the longitudinal dispersion coefficient is greater
than the transverse dispersion coefficient. This is clearly evident by
plotting the two correlations for dimensionless dispersion coefficients on
the same scale as shown in Figure 5.27. Other authors have obtained
correlations for longitudinal dispersion coefficient similar to that of
Perkins and Johnston as shown in Figure 5.28.
At normal reservoir velocities, the Peclet Number is normally
greater than 6. Also, as pointed out earlier,

is approximately 1. Under

these conditions, molecular diffusion can be neglected and Eqs.(5.52)

and (5.53) can be approximated as

DL

C2

uD p
Do
5-45

Do

(5.54)

DT

where

C3

uD p
Do

Do

(5.55)

is known as the longitudinal dispersivity and

is the

transverse dispersivity of the porous medium. Eqs.(5.54) and (5.55) can

be used to estimate the dispersivities if the dispersion coefficients have
been measured independently. In terms of the longitudinal dispersivity,
the Peclet Number defined in Eq.(5.25) becomes

Figure 5.26. Correlations for dimensionless longitudinal and transverse

546

dispersion coefficients. (a) dimensionless longitudinal dispersion

coefficient, (b) transverse dispersion coefficient (Perkins and Johnston,
1963).

Figure 5.27. Correlations for dimensionless longitudinal and transverse

dispersion coefficients plotted on the same scale (Perkins and Johnston,
1963).

5-47

Figure 5.28. Correlation for dimensionless longitudinal dispersion

coefficient by various authors (Pfannkuch, 1963; Saffman, 1960).

N Pe

(5.56)

Dispersivity is, in general, not a function of fluid velocity, making it

a property of the porous medium. However, dispersivities are highly scale
dependent.

Figures

5.29

and

5.30

show

values

of

measured

dispersitivities as functions of the measurement scale. Note the

logarithmic scales. In general, dispersitivities measured at laboratory
scale are much smaller than those measured at field scale. Reservoir
heterogeneity is the cause of this scale effect. In field measurements, the
effect of heterogeneity is to stretch out the solvent concentration profile,

548

which is interpreted as a large dispersion coefficient or a large

dispersivity.

5-49

Figure 5.29. Longitudinal dispersivity versus measurement scale (Arya,

1988).

Figure 5.30. Field measured longitudinal dispersivity versus

measurement scale (Gelhar, 1986).

550

5.6 MEASUREMENT OF DISPERSION COEFFICIENT AND

DISPERSIVITY
5.6.1 Traditional Laboratory Method with Breakthrough Curve
A laboratory coreflood experiment can be used to measure the
longitudinal dispersion coefficient. Figure 5.31 shows a schematic
diagram for such a test. A tracer or solvent is used to displace a miscible
fluid from the porous medium and the solvent concentration of the
effluent at the outlet end of the core is measured as a function of time.
The figure at the upper left of Figure 5.31 shows the injected tracer or
solvent concentration as a function of time whereas the figure at the
upper right shows the concentration of the solvent in the effluent. The
injected solvent concentration is a step function in which pure solvent is
injected throughout the experiment. At the outflow end, initially, the
concentration of the injected solvent will be zero because it has not yet
broken through. After the injected solvent has arrived at the outlet end
ahead of the advection front because of dispersion, its concentration will
increase from zero to 1 over a finite period of time as shown in the
sketch. The curve of concentration versus time at the outlet end of the
core is known as the breakthrough curve and can be fitted to Eq.(5.40) to
estimate the Peclet Number and the longitudinal dispersion coefficient.

5-51

Figure 5.31. Laboratory coreflood experiment for measuring longitudinal

dispersion coefficient.

In order for the solvent concentration distribution in the coreflood

to satisfy the mathematical model of Eq.(5.34) or (5.35), the restrictions
outlined previously must be implemented in the experiment. The core
should be fairly uniform, the density of the injected solvent and the
displaced fluid must be matched and the viscosity of the injected solvent
and the displaced fluid also must be matched. When these restrictions
are

implemented,

the

breakthrough

curve

will

approximate

cumulative normal probability distribution. A graph of CD versus

the

1 tD
tD

on a linear probability graph paper will be a straight line as shown in

Figure 5.24. The mixing zone length between CD = 0.9 and CD = 0.1 read
from the graph is related to the Peclet Number as
3.625
N Pe

1 tD
tD

CD 0.9

552

1 tD
tD

(5.57)
CD 0.1

Eq.(5.57) can be rearranged to calculate the longitudinal dispersion

coefficient as

DL

uL

1 tD
tD

CD 0.9

1 tD
tD

CD 0.1

(5.58)

3.625

Alternatively, the mixing zone length corresponding to CD = 0.84 and CD

= 0.16 will be equal to twice the standard deviation of the normal
distribution. Thus,

2
N Pe

1 tD
tD

CD 0.84

1 tD
tD

(5.59)
CD 0.16

Eq.(5.59) can be rearranged to calculate the longitudinal dispersion

coefficient as
2

DL

uL
8

1 tD
tD

CD 0.84

1 tD
tD

(5.60)
CD 0.16

It is much more difficult to measure transverse dispersion coefficient

experimentally. As a result, there are very few transverse dispersion
coefficient data reported in the literature beside those of Perkins and
Johnson (1963).
5.6.2 Laboratory Method of Peters et al. (1996)
Peters et al. (1996) have presented a method for measuring
longitudinal dispersion coefficient and dispersivity by imaging the
5-53

laboratory tracer test.

CT or NMR imaging of the coreflood gives the

solvent concentration profiles in time and space similar to those of Figure

5.17. These profiles can be fitted to the solution of the convectiondispersion equation, Eq.(5.34) or (5.35), by trial and error to estimate the
Peclet

Number

and

the

longitudinal

dispersion

coefficient.

The

longitudinal dispersion coefficient so determined will be the same as that

determined from the breakthrough curve. The dispersivity is calculated
from the dispersion coefficient using Eq.(5.54). Furthermore, the growth
of the mixing zone length with time can easily be calculated from the 3D
image data such that the graph of

x versus t can be used to calculate

the longitudinal dispersion coefficient. The advantage of this approach is

that the contribution of heterogeneity to the dispersion coefficient also
can be measured.
To demonstrate the methods, we measured the longitudinal
dispersion coefficient and the longitudinal dispsersivity of the Berea
sandstone core of Figure 4.33 and the unconsolidated sandpack of
Figure 5.30 using these methods.
A summary of the experimental conditions for the tracer test in the
Berea sandstone core is presented in Table 5.1. Figure 5.32 shows the
CT images of the tracer test in the Berea sandstone. The growth of the
mixing zone is clearly visible. The mixing zone is distorted by
permeability heterogeneity of the core. The lower half of the core is more
permeable than the upper half. This is evident in the permeability image
of the core shown in Figure 5.33. The permeability distribution of the
core was determined by a technique described by Peters and Afzal (1991).
Figure 5.34 shows a preliminary history match of the solvent
concentration profiles using Eq.(5.34). The slopes of the profiles from
554

Eq.(5.34) and the experiment are in good agreement indicating that the
Peclet Number is correct. However, at late dimensionless times, the
profiles obtained from Eq.(5.34) have traveled further than those from
the experiment. This is evidence of retardation caused by adsorption.
Figure 5.35 shows the history match using Eq.(5.42) with a retardation
factor, Rf, of 1.11. The agreement between the two sets of solvent
concentration profiles is good. The parameters that resulted in this
history match are N Pe

159 , DL

600 x10 5 cm 2 / s and

0.379cm .These are

the longitudinal dispersion coefficient and longitudinal dispersivity that

would have been obtained from a breakthrough curve. It should be noted
that the effect of the distortion in the mixing zone caused by permeability
heterogeneity is interpreted as increased dispersion coefficient and
increased dispersivity of the porous medium.
Table 5.1. Experimental Conditions for Tracer Test in Berea Sandstone
Type of Displacement

First-Contact Miscible

Porous Medium

Berea Sandstone

Length (cm)

60.2

Diameter (cm)

5.1

Absolute Permeability (md)

160.4

Average Porosity from CT (%)

17.3

Fluids
Displacing Fluid

Distilled Water + 10% NaI

Density of Displacing Fluid (g/cm3) 1.078

Viscosity of Displacing Fluid (cp)

1.029

Displaced Fluid

Distilled Water+1.4% NaCl + 10% KCl

Density of Displaced Fluid (g/cm3) 1.078

Viscosity of Displaced Fluid (cp)

1.028

Mobility Ratio (Viscosity Ratio)

1.0

Darcy Velocity (cm/s)

2.742x10-3

5-55

Interstitial Velocity (cm/s)

1.714x10-2

Figure 5.32. CT images of a tracer test in a Berea sandstone core. A: tD =

0.20; B: tD = 0.50; C: tD = 0.80 (Peters et al., 1996)

556

Figure 5.33. Permeability distribution for Berea sandstone core (Peters

and Afzal, 1991).
Figure 5.36 shows the growth of the mixing zone length with time
for the Berea sandstone core. The mixing zone length was obtained for
the 3D CT data by calculating the distances between CD = 0.90 and CD =
0.10 for each dimensionless time. This resulted in several thousand
values of mixing zone length at each dimensionless time. The several
thousand values were then averaged to obtain one mixing zone length for
each time. Each point in Figure 5.36 is the average mixing zone length
plotted against the corresponding time. It can be seen that the mixing
zone length grows as the square root of time as predicted by Eq.(5.38).
The longitudinal dispersion coefficient and longitudinal dispersivity are
calculated from the slope of the straight line of Figure 5.36 as

5-57

DL

431x10 5 cm 2 / s and

0.272 cm . It should be noted that with this

method, the dispersion coefficient and the dispersivity are less than
calculated previously because the effect of the permeability heterogeneity
was excluded from the calculations.

Figure 5.34. A comparison of the simulated and experimental solvent

concentration profiles for Berea sandstone core for Rf = 0 (Peters et al.,
1996).

558

Figure 5.35. A comparison of the simulated and experimental solvent

concentration profiles for Berea sandstone core for Rf = 1.11 (Peters et
al., 1996).

5-59

Figure 5.36. Growth of mixing zone length with time for the Berea
sandstone core (Peters et al., 1996).
A summary of the experiment for the unconsolidated sandpack is
presented in Table 5.2. Figure 5.37 shows the CT images of the tracer
test in the sandpack. The growth of the mixing zone also is clearly
visible. The mixing zone is distorted by the heterogeneity of the
sandpack. It should be recalled that this sandpack contained radial
heterogeneities based on the packing method that was used in preparing
it. Figure 5.38 shows the permeability distribution for the sandpack.
Figure 5.39 shows a preliminary history match of the solvent
concentration profiles using Eq.(5.34). The slopes of the profiles from
Eq.(5.34) and the experiment are in good agreement indicating that the
Peclet Number is correct. However, at late dimensionless times, the
profiles obtained from Eq.(5.34) have traveled further than those from
the experiment. There is retardation caused by adsorption in the
sandpack. Figure 5.40 shows the history match using Eq.(5.42) with a
retardation factor of 1.04. The agreement between the two sets of solvent
concentration profiles is good. The parameters that resulted in this
history match are N Pe

554 , DL

100 x10 5 cm 2 / s and

0.098 cm .

Figure 5.41 shows the growth of the mixing zone length with time
for the sandpack. The longitudinal dispersion coefficient and longitudinal
dispersivity

DL

are

calculated

82 x10 5 cm 2 / s and

from

the

mixing

zone

length

as

0.080 cm .

Figure 5.42 shows the similarity transformations of the solvent

concentration profiles from the two tracer tests. It can be seen that there
is

more

dispersion

in

the

Berea
560

sandstone

core

than

in

the

unconsolidated sandpack. The results of the tracer tests for both porous
media are summarized in Table 5.3.
Table 5.2. Experimental Conditions for Tracer Test in Unconsolidated
Sandpack
Type of Displacement

First-Contact Miscible

Porous Medium

Unconsolidated Sandpack

Length (cm)

54.2

Diameter (cm)

4.8

Absolute Permeability (md)

6400

Average Porosity from CT (%)

29.7

Fluids
Displacing Fluid
Density

of

Displacing

Distilled Water + 13% NaCl

Fluid

(g/cm3)

1.089

Viscosity of Displacing Fluid (cp)

1.262

Displaced Fluid

Distilled Water + 10% BaCl2

Density of Displaced Fluid (g/cm3) 1.089

Viscosity of Displaced Fluid (cp)

1.127

Mobility Ratio (Viscosity Ratio)

0.9

Darcy Velocity (cm/s)

3.037x10-3

Interstitial Velocity (cm/s)

1.023x10-2

Breakthrough Recovery (%)

95

5-61

Figure 5.37. CT images of a tracer test in unconsolidated sandpack. A: tD

= 0.20; B: tD = 0.50; C: tD = 0.80 (Peters et al., 1996)
562

Figure 5.38. Permeability distribution for unconsolidated sandpack

(Peters and Afzal, 1991).

5-63

Figure 5.39. A comparison of the simulated and experimental solvent

concentration profiles for unconsolidated sandpack for Rf = 0 (Peters et
al., 1996).

564

Figure 5.40. A comparison of the simulated and experimental solvent

concentration profiles for unconsolidated sandpack for Rf = 1.04 (Peters
et al., 1996).

5-65

Figure 5.41. Growth of mixing zone length with time for unconsolidated
sandpack (Peters et al., 1996).

566

Figure 5.42. Similarity transformation of solvent concentration profiles

(Peters et al., 1996).

Table 5.3. Summary of Results

5-67

Porous Medium

Berea

Unconsolidated

Sandstone

Sandpack

600x10-5

100x10-5

0.379

0.098

431x10-5

82x10-5

Heterogeneity (cm)

0.272

0.080

Retardation Factor

1.11

1.04

Peclet Number

159

554

Longitudinal Dispersion Coefficient

with
Heterogeneity (cm2/s)
Longitudinal Dispersivity with
Heterogeneity (cm)
Longitudinal Dispersion Coefficient
without Heterogeneity (cm2/s)
Longitudinal Dispersivity without

5.6.3 Field Measurement of Dispersion Coefficient and Dispersivity

Longitudinal dispersion coefficient and dispersivity are measured
in the field by tracer tests either in a single well or between two or more
wells. Eq.(5.9) in radial coordinates can be used to calculate the
dispersion coefficient and the dispersitivity from a single-well tracer test.
Eq.(5.9) can be written in radial coordinates as

C
C
ur
t
r

2
L ur

C
r2

(5.61)

Gelhar and Collins (1971) give the solution of Eq.(5.61) with appropriate
initial and boundary conditions for a single-well tracer test as
568

CD

t D t Di

1
erfc
2
16
3

tD
tDi

1
1
2

tD
tDi

1
2

(5.62)

where

qt
h

(5.63)

In Eq.(5.62), t D is the pore volume of fluid produced at various times, t Di is

the total pore volume of tracer fluid injected at the beginning of the test.
The longitudinal dispersitivity can be calculated by fitting Eq.(5.62) to the
concentration profile obtained from the tracer test. Figure 5.43 shows the
fit of Eq.(5.62) to two tracer tests in the same well in a water-bearing
aquifer. The aquifer was 8.2 meters thick, with an average hydraulic
conductivity of 1.4x10-2 cm/s and a porosity of 38%. In Test SW1, the
volume of the tracer fluid injected was such that the tracer fluid
extended to a radius of 3.13 meters from the well. In Test SW2, the
volume of tracer fluid was such that the tracer fluid extended to a radius
of 4.99 meters. Thus, the two tests had different measurement scales.
Based on the history match shown in Figure 5.42, the dispersitivity of
the aquifer from the first test was 3.0 cm and that from the second test
was 9.0 cm. The results show the dependence of the dispersivity on the
scale of the measurement. In Test SW1, the scale of measurement was
3.13 meters whereas in Test SW2, it was 4.99 meters. The two scales of
measurement resulted in two different estimates of dispersivity with the
larger measurement scale resulting in a larger dispersitivity than the
smaller measurement scale.
5-69

Figure 5.43. Comparison of tracer concentration and Eq.(5.62)for singlewell injection-withdrawal test (Pickens and Grisak, 1981).

A multi-well tracer test also can be used to estimate dispersivity in

the field. However, in this case, a numerical simulator will be needed to
570

interpret the test. Figure 5.44 shows attempts to interpret a two-well

tracer test using a finite element numerical simulator. In the test, a slug
of tracer was injected into one well and chased by water while the tracer
concentration was measured as a function of time at the second well. A
2D homogeneous aquifer model gave a longitudinal dispersitivity of 4.0 m
whereas a 3D heterogeneous aquifer model gave a much smaller
dispersivity of 0.15 m. Of course, the history match of the breakthrough
curve for a heterogeneous aquifer does not give a unique solution to the
problem. Different configurations of the aquifer heterogeneity can result
in good history matches with widely different values of dispersivity.

Figure 5.44. A comparison of three model fits to the breakthrough data

from a two-well tracer test (Huyakorn et al., 1986).

5-71

5.7 FACTORS THAT COULD AFFECT DISPERSION

COEFFICIENT AND DISPERSIVITY
A poll was taken in a previous class in which the students present
were requested to name the factors they believed could possibly affect the
dispersion coefficient and the dispersivity of a porous medium. There
were no restrictions. All factors that came to mind were listed. Here are
the factors that were listed, organized into rock characteristics, fluid
properties and process characteristics.
1.

Rock Characteristics
Porosity ( )
Permeability (k)
Pore size ( )
Pore size distribution (frequency)
Heterogeneity
DykstraParsons coefficient (V)
Variogram ( )
Correlation length (range of influence, a)
Chemical reaction
Adsorption (retardation factor, Rf)
Biological transformation
Radioactive decay
Morphology of the porous medium ( )

572

Pore structure
Cementation
Dead end pores
Tortuosity
Mean grain diameter (Dp)
Specific surface area (S)
2.

Fluid Properties
Viscosity of the displaced fluid ( o)
Viscosity of the displacing fluid ( s)
Density of the displaced fluid ( o)
Density of the displacing fluid ( s)
Binary diffusion coefficient between the displaced and displacing
fluids (Do)

3.

Process (Displacement) Characteristics

Interstitial velocity field ( u )
Gravitational acceleration field ( g )
After extensive discussion, it was decided that the longitudinal

dispersion coefficient is a function of some of these variables and that the

functional relationship is of the form

DL

f1

, D p , u, Do ,

(5.64)

The objective is to design an experimental program to determine the

nature of the function f1. To plan the experimental program, dimensional
5-73

analysis can be used to derive the set of complete and independent

dimensionless groups that can be used in the experimental program to
determine the nature of f1. Upon performing the dimensional analysis as
presented in Appendix A, Eq.(5.64) can be written in dimensionless form
as

DL
Do

f2

uD p
Do

D 3p

Do

(5.65)

where f2 is a new function to be determined from experiments. In the

laboratory experiments for determining the longitudinal dispersion
coefficient, the viscosity of the injected fluid should be matched with that
of the displaced fluid. If this is done, the mobility ratio,

, will be a

constant equal to 1 and its effect will be eliminated from the experiment.
Also, the density of the injected fluid should be matched with that of the
displaced fluid. In this case, the dimensionless group,

D 3p
Do

, will be a

constant equal to zero and it will not be a factor in the experiment. If

these restrictions are implemented in the experiments, then Eq.(5.65)
becomes
DL
Do

f3

uD p
Do

(5.66)

A similar analysis gives the functional relationship for the transverse

dispersion coefficient as
DT
Do

f4

uD p
Do

574

(5.67)

The experimental program will then consist of measuring

uD p

functions of the Peclet Number,

Do

DL
D
and T as
Do
Do

, to determine the nature of f3 and f4.

The results of such an experimental program are shown in Figures 5.27

and 5.28.

5.8 NUMERICAL MODELING OF FIRST-CONTACT

MISCIBLE DISPLACEMENT
5.8.1 Introduction
First-contact miscible displacement is sufficiently well understood
to be modeled accurately with a finite difference numerical simulator.
Such a numerical simulator can be used to interpret tracer tests or to
model field processes that can be adequately described as first-contact
miscible processes.
5.8.2 Mathematical Model of First-Contact Miscible Displacement
The mathematical model for first-contact miscible displacement in
a heterogeneous and anisotropic reservoir consists of the following mass
transport, continuity, flow and mixing equations:

( C)
t

.(vC )

)
t

.( D C ) 0

(5.68)

.( v ) 0

(5.69)

gz )

(5.70)

(P

5-75

mixture

Cs

Cs
mixture

(1 Cs )

1 Cs

1/ 4
s

1/ 4
o

(5.71)

(5.72)

where

Dxx
Dyx
Dzx

Dxy
Dyy
Dzy

Dxz
Dyz
Dzz

(5.73)

k xx
k yx
k zx

k xy
k yy
k zy

k xz
k yz
k zz

(5.74)

and

Eq.(5.68) is the convection-dispersion equation for a heterogeneous

reservoir. It is a modified version of Eq.(5.9), which was for a
homogeneous reservoir with a constant porosity. Note that the advection
term in Eq.(5.68) is in terms of Darcy velocity instead of interstitial
velocity. Eq.(5.69) is the continuity equation for flow. Eq.(5.70) is Darcy's
law for a heterogeneous and anisotropic reservoir. Eq.(5.71) is the mixing
rule for density. It specifies how to calculate the fluid density as a
function of the solvent concentration. It is a linear mixing rule, which
has been verified experimentally. Figure 5.45 compares the linear mixing
rule with experimental density measurements for mixtures of glycerol
and brine. The agreement is good. Eq.(5.72) is the mixing rule for
viscosity. It specifies how the viscosity is to be calculated as a function of
the solvent concentration. It is known as the quarter-power viscosity

576

mixing rule. This mixing rule also has been verified in laboratory
measurements as shown in Figure 5.46 for glycerol and brine.

Figure 5.45. Verification of linear density mixing rule for two first-contact
miscible fluids: Fluid 1 is brine; Fluid 2 is glycerol and water.

5-77

Figure 5.46. Verification of quarter-power viscosity mixing rule for two

first-contact miscible fluids: Fluid 1 is brine; Fluid 2 is glycerol and
water.
The mathematical model for first-contact miscible displacement,
Eqs.(5.68) through (5.74), can be solved by finite difference using
appropriate initial and boundary conditions. A possible sequence for the
calculations at one time-step is as follows. Substitute Eq.(5.70) into
(5.69) to derive a generalized diffusivity equation for the pressure field.
Solve the pressure equation by finite difference. Use the pressure field
and Eq.(5.70) to calculate the Darcy velocity field. Substitute the Darcy
velocity field into Eq.(5.68) and solve Eq.(5.68) by finite difference to
calculate the solvent concentration distribution.

Of course, the

properties of the porous medium and the fluids must be specified in

advance.

578

5.8.3 Numerical Modeling of Laboratory Experiments

In this section, we present the results of numerical simulations of
first-contact miscible displacements experiments based on the numerical
solution of Eqs.(5.68) through (5.74). The porous media used in the
experiments and the solvent concentration distributions in time and
space

were

imaged

by

NMR.

Each

simulation

entailed

the

characterization of the porous medium by constructing its permeability

distribution

using

Sequential

Gaussian

Simulation.

The

porosity

distribution was obtained directly from by NMR imaging. The pertinent

dimensionless groups for the displacements are mobility ratio (M), the
Peclet Number (NPe) as defined in Eq.(5.25), the gravity or buoyancy
number (Ng), and the density number (N ).
The gravity number is the ratio of the gravity force to the viscous
force and is given by

Ng

o
o

(5.75)

The higher the gravity number, the higher the potential for gravity
segregation in the experiment. If the gravity number is negative, the
gravity segregation will be in the form of gravity override, whereas if the it
is positive, the gravity segregation will be in the form of gravity tonguing.
The density number is defined as

o
o

5-79

(5.76)

The higher the density number, the higher the potential for gravity
segregation. A negative density number correlates with gravity override
whereas a positive density number correlates with gravity tonguing.
All the simulations were performed with UTCHEM, a finite
difference chemical flooding simulator developed at The University of
Texas at Austin. A 3D Cartesian coordinate system was used to simulate
the displacements in a cylindrical core. Figure 5.47 shows how the
rectangular grids were adapted to simulate a cylindrical system. All the
simulations were performed with 40x40x20 grid blocks.

Figure 5.47. Three-dimensional simulation grids.

Experiment 1
This experiment was conducted in homogeneous Berea sandstone
core at a favorable mobility ratio of 0.84 and a Darcy velocity of 0.00014
580

cm/s (0.40 ft/day). Figure 5.48 shows an artist impression of the core
along with the nomenclature used in the core characterization. The core
properties were: L = 10 cm, d = 5 cm, k = 622 md and

= 24%. Figure

5.49 shows the porosity distribution of the core obtained by NMR

imaging. Figure 5.50 shows the NMR images of the solvent concentration
distributions in time and space. The mixing zone is tilted because of
gravity tonguing. Figure 5.51 shows the solvent concentration profiles for
the experiment.

Figure 5.48. Artist impression of homogeneous Berea sandstone core.

5-81

Figure 5.49. Porosity distribution for homogeneous Berea sandstone core

(Majors et al., 1997).

582

Figure 5.50. Solvent concentration images for Experiment 1. M = 0.84, Ng

= 0.3656, N = 0.0899, NPe = 45.5 (Li, 1997)

5-83

Figure 5.51. Average solvent concentration profiles for Experiment 1. M =

0.84, Ng = 0.3656, N = 0.0899, NPe = 45.5 (Li, 1997)

Figure 5.52 shows the permeability field generated for the Berea
sandstone core and used as the porous medium for the numerical
simulation. The parameters of the log normal permeability field are k =
622 md,

= 24%, ax = 5.0 cm, ay = 2.5 cm, az = 0.25 cm and V = 0.20.

The experiment was simulated using

0.0975 cm and

0.0031 cm.

Figure 5.53 compares the simulated and the experimental solvent

concentration distributions. The agreement between the simulation and
the experiment is good. Figure 5.54 compares the simulated and
experimental solvent concentration profiles. The agreement between the

584

simulation and the experiment is acceptable. Finally, Figure 5.55 shows

a head to head comparison of the simulated and experimental solvent
concentrations at the same cross-sections of the core. The data are fairly
well distributed about the 45 degree line. Therefore, the agreement
between the simulation and the experiment is reasonable.

Figure 5.52. Permeability distribution for homogeneous Berea sandstone

core obtained by Sequential Gaussian Simulation. k = 622 md, = 24%,
ax = 5.0 cm, ay = 2.5 cm, az = 0.25 cm, V = 0.20 (Shecaira and Peters,
1998).

5-85

Figure 5.53. A comparison of the simulated and experimental solvent

concentration distributions for Experiment 1 (Shecaira and Peters,
1998).

586

Figure 5.54. A comparison of the simulated and experimental solvent

concentration profiles for Experiment 1 (Shecaira and Peters, 1998).

Figure 5.56. A comparison of the simulated and experimental solvent

concentration at the same cross-sections for Experiment 1 (Shecaira and
Peters, 1998).

5-87

Experiment 2
This experiment was conducted in the same Berea sandstone core
and at the same mobility ratio as Experiment 1. However, the gravity
number was reduced from 0.3656 to 0.0180 by increasing the Darcy
velocity from 0.00014 cm/s (0.40 ft/day) to 0.00294 cm/s (8.33 ft/day)
in an effort to eliminate the gravity tonguing observed in Experiment 1.
Figures 5.57 and 5.58 show the solvent concentration images and the
solvent concentration profiles for the experiment. The images of Figure
5.57 appear to show more tonguing than in Experiment 1.

588

Figure 5.57. Solvent concentration images for Experiment 2. M = 0.84, Ng

= 0.0180, N = 0.0899, NPe = 49.5 (Li, 1997)

5-89

Figure 5.58. Average solvent concentration profiles for Experiment 2. M =

0.84, Ng = 0.0180, N = 0.0899, NPe = 49.5 (Li, 1997)

Figures 5.59 to 5.61 compare the initial simulation of Experiment

2 with the experiment. The agreement between the simulation and the
experiment is poor. The simulation model is the same as for Experiment
1, except that the injection rate was increased from 0.40 ft/day to 8.33
ft/day. The images from the simulation clearly show that at the gravity
number of 0.0180, there should be no gravity tonguing. Therefore, it can
be safely concluded that the tonguing in Experiment 2 was not caused by

590

gravity segregation but rather by a mechanical problem with the

experiment.

Figure 5.59. A comparison of the preliminary simulated and experimental

solvent concentration distributions for Experiment 2 (Shecaira and
Peters, 1998).

5-91

Figure 5.60. A comparison of the preliminary simulated and experimental

solvent concentration profiles for Experiment 2 (Shecaira and Peters,
1998).

Figure 5.61. A comparison of the preliminary simulated and experimental

solvent concentration at the same cross-sections for Experiment 2
(Shecaira and Peters, 1998).

592

Figure 5.62 shows the end piece of the core holder through which
fluid is injected into the core. Fluid is injected as a point source. Radial
grooves are machined on the face of the end piece to assist in
distributing the injected fluid uniformly over the inlet face of the core. It
would appear that at the injection rate of 0.40 ft/day in Experiment 2,
the grooves were effective in distributing the injected fluid over the inlet
face of the core. However, when the rate was increased to 8.33 ft/day,
the grooves became ineffective in distributing the injected fluid over the
inlet face of the core. As a result, the injected fluid was distributed
unevenly over the inlet face with more fluid being injected at the center of
the core than at the periphery of the core .

Figure 5.62. Schematic diagram of end piece of core holder showing fluid
injection hole and grooves.
In order to test the fluid injection hypothesis, the inlet boundary
condition of the simulation model was modified to inject more fluid at the
center than at the periphery of the core as shown in Figure 5.62. Figures
5.63 to 5.65 show comparisons of the results of the simulation with the
modified inlet boundary condition and the experiment. The agreement
between the simulation and the experiment is excellent. The hypothesis
5-93

about the nonuniform fluid injection appears to be supported by the

simulation.

Figure 5.63. A comparison of the simulated and experimental solvent

concentration distributions for Experiment 2 with a modified inlet
boundary condition (Shecaira and Peters, 1998).

594

Figure 5.64. A comparison of the simulated and experimental solvent

concentration profiles for Experiment 2 with a modified inlet boundary
condition (Shecaira and Peters, 1998).

Figure 5.65. A comparison of the simulated and experimental solvent

concentration at the same cross-sections for Experiment 2 with a
modified inlet boundary condition (Shecaira and Peters, 1998).

5-95

Experiment 3
This experiment was performed in the same Berea sandstone core
as Experiments 1 and 2 but at an adverse mobility ratio of 98 at the high
Darcy velocity of 0.00294 cm/s (8.33 ft/day). The combination of high
mobility ratio and high injection normally result is viscous fingering as is
evident in Figure 5.66, which shows the solvent concentration images for
this experiment. The solvent concentration profiles are shown in Figure
5.67.
Figures 5.68 to 5.70 compare the results of a preliminary
simulation with the experiment. There is no agreement between the two.
The preliminary simulation was based on a uniform permeability
distribution in the core and a uniform fluid injection at the core inlet.
The simulation was then refined by the using permeability distribution of
Figure 5.52 and the modified inlet boundary condition. More transverse
dispersion (

0.0122 cm) was included in the numerical model than in

the simulations of Experiments 1 and 2. Figures 5.71 to 5.73 compare

the results of the refined simulation with the experiment. The agreement
between the simulation and the experiment is excellent.

596

Figure 5.66. Solvent concentration images for Experiment 3. M = 98, Ng =

-0.0002, N = -0.097, NPe = 49.5 (Li, 1997)

5-97

Figure 5.67. Average solvent concentration images for Experiment 3. M =

98, Ng = -0.0002, N = -0.097, NPe = 49.5 (Li, 1997)

598

Figure 5.68. A comparison of the preliminary simulated and experimental

solvent concentration distributions for Experiment 3 (Shecaira and
Peters, 1998).

5-99

Figure 5.69. A comparison of the preliminary simulated and experimental

solvent concentration profiles for Experiment 3 (Shecaira and Peters,
1998).

Figure 5.70. A comparison of the preliminary simulated and experimental

solvent concentration at the same cross-sections for Experiment 3
(Shecaira and Peters, 1998).

5100

Figure 5.71. A comparison of the simulated and experimental solvent

concentration distributions for Experiment 3 after refinement of the
simulation (Shecaira and Peters, 1998).

5-101

Figure 5.72. A comparison of the simulated and experimental solvent

concentration profiles for Experiment 3 after refinement of the simulation
model (Shecaira and Peters, 1998).

Figure 5.73. A comparison of the simulated and experimental solvent

concentration at the same cross-sections for Experiment 3 after
refinement of the simulation model (Shecaira and Peters, 1998).

5102

Experiment 4
This experiment was performed in a layered Antolini sandstone
core at a favorable mobility ratio of 0.81 at a Darcy velocity of 0.00014
cm/s (0.40ft/day). Figure 5.74 shows the porosity images for sandstone
obtained by NMR. Figures 5.75 and 5.76 show the solvent concentration
images and the solvent concentration profiles for the experiment.
Using the porosity images as guidance, a three-layer permeability
distribution was generated for the sandstone core as shown in Figure
5.77. This distribution was used in the initial simulation of Experiment
4. Figures 5.78 to 5.80 compare the results of the simulation based on
the three-layer model with the experiment. The agreement between the
simulation and the experiment is fair. The permeability field was further
refined into a five-layer model as shown in Figure 5.81. Figures 5.82 to
5.84 show comparisons of the results of the simulation with the fivelayer model with the experiment. The agreement between the simulation
and the experiment is excellent.

5-103

Figure 5.74. Porosity images of layered Antolini sandstone core of

Experiment 4 (Li, 1997).

5104

Figure 5.75. Solvent concentration images for Experiment 4. M = 0.81, Ng

= 0.0649, N = 0.103, NPe = 46.8 (Li, 1997)

5-105

Figure 5.76. Average solvent concentration profiles for Experiment 4. M =

0.81, Ng = 0.0649, N = 0.103, NPe = 46.8 (Li, 1997)

5106

Figure 5.77. A three-layer model for the Antolini sandstone core of

Experiment 4.

5-107

Figure 5.78. A comparison of the simulated and experimental solvent

concentration distributions for Experiment 4 based on a three-layer
model (Shecaira and Peters, 1998).

5108

Figure 5.79. A comparison of the simulated and experimental solvent

concentration profiles for Experiment 4 based on a three-layer model
(Shecaira and Peters, 1998).

Figure 5.80. A comparison of the simulated and experimental solvent

concentration at the same cross-sections for Experiment 4 based on a
three-layer model (Shecaira and Peters, 1998).

5-109

Figure 5.81. A Five-layer model for the Antolini sandstone core of

Experiment 4.

5110

Figure 5.82. A comparison of the simulated and experimental solvent

concentration distributions for Experiment 4 based on a five-layer model
(Shecaira and Peters, 1998).

5-111

Figure 5.83. A comparison of the simulated and experimental solvent

concentration profiles for Experiment 4 based on a five-layer model
(Shecaira and Peters, 1998).

Figure 5.84. A comparison of the simulated and experimental solvent

concentration at the same cross-sections for Experiment 4 based on a
five-layer model (Shecaira and Peters, 1998).

5112

Experiment 5
This experiment was performed in the same core as Experiment 4
but at an adverse mobility ratio of 11 and a Darcy velocity of 0.00014
cm/s

(0.40

ft/day).

Figures

5.85

and

5.86

show

the

solvent

concentration images and the solvent concentration profiles for the

experiment. The objective of the numerical simulation of this experiment
was to predict the outcome of the experiment instead of history matching
it. Having used the five-layer model to successfully simulate Experiment
4, it was decided to use the same simulation to predict Experiment 5 by
increasing the mobility ratio from 0.81 to 11.
Figures

5.87

to

5.89

show

comparisons

of

the

predicted

performance and the experiment. Figure 5.87 shows that predicted

solvent concentration images are in qualitative agreement with the
experimental images. However, Figures 5.88 and 5.89 show that the
quantitative prediction is not as good as might be inferred from Figure
5.87. This lack of accurate quantitative prediction is not surprising
because Experiment 5 is an unstable displacement and as such is
unpredictable.

5-113

Figure 5.85. Solvent concentration images for Experiment 5. M = 11, Ng =

-0.0027, N = -0.049, NPe = 46.8 (Li, 1997)

5114

Figure 5.86. Average solvent concentration profiles for Experiment 5. M =

11, Ng = -0.0027, N = -0.049, NPe = 46.8 (Li, 1997)

5-115

Figure 5.87. A comparison of the predicted and experimental solvent

concentration distributions for Experiment 5 based on a five-layer model
(Shecaira and Peters, 1998).

5116

Figure 5.88. A comparison of the predicted and experimental solvent

concentration profiles for Experiment 5 based on a five-layer model
(Shecaira and Peters, 1998).

Figure 5.89. A comparison of the predicted and experimental solvent

concentration at the same cross-sections for Experiment 5 based on a
five-layer model (Shecaira and Peters, 1998).

5-117

Experiment 6
The purpose of Experiment 6 and the accompanying numerical
simulation was to verify a new method for mapping the porosity and
permeability distributions in a heterogeneous core by NMR (Zuluaga et
al., 2000). A layered Antolini sandstone core was used for this
experiment. The core properties are L = 10 cm, d = 5 cm,

= 12.8% and

k = 114 md. A technique was developed to map the 3D porosity and

permeability distributions in the core by NMR imaging. A technique was
developed to map the T1 distribution in a core. Permeability distribution
was calculated using the empirical equation of Kenyon et al. presented in
Chapter 2 as Eq.(2.69) and reproduced here for convenience as

k
The

constant

C1

was

C1

obtained

4
2
NMR 1

(2.69)

by

calibrating

the

NMR-derived

permeability to be equal to the permeability of the core in the direction of

flow measured by Darcy's law and found to equal to 180

m2/s2. The

equation used to calculate the permeability of each voxel is

k 180

2
4
NMR 1

(5.77)

Figure 5.90 shows a high resolution porosity image of the core. Dipping
layers are clearly visible in the image. Figure 5.91 shows the porosity
distribution

after

upscaling

the

high

resolution

porosity

data

(512x512x512 voxels) to the low resolution numerical simulation grid of

40x40x40. The upscaling makes the porosity distribution somewhat
fuzzy. Figure 5.92 shows the upscaled permeability distribution. A high
permeability streak is clearly visible in the center of the core.

5118

After measuring the porosity and permeability distributions, a

first-contact miscible displacement was conducted in the Antolini core at
a favorable mobility ratio of 0.81 at a Darcy velocity of 0.000692 cm/s
(1.96 ft/day). In an effort to verify the validity of the porosity and
permeability distributions derived by NMR, the displacement was
simulated using the NMR-derived porosity and permeability distributions
as the input data for the core description. No attempt was made to adjust
the porosity and permeability data to history-match the experiment.
Rather the porosity and permeability distributions were used as is in
order to verify their validity.

Figure 5.90. High resolution NMR porosity image of layered Antolini

sandstone core (Zuluaga, 1999).

5-119

Figure 5.91. Upscaled porosity distribution from NMR imaging (Zuluaga

et al., 2000)

Figure 5.92. Upscaled permeability distribution from NMR imaging

(Zuluaga et al., 2000)

5120

Figure 5.93 shows a comparison of the solvent concentration

distribution from the experiment and the simulation. The agreement
between the simulation and the experiment is excellent thereby verifying
the validity of the porosity and permeability distributions obtained by
NMR imaging. Figure 5.94 shows the head to head comparison of the
experimental and simulated solvent concentration distributions at the
same cross-sections. The agreement between the experiment and the
simulation

is

good.

The

NMR-derived

distributions are verified.

5-121

porosity

and

permeability

Figure 5.93. A comparison of the experimental and simulated solvent

concentration distribution for Experiment 6 using NMR-derived porosity
and permeability distributions. M= 0.81, Ng = 0.0160, N = 0.1027, NPe =
133 (Zuluaga et al., 2000).

5122

Figure 5.94. A comparison of the experimental and simulated solvent

concentration at the same cross-sections for Experiment 6 using NMRderived porosity and permeability distributions. M= 0.81, Ng = 0.0160, N
= 0.1027, NPe = 133 (Zuluaga et al., 2000).

NOMENCLATURE
ax

correlation length in the x direction

ay

correlation length in the y direction

az

correlation length in the z direction

cross-sectional area of porous medium

solvent concentration

CD =

dimensionless solvent concentration

Ci

initial solvent concentration

Cj

injected solvent concentration

dispersion coefficient tensor

Dm =

mechanical dispersion coefficient tensor

5-123

Dd

molecular diffusion coefficient

DL

longitudinal dispersion coefficient

Do

binary diffusion coefficient between the solvent and oil

Dp

mean grain diameter of the porous medium

erf =

error function

erfc =

complementary error function

formation resistivity factor

gravitational acceleration

total mass flux

Ja

mass flux vector due to advection

Jd

mass flux vector due to dispersion

permeability

= length of porous medium

mobility ratio

Ng

gravity number

NPe =

Peclet number

density number

volumetric injection rate

Rf

retardation factor

specific surface area

time

tD

dimensionless time

interstitial velocity vector

Darcy velocity vector

Dykstra-Parsons coefficient of permeability variation

xD

dimensionless distance

longitudinal dispersivity

transverse dispersivity

viscosity of displaced fluid

viscosity of displacing fluid

5124

porosity

fluid mobility

tortuosity

density of displaced fluid

density of displacing fluid

mixing zone length

density difference

gradient operator

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Afzal, N.: Investigation of Heterogeneities and Fluid Displacements in
Porous Media Using CT, MS Thesis, The University of Texas at
Austin, May 1992.
Aris, R.: On the Dispersion of a Solute in a Fluid Flowing Through a
Tube, Proc. Roy. London A, 235 (1956) 67-78.
Arya, A., T. A. Hewtt, R.G. Larson and L.W. Lake: Dispersion and
Reservoir Heterogeneity, SPERE (February 1988) 139-48.
Bachmat, Y.: Basic Transport Coefficients as Aquifer Characteristics,
IASH
(International Association of Scientific Hydrology) Symp.
Hydrology of Fractured Rocks, Dubbrovnik 1, Publ.73 (1965) 63-75.
Bachmat, Y.:
On the Similitude of Dispersion Phenomena in
Homogeneous and Isotropic Porous Medium, Water Resources
Res., 3, No. 4, (1967) 1079-83.
Bachmat, Y. and J. Bear: The General Equations of Hydrodynamic
Dispersion, J. Geophys. Res., 69,No. 12 (1964) 2561-67.
Bear, J.: On the Tensor Form of Dispersion, J. Geophys. Res., 66, No.
4 (1961) 1185-97.
Bear, J. and Y. Bachmat: A Generalized Theory on Hydrodynamic
Dispersion in Porous Media, IASH (International Association of
Scientific Hydrology) Publ. 72 (1967) 7-16.
Bear, J.: Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Elsevier, New York, 1972.

5-125

Boersma, L., F.T. Lindstrom and M.A. Barlaz: Dispersion at the Field
Scale Resulting from Spatial Variability of the Hydraulic
Conductivity Field, J. Hydrol., 159, No. 3 (1974) 145-67.
Bond, W.J.:
Velocity-Dependent Hydrodynamic Dispersion During
Steady, Unsaturated Soil Water Flow: Experiments, Water
Resources Res., 22 , No. 13, (1986) 1881-89.
Bond, W.J. and D.E. Smiles: Influence of Velocity on Hydrodynamic
Dispersion During Unsteady Soil Water Flow, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J.,
47, No. 3, (1983) 438-41.
Bosma, W.J. and S.E.A.T.M. van der Dee: Dispersion of Continuously
Injected, Non Linearly Adsorbing Solute in Chemically or Physically
Heterogeneous Porous Formations, J. Contam. Hydrol., 18 , No. 3
(1995) 181-98.
Bresler, E. and Dagan, G.:
Solute Transport in Unsaturated
Heterogeneous Soils at Field Scale, II, Applications, Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. J., 43, No. 1 (1979) 467- 72.
Broman, W. H., Jr.: Experimental Verification of A Stability Theory for
Miscible Displacements, MS Thesis, University of Texas at Austin,
December 1985.
Butters, G.L., W.A. Jury and F.F. Ernst: Field Scale Transport of
Bromide in an Unsaturated Soil, 1, Experimental Methodology and
Results, Water Resources Res., 25, No. 7 (1989) 1575-81.
Carslaw, H.S. and Jaeger, J.C. : Conduction of Heat in Solids, 2nd edition,
Clarendon Press, Oxford (1959).
Cavalero, S.: Visualization of Viscous Fingering in Miscible and Immiscible
Displacements, MS Thesis, University of Texas at Austin, May
1990.
Clark, J.N., Shearin, H.M., Schultz, W.P., Garms, K. and Moore, J.L. :
"Miscible Drive - Its Theory and Application," JPT (June 1958) 1120.
Collins, R.E.: Flow of Fluids Through Porous Materials, Research &
Engineering Consultants Inc. (1990).
Crank, J.: The Mathematics of Diffusion, 2nd ed., Clarendon, Oxford,
England (1979).
Cushman, J.H.:
On Diffusion in Fractal Porous Media, Water
Resources Res., 27, No. 4 (1991) 643-44.
Cushman, J.H. and R.T. Ginn: On Dispersion in Fractal Porous Media,
Water Resources Res., 29, No. 10 (1993) 3513-15.
5126

Dagan, G.: Solute Transport in Heterogeneous Porous Formation, J.

Fluid Mech., 145 (1984) 151-77.
Dagan, G. and E. Bresler:
Solute Transport in Unsaturated
Heterogeneous Soils at Field Scale, I, Theory, Soil Sci. Am. J., 43,
No. 1 (1979) 461-67.
Domenico, P.A. and Schwartz, F.W. : Physical and
Hydrogeology, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1990.

Chemical

Dullien, F.A.L.: Porous Media - Fluid Transport and Pore Structure,

Academic Press, New York, (1979).
Ellsworth, T.R. and W.A. Jury: A Three-Dimensional Field Study of
Solute Transport through Unsaturated Layers, Porous Media, 2,
Characterization of Vertical Dispersion, Water Resour. Res., 27 No.
5, 967-81 (1991).
Fetter, C.W. : Contaminant Hydrogeology, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey, 1993.
Freeze, R.A. and Cherry, J.A. : Groundwater, Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey, 1979.
Freyberg, D.L.: A Natural Gradient Experiment on Solute Transport in a
San Aquifer, 2, Spatial Moments and the Advection and Dispersion
of Non reactive Tracers, Water Resour. Res., 22, No. 1, 2030-46
(1986).
Fried, J.J. and Combarnous, M.A. :Dispersion in Porous Media,
Advances in Hydroscience, Vol. 7 (1971) 169282.
Frisch, H.L., T.T. Wang and T.K. Kwei: Diffusion in Glassy Polymers, II,
J. Polymer Sci., Part A, 2, No. 7, 879-87 (1969).
Furtado, F., J. Glimm, B. Lindquist, F. Pereira and Q. Zhang: Time
Dependent Anomalous Diffusion for Flow in Multi-Fractal Porous
Media, Rep. SUNYSB-AMS-91-06, Dept. of Appl. Math. and Stat.,
State University of New York at Stony Brook (1991).
Furtado, F., J. Glimm, B. Lindquist, F. Pereira and Q. Zhang: Flow in
Multi-Fractal and Partially Layered Porous Media, Report, 7 pp,
Dept. of Appl. Math. and Stat., State University of New York at
Stony Brook (19 91).
Gelhar, L.W. and Collins, M.A.: "General Analysis of Longitudinal
Dispersion in Nonuniform Flow," Water Resources Research, 7,
No.6 (1971) 1511-1521.

5-127

Gelhar, L.W. : " Stochastic Subsurface Hydrology From Theory to

Application," Water Resources Research 22, No. 9 (1986) 135S145S.
Gelhar, L.W. and C.L. Axness: Three-Dimensional Stochastic Analysis
of Macro dispersion in Aquifers, Water Resour. Res., 19, No. 1,
161-80 (1983).
Gelhar, L.W., C. Welty and K.R. Rehfeldt: A Critical Review of Data on
Field-Scale Dispersion in Aquifers, Water Resour. Res., 28, No. 7,
1955-74 (1992).
Gharbi, R., Peters, E.J., and Elkamel, A.: "Scaling Miscible Flood
Displacements in Porous Media," Energy & Fuels, Vol. 12, No. 4,
1998, 801-811.
Gharbi, R. and Peters, E.J. : Scaling Coreflood Experiments to
Heterogeneous Reservoirs, Journal of Petroleum Science and
Engineering, 10, (1993) 83-95.
Gharbi, R.: Numerical Modeling of Fluid Displacements in Porous Media
Assisted by Computed Tomography Imaging, PhD Dissertation, The
University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, August 1993.
Giona, M.: First Order Reaction-Diffusion Kinetics in Complex Fractal
Media, Chem Eng. Sci., 47, No. 6, 1503-15 (1992).
Guven, O., F.J. Molz and J.G. Melville: An Analysis of Dispersion in a
Stratified Aquifer, Water Resour. Res., 20, No. 10, 1337-54 (1984).
Hardham, W. D.: Computerized Tomography Applied to the Visualization
of Fluid Displacements, MS Thesis, University of Texas at Austin,
December 1988.
Harleman, D.R.F. and R.R. Rumer: Longitudinal and Lateral Dispersion
in an Isotropic Porous Medium, J. Fluid Mech.,
16, No. 3, 38594 (1963).
Hill, J.M. and J.N. Dewynne:
Cambridge, Mass. (1987).

Heat Conduction, Blackwell Sci.,

Hoopes, J.A. and Harleman, D.R.F. : "Dispersion in Radial Flow From a

Recharge Well," Jour. of Geophysical Research, 72, No. 14 (1967)
3595-3607.
Huyakorn, P., Andersen, P.F., Molz, F.J., Guven, O. and Melville, J.G. :
A Curvilinear Finite Element Model for Simulating Two-Well
Tracer Tests and Transport in Stratified Aquifers at the Chalk River
and Mobile Sites Water Resources Research, Vol. 22, No. 7 (1986)
1016-1030.
5128

Javandel, I., C. Doughty and C.F. Tsang: Groundwater Transport:

Handbook of Mathematical Models, Water Resour. Monogr. Ser.,
10, AGU, Washington, DC. (1984).
Jost, W.: Diffusion in Solids, Liquids, Gases, San Diego, Calif., (1952).
Kasap, E.: Numerical Simulation of Unstable Miscible Displacements by a
Modified Finite Element Method, MS Thesis, University of Texas at
Austin, December 1986.
Khataniar, S.:
A Numerical Study of the Performance of Unstable
Displacements in Heterogeneous Media, Ph.D. Dissertation,
University of Texas at Austin, August 1991.
Khataniar, S. and E. J. Peters: The Effect of Heterogeneity on the
Performance of Unstable Displacements, Journal of Petroleum
Science and Engineering, 7, No. 3/4 (May 1992) 263-81.
Khataniar, S. and E. J. Peters: A Comparison of the Finite Difference
and
Finite
Element
Methods
for
Simulating
Unstable
Displacements, Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 5,
(1991) 205-218.
Knight, J. H.: Solute Transport and Dispersion: Commentary, in Flow and
Transport in the Natural Environment: Advances and Applications,
ed. W.L. Steffen and O.T. Denmead, pp 17-29, Springer-Verlag,
New York (1988).
Knight, J. H. and J.R. Philip: Exact Solution in Nonlinear Diffusion, J.
Eng. Math, 8, 219-27 (1992).
Korvin, G.: Fractal Models in the Earth Sciences, Elsevier, New York
(1992).
Lake, L.W. : Enhanced Oil Recovery, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, 1989.
Lau, L.K., W.J. Kaufman and D.K. Todd: Dispersion of a Water Tracer
in a Radial, Laminar Flow through Homogeneous Porous Media,
Progr. Rep. 5, Canal Seepage Eng. Res. Lab., Univ. of Calif.,
Berkeley (July 1959).
Li, Ping: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Fluid Displacements in
Porous Media, PhD Dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin,
Austin, Texas, August 1997.
Majors, P.D., Li, P. and Peters, E.J. :NMR Imaging of Immiscible
Displacements in Porous Media, Society of Petroleum Engineers
Formation Evaluation (September 1997) 164-169.

5-129

Marle, C.M.: Multiphase Flow in Porous Media, Gulf Publishing Company,

Houston, Texas, (1981).
Mercado, A.A.: A Note on Micro and Macrodispersion, Ground Water,
22, No. 6, 790-91 (1984).
Molz, F.J., O. Guven and J.G. Melville, An Examination of ScaleDependent Dispersion Coefficients, Ground Water, 21, No. 6, 71525 (1983).
Muralidhar, R. and D. Ramkrishhna: Diffusion in Pore Fractals: A
Review of Linear Response Models, Transp. Porous Media, 1, 79-95
(1993).
Neuman, S.P.:
Universal Scaling of Hydraulic Conductivities and
Dispersivities in Geologic Media, Water Resour. Res., 26, No. 8,
1749-58 (1990).
O Shaughnessy, B. and I. Procaccia: Analytical Solutions for Diffusion
on Fractal Objects, Phys. Rev. Lett., 54, No. 5, 455-58 (1995).
Perkins, T.K. and Johnston, O.C. : A Review of Diffusion and Dispersion
in Porous Media, Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (March 1963) 70-84.
Peters, E. J., J. A. Broman and W. H. Broman, Jr.: Computer Image
Processing:
A New Tool for Studying Viscous Fingering in
Corefloods, SPE Reservoir Engineering (November 1987) 720-28.
Peters, E. J. and E. Kasap:
Simulation of Unstable Miscible
Displacements by Finite Element Method, SPE 15597, Proceedings
of the 61st Annual Technical Conference of the Society of Petroleum
Engineers (October 1986) New Orleans.
Peters, E. J. and W. D. Hardham: A Comparison of Unstable Miscible
and Immiscible Displacements, SPE 19640, Proceedings of the
64th Annual Technical Conference of the Society of Petroleum
Engineers (October 1989) San Antonio.
Peters, E.J., Gharbi, R. and Afzal, N. : A Look at Dispersion in Porous
Media Through Computed Tomography Imaging, Journal of
Petroleum Science and Engineering, 15 (1996) 23-31.
Peters, E.J. and Gharbi, R. : Numerical Modeling of Laboratory
Corefloods, Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 9, (1993)
207-221.
Peters, E.J. and Afzal, N. : Characterization of Heterogeneities in
Permeable Media with Computed Tomography Imaging, Journal of
Petroleum Science and Engineering, 7, No. 3/4, (May 1992) 283296.
5130

Peters, E.J. and Hardham, W.D. : Visualization of Fluid Displacements

in Porous Media Using Computed Tomography Imaging, Journal of
Petroleum Science and Engineering, 4, No. 2, (May 1990) 155-168.
Peters, E.J. and Reid, C.A. : A Microcomputer-Based Imaging System for
the Visualization of Fluid Displacements, J. Pet. Tech. (May 1990)
558-563.
Philip, J.R.: Sorption and Infiltration in Heterogeneous Media, Aust. J.
Soil Res., 5, 1-10 (1967).
Philip, J.R.: Issues in Flow and Transport in Heterogeneous Porous
Media, Transp. Porous Media, 1, 319-38 (1986).
Pickens, J. F. and G.E. Grisak: Scale-Dependent Dispersion in a
Stratified Granular Aquifer, Water Resour. Res., 17, No. 4, 11911211 (1981).
Pickens, J. F. and G.E. Grisak: Modeling of Scale-Dependent Dispersion
in Hydrogeologic Systems, Water Resour. Res., 17, No. 6, 1701-11
(1981).
Reid, C.:
Development of an Image Processing Workstation for the
Quantitative Analysis of Fluid Displacements, MS Thesis, University
of Texas at Austin, August 1988.
Saffman, P.G.: A Theory of Dispersion in a Porous Medium, J. Fluid
Mech, 6, 321-49 (1959).
Saffman, P.G.: Dispersion Due to Molecular Diffusion and Macroscopic
Mixing in Flow Through a Network of Capillaries, J. Fluid Mech., 7,
194-208 (1960).
Sahimi, M.: Fractal and Superdiffusive Transport and Hydrodynamic
Dispersion in Heterogeneous Porous Media, Transp. Porous Media,
13, 3-40 (1993).
Sauty, J.-P.: An Analysis of Hydrodispersive Transfer in Aquifers,
Water Resour. Res., 16, No. 1, 145-58 (1980).
Scheidegger, A.E.: General Theory of Dispersion in Porous Media, J.
Geophys. Res., 66, No. 10, 3273-78 (1961).
Scheidegger, A.E.: The Physics of Flow Through Porous Media, University
of Toronto Press, Toronto, Canada (1960).
Shecaira, F.S. and Peters, E.J. : "Numerical Modeling of Miscible
Displacements in Permeable Media Monitored by Imaging
Techniques," Paper submitted to Computational Geosciences,
1998.

5-131

Shecaira, F.S.:
Numerical Modeling of Miscible Displacements in
Permeable Media Monitored by Imaging Techniques, PhD
Dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, May
1998.
Schulin, R., M.T. van Genuchten, H. Fluhler and P. Ferlin:
An
Experimental Study of Solute Transport in a Stony Field Soil,
Water Resour. Res., 2, No. 9, 1785-95 (1987).
Schwartz, F.W.: Macrodispersion in Porous Media: The Controlling
Factors, Water Resour. Res., 1, No. 4, 743-52 (1977).
Shouse, P.J., T.R. Ellsworth and J.A. Jobes: Steady-State Infiltration as
a function of Measurement Scale, Soil Sci., 157, No. 3, 129-36
(1994).
Tang, D.H., E.O. Frind and E.A. Sudicky: Contaminant Transport in
Fractured Porous Media:
Analytical Solutions for a Single
Fracture, Water Resour. Res., 17, No. 3, 555-64 (1981).
Taylor, G.: Diffusion by Continuous Movements, Proc. London Math
Soc., 20, 196-211 (1981).
Taylor, G.: Dispersion of Soluble Matter in Solvent Flowing Slowly
Through a Tube, Proc. R. Soc. London A, 219, 186-203 (1953).
Tyler, S.W. and S.W. Wheatcraft: Reply to Comment by J.R. Philip on
An Explanation of Scale-Dependent Dispersivity in Heterogeneous
Aquifers Using Concepts of Fractal Geometry, by S.W. Wheatcraft
and S.W. Tyler, Water Resour. Res., 28, No. 5, 1487-90 (1992).
van Genuchten, M.T. and W.J. Alves: Analytical Solutions of the OneDimensional Convective-Dispersive Solute Transport Equation,
Tech. Bull. U.S. Dep. Agric., 1661 (1992).
van Wesenbeeck, J. and R.G. Kachanoski: Spatial Scale Dependence of
In Situ Solute Transport, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 55, No. 1, 3-7
(1991).
Wang, T.T., T.K. Kwei and H.L. Frisch: Diffusion in Glassy Polymers,
III, J. Polymer Sci., Part A 2, 7, 2019-28 (1969).
Wheatcraft, S.W. and S.W. Tyler: An Explanation of Scale-Dependent
Dispersivity in Heterogeneous Aquifers Using Concepts of Fractal
Geometry, Water Resour. Res., 24, No. 4, 566-78 (1988).
Yeh, G.T.: A Lagrangean-Eulerian Method with Zoomable Hidden FineMesh Approach to Solving Advection-Dispersion Equations, Water
Resour. Res., 26, No. 6, 1133-44 (1990).

5132

Zuluaga, E.: A Simulation Approach to Validate Petrophysical Data from

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging, MS Thesis, University of
Texas at Austin, August 1999.
Zuluaga, E., Majors, P.D. and Peters, E.J.: "A Simulation Approach to
Validate Petrophysical Data from Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Imaging," SPE Journal, March 2002, 35-39.

5-133

PROBLEMS
5.1. A laboratory core, which is 6 cm in diameter and 40 cm in length,
has a porosity of 0.35. The core is initially saturated with water. A
tracer is then injected continuously into the core at the rate of 1000
cm3/hour. The effluent data shown in Table 5.4 were recorded at
the outlet end of the core. C/Co is the relative tracer concentration.
Determine the dispersion coefficient of the core.
Table 5.4. Effluent Data for Tracer Test of Problem 5.1.
Time
(hour)

C/Co

0.35

0.075

0.37

0.215

0.385

0.37

0.396

0.5

0.41

0.65

0.43

0.83

0.44

0.89

0.46

0.96

5.2. Table 5.5 gives the data for a one-dimensional core tracer test.
Determine the Peclet number for the tracer test.
Table 5.5. Data for Problem 5.2.
PV
(tD)

1 tD
tD

CD

0.60

0.516

0.010

0.65

0.434

0.015

0.70

0.359

0.037

0.80

0.224

0.066

0.90

0.105

0.300

1.00

0.000

0.502

Injected

5134

1.10

-0.095

0.685

1.20

-0.183

0.820

1.30

-0.263

0.906

1.40

-0.338

0.988

1.50

-0.408

0.997

5.3. Fresh water at relative concentration C/Co = 0 is injected into a

sandpack saturated with salt water at relative concentration C/Co
= 1. As the salt water is displaced the concentration measurements
in Table 5.6 were made at a specific time t.
Table 5.6. Tracer Data for Problem 5.3.
Distance from Core Inlet

C/Co

(cm)

(%)

48.2

0.8

49.7

2.2

51.5

3.5

53.6

9.5

55.4

21.7

57.2

50.3

59.3

78.0

61.3

94.5

63.2

94.5

65.4

98.7

68.2

98.7

73.4

100

The average interstitial velocity of flow was 1.6 cm/minute.

a. How long after the initiation of flow were these readings taken?
b. Determine the dispersion coefficient and the dispersivity of the
sandpack.
5.4. The molecular diffusion coefficient of a porous medium is equal to
5x10-10 m2/s. If a tracer is placed in contact with the inlet end of
the porous medium, estimate the relative tracer concentration
C/Co at a distance of 5 m from the inlet after 100 years of
diffusion. Comment on the effectiveness of molecular diffusion as a
transport mechanism in a porous medium.
5-135

5.5. A tracer test is conducted in a relatively homogeneous cylindrical

sandpack using continuous injection of a nonreactive tracer. The
injected tracer and the displaced liquid have the same density and
viscosity. The relative concentration C/Co of 0.75 was observed to
arrive at the outlet end of the core after 0.9 hour from the start of
injection. Other data about the test are:
Length of sandpack
=
30 cm
Diameter of sandpack
=
10 cm
Volumetric injection rate
=
1000 cm3/hour
Porosity of the sandpack
Hydraulic gradient
Fluid viscosity

=
=
=

35%
0.1
1.0 cp

Fluid density

Gravitational acceleration

1.0 gm/cm3
981cm/s2

1 atmosphere
=
1.0133x106 dynes/cm2
a.
Calculate the dispersivity of the porous medium and state its
units.
b.
Calculate the permeability of the porous medium and state its
units.
Problem 3 (15 points)
A tracer test was conducted in a long core to determine the dispersivity of
a porous medium using a tracer that had the same density and the same
viscosity as the displaced liquid. The tracer test was imaged by CT at t =
50 minutes from the beginning of the test. The interstitial velocity for the
test was 1.6 cm/minute. Figure 3 shows the 0.9 and 0.1 tracer
concentration contours inside the porous medium obtained by imaging.
a.
Calculate the dispersivity of the porous medium and state its
units.
b.

Is the core homogeneous? If yes, why? If no, why not?

c.

How would the dispersivity you calculated in part a compare with

the dispersivity obtained from the breakthrough curve in the same
experiment?

5136

Figure 3. Tracer concentration contours at t = 50 minutes.

Problem 3 (20 points)
A solution of nonabsorbing sodium iodide is injected continuously to
displace a brine solution from a core of length L, porosity , permeability
k and cross sectional area A at a constant volumetric rate q. The injected
and displaced fluids are miscible in all proportions and have the same
density and viscosity. Sodium iodide solution is used as a solvent in this
experiment because its high x-ray absorption coefficient permits the
solvent

concentration

profiles

to

be

imaged

by

x-ray

computed

tomography (CT scanning). Probes are installed at the inlet and outlet

5-137

ends of the core to monitor and report the solvent concentrations as

functions of time during the entire experiment.

a. Sketch the solvent concentration profile you would expect to see from the CT
scanning after injecting 0.5 pore volume of the solvent. Show the inlet and outlet
ends of the core on your sketch as well as the critical values of solvent concentration.
Do your sketch on Figure 2.
b. Sketch the graphs of solvent concentration versus dimensionless time you expect
from the probes at the inlet and outlet ends of the core. Superimpose the two graphs
so that one can make a qualitative comparison of the two. Please label your graphs
with inlet and outlet. Do your sketches on Figure 3.
c. Other than the absolute permeability, what transport property of the porous medium
and fluids can be estimated from this experiment?
d. Predict the solvent concentration at the outlet end of the core at t = 108 minutes,
given:

L = 30 cm
3
q = 50 cm /hour
2
A = 20 cm
= 0.15
DL = 400x10
6.

2
cm /s

(20 points) A nonabsorbing tracer is pumped through a porous medium of length 30

cm at an interstitial velocity of 1x10-2 cm/s. A relative concentration of 0.42 was
measured in the effluent after 46.6 minutes from the start of the test. Determine the
dispersivity of the porous medium.

4.

A tracer test is conducted in a relatively homogeneous cylindrical sandpack using

continuous injection of a nonreactive tracer. The injected tracer and the displaced
liquid have the same density and viscosity. The relative concentration C/Co of 0.75
5138

was observed to arrive at the outlet end of the core after 0.9 hour from the start of
injection. Other data about the test are:

Length of sandpack

30 cm

Diameter of sandpack

10 cm

Volumetric injection rate

3
1000 cm /hour

Porosity of the sandpack

35%

Hydraulic gradient

0.1

Fluid viscosity

1.0 cp

Fluid density

3
1.0 gm/cm

Gravitational acceleration

981cm/s

1 atmosphere

6
2
1.0133x10 dynes/cm

a.

Calculate the dispersivity of the porous medium. Please state the units of your
answer.

5-139

6.

b.

Calculate the permeability of the porous medium. Please state the units of

your

answer.

(10 points) A tracer test was conducted in a long core to determine

the dispersivity of a porous medium using a tracer that had the
same density and the same viscosity as the displaced liquid. The
tracer test was imaged by CT at t = 50 minutes from the beginning
of the test. The interstitial velocity for the test was 1.6 cm/minute.
Figure 2 shows the 0.9 and 0.1 tracer concentration contours
inside the porous medium obtained by imaging.
(a) Calculate the dispersivity of the porous medium and state its
units.
(b) Is the core homogeneous? If yes, why? If no, why not?

2.

(20 points) A nonabsorbing tracer was injected into a 30 cm long core at a

constant interstitial velocity of 36 cm/hr. The relative concentrations measured at
the outlet end of the core were as follows:
Time (Hour)
0.7
0.833
0.992

C/Co
0.25
0.50
0.75

Determine the dispersivity of the core.

5140

Figure 2. Tracer concentration contours at t = 50 minutes.

5-141

CHAPTER 6

INTERFACIAL PHENOMENA AND WETTABILITY

6.1 INTRODUCTION
The pore space in a petroleum reservoir rock is usually occupied by
more than one fluid. In an oil reservoir, water and oil occupy the pore space.
In a gas reservoir, water and gas occupy the pore space.

In some oil

reservoirs, at some stage of depletion, water, oil and gas may occupy the pore
space.
When more than one fluid occupies the pore space of a porous medium,
new set of problems arise.

Fluid saturations must be tracked.

Interfacial

forces (surface forces) between the immiscible fluids and between the fluids
and the rock surface come into play.

Because the pores are of capillary

dimensions, capillarity plays a role. Interfaces separate the fluids within the
pores giving rise to differences in fluid pressure between the phases (capillary
pressure) and differences in the flow capacity (relative permeability) of the
rock and fluids. Capillarity also ensures that an immiscible displacement can
never be complete. There is always a residual saturation of the displaced fluid
that is trapped by capillarity. Further, the rock surface can show a marked
affinity for one of the fluids. Such an affinity is characterized by the concept of
wettability. Interfacial phenomena and wettability are presented in this

6-1

chapter. Capillary pressure and relative permeability are presented in

subsequent chapters.

6.2. SURFACE AND INTERFACIAL TENSIONS

6.2.1 Surface Tension
Surface tension is the contractile force that exists at the interface of a
liquid and its vapor (or air). Surface tension makes the surface of a liquid
drop act like a membrane.

The force is caused by unequal molecular

attractions of the fluid particles at the surface as shown in Figure 6.1. The
force per unit length (

= Force/Length) tending to contract the surface of a

liquid is a measure of the surface tension of the liquid. It is a property of the

liquid and is usually expressed in units of dynes/cm.

Figure 6.1: Apparent surface film caused by unequal attraction of

surface molecules of a liquid.
If the forces acting on a molecule at the surface or interface are different
from those acting on a molecule in the body of the liquid, a new interface can

6-2

only be created if work is done.

It can be shown (e.g., by soap film

experiment) that the reversible work required to create a new interface is given
by
W

where

(6.1)

da

is reversible work required to create a new area,

is surface

(interfacial) tension and da is the increase in area. The reversible work shown
in Eq.(6.1) corresponds to a free energy quantity. It is apparent from Eq.(6.1)
that surface (interfacial) tension also can be viewed as free surface energy per
unit area with units of erg per square centimeter.

Because a system at

equilibrium minimizes its free energy, liquids at equilibrium tend to minimize

their surface area. A liquid jet tends to break up into spherical drops because
a sphere has the smallest surface area per unit volume.
The surface tension of pure water at 70 F is 72.5 dynes/cm, and at
200 F is 60.1 dynes/cm. The surface tensions of crude oils at 70 F range
from 24 to 38 dynes/cm. High temperatures and dissolved gas both tend to
reduce the surface tension of crude oils. Values on the order of 1 dyne/cm
may be expected at temperatures and pressures exceeding 150 F and 3,000
psig. Table 4.1 shows the surface tensions of some selected liquids.
Factors that affect the surface tension of a liquid include pressure,
temperature and solute concentration.

An increase in pressure leads to a

reduction in the surface tension of a liquid. This is because pressure exerts a

compressive force on the surface which reduces the tensile or contractile
tendency of the surface. An increase in temperature leads to a reduction in
the surface tension of a liquid. The increase in temperature causes increased
randomness at the surface which leads to an increase in the surface entropy.
It can be shown from thermodynamics that the surface entropy is given by

6-3

Ss

(6.2)
P

where Ss is the surface entropy and T is the temperature. It is clear from

Eq.(6.2) that surface tension decreases with temperature. Figure 6.2 shows
the variation of surface tensions of hydrocarbons with temperature.
Table 4.1. Surface Tension of Pure Liquids
Liquid
Water
Water
Benzene
Benzene
Toluene
Carbon
tetrachloride
Ethanol
n-Octane
Ethyl ether

T (C)

(dynes/cm)

20
25
20
25
20
20

72.8
72.0
28.88
28.22
28.43
26.9

20
20
20

22.39
21.8
17.01

The effect of solute concentration on the surface tension of a liquid

depends on the liquid and the nature of the solute. Four general cases may
be identified.
1.

Liquids having fairly close values of surface tension.

Generally, the

surface tension of the mixture varies approximately linearly with the

composition. For example, for a mixture of acetone and chloroform at
18 C, the surface tension increases linearly with composition (mole %
chloroform) from 22 dynes/cm for pure acetone to 27 dynes/cm for
pure chloroform.

6-4

Figure 6.2. Variation of surface tensions of hydrocarbons with temperature.

2.

Liquids having widely different values of surface tension.

In general,

the surface tension of a liquid is reduced substantially by addition of a

liquid of lower surface tension, but is only slightly increased by addition
of a liquid of higher surface tension. For example, addition of ethanol to
water causes a rapid reduction in the surface tension of water with
ethanol concentration. However, addition of water to benzene raises its
surface tension from 28.2 to only 29.3 dynes/cm.
3.

Solutions of inorganic electrolytes.

In general, the surface tension

increases with solute concentration. For example, the surface tension

6-5

of water at 20 C will be increased by addition of sodium chloride from

72.8 dynes/cm to 80 dynes/cm at a concentration of 5 moles of sodium
chloride per liter of solution.
4.

Solutions of colloidal (long chain) electrolytes. In general, the surface

tension decreases with solute concentration but is followed by a region
over which the surface tension is virtually unchanged by solute
concentration. For example, the surface tension of water at 25 C will
be reduced by addition of sodium lauryl sulfate from 72 dynes/cm to 40
dynes/cm at a concentration of 0.01 moles per liter of solution. The
surface tension remains constant above this concentration.
A useful empirical relation often used to calculate surface tension is

through the concept of the parachor. The parachor for a pure substance is
defined as
M
L

where

1
4

(6.3)
g

is the parachor, M is the molecular weight of the liquid,

is the

surface tension of the liquid in dynes/cm, L is the saturated liquid density in

g/cm3 and

3
g is the saturated vapor density in g/cm . Parachor has definite

values for specific atoms and structures. Parachors are predicted from the
structure of the molecules or can be calculated for pure substances and
mixtures from surface tension measurements at atmospheric pressure. The
parachors for pure substances are given in Table 6.2.

Correlations for

parachors with molecular weight are shown in Figures 6.3 and 6.4. The
saturated liquid and vapor densities for various liquids are given in Figure
6.5.

Equation (3.4) can be rearranged to calculate the surface tension as

6-6

4
L

(6.4)

Table 4.2. Parachors for Computing Surface and Interfacial Tensions (Katz et
al., 1959)
Constituent

Parachor

Methane
Ethane
Propane
i-Butane
n-Butane
i-Pentane
n-Pentane
n-Hexane
n-Heptane
n-Octane
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Carbon dioxide

77.0
108.0
150.3
181.5
181.5
225.0
231.5
271.0
312.5
351.5
34 (approx)
41 (approx)
78

6-7

Figure 6.3. Parachors for computing interfacial tension of normal paraffin

hydrocarbons (Katz et al., 1959).

6-8

Figure 6.4. Parachors of heavy fractions for computing interfacial tension of

reservoir liquids (Firoozabadi et al., 1988).

6-9

Figure 6.5: Saturated liquid and vapor densities of various substances.

6-10

6.2.2 Interfacial Tension

Interfacial tension is the contractile force per unit length that exists at
the interface of two immiscible fluids such as oil and water (Figure 6.6). The
forces acting on the surface molecules are similar to those in the liquid-vapor
system, but the mutual attraction of unlike molecules across the interface
becomes important.

The free energy required to create a fresh interface is

referred to as the excess interfacial free energy. The specific excess interfacial
free energy is dimensionally equivalent and is numerically equal to the
interfacial tension. Like surface tension, the unit of measurement of
interfacial tension is dynes/cm (or ergs/cm2).
Consider butanol (C4H9OH) with a surface tension of 24 dynes/cm in
contact with water (H2O) with a surface tension of 72 dynes/cm. What will be
the interfacial tension between the two liquids?

For this system, the

interfacial tension is 1.8 dynes/cm, a fairly low number considering the

surface tensions of water and butanol. The low interfacial tension indicates
that the molecules of butanol must concentrate at the interface, decreasing
the contractile tendency of the interface. Interfacial orientation of the butanol
is favored because the hydrocarbon chain in the butanol is hydrophobic. At
20 C, the surface tension of ethanol is 22.39 dynes/cm and that of water is
72.80 dynes/cm. What is the interfacial tension between ethanol and water?
The answer is zero because ethanol and water are miscible. These examples
show that there is no simple relationship between the surface tensions of
liquids and their interfacial tensions.

Table 6.3 lists accurately known

interfacial tensions for various organic liquids against water.

The presence of a third component of the right kind can significantly
reduce the interfacial tension between two liquids.

For example, the

interfacial tension of water and iso-pentanol is 4.4 dynes/cm. If ethanol is

added to the system, the ethanol molecules will adsorb at the interface,

6-11

thereby reducing the interfacial tension between the water and the isopentanol. When 25% by weight of ethanol is added, the interfacial tension is
reduced to zero. The system then becomes miscible and forms a single phase.

Figure 6.6. Apparent surface film caused by unequal attraction of molecules

at the interface of two liquids.

Table 6.3. Interfacial Tension between Water and Pure Liquids

Liquid

T (C)

n-Hexane
n-Octane
Carbon disulphide
Carbon tetrachloride
Carbon tetrachloride
Bromobenzene
Benzene
Benzene
Nitrobenzene
Ethyl ether

20
20
20
20
25
25
20
25
20
20
6-12

(dynes/cm)
51.0
50.8
48.0
45.1
43.7
38.1
35.0
34.71
26.0
10.7

n-Octanol
n-Hexanol
Aniline
n-Pentanol
Ethyl acetate
Isobutanol
n-Butanol
n-Butanol

20
25
20
25
30
20
20
25

8.5
6.8
5.85
4.4
2.9
2.1
1.8
1.6

Chemicals that adsorb at interfaces are usually referred to as surface active

agents or surfactants.

Such chemicals form a monolayer at the interface.

The monolayer is in a state of compression which reduces the contractile

tendency of the interface, thereby reducing the interfacial tension.

The

presence of the adsorbed molecules creates a surface or spreading pressure

which reduces the interfacial tension. In fact,

where

is the reduced interfacial intension,

tension and

(6.5)
o is the original interfacial

is the spreading pressure. Surfactants are often used to reduce

the interfacial tension between oil and water in order to improve oil recovery.
The interfacial tensions between reservoir water and crude oils have
been measured for a number of reservoirs and found to range from 15 to 35
dynes/cm at 70 F, 8 to 25 dynes/cm at 100 F, and 8 to 19 dynes/cm at 130
F.

Table 6.4 presents the results of interfacial tension measurements for

some fluid pairs.

The interfacial tension between reservoir oil and gas can be estimated
using parachors as

6-13

i N
i
i 1

where

xi

ML

yi

(6.6)

Mg

is the interfacial tension between oil and gas in dynes/cm,

i is the

parachor of component i, xi is the mole fraction of component i in the liquid,

ML is the apparent molecular weight of the liquid,

is the saturated liquid

density in g/cm3, yi is the mole fraction of component i in the gas, Mg is the

apparent molecular weight of the gas, N is the total number of components in
the mixture and g is the saturated gas density in g/cm3.
Table 6.4. Typical Interfacial Tensions and Contact Angles for Fluid Pairs
(Archer and Wall, 1986)
Wetting
Phase

Non-Wetting
Phase

Conditions

Contact
Angle ()

Interfacial
Tension
(dynes/cm)

Brine
Brine
Brine
Brine
Oil
Gas

Oil
Oil
Gas
Gas
Gas
Mercury

Reservoir
Laboratory
Laboratory
Reservoir
Reservoir
Laboratory

30
30
0
0
0
140

30
48
72
50
4
480

Many reservoir phenomena depend on the interfacial tensions between

the reservoir fluids and between the reservoir fluids and the reservoir rock.
Interfacial tensions of reservoir water and oil can be reduced significantly by
the addition of surface active agents to either the oil or to the water. Some of
these surface active agents occur naturally in crude oils.

6-14

The residual oil saturation for an immiscible displacement in a porous

medium is a function of the interfacial tension between the fluids, the
wettability, the fluid viscosities and the displacement rate. Therefore, we can
write
Sor

f1

cos ,

nw

(6.7)

,v

Using the technique of Appendix A for dimensional analysis, it can be shown

that the rank of the dimensional matrix obtained from the four variables
cos ,

nw

and v is two. Therefore, two independent dimensionless groups

can be derived from the four variables. It can be shown that

nw

x1
x2

0
1

x3

x4

cos

1
1

x3

(6.8)

x4

Let us choose x3 = -1, x4 = 0. The corresponding dimensionless group is given

by

(6.9)

nw
w

Next, let us choose x3 = x4 = 1. The corresponding dimensionless group is

v
cos

(6.10)

The dimensionless group in Eq.(6.10),

v
cos
w

or

in the case of perfect

wetting, is known as the capillary number. It is the ratio of the viscous to the
capillary force. Thus,
6-15

v
cos
w

Nc

or

(6.11)

The functional relationship between the residual oil saturation and the two
dimensionless groups can be written as

Sor

nw

f2

v
cos

(6.12)

For a fixed viscosity ratio,

Sor

f3

v
cos

(6.13)

The oil recovery is given by

1 Sor S wi
1 S wi

f4

v
cos

(6.14)

Figure 6.7 shows typical correlations for residual saturations versus

capillary number for a wetting fluid displacing a nonwetting fluid and for a
nonwetting fluid displacing a wetting fluid. Such correlations are usually
referred to as capillary desaturation curves (CDC). Consider a wetting fluid
displacing a nonwetting fluid such as a waterflood in a water wet reservoir. It
can be seen that there is a critical capillary number below which the residual
nonwetting fluid saturation is constant and independent of the capillary
number. Normal waterfloods usually fall in this range of capillary number.
Above the critical capillary number, the residual oil saturation decreases as
the capillary number increases. Thus, the residual nonwetting phase can be
mobilized

and

displaced

by

increasing

the

capillary

number

displacement. Capillary number can be increased by increasing

of

the

and v .

However, the most effective way to increase the capillary number is by

6-16

lowering the interfacial tension between the wetting and nonwetting phases
with a surfactant. Interfacial tensions less that 0.1 dyne/cm can be achieved.
In the limit, if the interfacial tension could be lowered to zero, the fluids would
become miscible and no residual saturation would be left behind. Of course,
in a practical process, the interfacial tension cannot be reduced to zero except
in a miscible process.
Consider the case of a nonwetting fluid displacing a wetting fluid, such
as a waterflood of an oil wet reservoir. The capillary desaturation curve is
similar to that for the residual nonwetting fluid except that the critical value
of the capillary number is higher. It should be noted that the numerical
values of the residual saturations given in Figure 6.7 are for illustrative
purposes. It should not be assumed that waterfloods always have a residual
oil saturation of 30%, nor should one infer from the figure that it is more
efficient to displace a wetting fluid with a nonwetting fluid. The residual oil
saturation can be greater or less than 30% depending on such factors as the
mobility ratio of the displacement and the properties of the porous medium
such as pore structure, pore size distribution, permeability and wettability to
name a few. Also, in general, it is more difficult for a nonwetting fluid to
displace a wetting fluid than for a wetting fluid to displace a nonwetting fluid.

6-17

Figure 6.7. Typical correlations of residual nonwetting and wetting phase

saturations with capillary number (Lake, 1989).

Figure 6.8 shows capillary desaturation experimental data from Abrams

(1975) obtained on the same core sample but at different viscosity ratios.
Clearly, the decrease in residual oil saturation with increasing capillary
number is evident. Figure 6.9 shows the same data plotted against a modified
capillary number that includes the viscosity ratio,

0.4
w
o

of the viscosity ratio appears to improve the correlation.

6-18

. The inclusion

Figure 6.8. Capillary desaturation data (Abrams, 1975).

Figure 6.9. Capillary desaturation data with the effect of viscosity ratio
included (Abrams, 1975).

6-19

6.2.3 Measurements of Surface and Interfacial Tensions

Several techniques are used to measure surface and interfacial
tensions. These include (1) capillary rise method, (2) sessile drop method, (3)
pendant drop method, (4) ring method and (5) spinning drop method.
Capillary Rise Experiment
When a capillary tube is dipped into a wetting liquid, the liquid will be
spontaneously imbibed (sucked) into the capillary tube as shown Figure 6.10.

Figure 6.10. Capillary rise experiment.

6-20

The equilibrium height is determined by the balance between the capillary

suction force and the pull of gravity. The capillary force acts upward and for a
circular capillary tube is given by

Capillary Force

Force Up

(6.15)

2 r cos

The gravitational force acts downward and is given by

Gravitational Force

r 2h

Force Down

nw

(6.16)

The downward force also can be expressed in terms of the pressures on the
opposite sides of the meniscus as
Pr essure Force

r 2 Pnw

Force Down

Pw

(6.17)

At equilibrium, the force up is equal to the force down. Equating Eqs.(6.15)

and (6.16) gives

2 cos
r

nw

(6.18)

Eq.(6.18) can be rearranged as

rh

nw

2 cos
The surface tension,

(6.19)

, can be estimated by measuring the variables on the

right side of Eq.(6.19) in a capillary rise experiment. The experiment can be

simplified by using air as the nonwetting phase and treating the capillary tube
such that it is perfectly wetted by the wetting fluid. In this case,
0 and cos = 1. Eq.(6.19) becomes

6-21

nw

rh

(6.20)

2
By measuring r, h and

, an estimate of the surface tension can easily be

obtained from Eq.(6.20).

Eq.(6.20) can be used to define a characteristic capillary length scale as

1
wg

For water at 25 C,

= 72 dynes/cm,

rh
2

(6.21)

1 g/cm3 and of course, g = 981

cm/s2. Thus, for water,

72
1x981

0.2709 cm or 2.71 mm.

The significance of the capillary length is that when dealing with a system
1

with the characteristic length scale

, the effect of gravity is negligible

and capillary effect dominates the process. For example, at the pore scale
where the characteristic length is of the order of microns, capillary effect
dominates gravity effect.
Let us define another constant for the capillary rise experiment as

a2

2
wg

(6.22)

The constant a2 is a property of the wetting fluid only. For water at 25 C, a2 =

0.1468 cm2. Eq.(6.20) can be written as

a2

rh
6-22

(6.23)

Some famous scientists have studied the capillary rise experiment and have
proposed more elaborate equations to describe the capillary rise than
Eq.(6.23). Jurin (1718) gives the capillary rise equation as

a2

where the

r h

r
3

(6.24)

r
corrects for the volume of the liquid in the spherical meniscus.
3

Hagen and Desains (19xx) proposed

a2

rh 1

r
3h

0.1111r 2
h2

0.0741r 3
h3

(6.25)

where the last two terms on the right hand side correct for deviations of the
meniscus from sphericity. Rayleigh (1915) further refined Eq.(6.25) as

a2

rh 1

r
3h

0.1288r 2
h2

0.1312r 3
h3

(6.26)

For our purpose, we will use the simple version of the capillary rise equation,
Eq.(6.23).
Equating Eqs.(6.15), (6.16) and (6.17) gives

Pnw

Pw

2 cos
r

nw

(6.27)

Eq.(6.27) gives the excess pressure, (Pnw - Pw), across the curved interface
between the wetting and nonwetting phases in terms of the pertinent
variables of the capillary rise experiment. This excess pressure is known as
the capillary pressure (Pc) and will be the subject of Chapter 7. As shown in

6-23

Eq.(6.27), the excess pressure for the capillary rise experiment is positive,
which means that the pressure in the nonwetting phase is higher than that in
the wetting phase. Eq.(6.27) can now be written as

Pc

Pnw

Pw

2 cos
r

nw

(6.28)

Sessile Drop Method

The sessile drop method of determining the surface tension of a liquid
consists of measuring the number of liquid drops that fall from the capillary
end of the instrument while the surface of the liquid within the bulb is
lowered from the upper to the lower mark as shown in Figure 6.11.

The

principle of the method is based on the fact that the size of the liquid drop is
proportional to surface tension of the liquid. The size of the drop is reached
when the surface tension can no longer support its weight.

To a first

approximation,

Wideal
where Wideal is the

(6.29)

2 r

weight of the drop that should fall,

radius of the tube and

r is the external

is the surface tension. Figure 6.12 shows the

sequence of shapes for a drop that detaches from a tip. The detached drop
leaves behind some liquid residue. Thus, the actual weight of the drop which
is what is measured is less than the ideal weight.

To account for this,

Eq.(6.29) is modified as

Wactual

Wideal f

2 r f

6-24

(6.30)

where f is a correction factor which can be expressed as a function of

r
1

V3

where V is the volume of the drop. Table 6.5 shows the correction factors for
various

r
1

V3

Figure 6.11. Sessile drop method of measuring surface tension.

Figure 6.12. Sequence of shapes for a drop.

6-25

Table 6.5. Correction Factors for Sessile Drop Method (Adamson, 1982).

Pendant Drop Method

The pendant-drop method of measuring surface or interfacial tension
depends only on the density of the fluids and the dimensions of the drop.
Figure 6.13 shows a pendant drop and the relevant dimensions. The surface
or interfacial tension is given by

gd e2

(6.31)

H
where

is the surface tension, de is the maximum diameter of the drop, L is

the density of the liquid,

a function of

g is the density of the vapor, H is a constant that is

de
and g is the gravitational acceleration. The constant H is
ds

tabulated as a function of de/ds. The pendant drop method can be used to

measure surface tension or interfacial tension.

It can also be adapted for

measurements at elevated temperature and pressure.

6-26

Figure 6.13. Surface tension by pendant drop method.

Ring Method
The ring method of determining surface or interfacial tension depends
on measuring the force required to pull the ring free of the interface as shown
in Figure 6.14. Theoretically, the surface or interfacial tension is given by

F
2L
where

(6.32)

is the surface or interfacial tension, F is the force required to pull the

ring free of the interface and L is the circumference of the ring. The factor of 2
accounts for the fact that there are two surfaces around the ring. In practice,
corrections are needed to account for the mass of liquid lifted by the ring in
breaking through the interface as shown in Figure 6.15. Such corrections are
made available with the instrument. Figure 6.16 shows a typical instrument,
known as the du Nouy tensiometer, that employs the ring method for surface
or interfacial tension determination.
6-27

Figure 6.14. Surface tension by ring method.

6-28

Figure 6.15. Condition of liquid surface film at breaking point.

6-29

Figure 6.16. du Nouy tensiometer.

Spinning Drop Method

The spinning drop method of determining surface or interfacial tension
is based on measuring the shape of a drop of liquid or gas bubble in a more
dense liquid contained in a rotating horizontal tube. The drop or bubble is
typically rotated at speeds of 1,200 to 24,000 revolutions per minute (RPM).
Under rotation, the original spherical drop or bubble becomes elongated into a

6-30

cylindrical shape as shown in Figure 6.17. A strobe light is used to visualize

the deformed drop.

A microscope is used to measure the diameter of the

drop. The interfacial tension is given by

1
4

2 3

(6.33)

is the surface or interfacial tension, dynes/cm

where

difference between the two fluids in g/cm3,

is the density

is the angular velocity in

radians/s and r is the cylindrical radius of the drop in cm.

An instrument based on the spinning drop method has been designed
and patented at the University of Texas at Austin by Schechter and Wade
(Figure 6.18).

The instrument is manufactured and sold by the Chemistry

Department at the University of Texas.

The instrument is particularly

suitable for measuring low interfacial tensions and is therefore used

extensively in surfactant research. Interfacial tensions as low as 10-6
dyne/cm have been successfully measured with the instrument.

6.3 WETTABILITY
6.3.1 Definition
Wettability is a tendency for one fluid to spread on or adhere to a solid
surface in the presence of other immiscible fluids. The fluid that spreads or
adheres to the surface is known as the wetting fluid. In a petroleum reservoir,
the solid surface is the reservoir rock which may be sandstone, limestone, or
dolomite, together with cementing material. The fluids are water, oil and gas.
Normally, either water or oil is the wetting phase. Gas is always a nonwetting
phase.

6-31

Figure 3.17. Cylindrical liquid drops in a spinning drop apparatus. (A)

benzene-water system at 20,000 RPM, (B) octane-surfactant system at 6,000
RPM (Cayias et al., 1975).

6-32

Figure 6.18. Schematic of spinning drop tensiometer (Cayias et al., 1975).

Consider the water-oil-solid system shown in Figure 6.19.

interfacial tensions (specific free surface energies) arise:
interfacial tension,

os is the solid-oil

ow is the oil-water interfacial tension and

water-solid interfacial tension. The angle

Three

ws is the

is known as the contact angle and

is measured through the water (the more dense fluid). The contact angle is a
measure of the wettability of the solid.
At equilibrium, the interfacial tensions are related by the Young - Dupre
equation obtained by considering horizontal equilibrium of the point of
contact of the interfacial tensions. For Figure 6.19, this equation is given by

os

ws

ow

cos

6-33

(6.34)

The free surface energies for the oil-solid and water-solid interfaces
cannot be measured readily. However, their difference can be determined by
measuring the oil-water interfacial tension and the contact angle.

This

difference controls the movement of the interface before equilibrium is

achieved. The following may be deduced from Eq. (6.32):

Figure 6.19. Interfacial tensions in a water-oil-solid system.

1.

If the free surface energies for the oil-solid ( os) and the water-solid
( ws) interfaces are equal, the left side of Eq.(6.34) is zero. Since the
oil-water interfacial ( ow) tension is nonzero, cos on the right side of
Eq.(6.34) must be zero, giving a contact angle of 90. A contact angle of
90 means that the solid has no preferential wettability for the oil or the
water. This is a situation of neutral or intermediate wettability.

2.

If

ws

os then

< 90. The solid is said to be preferentially water

wet. When the oil, water and solid are first brought in contact, water
will advance and spread on the solid surface, displacing the oil until an
equilibrium contact angle is attained according Eq.(6.34).
6-34

During

spreading of the water, the free energy of the system is reduced since
ws

os. The difference ( os

ws) is known as the adhesion tension.

3.

If

4.

Complete spreading of the oil on the surface takes place if

ws

os then

> 90. The solid is said to be preferentially oil wet.

= 180 and

complete spreading of water on the surface takes place if

= 0.

Complete spreading of crude oil or water on a surface has never been

observed with reservoir fluids.
Figure 6.20 shows the equilibrium contact angles for four wettability states.
In Figure 6.20a, the surface is preferentially oil wet; in Figure 6.20b, the
surface is of neutral wettability; in Figure 6.20c, the surface is water wet; and
in Figure 6.20d, the surface is totally water wet.

6-35

Figure 6.20. Equilibrium contact angles showing four wettability states.

6.3.2 Determination of Wettability

Reservoir wettability is usually determined either by contact angle
measurement using reservoir fluids and a pure mineral surface or by an
imbibition test on a reservoir core sample using refined oil and a synthetic
brine. No wettability determination method involves the simultaneous use of
reservoir fluids and reservoir rock.

6-36

Contact Angle Method

Contact angle is one of the earliest and still most widely used
measurement

to

evaluate

reservoir

wettability.

The

contact

angle

measurement essentially seeks to establish whether or not the reservoir oil

contains surface active agents that could make an originally preferentially
water

wet

mineral

surface

become

preferentially

oil

wet

over

time.

Accordingly, the contact angle test uses reservoir oil and brine and a pure,
clean mineral surface which is known to be preferentially water wet at the
outset. In the absence of reservoir brine, synthetic brine is used in the test
since the surface active fluid is the oil and not in the brine. The solids
normally used in the test to represent reservoir rock are pure quartz (silica)
for a sandstone reservoir, pure calcite for a limestone reservoir and pure
dolomite crystal for a dolomite reservoir. These pure minerals are known to
be preferentially water wet initially. If the oil contains surface active agents,
then these will adsorb on the mineral surface over time and increase the
degree of oil wetness. This change in the wettability of the surface can be
observed and quantified by measuring the contact angle over time until an
equilibrium contact angle is obtained.

It is reasonable to assume that a

similar wetting equilibrium will be approached in the reservoir.

The contact angle measurement is performed with a contact angle cell
using an instrument known as a goniometer.

The mineral surface is

immersed in the brine (or oil) and allowed to equilibrate.

A drop of the oil (or

brine) is then introduced on to the surface with a hypodermic syringe as

shown in Figure 6.21. The contact angle is then measured over time. The
test can last several weeks depending on the time required to achieve
adsorption equilibrium.

The equipment can be adapted for contact angle

measurements at elevated pressures and temperatures.

6-37

Figure 6.21. Contact angle cell.

Two contact angles are normally measured: the advancing and receding
contact angles.

The advancing contact angle ( A) is the contact angle

obtained when water comes into equilibrium with a surface previously in

contact with oil as shown Figure 6.22. The receding contact angle ( R) is the
contact angle obtained when oil comes into equilibrium with a surface
previously in contact with water.

The advancing contact angle is always

greater than the receding contact angle. Normally, it is the advancing contact
angle that is reported as the contact angle in a wettability test.
Figure 6.23 shows the results of a contact angle test.
interesting observations can be made.

Several

The early time contact angle

measurements showed the solid to be preferentially water wet. However, as

6-38

time passed, the degree of water wetness diminished.

Eventually, after

adsorption equilibrium was achieved the solid was found to be preferentially

oil wet. Had the contact angle test been terminated prematurely, the
wettability assessment would have been wrong. Note that for this test, over
30 days of aging were needed to establish adsorption equilibrium.

Figure6.22. Advancing and receding contact angles.

Figure 6.23. Approach to equilibrium contact angle (Craig, 1971).

6-39

The major advantages of contact angle measurements are the reliability

of the results and the relative ease of obtaining uncontaminated reservoir
fluid samples compared to uncontaminated reservoir rock samples.

The

following disadvantages should be noted. (1) Contact angle is measured on a

flat, clean, homogeneous mineral surface. Such a surface does not exist in the
reservoir. (2)

Pure minerals are used in the test to simulate sandstone,

limestone and dolomite reservoir rocks.

Pure minerals may not be

representative of actual reservoir mineralogy. (3) The test can be very long and
requires extreme cleanliness and inertness of the test system. (4) There is
evidence that the contact angle is affected by which fluid was first in contact
with the solid.
Amott Wettability Test
The Amott wettability index is obtained by a combined imbibitiondisplacement test on a reservoir core sample using refined oil and synthetic
brine. After the reservoir core sample has been flushed with brine to residual
oil saturation and evacuated to remove gas, it is then subjected to the
following tests:
1.

The core is immersed in oil (e.g., kerosene) and the volume of brine
displaced by the imbibition of oil is measured after 20 hours in an
imbibition cell as shown in Figure 6.24.

2.

The core is centrifuged under kerosene and the additional brine

displaced by centrifuging is measured.

3.

The core is immersed in brine and the volume of oil displaced by the
imbibition of brine is measured after 20 hours.

4.

The core is centrifuged under brine and the additional oil displaced by
centrifuging is measured.

6-40

Figure 6.24. Imbibition cell.

The wettability indices of water (WIw) and oil (WIo) are calculated as follows:

WI w

Volume of oil displaced by brine imbibition

(6.35)
Volume of oil displaced by brine imbibition forced displacement

WI o

Volume of brine displaced by oil imbibition

(6.36)
Volume of brine displaced by oil imbibition forced displacement

The Amott wettability indices and dimensionless numbers that range from 0
to 1. If the rock is preferentially water-wet, WIo will be 0 and WIw > 0. The
greater the degree of water wetness, the closer will WIw be to 1. Similarly, if
6-41

the rock is preferentially oil wet, WIw will be 0 and WIo > 0. The greater the
degree of oil wetness, the closer will WIo be to 1. For a rock of intermediate or
neutral wettability, WIw and WIo will be 0 or close to 0.
difference WI w WI o

Sometimes, the

is used to as the wettability measure. In this case, the

wettability index will range from -1 to +1. An index of -1 indicates a strongly

oil wet rock whereas an index of +1 indicates a strongly water wet rock.
The Amott wettability index is a reliable measure of the wettability of
the core sample.

However, the wettability of the core sample may not be

representative of the wettability of the reservoir rock because of the difficulty

of obtaining an unaltered core sample. The wettability of the core sample may
easily be altered by the coring operation.
United States Bureau of Mines (USBM) Wettability Index
The USBM wettability index is obtained by carry out a number of forced
water and oil displacement experiments using a centrifuge. The results of
such experiments are shown in Figure 6.25. The sample is saturated initially
with water. The water is then displaced with oil to irreducible water saturation
using the centrifuge. This is the process labeled I in each figure. Next, the
sample, which contains initial oil saturation and irreducible water saturation
is then centrifuged in water to residual oil saturation. This is the process
labeled II in each figure. The sample, which now contains water and residual
oil saturation is then centrifuged in oil to irreducible water saturation. This is
the process labeled III in each figure. The USBM wettability index is calculated
as

USBM Wettability Index

6-42

Iw

log10

A1
A2

(6.37)

where A1 and A2 are the areas under the capillary pressure curves shown in
each figure.
The

area

under

capillary

pressure

curve

represents

the

thermodynamic work required for the displacement. The displacement of a

nonwetting phase by a wetting phase requires less work than the
displacement of a wetting phase by a nonwetting phase. Therefore, the ratio
of the areas under the capillary pressure curves,

A1
, is a measure of the
A2

degree of wettability of the porous medium. Therefore, the USBM wettability

index for a water wet medium will be positive as shown in Figure 6.25A, that
of an oil wet medium will be negative as shown in Figure 6.25B and that of a
medium of neutral wettability will be 0 as shown in Figure 6.25C. The USBM
wettability index ranges from -1 for a strongly oil wet rock to +1 for a strongly
water wet rock. The absolute value of the index is a measure of the degree of
wettability preference.

A wettability index of zero indicates no preferential

wetting by either fluid.

Figure 6.26 compares the USBM wettability index and the Amott
wettability index, WI w WI o , of forty three outcrop rock samples and three
reservoir rock samples. There is a strong correlation between the two
measures of wettability. In particular, both methods show the three reservoir
rock samples to be oil wet as indicated by the negative values for both
wettability indices.

6-43

Figure 6.25. Determination of USBM wettability index (Donaldson et al.,

1969).

6-44

Figure 6.26. A comparison of the USBM wettability index with Amott

wettability index for several core samples (Donaldson et al., 1969).

6.3.3 Wettability of Petroleum Reservoirs

The wettabilities of petroleum reservoirs span the entire spectrum from
preferentially water wet to preferentially oil wet reservoirs. Treibel et al. (1972)
measured the wettabilities of 30 sandstone and 25 carbonate reservoirs by
measuring contact angles at the reservoir temperatures using the reservoir
oils and synthetic brine. Quartz crystal was used to represent the sandstone
reservoirs whereas calcite crystal was used to represent the limestone and
dolomite reservoirs in the contact angle measurements. The wettabilities of
the reservoirs were evaluated using an arbitrary contact angle scale.
Reservoirs with contact angles from 0 to 75 were classified as water wet;
those with contact angles from 75 to 105 were classified as having

6-45

intermediate wettability and those with contact angles from 105 to 180 were
classified as preferentially oil wet.
The results showed that 27% of the reservoirs tested were preferentially
water wet, 66% were preferentially oil wet and the remaining 7% were of
intermediate wettability.

It was found that 43% of the sandstones were

preferentially water wet, 50% were preferentially oil wet and 7% were of
intermediate wettability. On the other hand, 84% of the carbonate reservoirs
were preferentially oil wet, 8% were preferentially water wet and 8% were of
intermediate wettability. It would appear from the results of this study that
carbonates are more likely to be preferentially oil wet than preferentially water
wet. However, this assertion cannot be generalized because the 55 reservoirs
used in this study were not obtained by random sampling. A random sample
of reservoirs would be needed if the results of the wettability tests are to be
given statistical significance.
A similar contact angle study by Chiligarian and Chen (1983) on 161
carbonate reservoirs showed 80% of the reservoirs to be preferentially oil wet,
8% to be preferentially water wet and 12% to be of intermediate wettability.
These results are consistent with those of Treibel et al.(1972).
6.3.4 Effect of Wettability on Rock -Fluid Interactions
Wettability has a profound effect on multiphase rock-fluid interactions.
Wettability affects (a) the microscopic fluid distribution at the pore scale in the
porous medium, (b) the magnitude of the irreducible water saturation, (c) the
efficiency of an immiscible displacement in the porous medium, (d) the
residual oil saturation, (e) the capillary pressure curve of the porous medium,
(f) the relative permeability curves of the porous medium and (g) the electrical
properties of the porous medium.
Microscopic Fluid Distribution at the Pore Scale
6-46

Wettability determines the microscopic fluid distribution in a porous

medium at the pore scale. The wetting fluid occupies the small pores, coats
the surface of the solid grains and occupies the corners of the grain contacts.
The wetting phase occupies the small pores, which have high specific surface
areas (S=3(1- )/r) in order to minimize the specific surface free energy of the
system. The nonwetting phase occupies the large pores and are located at the
center of the pores.

These pore scale fluid distributions are shown

schematically in Figure 6.27 for water wet and oil wet porous media. For the
water wet medium, at the initial state, water being the wetting phase coats the
grain surface and occupy the nooks and crannies of the medium. Oil, being
the nonwetting phase occupies the center of the pores and is surrounded by
water. After waterfooding, the residual oil globules occupy the center of the
pores. For the oil wet medium, oil being the wetting phase coats the grain
surface and occupy the nooks and crannies of the medium. The water, being
the nonwetting phase occupies the center of the pores and is surrounded by
oil. After waterflooding, the water occupies the center of the pores and the
residual oil wets the grain surface and occupies the nooks and crannies of the
medium. These microscopic fluid arrangements have implications for the
nature of the end point relative permeabilities of a water wet rock and an oil
wet rock.
Effect of Wettability on Irreducible Water Saturation
It has been observed that the irreducible water saturation in an oil wet
reservoir rock tends to be less than in a water wet reservoir rock. Craig (1971)
gives the following rule-of-thumb for irreducible water saturation for water
wet and oil wet reservoirs. For water wet reservoirs, the irreducible water
saturation is usually greater than 20 to 25% whereas for oil wet reservoirs it
is generally less than 15% and frequently less than 10% of the pore volume.

6-47

Figure 6.27. Fluid distributions as a function of wettability (adapted from

Pirson, 1958).

Effect of Wettability on Electrical Properties of Rocks

Wettability affects the saturation exponent, n, in Archie's resistivity
index equation. For water wet rocks, the exponent is typically around 2.
However, for oil wet rocks, the exponent can increase to rather high values as
the water saturation decreases. Table 6.6 shows the result of laboratory
measurements of n as a function of water saturation in an oil wet sandstone.
It can be observed that below a certain water saturation, the saturation
exponent increases above the usual value of 2. An exponent as high as 9 was
measured in the experiments.
6-48

Table 6.6. Archie Saturation Exponent in Oil Wet Rocks (Mungan and Moore,
1968).

Figure 5.28 shows the effect of wettability on the resistivity index of

carbonate cores. In this study, the cores were rendered preferentially water
wet by heating up to 500 F and preferentially oil wet by washing with an
organic acid. Measurements were also made on cores that were of neutral
wettability. The wettability classification was based on imbibition tests. The
equations relating resistivity index to water saturation for neutral and
preferentially water wet cores are I

S w1.92 and I

S w1.61 , giving saturation

exponents of 1.92 and 1.61, respectively. The data for the preferentially oil wet
cores separated into two distinct trends described by the equations

0.000027 S w12.27 for the first trend and I

0.37 S w8.09 for the second trend, giving

saturation exponents of 12.27 and 8.09. The separation of the oil wet data
was attributed to differences in the pore size distributions of the cores.

6-49

Figure 6.28. Effect of wettability on the resistivity index of carbonate cores

(Sweeney and Jennings, 1960).

It is reasonable to expect that wettability will affect the resistivity and

hence the saturation exponent of a partially saturated porous medium. In an
oil wet medium, water being the nonwetting phase occupies the center of the
large pores. At high water saturations, the water is continuous and therefore
conducts electrical current. As the water saturation is decreased, below a
certain water saturation, the water will breakup into disconnected globules
and can no longer conduct electrical current. As a result, the resistivity of the
system will increase and this increase in resistivity is reflected in the increase
in the water saturation exponent as observed in the experiments.
6-50

Effect of Wettability on the Efficiency of an Immiscible Displacement

Wettability has a significant effect on the efficiency of an immiscible
displacement in a porous medium.

Figure 6.29 shows schematically the

microscopic displacement of oil from a water wet medium and an oil wet
medium at the pore scale. In the water wet medium, the injected water is
imbibed into the medium along the pore walls in a manner that enhances the
oil displacement efficiency. The residual oil is trapped at the center of the
large pores. In the oil wet medium, the injected water channels through the
large pores leaving behind considerable residual oil in the small pores, at the
solid contacts and as coatings on the solid grains.

From this pore level

picture, it is easy to see that the waterflood efficiency will be higher in the
water wet medium than in the oil wet medium everything else being equal.
The higher waterflood efficiency of the water wet rock compared to the
oil wet rock seen at the pore scale manifests itself at the macroscopic scale
(core scale) as well.

Owens and Archer (1971) performed waterflood

experiments in core plugs (1.9 cm diameter and 4.4 cm length) at various

wettability conditions. The core plugs were rendered progressively oil wet by
dissolving a sulfonate in the oil phase. Figure 6.30 shows the oil recovery
curves for the waterfloods as a function of the wettability of the core. The
decline in the oil recovery efficiency with increasing oil wetness is obvious.

6-51

Figure 6.29. Microscopic displacement of oil from a pore during a waterflood:

(a) strongly water wet medium, (b) strongly oil wet medium (Raza et al., 1968).

6-52

Figure 6.30. Effect of wettability on waterflood performance at an oil-water

viscosity ratio of 5 (Archer and Owens, 1971).

Peters

and

Hardham

(1989)

have

conducted

similar

waterflood

experiments in unconsolidated sandpacks at a larger scale (4.8 cm diameter

and 54 cm length) than core plugs. The results of two such experiments are
presented here. In Experiment 1, the sandpack was first saturated with brine
and the brine was displaced by a viscous silicon-based test oil (103.4 cp) to
establish irreducible water saturation in contact with the sand grains. The
viscous oil was then displaced by brine to simulate a waterflood at an
unfavorable viscosity ratio of 85. In Experiment 2, a second sandpack was
6-53

first saturated with the same viscous silicon-based oil and the oil was then
displaced by the same brine to simulate a waterflood at the same unfavorable
mobility ratio as in Experiment 1. Although the wettabilities of the sandpacks
were not measured directly, it is believed that the first sandpack would
behave as a water wet system whereas the second sandpack would behave as
an oil wet system over the short time scale of the experiments.

Both

waterfloods were imaged by X-ray CT to visualize the insitu fluid saturations

in time and space.
The oil recovery curves for the two waterflood experiments are shown in
Figure 6.31. They show the displacement in the water wet sandpack to be
more efficient than in the oil wet sandpack . These results are in agreement
with those of Archer and Owens. The low water breakthrough recoveries in
this study are due to the high oil-water viscosity ratio of 85.
Figures 6.32 and 6.33 show the water saturation images for the two
waterfloods at several pore volumes injected. The images for the water wet
sandpack show a relatively uniform and efficient displacement of the oil by
the water, with relatively high water saturations. In contrast, the images for
the oil wet sandpack show a chaotic, fragmented and inefficient displacement,
with relatively low water saturations. These images clearly show the important
role of wettability in determining the efficiency of waterfloods at the
macroscopic scale. Figures 6.34 and 6.35 show the water saturation profiles
for the experiments. They confirm the higher displacement efficiency of
Experiment 1 compared to Experiment 2.

6-54

Figure 6.31. Effect of wettability on waterflood performance at an oil-water

viscosity ratio of 91 (Peters and Hardham, 1989).

6-55

6-56

6-57

Figure 6.32. Water saturation images for a waterflood in a water wet

sandpack at a viscosity ratio of 91. (A) tD = 0.05, (B) tD = 0.10, (C ) tD = 0.25,
(D) tD = 0.50, (E) tD = 1.0, (F) tD = 2.0, (G) tD = 3.0 (Peters and Hardham,
1989).

6-58

6-59

6-60

6-61

Figure 6.33. Water saturation images for a waterflood in an oil wet sandpack
at a viscosity ratio of 91: (A) tD = 0.05, (B) tD = 0.10, (C ) tD = 0.25, (D) tD =
0.50, (E) tD = 1.0, (F) tD = 2.0, (G) tD = 3.0 (Peters and Hardham, 1989).

6-62

Figure 6.34. Water saturation profiles for a waterflood in a water wet

sandpack.

Figure 6.35. Water saturation profiles for a waterflood in an oil wet sandpack.
6-63

6.4 THERMODYNAMICS OF INTERFACES

6.4.1 Characterization of Interfacial Tension as Specific Surface Free
Energy
Consider a closed system consisting of the interface between two
immiscible fluids or between an immiscible fluid and a solid surface. The first
law of thermodynamics applied to this system gives

dU

(6.38)

dQ dW

where dU is the change in total internal energy of the system, dQ is the

heat

input into the system and dW is the work done by the system. For an
equilibrium system, infinitesimal changes are reversible so that the reversible
work is given by
dW

PdV

(6.39)

da

where da is the interfacial area. For a closed system,

(6.40)

dQ TdS

Substitution of Eqs.(6.39) and (6.40) into Eq.(6.38) gives for a closed system,
dU

TdS

PdV

(6.41)

da

For an open system, Eq.(6.41) becomes

i N

dU

TdS PdV

da

dni

(6.42)

i 1

where i is the chemical potential or molal free energy of component i in the

system, ni is the moles of component i in the system and N is
6-64

the

total

number of components in the system. At equilibrium,

i is the same in the

bulk fluid and at the interface.

We may obtain the interfacial tension from Eq.(6.42) in terms of the
internal energy of the system as

U
a

(6.43)
S ,V , ni

The interfacial tension also can be expressed in terms of Helmholtz Free

Energy (A) and Gibbs Free Energy (G). The Helmholtz free energy is defined by
A U TS

(6.44)

dA dU TdS SdT

(6.45)

Differentiating Eq.(6.44) gives

Substituting Eq.(6.42) into Eq.(6.45) gives

dA

SdT

PdV

da

i N
i

dni

(6.46)

i 1

We may obtain the interfacial tension from Eq.(6.46) in terms of the Helmholtz
free energy of the system as

A
a

(6.47)
T ,V , ni

Gibbs free energy is defined by

G

A PV

U TS

PV

6-65

H TS

(6.48)

where H is the enthalpy of the system. Differentiating Eq.(6.48) gives

dG

dU VdP PdV TdS SdT

(6.49)

Substituting Eq.(6.42) into Eq.(6.49) gives

i N

dG VdP SdT

da

dni

(6.50)

i 1

We may obtain the interfacial tension from Eq.(6.50) in terms of Gibbs free
energy of the system as

G
a

(6.51)
T , P , ni

In general, changes in P and V accompanying surface changes are small.

6.4.2 Characterization of Microscopic Pore Level Fluid Displacements
We wish to examine the direction of energy change during an
immiscible displacement at the pore scale. The Helmholtz free energy of the
system will change as the displacement progresses. Our objective is to
determine whether the displacement will lead to a decrease or an increase in
the Helmholtz free energy of the system. A system in equilibrium always seeks
to minimize its free energy. Therefore, a displacement that leads to a decrease
in the free energy of the system is favored. Such a displacement will occur
spontaneously (without pumping) given the chance. On the other hand, a
displacement that leads to an increase in the free energy of the system is not
favored and will not occur spontaneously. Such a displacement will have to be
forced by pumping the displacing fluid.
Case 1. Displacement of a Nonwetting Phase by a Wetting Phase

6-66

Consider the displacement of a nonwetting phase by a wetting phase,

such as water displacing oil in a water wet medium, at the pore level as
shown in Figure 6.36. The interfacial forces and interfacial areas at an instant
are also shown in Figure 6.36. The Helmholtz free energy of the system is a
function of the interfacial areas. Thus,
A

(6.52)

f asw , aso , awo

Let the interface move to the right by a small distance dx. The change in the
Helmholtz free energy of the system as the interfacial areas change is given by

dA

A
dasw
asw

A
daso
aso

A
dawo
awo

(6.53)

Figure 6.36. Displacement of a nonwetting phase by a wetting phase at the

pore scale.

Suppose the wettingnonwetting phase interface maintains the same shape

during the displacement. Then

6-67

(6.54)

dasw

2 rdx increase in the area

(6.55)

daso

2 rdx

(6.56)

dawo
Also, from the geometry of Figure 6.36,

decrease in the area

where r is the radius of the pore. The interfacial forces are given in terms of
the Helmholtz free energy by Eq.(6.47). Substituting Eqs.(6.47), (6.54), (6.55)
and (6.56) into Eq.(6.53) gives the change in Helmholtz free energy of the
system as

dA
dx

2 r

so

sw

(6.57)

For the wettingnonwetting interface to move to the right requires an

imbalance in the interfacial forces given by

so

sw

so

sw

wo

cos

(6.58)

Eq.(6.58) can be rewritten as

wo

cos

(6.59)

The right side of Eq.(5.59) is a positive number. The left side of Eq.(6.59) is
larger than this positive number. When these facts are applied to Eq.(6.57),
we see that the change in the Helmholtz free energy during the displacement
is negative. This means that the Helmholtz free energy will decrease as the
nonwetting phase is displaced by the wetting phase. This is a favored
displacement. In fact, the displacement will occur spontaneously if given the
opportunity to do so. This is the origin of spontaneous imbibition, which
6-68

explains the spontaneous imbibition of a wetting fluid in the capillary tube

experiment. We can calculate an effective displacing force as

Feffective

dA
dx

(6.60)

Thus, an effective displacing force develops spontaneously to enable the

wetting phase to displace the nonwetting phase. Such a force will develop
spontaneously to enable water to displace oil in a water wet porous medium.
Case 2. Displacement of a Wetting Phase by a Nonwetting Phase
Consider the displacement of a wetting phase by a nonwetting phase,
such as water displacing oil in an oil wet medium, at the pore level as shown
in Figure 6.37. Let the interface move to the right by a small distance dx.
Because the nonwetting phase never contacts the solid,

dasw

(6.61)

Because the wetting phase is always in contact with the solid,

daso

(6.62)

The change in the wettingnonwetting phase interfacial area is given by

dawo

2 r *dx

6-69

(6.63)

Figure 6.37. Displacement of a wetting phase by a nonwetting phase at the

pore scale.

where r* is the radius from the center of the pore to the thin wetting phase
film on the surface of the pore. Substituting Eqs.(6.47), (6.61), (6.62) and
(6.63) into Eq.(6.53) gives the change in the Helmholtz free energy of the
system as

dA
dx

2 r

(6.64)

wo

Eq.(6.64) shows that the Helmholtz free energy of the system increases during
the displacement. This is not a favored displacement. Thus, the displacement
will not occur spontaneously. It must be forced by pumping.

The effective

displacement force in this case is given by

Feffective

dA
dx

(6.65)

Thus, a negative displacement force arises to oppose the displacement of the

wetting phase by the nonwetting phase. This is why a positive displacement

6-70

pressure is required in order to initiate a drainage capillary pressure

measurement.
To minimize the increase in free energy of the system during the
displacement, r* will be as small as possible. Thus, the injected nonwetting
phase will channel or finger through the wetting phase leaving behind a
significant wetting phase film and residual wetting phase saturation. This
means that the waterflood efficiency of an oil wet medium will be less than the
waterflood efficiency of a water wet medium. This observation is in agreement
with the microscopic picture of the displacements shown in Figure 6.29.

NOMENCLATURE
a

interfacial area

Helmholtz free energy

force

gravitational acceleration

Gibbs free energy

equilibrium height in a capillary rise experiment

enthalpy

molecular weight

Mg =

apparent molecular weight of gas

ML =

apparent molecular weight of liquid

ni

moles of component i

total number of components in the mixture

Nc

capillary number

pressure

Pc

capillary pressure

Pnw =

pressure in the nonwetting phase

Pw

pressure in the wetting phase

radius of capillary tube, pore radius, radius of spinning drop

heat
6-71

oil recovery

entropy

Ss

surface entropy

Sor =

residual oil saturation

temperature

internal energy

Darcy velocity

volume

work

xi

mole fraction of component i in the liquid

yi

mole fraction of component i in the gas

surface or interfacial tension

os

oil solid interfacial tension (oil solid specific surface energy)

ow

oil water interfacial tension (oil water specific surface energy)

ws

water solid interfacial tension (water solid specific surface energy)

contact angle

advancing contact angle

receding contact angle

saturated liquid density

saturated gas density

wetting phase density

nw

nonwetting phase density

chemical potential of component i

viscosity of wetting phase

nw

viscosity of nonwetting phase

parachor

spreading pressure

6-72

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Abrams, A. : "The Influence of Fluid Viscosity, Interfacial Tension, and Flow
Velocity on Residual Oil Saturation Left by Waterflood," Soc. Pet. Eng.
Jour. (Oct., 1975) 437-447.
Adamson, A.W. and Gast, A.P.: Physical Chemistry of Surfaces, Sixth Edition,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1997.
Amott, E. : Observations Relating to Wettability of Porous Rock, Trans.,
AIME (1959) 216, 156-162.
Anderson, W.G. : Wettability Literature Survey - Part 1: Rock/Oil/Brine
Interactions and the Effects of Core Handling on Wettability, J. Pet.
Tech. (October 1986) 1125-1144.
Anderson, W.G. : Wettability Literature Survey - Part 2: Wettability
Measurement, J. Pet. Tech. (November 1986) 1246-1262.
Anderson, W.G. : Wettability Literature Survey - Part 3: The Effects of
Wettability on the Electrical Properties of Porous Media, J. Pet. Tech.
(December 1986) 1371-1378.
Anderson, W.G. : Wettability Literature Survey - Part 4: Effects of Wettability
on Capillary Pressure, J. Pet. Tech. (October 1987) 1283-1300.
Anderson, W.G. : Wettability Literature Survey - Part 5: The Effects of
Wettability on Relative Permeability, J. Pet. Tech. (November 1987)
1453-1468.
Anderson, W.G. : Wettability Literature Survey - Part 6: The Effects of
Wettability on Waterflooding, J. Pet. Tech. (December 1987) 1605-1622.
Archer, J.S. and Wall, C.G. : Petroleum Engineering, Graham & Trotman,
London, England, 1986.
Bear, J. : Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Elsevier, New York, 1972.
Benner, F.C. and Bartell, F.E. : The Effect of Polar Impurities Upon Capillary
and Surface Phenomena in Petroleum Production, API Drilling and
Production Practice (1941) 341-348.
Bobek, J.E., Mattax, C.C. and Denekas, M.O. : Reservoir Rock Wettability Its Significance and Evaluation, Trans., AIME (1958) 213, 155-160.
Chatzis, I. and Morrow, N.R. : Correlation of Capillary Number Relationships
for Sandstones, SPE 10114, Presented at the 56th Annual Fall
Technical Conference and Exhibition of the Society of Petroleum
Engineers, San Antonio, October 5-7, 1981.
Chilingar, G.V. and Yen, T.F. : Some Notes on Wettability and Relative
Permeabilities of Carbonate Rocks, Energy Sources , vol. 7, No. 1 (1983)
67-75.
6-73

Choquette, P.W. and Pray, L.C. : Geologic Nomenclature and Classification of

Porosity in Sedimentary Carbonates, AAPG Bull., Vol. 54, No. 2 (1970)
207-250.
Collins, R.E. : Flow of Fluids Through Porous Materials, Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company, 1961. Reprinted by the Petroleum Publishing Company,
1976. Reprinted by Research & Engineering Consultants Inc., 1990.
Craig, F.F., Jr. : The Reservoir Engineering Aspects of Waterflooding, SPE
Monograph Vol. 3, Society of Petroleum Engineers, Richardson, Texas,
1971.
Cuiec, L.E. : Study of Problems Related to the Restoration of Natural State of
Core Samples, J. Canadian Pet. Tech (Oct. - Dec. 1977) 68-80.
de Gennes, P.G. and Quere, D. : Capillarity and Wetting Phenomena, Springer
Science and Business Media, Inc., 2004.
Denekas, M.O., Mattax, C.C. and Davis, G.T. : Effects of Crude Oil
Components on Rock Wettability, Trans., AIME (1959) 216, 330-333.
Donaldson, E.C., Thomas, R.D. and Lorenz, P.B. : Wettability Determination
and Its Effect on Recovery Efficiency, Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (March 1969)
13-20.
Donaldson, E.C., Kendall, R.F., Pavelka, E.A. and Crocker, M.E. : Equipment
and Procedures for Fluid Flow and Wettability Tests of Geological
Materials, DOE/BETC/IC-79/5, Nat. Tech. Info. Sv, Springfield, VA
2216, 1980.
Garnes, J.M., Mathisen, A.M., Scheie, A. and Skauge, A. : "Capillary Number
Relations for Some North Sea Reservoir Sandstones," SPE/DOE 20264,
Presented at the SPE/DOE Seventh Symposium on Enhanced Oil
Recovery, Tulsa, April 22-25, 1990.
Howard, J.J. : "Wettability and Fluid Saturations Determined From NMR T1
Distribution," Magnetic Resonance Imaging, " Vol. 12, No. 2 (1994) 197200.
Jennings, H.Y. : Surface Properties of Natural and Synthetic Porous Media,
Producers Monthly (March 1957) 20-24.
Lake, L.W. : Enhanced Oil Recovery, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, 1989.
Marle, C.M. : Multiphase Flow in Porous Media, Gulf Publishing Company,
Houston, Texas, 1981.
Melrose, J.C. : "Interfacial Phenomena as Related to Oil Recovery
Mechanisms," Cnd J. Chem. Eng., Vol. 48 (Dec. 1970) 638-644.
Morrow, N.R. : Wettability and Its Effect on Oil Recovery, J. Pet. Tech.
(December 1990) 1476-1484.
6-74

Morrow, N.R., Cram, P.J. and McCaffery, F.G. : "Displacement Studies in

Dolomite With Wettability Control by Octanoic Acid," SPEJ (August
1973) 221-232.
Mungan, N. : Enhanced Oil Recovery Using Water as a Driving Fluid; Part 2 Interfacial Phenomena and Oil Recovery: Wettability, World Oil (March
1981) 77-83.
Mungan, N. : Enhanced Oil Recovery Using Water as a Driving Fluid; Part 3 Interfacial Phenomena and Oil Recovery: Capillarity, World Oil (May
1981) 149-158.
Mungan, N. and Moore, E.J. : "Certain Wettability Effects on Electrical
Resisitivity in Porous Media," J. Cdn. Pet. Tech. (Jan.-March 1968) 7,
No.1, 20-25.
Owens, W.W. and Archer, D.L. : The Effect of Rock Wettability on Oil-Water
Relative Permeability Relationships, J. Pet. Tech. (July 1971) 873-878.
Peters, E. J. and W. D. Hardham: A Comparison of Unstable Miscible and
Immiscible Displacements, SPE 19640, Proceedings of the 64th Annual
Technical Conference of the Society of Petroleum Engineers (October
1989) San Antonio.
Peters, E.J. and Hardham, W.D. : Visualization of Fluid Displacements in
Porous Media Using Computed Tomography Imaging, Journal of
Petroleum Science and Engineering, 4, No. 2, (May 1990) 155-168.
Pirson, S.J. : Oil Reservoir Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1958.
Raza, S.H., Treiber, L.E. and Archer, D.L. : Wettability of Reservoir Rocks and
Its Evaluation, Producers Monthly (April 1968) 2-7.
Rowlinson, J.S. and Widom, B. : Molecular Theory of Capillarity, Dover
Publications, Inc., Mineola, New York, 1982.
Sweeny, S.A. and Jennings, H.Y. : "Effect of Wettability on the Electrical
Resistivity of Carbonate Rock from a Petroleum Reservoir," J. Phy.
Chem. (May 1960) 64, 551-553.
Tiab, D. and Donaldson, E.C. : Petrophysics, Second Edition, Elsevier, New
York, 2004.
Treiber, L.E., Archer, D.L. and Owens, W.W. : A Laboratory Evaluation of the
Wettability of Fifty Oil-Producing Reservoirs, Soc. Pet. Eng. J.
(December 1972) 531-540.
Wagner, O.R. and Leach, R.O. : Improving Oil Displacement Efficiency by
Wettability Adjustment, Trans., AIME (1959) 216, 65-72.

6-75

Welge, H.J. and Bruce, W.A. : A Restored-State Method for Determination of

Oil in Place and Connate Water, API Drilling and Production Practice
(1947) 161-165.
Willhite, G. P. : Waterflooding, SPE Textbook Series Vol. 3, Society of
Petroleum Engineers, Richardson, Texas, 1986.

6-76

CHAPTER 7

CAPILLARY PRESSURE
7.1 DEFINITION OF CAPILLARY PRESSURE
When two immiscible fluids are in contact, there is a pressure
discontinuity between the two fluids which depends upon the curvature of the
interface separating the two fluids. This pressure difference or excess
pressure is known as the capillary pressure. The pressure on the concave side
of the interface is higher than that on the convex side of the interface. Figure
7.1 shows a curve interface between to immisicible fluids labeled 1 and 2. The
pressure P2 is greater than P1. The capillary pressure is given by Laplace
equation (sometimes referred to as Young-Laplace equation) as

Pc

P2

P1

1
r1

1
r2

(7.1)

In Eq.(7.1), r1 and r2 are referred to as the principal radii of curvature of the

interface. They are mutually perpendicular. The curvature of the interface is
given by

7-1

Curvature

1
r1

1
r2

(7.2)

Figure 7.1. Equilibrium at a curved interface between two immiscible fluids.

7-2

Laplace equation can be derived by considering the mechanical

equilibrium of the interface or by energy considerations. We derive it here by
energy considerations. Let the interface be expanded by a small amount in the
xyz directions, where z is vertically upward. The increase is surface area of the
interface is given by
da

x dx

y dy

xy

xdy

ydx dxdy

xdy

ydx

(7.3)

where dxdy is considered negligibly small. The increase in surface energy is

given by
dE

xdy

(7.4)

ydx

The work done in increasing the interfacial area is given by

W

P2

(7.5)

P1 xydz

At equilibrium, the work done is equal to the increase in surface energy.

Thus,
P2

P1 xydz

xdy

ydx

(7.6)

From similar triangles (Figure 7.2),

x dx
r1 dz

x
r1

(7.7)

y dy
r2 dz

y
r2

(7.8)

Substituting Eqs.(7.7) and (7.8) into Eq.(7.6) and rearranging gives

7-3

Pc

P2

1
r1

P1

1
r2

(7.1)

which is Laplace equation. A mean radius of curvature, rm, may be defined as

1
rm

1 1
2 r1

1
r2

(7.9)

In terms of the mean radius of curvature, Laplace equation becomes

Pc

2
rm

(7.10)

Figure 7.2. Fluid interface in the planes of the principal radii of curvature.

7-4

Laplace equation is the fundamental equation of capillarity. Several

special cases of Laplace equation are of interest. For a spherical liquid drop,
r1 = r2 = r, the radius of the drop.

The capillary pressure or the excess

pressure of the drop is given by

Pc

2
r

(7.11)

For a soap bubble in air, r1 = r2 = r, the radius of the bubble. The capillary
pressure or excess pressure is given by

Pc

4
r

(7.12)

where a factor of 2 has been incorporated to account for the two gas-liquid
interfaces of a soap bubble. For a flat interface, r1 = r2 =

. In this case, the

capillary pressure is zero. If the two immiscible fluids are in contact with a
solid surface, the interface will intersect the solid at an equilibrium contact
angle

given by the Young-Dupre equation. Such an interface is shown in

Figure 7.3 for the capillary rise experiment. Laplace equation holds at the
interface. Assuming the interface lies on a sphere as shown in the figure, then
r1 = r2 = r/cos

where r is the radius of the capillary tube. The capillary

pressure is given by

Pc

1
r1

1
r2

cos
r

7-5

cos
r

2 cos
r

(7.13)

Figure 7.3. Interface for capillary rise experiment.

For a pendular ring of wetting fluid at the contacts of two spherical

sand grains in an idealized porous medium consisting of a cubic pack of
uniform spheres as shown in Figure 7.4, the capillary pressure is given by
Laplace equation as

Pc

cos

1
r1

7-6

1
r2

(7.14)

In this case, the principal radii of curvature are on opposite sides of the
interface. By sign convention, one radius will be positive and the other will be
negative.

Figure 7.4. Immiscible fluid interface in an idealized porous medium.

If the wetting fluid saturation in the pendular ring is reduced, r1 and r2 will be
reduced. However, r1 will be reduced more than r2 as the wetting phase
recedes into the corners of the contact of the grains. As a result, the capillary
pressure will increase. If the wetting fluid saturation is increased, r1 and r2
will increase and the capillary pressure will decrease. Therefore, an inverse
relationship exists between the capillary pressure and the wetting phase
saturation for a porous medium. Low wetting phase saturation corresponds
7-7

to high capillary pressure and high wetting phase saturation corresponds to

low capillary pressure.

7.2 CAPILLARY PRESSURE - SATURATION RELATIONSHIP

FOR A POROUS MEDIUM
Before considering the capillary pressure versus saturation relationship
for a porous medium, it is instructive to consider the relationship for an
idealized medium consisting of a bundle of capillary tubes of varied radii. In
this case, the capillary pressure versus wetting phase saturation relationship
can be calculated. Let the bundle of capillary tubes medium be dipped into
the wetting phase and allowed to attain capillary equilibrium as shown in
Figure 7.5. The wetting fluid will rise to a different elevation (z) above the free
wetting fluid level in each tube depending on its radius as shown in the figure.
Let the model consist of ten capillary tubes with their radii as shown in Table
7.1. Let the wetting fluid be water with a surface tension of 72 dynes/cm and
a contact angle of 0 with the solid. The non-wetting phase is air. The
equilibrium height of water in each capillary tube can be calculated with
Eq.(6.18) as

2 cos
r wg

0.1468
cm
r

(7.15)

The capillary pressure in each tube is given by Laplace equation as

Pc

2 cos
r

144
dynes / cm 2
r

(7.16)

The wetting phase saturation as a function of elevation z is calculated from

the dimensions of the capillary tubes and is presented in Table 7.1.

7-8

Figure 7.5. Capillary rise experiment for a bundle of capillary tubes medium.

Table 7.1. Capillary Pressure versus Wetting Phase Saturation for Bundle of
Capillary Tubes Model.
Radius

Pc

Pc

Pc

Volume

Volume

Water

( m)

(dynes/cm2

(atm)

(psi)

cm

(cm3)

Fraction

Saturation

)
0.00

1.000

100

14400.0

0.014

0.209

14.68

0.0046

0.182

0.818

90

16000.0

0.016

0.232

16.31

0.0042

0.164

0.655

80

18000.0

0.018

0.261

18.35

0.0037

0.145

0.509

70

20571.4

0.020

0.298

20.97

0.0032

0.127

0.382

60

24000.0

0.024

0.348

24.46

0.0028

0.109

0.273

50

28800.0

0.028

0.418

29.36

0.0023

0.091

0.182

40

36000.0

0.036

0.522

36.70

0.0018

0.073

0.109

30

48000.0

0.047

0.696

48.93

0.0014

0.055

0.055

20

72000.0

0.071

1.044

73.39

0.0009

0.036

0.018

10

144000.0

0.142

2.088

146.79

0.0005

0.018

0.000

7-9

0.0254

Figures 7.6 and 7.7 show the capillary pressure versus wetting phase
saturation for this idealized medium. In Figure 7.6, the capillary pressure is
presented as height in cm above the free water level whereas in Figure 7.7,
the capillary pressure is given in psi. Both presentations are valid and can be
used for different purposes. The presentation in Figure 7.6 gives the water
saturation distribution as a function of the height above the free water level.
This type of presentation can be used to determine the water saturation
distribution in a petroleum reservoir starting from the free water level at or
below the oil water contact to the top of the reservoir. The presentation in
Figure 7.7 is useful for calculating pore size distribution.
The capillary pressure versus saturation relationship for the idealized
porous medium shown in Figures 7.6 and 7.7 captures the general trend of
capillary pressure curves for porous media. The features include a non-zero
displacement pressure at a wetting phase saturation of 1 and the inverse
relationship between capillary pressure and wetting phase saturation
mentioned previously. The capillary pressure curves have a stair-case shape
in this case because of the limited number and size of the capillary tubes
used in the experiment. The curve will approach a smooth curve if more tubes
are used and the differences in the tube diameters are made small. The only
limitation of the capillary pressure curves for the bundle of capillary tube
model is the absence of an irreducible wetting phase saturation. There is no
possibility of trapping an irreducible saturation for a model consisting of
straight and isolated capillary tubes.

7-10

Figure 7.6. Capillary pressure expressed as height of water above the free
water level versus wetting phase saturation for a bundle of capillary tubes
medium.

Figure 7.7. Capillary pressure in psi versus wetting phase saturation for a
bundle of capillary tubes medium.
7-11

Figure 7.8 shows capillary rise experiments for two porous media
having different grain sizes (pore sizes). The wetting phase will rise higher in
the finer grain porous medium than in the courser grain medium. Such
experiments are widely used in soil science to determine the capillary
pressure curve (referred to as water retention curve or matric suction head in
soil science) for unconsolidated soils. The soil, which is packed in a tube is
dipped into water and allowed to sit for several days or weeks to achieve
capillary equilibrium. The tube often is instrumented to measure the
resistivity of the medium in order to calculate the water saturation along the
column by Archie's equation. The capillary pressure is calculated as height of
water above the free water level as was done in the bundle of capillary tube
model.

Figure 7.8. Capillary rise experiments for two porous media of different grain
sizes.
7-12

In an actual porous medium, such as reservoir rock, the complexity of

the pore structure and the fluid interface arrangements preclude the use of
Laplace equation to calculate the capillary pressure. Further, this complexity
also precludes the calculation of the wetting phase saturation from the fluid
interface arrangements as was done for the bundle of capillary tubes
experiment. Instead, the capillary pressure versus wetting phase saturation
relationship is measured experimentally. We demonstrate one possible way of
making this measurement for a porous medium using the idealized porous
medium and the experimental set up shown in Figure 7.9. Let water be the
wetting phase and air the non-wetting phase in the experiment. The porous
medium consists of one pore, which is a capillary tube with three radii as
shown in the figure. The radius and length of each segment of the pore are
shown in Table 7.2. The medium, which is strongly water wet (

= 0), is

initially saturated with water. The medium rests on a semi-permeable plate at

the bottom of the apparatus. This semi-permeable plate is manufactured such
that it has very fine and uniform pores. It is strongly water wet and is fully
saturated with water. It will permit water to flow through it but because of its
fine pores will prevent the air from flowing through it. Initially, the apparatus
is open to the atmosphere so that the water in the core, the semi-permeable
plate and the connecting vessel below the semi-permeable plate is at
atmospheric pressure. Gas is admitted into the apparatus at a low pressure of
Pg. If Pg is less than 2 cos /r1, nothing will happen. The gas pressure is not
high enough for the gas to displace the water from the largest pore. The gas
pressure is then increased to Pg1 until it is equal to 2 cos /r1 and the segment
of the pore with radius r1 will be drained of water. The water drainage will
stop after draining the largest pore because Pg1 is not high enough to drain
the pore with radius r2. Next, the gas pressure is increased to Pg2 equal to
2 cos /r2 and the segment of the pore with radius r2 will be drained.
Eventually, the pressure of the gas is increased to Pg3 equal to 2 cos /r3 and
the segment of the pore with radius r3 will be drained. The volume of water
7-13

drained at each capillary pressure is measured and is used to calculate the

water saturation in the medium corresponding to that capillary pressure. The
graph of Pgi versus water saturation gives the capillary pressure curve of the
porous medium. For this simple porous medium, the capillary pressure curve
can be calculated using Laplace equation and the dimensions of the pore and
is presented in Figure 7.10. Note how the shape of the capillary pressure
curve reflects the pore size distribution of the porous medium. This is the
basis for estimating the pore size distribution of a porous medium from its
drainage capillary pressure curve.
Figure 7.11 shows the effect of wettability on the capillary pressure
curve for the idealized porous medium. It compares the capillary pressure
curve for a contact angle of 0 and a contact angle of 75. Thus, if the medium
is less water wet, the magnitude of the capillary pressure will be less at each
wetting phase saturation than when it was more water wet.

Since the

wettability preference of the rock for the water is less at a contact angle of 75
than at 0, less work is required to desaturate the rock. Therefore, the
capillary pressure that needs to be applied to desaturate the rock will be less
at a contact angle of 75 than at 0 at any saturation level.

7-14

Figure 7.9. Capillary pressure measurement for an idealized porous medium.

Table 7.2. Capillary Pressure Curve for Idealized Porous Meium.
Capillary

Radius

Length

Volume

Fractiona

Pc

Pc

Pc

Water

(dynes/cm2

(atm)

(psi)

Saturation

l
Tube #

( m)

( m)

(cm3)

Volume

)
1

10

6.283E-

0.5747

144000

0.142

2.088

0.4253

0.3678

360000

0.355

5.221

0.0575

0.0575

1440000

1.421

20.884

0.0000

10
2

4.021E10

20

6.283E11
1.093E09

7-15

Figure 7.10. Capillary pressure curve for an idealized porous medium.

7-16

Figure 7.11. Effect of wettability on the capillary pressure curve for an

idealized porous medium.

7.3 DRAINAGE CAPILLARY PRESSURE CURVE

If the idealized porous medium of Figure 7.9 were replaced by an actual
porous medium and the experiment repeated, the capillary pressure curve
would look like the one shown in Figure 7.12. This figure shows a typical
drainage capillary pressure curve obtained by displacing the wetting phase
from a porous medium with a non-wetting phase.

A process in which the

wetting phase saturation decreases is known as drainage whereas the

converse process in which the wetting phase saturation increases is known as
imbibition. The drainage capillary pressure curve has several characteristic
features. The curve shows that a minimum positive pressure (Pd) must be
applied to the non-wetting phase in order to initiate the drainage.

This

minimum pressure, which is known as the displacement pressure, the

threshold pressure or the entry pressure, is determined by the size of the
largest pores connected to the surface of the medium. It can be estimated
with Laplace equation where r is the largest pore radius connected to the
surface.

If the rock does not have a strong wettability preference for the

initially saturating fluid, then the displacement pressure will be zero. If the
rock has a strong preference for the displacing fluid, then no pressure is
required to initiate the displacement because it will occur spontaneously. In
this case, the capillary pressure will start at the initial fluid saturation of less
than 1. As the pressure of the non-wetting phase is increased, smaller and
smaller pores are invaded by the non-wetting fluid. Eventually, the wetting
phase becomes discontinuous and can no longer be displaced from the
medium by increasing the capillary pressure.

Therefore, an irreducible

wetting phase saturation is achieved for the porous medium at a high

capillary pressure. At the irreducible wetting phase saturation, the capillary
pressure curve becomes nearly vertical.

7-17

The irreducible wetting phase

saturation is a function of the grain size (pore size), the wettability of the
medium and the interfacial tension between the wetting and non-wetting
fluids.

Figure 7.12. A typical drainage capillary pressure curve.

What information does the capillary pressure curve for a reservoir rock
provide about the rock? If one reservoir rock has a higher permeability than
another, we know that the higher permeability rock will permit faster fluid
flow through it, everything else being equal, than the lower permeability rock.
Thus, the higher permeability rock is more desirable than the lower
permeability rock as a petroleum reservoir rock. If one reservoir rock has a
higher porosity than another, we know that the higher porosity rock will store
more reserves than the lower porosity rock.
7-18

Therefore, the higher porosity

rock is a more desirable reservoir rock than the lower porosity rock. If one
rock has a higher capillary pressure at the same wetting phase saturation
than another, what can we say about the rocks? Is the rock with the higher
capillary pressure curve more desirable or less desirable as a petroleum
reservoir rock than the rock with the lower capillary pressure curve?
Figure 7.13 shows the drainage capillary pressure curves for four rocks:
A, B, C and D. Rock A has the least displacement pressure. Therefore, it has
the largest pores connected to the surface.

Its capillary pressure curve

remains essentially flat as the wetting phase saturation is decreased from

100% to 60%. This means that many of the pores are invaded by the nonwetting fluid at essentially the same capillary pressure. This indicates that A
has uniform pores or is well sorted.

Rock A also has the least irreducible

wetting phase saturation, indicating that it has relatively larger grains and
pores than the other rocks. Rock B has a higher displacement pressure than
A. Therefore, it has smaller pores than A. The capillary pressure curve at the
high wetting phase saturations is relatively flat, indicating good sorting. Rock
B has a higher irreducible wetting phase saturation than A, which is
consistent with its finer grains and pores. Rock C is even more fine grained
than B because of its higher displacement pressure. The shape of its capillary
pressure curve shows that a higher capillary pressure is required at each
wetting phase saturation to desaturate the rock. This means that C has a
wider pore size distribution than A and B.

Therefore, C is poorly sorted. It

has a higher irreducible water saturation than B, which is consistent with its
finer grains and pores.

Rock D is extremely fine grained, extremely poorly

sorted and would be a very poor reservoir rock. This observation is based on
its very high displacement pressure, very steep capillary pressure curve and
very high irreducible wetting phase saturation. Without being told, one can
easily infer that this rock is essentially made of clay.

7-19

Since permeability is proportional to the square of the mean grain size

(pore size), it is easy to see that Rock A has the highest permeability, followed
by B, C and D in that order. From this discussion, we conclude that the rock
with the higher capillary pressure curve is a less desirable reservoir rock than
the one with the lower capillary pressure curve.
In general, the capillary pressure curve for a porous medium is a
function of (1) pore size, (2) pore size distribution, (3) pore structure, (4) fluid
saturation, (5) fluid saturation history, (6) wettability of the rock and (7)
interfacial tension of the fluids involved.

Figure 7.13. Capillary pressure curves for four different rocks.

7-20

7.4 CONVERSION OF LABORATORY CAPILLARY PRESSURE

DATA TO RESERVOIR CONDITIONS
Typically, capillary pressure curves are measured in the laboratory
using fluids other than reservoir fluids. It is not uncommon to measure the
capillary pressure curves to be used for analyzing an oil-water reservoir using
air and water or mercury and air in the laboratory.

When this is done, it

becomes necessary to convert the laboratory data to reservoir conditions.

This conversion is done using Laplace equation as follows.

From Laplace

equation,

Pc

Pc

cos

lab

lab

(7.17)

reservoir

(7.18)

rm

cos

reservoir

rm

where rm is the mean radius of curvature of the interface in the rock at a

particular fluid saturation. Eliminating rm from Eqs.(7.17) and (7.18) gives

Pc

reservoir

Pc

cos
lab

cos

(7.19)

reservoir
lab

This ability to scale the laboratory capillary pressure data to reservoir

conditions provides the flexibility for making laboratory capillary pressure
measurements with more convenient fluids than reservoir fluids.

7.5 AVERAGING CAPILLARY PRESSURE DATA

The capillary pressure curves for rock samples from the same reservoir
having different permeabilities will be different.

It is often necessary to

average the capillary pressure data for cores from the same reservoir believed
7-21

to have the same pore structure in order to obtain one capillary pressure
curve that can be used for reservoir performance analysis. This averaging can
be done using the Leverett J-function, which is a dimensionless capillary
pressure function (Leverett, 1941).
The Leverett J-function can be derived by dimensional analysis as
follows. The capillary pressure curve of a porous medium is a function of
several variables as shown in Eq.(7.20).
k
f S w , , cos , ,

Pc

nw

(7.20)

where Pc is the capillary pressure, Sw is the wetting phase saturation,

is a

dimensionless pore structure function that accounts for such things as pore
size distribution, tortuosity, cementation and dead end pores,
porosity,

is the interfacial tension,

permeability of the porous medium,

is the

is the contact angle, k is the absolute

w

is the wetting phase density,

nw

is the

non-wetting phase density and g is the gravitational acceleration. The wetting

phase saturation (Sw) and the pore structure function ( ) are dimensionless
and should be set aside from the dimensional analysis until the end. We form
the dimensionless product with the remaining variables as

cos

x1

x2
w

nw

x3

Pcx4

dimensionless constant

(7.21)

Carrying out the dimensional analysis yields the following solution to the
dimensional analysis problem:

7-22

cos
k
w

nw

x1
x2
x3
x4

Pc

1
1
x3
1
0

1
1
2

0
1

(7.22)

x4

Let us choose x3 = 1 and x4 = 0. The corresponding dimensionless group is

given by
g k/
cos

nw

(7.23)

Next, let us choose x3 = 0 and x4 = 1. The corresponding dimensionless group

is given by

Pc k /
cos

(7.24)

From the dimensional analysis, we can write

Pc k /
cos

The dimensionless group given as

g k/
cos

f1 S w , ,

nw

(7.25)

in Eq.(7.23) is the ratio of gravity force to

the capillary forces at the pore scale. At the pore scale, capillary forces
dominate the gravity force. Therefore,

will be small and can be neglected.

For example, for an air-water capillary pressure curve,

1 g/cm3,

= 72 dynes/cm,

= 0, g = 981 cm/s2. For a porous medium of 1 darcy permeability

and a porosity of 25%,

is of the order of 10 7 . For a mercury-air capillary

pressure curve, it is of the order of 10 6 . Eq.(7.25) then becomes

7-23

Pc k /
cos
where J S w ,

f 2 Sw ,

J Sw ,

(7.26)

is a dimensionless capillary pressure function known as the

Leverett J-function. Eq.(7.26) suggests that porous media that have the same
pore structure but different permeability and porosity will have the same
Leverett J-function. Therefore, if the different capillary pressure curves of the
porous media are rescaled as a Leverett J-function, they should plot as one
curve. This curve provides the means to average capillary pressure data.
Figure 7.14 shows the Leverett J-function for nine unconsolidated
sands with widely different permeabilities ranging from 0.057 to 2160 darcies.
It is remarkable that the data plot as one curve. Figure 7.15 shows the Jfunction for a carbonate reservoir. If the porous media have different pore
structures, then the Leverett J-functions for the different rocks will be
different and will not plot as one curve as may be seen in Figure 7.16.

7-24

Figure 7.14. Leverett J function for unconsolidated sands (Leverett, 1941).

7-25

Figure 7.15. Leverett J-functions for a carbonate reservoir; (a) all cores; (b)
limestone cores; (c) dolomite cores; (d) microgranular limestone cores; (e)
coarse-grained limestone cores (Brown, 1951).

7-26

Figure 7.16. Leverett J-functions for different rock types (Rose and Bruce,
1949).

7-27

7.6 DETERMINATION OF THE INITIAL STATIC RESERVOIR

FLUID SATURATIONS BY USE OF DRAINAGE CAPILLARY
PRESSURE CURVE
Initially, the petroleum reservoir was saturated with water before oil
migrated into the reservoir and displaced the water. This displacement of a
wetting phase by a non-wetting phase is simulated in the laboratory
measurement of the drainage capillary pressure curve.

The final fluid

distribution in the reservoir is determined by the equilibrium between

capillary and gravitational forces.
Consider the static equilibrium for the water and oil.

From

hydrostatics, for the water,

dPw
dz

(7.27)

where is z is pointed vertically upwards. Similarly, for the oil,

dPo
dz

(7.28)

Assuming the fluids are incompressible, Eqs.(7.27) and (7.28) can be

integrated to obtain
gz

(7.29)

gz

(7.30)

Pw z

Pw 0

Po z

Po 0

and

Subtracting Eq.(7.29) from (7.30) gives

7-28

Pc z

Pc 0

gz

(7.31)

We select as datum the free water level at which the capillary pressure is zero.
With this choice of datum, Eq.(7.31) becomes
Pc z

where

gz

gz

(7.32)

is the density of water minus the density of oil. It is remarkable that

Eq.(7.32) is the same as Eq.(6.26) for the capillary rise experiment. The free
water level occurs at a depth do below the oil-water contact given by
Pd

do

(7.33)

where Pd is the displacement pressure of the capillary pressure curve. Thus,

the elevation above the oil-water contact of any particular saturation is given
by

Pc

Pd
g

(7.34)

If the displacement pressure of the capillary pressure curve is 0, then the free
water level and the oil-water contact will be the same. However, this is a
special case. In general, the free water level and the oil-water contact are not
the same.
Figure 7.17 shows (1) a typical static fluid distribution in a
homogeneous reservoir, (2) the oil-water contact, (3) the free water level and
(4) the oil and water pressure profiles. Note the transition zone above the oilwater contact in which the water saturation decreases from 100% to the
irreducible water saturation. The height of this transition zone is a function

7-29

of the wettability of the rock, the oil-water density contrast, the oil-water
interfacial tension, the grain size (pore size) and sorting, which determine the
permeability of the rock.

Figure 7.17. Initial static fluid distribution in a homogeneous reservoir.

7-30

It should be noted that the capillary pressure in the reservoir is highest

at the top of the reservoir. In order to prevent escape of the hydrocarbon from
the reservoir, the cap rock must have a displacement pressure that is higher
than the maximum capillary pressure labeled Pcap in the figure. Shales
typically form the cap rock in many reservoirs. Shales are fine grained and
have very high displacement pressures. The shale, which is saturated with
water, will prevent the oil from penetrating it because its displacement
pressure is higher than the maximum capillary pressure in the reservoir. Of
course, some may think that the oil does not penetrate the shale because it
has a low permeability. However, the correct analysis is that the shale
prevents the oil from penetrating it because its displacement pressure is
much higher than the pressure in the oil phase. This is a capillary
phenomenon not a Darcy law phenomenon.
Figure 7.18 shows the initial fluid distribution in an actual petroleum
reservoir based on log analysis. The track labeled "Bulk Volume Analysis"
shows the water and oil distributions in the pay zone as a percent of the bulk
volume of reservoir rock. The dark area gives the oil content and the light area
to its left gives the water content. A careful examination of this section of the
plot shows a water saturation versus depth graph that is similar to the water
saturation versus depth graph sketched in Figure 7.17.

7-31

Figure 7.18. Initial static fluid distribution in an actual petroleum reservoir.

7-32

In a layered reservoir in which the layers have different capillary

pressure curves, the layers are in capillary equilibrium. As a result,
saturation discontinuities will occur.

However, there will be only one free

water level. Figure 7.19 shows the water saturation distribution for a well
that has penetrated a layered reservoir. Given the capillary pressure curve for
each layer, it is a simple matter to apply Eqs.(7.32) and (7.33) to calculate the
water saturation distribution from the free water level to the top of the
reservoir. The steps for calculating the water saturation distribution in such a
heterogeneous reservoir is as follows.
1.

Using the displacement pressure of the bottom layer, calculate the free
water level using Eq.(7.33).

2.

Take a small value of z measured from the free water level.

3.

Calculate the capillary pressure at that level using Eq.(7.32).

4.

Determine the layer in which z occurs.

5.

Using the capillary pressure curve for the layer in which z occurs, read
or calculate the water saturation for the value of capillary pressure from
step 3.

6.

If z is at the boundary of two layers, there will be a saturation

discontinuity at that value of z. Two saturation values should be
calculated one from each of the capillary pressure curves of the two
layers involved.

Increase the value of z and repeat steps 3 through 6 until z reaches the
top of the reservoir.

7-33

This is how the saturation distribution in Figure 7.18c was calculated. If you
look closely at Figure 7.18b in which the four layers have been identified and
their capillary pressure curves have been plotted as height above the free
water level, you can mentally sketch the water saturation distribution over the
entire column of the well.

Figure 7.18. Fluid distribution for a layered reservoir; (a) well penetrating a
layered reservoir; (b) capillary pressure curves for the layers; (c) water
staturation profile observed at the well (Archer and Wall, 1986).

7-34

Example 7.1
Table 7.3 gives the properties of an idealized oil reservoir consisting of four
layers with distinct petrophysical properties. The top of the reservoir is at
8000 ft below the surface and the oil water contact is at 8185 ft. Table 7.4
gives the drainage oil-water capillary pressure curve for Layer 1. All the layers
have the same pore structure but different permeabilities and porosities.
Table 7.3. Petrophysical Properties of Idealized Layered Reservoir.
Depth
(ft)
h (ft)
k (md)

Layer 1
80008050
50
144
23.5

Layer 2
80508070
20
50
20

Layer 3
80708125
55
10
18

Layer 4
81258185
60
200
24

Table 7.4. Drainage Capillary Pressure Curve for Layer 1

Pc1
Sw

(psi)

1.000

1.973

0.950

2.377

0.900

2.840

0.850

3.377

0.800

4.008

0.750

4.757

0.700

5.663

0.650

6.781

0.600

8.195

0.550

10.039

0.500

12.547

0.450

16.154

0.400

21.787

0.350

31.817

0.300

54.691

0.278

78.408

7-35

Other properties for the reservoir are as follows:

1.036 g/cm3

0.822 g/cm3
35 dynes/cm

0
1.

Calculate and plot the graph of the Leverett J-function for the reservoir.

2.

Calculate and plot the capillary pressure curves for Layers 2, 3 and 4,
together with that of Layer 1.

3.

Calculate the depth of the free water level for the reservoir.

4.

Calculate and plot graphs of the initial water and oil saturations in the
reservoir from 8000 ft to the free water level assuming the reservoir is in
capillary equilibrium.

5.

Calculate and plot graphs of the water and oil pressures at the initial
reservoir conditions.

6.

A well drilled into the reservoir has been perforated from 8090 to 8110
ft. Determine the type of reservoir fluid that will be produced initially.
Solution to Example 7.1

1.

The Leverett J-function is calculated with Eq.(7.26) using the capillary

pressure curve for Layer 1. Consistent units are required to make the
function dimensionless. For example, a set of consistent units is Pc in

7-36

dynes/cm2, k in cm2 and

Pc

J 0.278,

in dynes/cm. For example, at S w

0.278 ,

78.408 psi, the J-function is calculated as

78.408 /14.696 1.0133 x106

144 /1000 9.689 x10

/ 0.235

35cos 0

11.902

The calculated Leverett J-function is presented in Table 7.5 and Figure

7.19. It is the characteristic underlying dimensionless capillary
pressure curve for the reservoir.
Table 7.5. Summary of Calculated Leverett J-function and the Capillary
Pressure Curves for Layers 2, 3 and 4 for Example 7.1.
Layer 1

Layer 2

Layer 3

Layer 4

Pc1

Pc2

Pc3

Pc4

Sw

(psi)

J(Sw)

(psi)

(psi)

(psi)

1.000

1.973

0.299

3.089

6.553

1.692

0.950

2.377

0.361

3.721

7.894

2.038

0.900

2.840

0.431

4.446

9.432

2.435

0.850

3.377

0.513

5.287

11.215

2.896

0.800

4.008

0.608

6.275

13.311

3.437

0.750

4.757

0.722

7.447

15.799

4.079

0.700

5.663

0.860

8.866

18.807

4.856

0.650

6.781

1.029

10.616

22.520

5.815

0.600

8.195

1.244

12.830

27.217

7.027

0.550

10.039

1.524

15.717

33.341

8.609

0.500

12.547

1.905

19.643

41.670

10.759

0.450

16.154

2.452

25.290

53.649

13.852

0.400

21.787

3.307

34.109

72.357

18.683

0.350

31.817

4.830

49.812

105.668

27.283

0.300

54.691

8.302

85.624

181.635

46.898

0.278

78.408

11.902

122.755

260.402

67.235

7-37

Figure 7.19. Leverett J-function for the reservoir of Example 7.1.

2.

Since all the layers have the same pore structure, they share the same
Leverett J-function. Thus, Eq.(7.26) can be solved for Pc using the
known J-function from Layer 1. However, for this example, the capillary
pressure curve for Layer j can be calculated from the data for Layer 1 as

Pcj

Pc1

k1

kj

For example, at Sw = 0.278,

Pc 2

78.408

144
23.5

20
50

122.755 psi

7-38

The calculated capillary pressure curves are presented in Table 7.5 and
Figure 7.20.

Figure 7.20. Capillary pressure curves for all the layers for the reservoir of
Example 7.1.

3.

The free water level occurs in Layer 4. Therefore, the displacement

pressure for Layer 4 is used to calculate the depth of the free water level
below the oil water contact from Eq.(7.33) as

do

do

1.6919 /14.696 1.0133 x106

1.036 0.822 981

555.69 cm

555.69 / 30.48 18.23 ft

7-39

Eq.(7.33) can also be written in oilfield units as

d o ft

Pc psi
lb / ft 3

144

Pc psi
lb / ft 3

144

do

144 1.6919
1.036 62.4
0.822 62.4

18.24 ft

The free water level is at 8185+18.24 = 8203.24 ft.

4.

The capillary pressure is zero at the free water level and increases as a
linear function of height above the free water level for incompressible
liquids. The height of any point in the reservoir above the free water
level is designated as z in Eq.(7.32) and can be used to calculate the
capillary pressure at that point in the reservoir. Clearly, at any depth D,
z is given by
z

FWL D

For example at D = 8100 ft, which is in Layer 3,

z

8203.24 8100 103.24 ft

The capillary pressure is calculated with Eq.(7.32) in oilfield units as

Pc

1.036 62.4

0.822 62.4
144

103.24

9.574 psi

The water saturation at 8100 ft is calculated from the capillary pressure

curve for Layer 3 by linear interpolation as

7-40

Sw

0.900

9.574 9.432
11.215 9.432

The oil saturation is So

0.850 0.900

0.896

1 S w 1 0.896 0.104 . Table 7.6 shows the

calculated water and oil saturations from 8000 ft to 8203.24 ft (FWL).

Figure 7.21 shows the calculated saturation distributions. It can be
observed that none of the layers is at irreducible water saturation.
Therefore, each layer will produce some water if perforated.
Table 7.6. Calculated Saturations and Pressures for Example 7.1.

Layer 1

Layer 2

Depth

Pc

Sw

So

Pw

Po

ft

ft

psi

8000

203.24

18.847

0.426

0.574

3688.95

3670.10

8005

198.24

18.383

0.430

0.570

3689.15

3670.77

8010

193.24

17.920

0.434

0.566

3689.36

3671.44

8015

188.24

17.456

0.438

0.562

3689.57

3672.12

8020

183.24

16.992

0.443

0.557

3689.78

3672.79

8025

178.24

16.529

0.447

0.553

3689.99

3673.46

8030

173.24

16.065

0.451

0.549

3690.20

3674.13

8035

168.24

15.601

0.458

0.542

3690.40

3674.80

8040

163.24

15.138

0.464

0.536

3690.61

3675.47

8045

158.24

14.674

0.471

0.529

3690.82

3676.15

8050

153.24

14.210

0.477

0.523

3691.03

3676.82

8050

153.24

14.210

0.576

0.424

3691.03

3676.82

8055

148.24

13.747

0.584

0.416

3691.24

3677.49

8060

143.24

13.283

0.592

0.408

3691.44

3678.16

8065

138.24

12.819

0.600

0.400

3691.65

3678.83

8070

133.24

12.356

0.611

0.389

3691.86

3679.51

8070

133.24

12.356

0.823

0.177

3691.86

3679.51

8075

128.24

11.892

0.834

0.166

3692.07

3680.18

8080

123.24

11.428

0.845

0.155

3692.28

3680.85

8085

118.24

10.965

0.857

0.143

3692.49

3681.52

8090

113.24

10.501

0.870

0.130

3692.69

3682.19

7-41

Layer 3

8095

108.24

10.037

0.883

0.117

3692.90

3682.86

8100

103.24

9.574

0.896

0.104

3693.11

3683.54

8105

98.24

9.110

0.910

0.090

3693.32

3684.21

8110

93.24

8.646

0.926

0.074

3693.53

3684.88

8115

88.24

8.183

0.941

0.059

3693.73

3685.55

8120

83.24

7.719

0.957

0.043

3693.94

3686.22

8125

78.24

7.255

0.974

0.026

3694.15

3686.90

8125

78.24

7.255

0.593

0.407

3694.15

3686.90

8130

73.24

6.792

0.610

0.390

3694.36

3687.57

8135

68.24

6.328

0.629

0.371

3694.57

3688.24

8140

63.24

5.864

0.648

0.352

3694.78

3688.91

8145

58.24

5.401

0.672

0.328

3694.98

3689.58

8150

53.24

4.937

0.696

0.304

3695.19

3690.25

8155

48.24

4.473

0.725

0.275

3695.40

3690.93

8160

43.24

4.010

0.755

0.245

3695.61

3691.60

8165

38.24

3.546

0.791

0.209

3695.82

3692.27

8170

33.24

3.082

0.833

0.167

3696.02

3692.94

8175

28.24

2.619

0.880

0.120

3696.23

3693.61

8180

23.24

2.155

0.935

0.065

3696.44

3694.29

WOC

8185

18.24

1.691

1.000

0.000

3696.65

3694.96

Aquifer

8185

18.24

1.691

1.000

0.000

3696.65

3694.96

8190

13.24

1.228

1.000

0.000

3696.86

3695.63

8195

8.24

0.764

1.000

0.000

3697.06

3696.30

8203.24

0.00

0.000

1.000

0.000

3697.41

3697.41

Layer 4

FWL

7-42

Figure 7.21. Fluid saturation distribution for the reservoir of Example 7.1.

5.

The water pressure is given by Eq.(7.29), which can be written in oilfield

units as

Pw z

Pw 0

z
144
w

7-43

where Pw 0

is the water pressure at the free water level. The water

pressure at the free water level is given by

Pw 0

Patm

FWL
144

14.7

1.036 62.4 8203.24

144

3697.41 psia

At D = 8100 ft,

Pw 103.24

3697.40

1.036 62.4
103.24
144

3651.06 psia

At the free water level, the pressure in the oil phase is equal to the
pressure in the water phase because the free water level is the reference
depth at which the capillary is zero. Thus,
Po 0

Pw 0

3697.41 psia

Of course, there is no oil in the reservoir below the water oil contact.
Therefore, there can be no oil pressure below the water oil contact. The
oil pressure starts at the water contact. However, if the oil pressure is
extrapolated to the free water level, its value will be equal to the water
pressure of 3697.41 psia. It should be noted that the difference between
the water oil pressure and the water pressure at the water oil contact is
equal to the displacement pressure of Layer 4 of 1.692 psi.
At D = 8100 ft, the oil pressure can be calculated as
Po 103.24

Pw 103.24

Pc 103.24

3651.06 9.574 3641.87 psia

The calculated phase pressures are presented in Table 7.6 and Figure
7.22.

7-44

Figure 7.22. Water and oil phase pressures for Example 7.1.

6.

The well is perforated in Layer 3, the lowest permeability layer, where

the oil saturation ranges from only 2.6% to 17.7%. This is in the
saturation range of residual oil for most reservoirs. Therefore, only
water will be produced from the well. The well should have been
perforated in Layer 1, where it would have produced a mixture of oil
and water.

7.7 CAPILLARY PRESSURE HYSTERESIS

Capillary pressure curves show a marked hysteresis depending on
whether the curve is determined under a drainage process or an imbibition
process.

Figure 7.23 shows typical drainage and spontaneous imbibition

7-45

capillary pressure curves for the same porous medium. At any wetting phase
saturation, the drainage capillary pressure is higher than the imbibition
capillary pressure. At a capillary pressure of zero, the spontaneous imbibition
curve terminates at a wetting phase saturation that may or may not
correspond to the true residual non-wetting phase saturation depending on
the wettability of the rock. If the rock has a strong preference for the wetting
phase, then the wetting phase saturation at which the imbibition curve
terminates will be close to the true residual non-wetting phase saturation, Sor,
which is equal to (1-Swro). This is the case shown in Figure 7.23. If the rock
does not have a strong preference for the wetting phase, then the wetting
phase saturation at zero capillary pressure on the imbibition curve will not
correspond to the true residual non-wetting phase saturation. This means
that (1-Swro) will be larger than Sor. Additional oil can be displaced from the
rock, say be centrifuging the sample in water. This is the case shown in
Figure 7.24. The branch of the imbibition curve labeled 3 on the figure is the
forced imbition capillary pressure curve of the rock. Note that this branch
constitutes a negative capillary pressure. Note also that the true residual nonwetting saturation (Sor) in this case can only by determined by forced
displacement not by spontaneous imbibition.
Figure

7.25

shows

several

cycles

of

capillary

pressure

measurements on the same rock. The primary drainage curve labeled 1 was
performed first, followed by the spontaneous imbibition curve labeled 2. The
secondary drainage curve labeled 3 was performed after the spontaneous
imbibition measurement. It should be noted that the secondary drainage
curve will be less than the primary drainage curve at any given wetting phase
saturation. This is another aspect of capillary pressure hysteresis. If the
spontaneous imbibitition experiment is interupted and the measurement
reversed, then a different drainage curve will be followed as shown in curve 4.
If the drainage experiment is interupted and reversed, then a different
imbibition curve will be followed as shown in curve 5. Curves 4 and 5 form a
7-46

loop known as a scanning curve. Note that the area under the secondary
drainage curve was one of the areas used to define the USBM wettability
index.

Figure 7.23. Drainage and imbibition capillary pressure curves. (1) drainage
curve, (2) spontaneous imbibition curve (Killins et al., 1953).

Capillary pressure hysteresis can be explained in a variety of ways. In

Section 6.4.2, it was shown from energy considerations that more work is
required for a non-wetting phase to displace a wetting phase than for a
wetting phase to displace a non-wetting phase. This means that at any level of
saturation, more work is required during the drainage capillary pressure
measurement than during the imbibition measurement. Since work during
the capillary pressure measurement is Pc V, where

7-47

V is the volume of fluid

displaced at that capillary pressure, the capillary pressure on the drainage

cycle will be greater than on the imbibition cycle to displace the same volume
of fluid.

Figure 7.24. Drainage and imbibition capillary pressure curves. (1) drainage
curve, (2) spontaneous imbibition curve, (3) forced imbibition curve (Killins et
al., 1953).

7-48

Contact angle hysteresis plays a part in the capillary pressure

hysteresis. During drainage, the wetting phase recedes from the porous
medium and the contact angle is the receding contact angle,

R.

During

imbibition, the wetting phase advances into the porous medium and the
contact angle is the advancing contact angle,
2 cos

A.

Since

is less than

/rm, the drainage capillary pressure, is larger than 2 cos

A,

/rm, the

imbibition capillary pressure at the same saturation state.

Figure 7.25. Cycles of capillary pressure measurements. (1) primary drainage,

(2) spontaneous imbibition, (3) secondary drainage, (4-5) scanning curve.

7-49

The very nature of immiscible displacement plays a role in the capillary

pressure hysteresis. When the capillary pressure experiment is reversed to
measure the spontaneous imbibition curve, the pressure in the non-wetting
phase is reduced to allow the wetting phase to be imbibed. As the wetting
phase is imbibed into the rock, some non-wetting phase will be trapped in
certain pores. This trapping causes the wetting phase saturation on the
imbibition curve to be less than on the drainage curve at the same capillary
pressure.
The pore structure also plays a role in the capillary pressure hysteresis.
Consider the capillary pressure versus wetting phase saturation relationship
for the idealized pore shown in Figure 7.26 during drainage and imbibition.
During drainage, the pore is initially full of the wetting fluid at a capillary
pressure given by Laplace equation as shown in Figure 7.26a. Next, the
capillary pressure is increased to a higher value to drain some of the wetting
fluid as shown in Figure 7.26b. The higher capillary pressure versus the
wetting phase saturation is a point on the drainage capillary pressure curve.
Next, we consider the imbibition process as shown in Figures 7.26c and d. At
c, the capillary pressure is high at a wetting phase saturation of nearly zero.
After the wetting fluid has been imbibed to the equilibrium level shown in
Figure 7.26c, the imbibition capillary pressure will be approximately the same
as the drainage capillary pressure of Figure 7.26b because the mean
curvature of the interfaces at c and d are about the same. However, the
wetting phase saturation at d is considerably lower than at b. Thus, at the
same capillary pressure, the wetting phase saturation for imbibition is less
than for drainage. This is hysteresis.

7-50

Figure 7.26. Drainage and imbibition capillary pressures versus saturation for
an idealized pore.

Another effect of pore structure is shown in Figure 7.27. The pore

(Figure 7.27a) is initially saturated with the wetting phase. The drainage
capillary pressure that must be applied to force the non-wetting phase into
the pore is given by

Pcdr1

4 cos
De1

(7.35)

However, this capillary pressure is not sufficient to drain the entire pore
because neck De2 is smaller than De1. The interface will stop at De2. To
continue with the drainage, the applied capillary pressure must be increased
to Pcdr2 given by

7-51

Pcdr 2

4 cos
De2

(7.36)

Looking at the remaining necks of the pore, we see that Pcdr2 is large enough
to drain the remaining portion of the pore. Now, let us reduce the capillary
pressure to start the imbibition process. When the capillary pressure is
reduced to Pcibm1 given by

Pcimb1

4 cos
D1

(7.37)

the first pore will be emptied of the non-wetting phase and the interface will
come to equilibrium at the location marked Imb1. To drain the non-wetting
phase further, the capillary pressure must be further reduced to Pcimb2 given
by

Pcimb 2

4 cos
D2

(7.38)

Looking at the remaining necks of the pore, we see that Pcimb2 is low enough to
empty the remaining portion of the pore of the non-wetting phase. Figure
7.27b shows the drainage and imbibition capillary pressure curves for the
experiment just described. We see capillary pressure hysteresis.
Figure 7.28 shows how the imbibition capillary pressure curve can be
used along with the drainage curve to determine the type of fluid that will be
produced at various depths in a reservoir. If the well is perforated above the
transition zone, only clean oil (water free oil) will be produced initially. If the
well is perforated in the upper part of the transition zone, both oil and water
will be produced from day one. If the well is perforated in the bottom part of
the transition zone, only water will be produced even though the zone has oil
saturation. The oil saturation in this zone is residual oil saturation.
7-52

Figure 7.27. Capillary pressure hysteresis in for an idealized pore (Dullien,

1992).
Capillary

pressure

hysteresis

presents

no

problem

in

reservoir

engineering analysis as it is usually clear which curve should be used for a

particular analysis.

The drainage curve should be used for estimating the

initial fluid saturation distribution in the reservoir whereas the imbibition

curve should be used for analyzing a waterflood performance in a water-wet
reservoir.

7-53

Figure 7.28. Drainage and imbibition capillary pressure curves showing the
depth of water free oil production (Archer and Wall, 1986).

7.8 CAPILLARY IMBIBITION

Consider

reservoir

consisting

of

two

layers

with

different

permeabilities and capillary pressure curves as shown in Figure 7.29 (a) and
(b). Initially, both layers are in capillary equilibrium at their respective
irreducible

water

saturations.

Let

this

7-54

equilibrium

be

disturbed

by

waterflooding the two layers. The injected water will advance further into the
more permeable layer (Figure 7.29 (c)).

The oil and water pressures are

continuous across the boundary between the two layers. Thus, at the
boundary,

Po1

Po 2

(7.39)

Pw1

Pw 2

(7.40)

and

Subtracting Eq.(7.40) from (7.39) gives the condition for equilibrium as

Pc1

Pc 2

(7.41)

Thus, at equilibrium, the capillary pressures in the two porous media will be
equal at their boundary.
In Figure 7.29c, sections A and D and C and F are in capillary
equilibrium, so no fluid exchanges will occur between these sections.
Sections B and E are not in capillary equilibrium, so fluid exchanges will
occur in an effort to achieve capillary equilibrium. Section E will loose water
to section B and gain oil from B while section B will gain water from E and
loose oil to E until a new capillary equilibrium is achieved. Thus, water will
be imbibed into the less permeable layer from the more permeable layer and
oil will be expelled from the less permeable layer into the more permeable
layer for subsequent displacement. This fluid exchange is beneficial to the oil
recovery process. However, the imbibition process is very slow. Therefore, the
water injection rate must be sufficiently slow for imbibition to assist in
waterflooding the low permeability layer.

7-55

Figure 7.29. Capillary imbibition; (a) reservoir before waterflooding; (b)

capillary pressure curves for the layers; (c) reservoir after waterflooding.
Naturally fractured reservoirs (fissured reservoirs) present another
example of capillary imbibition.

The fractures have zero capillary pressure

whereas the matrix blocks have normal capillary pressure curves. When the
fractures become 100% saturated with water which comes in contact with the
oil saturated matrix blocks, the capillary equilibrium will be disturbed. Water
will be imbibed into the matrix blocks, expelling oil from the matrix blocks
into the fractures. Ultimately, the oil saturation in the matrix will be reduced
to the residual oil saturation over time.

7-56

7.9 CAPILLARY END EFFECT IN A LABORATORY CORE

7.9.1 Capillary End Effect
Another capillary phenomenon of interest is the capillary end effect
often experienced in laboratory coreflooding experiments. The end of the core
is in contact with the outside which could be viewed as a second medium with
zero capillary pressure.

The condition for capillary equilibrium (Eq. 7.41)

requires that the capillary pressure inside the core at the outlet end be equal
to zero.
Consider a porous medium initially saturated with a non-wetting phase
(say oil) and irreducible wetting phase saturation (say water). The outlet end
of the core is at a higher capillary pressure than the outside. If the medium is
flooded with the wetting phase (waterflooded), initially, only the non-wetting
phase (oil) will be expelled from the outlet end at a higher capillary pressure
than the outside (Figure 7.30a). When the wetting phase arrives at the outlet
end, however, the system now has a chance to seek capillary equilibrium.
This equilibrium will be achieved by the accumulation of the wetting phase at
the outlet end of the core until the wetting phase saturation equals the
wetting phase saturation at zero capillary pressure on the imbibition capillary
pressure curve (Figure 7.30b). This saturation is marked Swro in Figure 7.30b.
Thus, the production of the wetting phase is delayed until well after the
arrival of the wetting phase at the outlet end of the core. This phenomenon is
known as capillary end effect.
This phenomenon has several undesirable consequences. The observed
breakthrough recovery of the non-wetting phase will be falsely high and the
wetting phase saturation distribution in the core will be opposite what would
normally be expected, with the wetting phase saturation being higher towards
the core outlet than in the rest of the core (Figure 7.30c). Most corefloods are
blind tests because one cannot see the fluid distribution inside the core.
7-57

Therefore, the breakthrough recovery is usually taken to be a good measure of

the displacement efficiency. In the presence of capillary end effect, the
breakthrough recovery will be too large and will give a false sense of the
displacement efficiency. Also, in the unsteady state method for relative
permeability measurement described in Chapter 8, the fractional flow of the
wetting phase versus the wetting phase saturation at the outlet end of the
core is used to calculate relative permeabilities on the assumption that there
is no capillary end effect. Therefore, if there is capillary end effect in the
experiment, the calculated relative permeabilities will be wrong.

Figure 7.30. Capillary end effect; (a) coreflood; (b) spontaneous imbibition
capillary pressure curve; (c) wetting phase saturation profiles; (d) relative
permeabililty curves.

7-58

7.9.2 Mathematical Analysis of Capillary End Effect

We can derive the mathematical model for the immiscible displacement
shown in Figure 7.30a and use it to explain the capillary end effect
phenomenon. Darcy's law for the wetting and non-wetting phases is given by

qw

kw A Pw
x
w

(7.42)

qnw

knw A Pnw
x
nw

(7.43)

and

where kw and knw are the effective permeabilities to the wetting and nonwetting phases. Let us define the relative permeabilities of the wetting and
non-wetting phases as

krw

kw
k

(7.44)

krnw

knw
k

(7.45)

and

Eqs.(7.42) and (7.43) can be written in terms of the relative permeabilities as

qw

kkrw A Pw
x
w

and

7-59

(7.46)

kkrnw A Pnw
x
nw

qnw

(7.47)

Capillary equilibrium gives

Pnw

Pw

(7.48)

Pc S w

Assuming incompressible fluids, then

(7.49)

qw qnw

The continuity equation for the wetting phase is

Sw
t

qw
x

(7.50)

Finally, the saturation constraint gives

Sw

(7.51)

Snw 1

Eqs.(7.46) through (7.51) constitute the complete mathematical description of

two-phase immiscible displacement in the absence of the effect of gravity.
Subtracting Eq.(7.46) from (7.47) and rearranging gives

qw w
kkrw A

qnw nw
kkrnw A

Pnw
x

Pw
x

(7.52)

Substituting Eqs.(7.48) and (7.49) into (7.52) gives upon rearrangement

7-60

qw
q

kkrnw A Pc
q nw x
k
1 rnw w
krw nw

(7.53)

Let the true fractional flow of the wetting phase be defined as

qw
q

fw

(7.54)

Let an approximate fractional flow of the wetting phase be defined as

Fw

1
k
1 rnw
krw

(7.55)
w
nw

The approximate fractional flow of the wetting phase also can be defined as a
function of the mobility ratio as

Fw

1
M

(7.56)

Both f w and Fw are functions of saturation. Substituting Eqs.(7.54) and (7.55)

into (5.53) gives the true fractional flow of the wetting phase as

fw

Fw 1

kkrnw A Pc
q nw x

(7.57)

Let the dimensionless distance from the inlet end be defined as

xD

x
L

7-61

(7.58)

Let the spontaneous imbibition capillary pressure curve be given in terms of

its Leverett J-function as
cos
J Sw ,
k/

Pc S w

(7.59)

Substituting Eqs.(7.58) and (7.59) into (7.57) gives the true fractional flow of
the wetting phase as

fw

A cos k
q nw L

Fw 1

krnw

J
xD

(7.60)

The term in the inner bracket on the right side of Eq.(7.60) is a dimensionless
number that gives the ratio of the capillary to viscous forces in the
displacement. Let this dimensionless number be defined as

N cap

A cos k
q nw L

(7.61)

Substituting Eq.(7.61) into (7.60) gives

fw

Fw 1 N cap krnw

J
xD

(7.62)

Let the dimensionless time be defined as

tD

qt
A L

(7.63)

Substituting Eq.(7.63) into (7.50) gives the continuity equation for the wetting
phase as

7-62

Sw
tD

fw
xD

(7.64)

Substituting Eq.(7.62) into (7.64) gives

Sw
tD

dFw
dS w

Sw
xD

N cap

Fw krnw

xD

J
xD

(7.65)

Because J is a function of S w , Eq.(6.65) can be written as

Sw
tD

dFw
dS w

Sw
xD

N cap

xD

Fw krnw

dJ S w
dS w xD

(7.66)

Eq.(7.66) is the final form of the partial differential equation for the
wetting phase saturation for two phase immiscible displacement in a linear
porous medium. When supplemented with appropriate initial and boundary
conditions together with the rock and fluid properties, its solution can be
used to calculate the performance of the immiscible displacement such as a
waterflood or a gas flood. The solution of this equation is deferred to Chapter
8. Our concern here is the capillary end effect, not the prediction of the overall
displacement performance.
Let us examine in detail the fractional flow of the wetting phase at the
outlet end of the core. Applied to the outlet end of the core, Eq.(7.62) can be
written as

fw

Fw 1 N cap krnw

J
xD

(7.67)

where the derivative of the J-function with respect to xD is given by the

following finite difference approximation:
7-63

J
xD

In Eq.(7.68), J

(7.68)

xD

is the J-function inside the porous medium, J

function outside the porous medium and

is the J-

xD is a small distance in the

neighborhood of the outlet end of the porous medium as shown in Figure

7.31. Of course, J

is equal to zero. Therefore, the fractional flow of the

wetting phase at the outlet end of the porous medium becomes

fw

Fw 1 N cap krnw

J
xD

(7.69)

Depending on the values of N cap , krnw , and J , it is possible for the following
inequality to prevail during the displacement:

1 N cap krnw

J
xD

(7.70)

Figure 7.31. Initial capillary barrier at the outlet end of the core.
7-64

If

1 N cap krnw

J
xD

(7.71)

then

fw

(7.72)

at the outlet end of the core. Because the fractional flow of the wetting phase
is zero at the outlet end of the core, the wetting phase cannot flow out of the
core but instead will accumulate there raising the wetting phase saturation to
an abnormal level. This is the capillary end effect phenomenon at work. If

1 N cap krnw

J
xD

(7.73)

the wetting phase cannot flow out of the core either but will accumulate at the
end as before, raising the wetting saturation there to an abnormal level.
Although the inequality given by Eq.(7.73) appears to indicate that the wetting
phase will flow backwards into the core, this will not happen because there is
no supply of the wetting phase outside the outlet end of the core for it to be
imbibed into the core. Therefore, Eq.(7.70) gives the condition for capillary end
effect to occur in an immiscible displacement.
Let us now examine the physics of the displacement before and after
wetting phase breakthrough. Before the arrival of the wetting phase at the
outlet end of the core, only the non-wetting phase will be produced. The
wetting phase saturation profiles will be as shown in Figure 7.30a at t1 and t2.
At time ta , the wetting phase arrives at the outlet end of the core. At this time,

J has its maximum possible value at the irreducible wetting phase

7-65

saturation. If the values of N cap , krnw and J

are such that Eq.(7.70) holds,

then capillary end effect will occur and the wetting phase begins to
accumulate at the outlet end of the core resulting in the increase of the
wetting saturation, S w L, t . As the wetting phase saturation increases, J
decreases dramatically as shown in Figure 7.30b. When the wetting phase
saturation has increased to S wro , J

becomes zero and capillary equilibrium is

achieved between the porous medium and the outside. At this time, Eq.(7.69)
gives

fw

Fw

(7.74)

and the wetting phase flows out of the core and is produced along with the
non-wetting phase. The wetting phase saturation profile at breakthrough is
shown in Figure 7.30c at tbt . After breakthrough, both phases will be
produced until residual non-wetting phase is achieved in the core after many
pore volumes of wetting phase injection. The wetting phase saturation profile
will be as shown in Figure 7.30c at t . Beyond this time, only the wetting
phase will be produced.
How can capillary end effect be eliminated from the experiment? The
condition for eliminating the capillary end effect is obtained from Eq.(7.69) as

1 N cap krnw

J
xD

(7.75)

or

N cap

xD
krnw J

7-66

(7.76)

Thus, N cap should be as small as possible in the experiment to eliminate

capillary end effect. A critical value of N cap can be defined as

xD
krnw J

N capcritical

(7.77)

For N cap below the critical value, capillary end effect will be eliminated. Above
the critical value, capillary end effect will occur in the displacement.
How can the value of N cap be controlled in the experiment? The only
means to control N cap in the experiment is through the injection rate, q.
Examination of Eq.(7.61) shows that N cap can be made small by the use of a
high injection rate in the experiment. Substituting Eq.(7.61) into (7.76) gives
the condition for the injection rate to eliminate capillary end effect as

Akrnw J

cos
nw L xD

(7.78)

A critical injection rate can be defined as

qcritical

Akrnw J

cos
nw L xD

(7.79)

For injection rates below the critical value, capillary end effect will occur. For
rates above the critical, capillary end effect will be eliminated. In terms of
Darcy velocity, Eqs.(7.78) and (7.79) become

q
A

krnw J

cos k
nw L xD

7-67

(7.80)

vcritical

krnw J

cos k
nw L xD

(7.81)

Is capillary end effect a problem in field displacements? The answer is no

because the large value of L at field scale ensures that N cap is always smaller
than is required to eliminate capillary end effect at field rates.
7.9.3 Mathematical Model of Capillary End Effect During Steady State
Relative Permeability Measurement.
The steady state method for relative permeability measurements
involves the simultaneous injection into the core of the wetting and nonwetting fluids as shown in Figure 7.32. The fluids are injected at various
ratios of qw/qnw until steady state is achieved. If the total injection rate, q,
satisfies the condition of Eq.(7.76), then the injection rate is high enough to
eliminate capillary end effect and the wetting phase saturation will be uniform
throughout the core. However, if the total rate is not high enough to eliminate
capillary end effect, the wetting phase saturation will be non uniform in the
core. The wetting phase saturation will be higher at the outlet end of the core
than at the inlet end. The steady state saturation profile can be derived from
Eq.(7.62) as follows. At steady state conditions, Eq.(7.62) can be written as

fw

Fw 1 N cap krnw

dJ dS w
dS w dxD

(7.82)

Rearranging Eq.(7.82) gives

dS w
dxD

fw
1
Fw
dJ
N cap krnw
dS w

7-68

(7.83)

Figure 7.32. Steady state experiment.

Eq.(7.83) is the partial differential equation for the steady state wetting phase
saturation. It is a first order nonlinear equation that can easily be integrated
to obtain the steady state saturation profile. The appropriate boundary
condition for the equation is
Sw 1

S wro

(7.84)

Figure 7.33 shows the steady state saturation profile obtained by solving
Eqs.(7.83) with the boundary condition given by Eq.(7.84).

7-69

Figure 7.33. Steady state wetting phase saturation profile in the presence of
capillary end effect.

7.9.4 Experimental Evidence of Capillary End Effect

Perkins (1957) has presented experimental data that show capillary end
effect at work. He conducted waterfloods in laboratory cores at two rates, one
below the critical rate for capillary end effect and one above the critical rate.
The core was 12 inches in length and 1.25 inches in diameter. The oil and
water viscosities were 1.8 and 0.9 cp. The low injection rate was 2.4 ft/day
whereas the high injection rate was 36 ft/day. The injected water was 0.1
normal sodium chloride solution. The core was instrumented with two current
electrodes and nineteen potential electrodes distributed along its length.
These electrodes enabled the resistivity of the core to be measured along the
length of the core, from which the water saturation profiles were calculated
using Archie's equation.
7-70

Figure 7.34 shows the water saturation profiles for the low rate flood.
The water arrived at the outlet end of the core at tD = 0.41 pore volume
injected. However, no water was produced from the core until tD = 0.60 pore
volume injected. Thus, the flood was affected by capillary end effect. The water
saturation profile at tD = 0.60 clearly shows the capillary end effect.
Figure 7.35 shows the water saturation profiles for the high rate flood.
The water arrived at the outlet end of the core at tD = 0.60 pore volume
injected and got produced shortly thereafter at tD = 0.65 pore volume injected.
Thus, the capillary end effect was significantly reduced in the high rate
displacement compared to the low rate displacement.

Figure 7.34. Wetting phase saturation profiles at low injection rate (Perkins,
1957).

7-71

Figure 7.35. Wetting phase saturation profiles at high injection rate (Perkins,
1957).
The second example from Richardson et al. (1952) investigated capillary
end effect in steady state experiments. The core was a Berea sandstone of
length 30 cm and diameter 6.85 cm. The core was cut into 8 segments as
shown in Figure 7.36. Steps were taken to ensure capillary continuity
between the segments. The core was initially saturated with oil, which was the
wetting phase. Then helium, the non-wetting phase, and oil were injected
simultaneously at various ratios. After steady state was achieved, the core
segments were weighed to determine the wetting phase saturation in each
segment.

7-72

Figure 7.36. Segmented core used in steady state experiments (Richardson et

al., 1953).
Figures 7.37 to 7.39 show the measured and calculated wetting phase
saturation profiles at steady state for successively higher total injection rates.
The theoretical saturation profiles were calculated with Eqs.(7.83) and (7.84)
using the drainage relative permeability curves and drainage capillary
pressure curves shown in Figure 7.40. Capillary end effect occurred in the
three experiments shown in Figures 7.37 to 7.39. However, it can be seen that
the capillary end effect was reduced as the total injection rate was increased.
The lesson from these examples is that capillary end effect could
dominate

laboratory

scale

immiscible

displacements.

Since

such

displacements are normally used to determine relative permeability curves in

7-73

the laboratory, it is imperative that steps be taken to eliminate or at least

minimize capillary end effect in these experiments. Failure to do so will result
in the relative permeability curves so derived being wrong.

Figure 7.36. Capillary end effect in a steady state experiment. qw = 0.15

cm3/s, qnw = 0.000336 cm3/s (Richardson et al., 1953).

7-74

Figure 7.37. Capillary end effect in a steady state experiment. qw = 0.264

cm3/s, qnw = 0.0022 cm3/s (Richardson et al., 1953).

Figure 7.38. Capillary end effect in a steady state experiment. qw = 0.80

cm3/s, qnw = 0.00288 cm3/s (Richardson et al., 1953).

7-75

Figure 7.39. Drainage relative permeability curves and capillary pressure

curve for Berea sandstone (Richardson et al., 1953).

7.10 CAPILLARY PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

Three methods are commonly used to measure capillary pressure
curves in the petroleum industry: the restored state method (porous plate
method), mercury injection method and centrifuge method.
7.10.1 Restored State Method (Porous Plate Method).
In this method, capillary pressure is measured by placing the sample,
initially saturated with a wetting fluid, in a vessel filled with the non-wetting
fluid.

The bottom of the vessel consists of a semi-permeable plate, which

allows the wetting phase displaced from the sample to pass through while
blocking the passage of the non-wetting phase. Extending from the porous
7-76

plate is a graduated tube which allows the volume of the wetting phase
displaced to be measured as shown in Figure 7.41. With the sample in place,
the pressure of the non-wetting fluid is increased in steps and the system is
allowed to achieve equilibrium after each pressure change.

The volume of

wetting phase displaced at each pressure is measured. The capillary pressure

is the non-wetting phase pressure minus the wetting phase pressure at each
step.

The wetting phase saturation of the sample is determined from the

volume of wetting phase displaced at each pressure to obtain the capillary

pressure versus saturation relationship.
The porous plate is typically made of porcelain or fritted glass. It must
have a displacement pressure that is higher than the largest capillary
pressure to be measured. This limits the maximum capillary pressure that
can be measured with the method to about 200 psi.
The porous plate apparatus can be used to measure the imbibition
capillary pressure curve as well as the drainage curve. The method gives a
reliable estimate of the irreducible wetting phase saturation.

The major

disadvantage of the porous plate method is that it takes too long to obtain the
entire capillary pressure curve. It is not unusual for the capillary pressure
experiment to take several weeks to complete.
7.10.2 Mercury Injection Method
In this method, capillary pressure is measured by injecting mercury,
which is a non-wetting phase, into the sample. The apparatus used in the
measurement is shown in Figure 7.42.

It consists of a sample cell and a

mercury injection pump. A dry sample is placed in the cell and the cell is
evacuated. Mercury is injected into the cell until the mercury is level with a
graduation on the high-pressure glass capillary above the sample chamber.
Nitrogen pressure is then applied in successive increments and at each step,

7-77

Figure 7.41. Porous plate capillary pressure apparatus (Welge and Bruce,
1947).

mercury is injected to maintain the mercury level with the graduation on the
capillary. From the volume of the cell and the volume of mercury required to
fill the cell with the sample before mercury injection into the sample, the bulk
volume of the sample can be determined. The mercury-air capillary pressure
versus saturation relationship is calculated from the volume of mercury
forced into the sample pore space as a function of the applied nitrogen
pressure.
7-78

Figure 7.38. Capillary pressure cell for mercury injection (Purcell, 1949).

The mercury injection method is very fast. The capillary pressure curve
can be obtained in a matter of hours. The imbibition curve can be obtained
very easily by decreasing the nitrogen pressure and withdrawing mercury
from the system.

Figure 7.43 shows typical capillary pressure curves

obtained by mercury injection, mercury withdrawal and mercury re-injection.

7-79

Figure 7.43. Mercury-air capillary pressure curves.

Brown (1951) has shown that the mercury injection method can give
essentially the same capillary pressure curve as the restored state method
except for a scaling factor. Figures 7.44 and 7.45 compare capillary pressure
curves obtained by mercury injection and the restored state method for a
sandstone and a limestone core, respectively.

The results show good

agreement between the two methods. The scaling factors for the sandstone
and limestone were 7.5 and 5.5, respectively.
7-80

These are different from the

scaling factor of 5.2 suggested by Purcell (1949) based on the ratio of cos of
mercury-air and water-air systems.
The major disadvantage of the mercury injection method is that the core
can no longer be used for other tests after mercury injection. The method
also cannot be used to determine the irreducible wetting phase saturation.
7.10.3 Centrifuge Method.
In this method, the sample saturated with a wetting fluid is placed in a
centrifuge cup containing the non-wetting fluid as shown in Figures 7.46 and
7.47. The sample is rotated at a series of constant angular velocities and the
amount of wetting fluid displaced at equilibrium at each velocity is measured
with the aid of a stroboscopic light. The only data measured directly in this
method are the volume of wetting fluid displaced and the corresponding
rotational speed of the centrifuge.

These data can be used to derive the

capillary pressure versus saturation relationship of the porous medium.

The theory underlying the method is that the centrifuge imposes a
centrifugal force (typically, over 1000 times the force of gravity) on the sample.
This causes the denser wetting fluid to be displaced outward away from the
center of rotation and the non-wetting fluid to flow into the sample through
the inlet face of the sample. Consider an oil-water system in which water is
the wetting phase and oil is the non-wetting phase.

At equilibrium, the

pressure gradients in the water and oil are given by

dPw
dr
dPo
dr

2
w

2
o

7-81

(7.85)

(7.86)

Figure 7.44. A comparison of water-nitrogen and mercury-air capillary

pressure curves for a sandstone core (Brown, 1951). Note the different
capillary pressure scales for the two sets of data.

7-82

Figure 7.45. A comparison of water-nitrogen and mercury-air capillary

pressure curves for a limestone core (Brown, 1951). Note the different
capillary pressure scales for the two sets of data.

7-83

Figure 7.46. Positions of core and graduated tube in a centrifuge for

measurement of oil-displacing-water capillary pressure curve (Donaldson et
al., 1980).

7-84

Figure 7.47. Positions of core and graduated tube in a centrifuge for

measurement of water-displacing-oil capillary pressure curve (Donaldson et
al., 1980).

where

is the angular velocity of the centrifuge in radians/s. Subtracting

Eqs. 7.85 from 7.86 gives

dPc
dr

2
w

7-85

(7.87)

Integration of Eq. 7.87 gives the capillary pressure at radius r as

2

Pc

where C is an integration constant.

(7.88)

Application of the Hassler-Brunner

boundary condition that Pc = 0 at r = r2 gives the capillary pressure at any r

as
2

Pc

r22 r 2

(7.89)

where r2 is the outlet face of the core measured from the center of rotation. At
any stage of the centrifuge experiment, the highest capillary pressure occurs
at r1, the inlet face of the core measured from the center of rotation. At the
inlet face, the capillary pressure is given by
2

Pc1

r22 r12

(7.90)

At any stage of the centrifuge experiment, the water saturation in the

core varies from a minimum at the core inlet, r , to a value of 1.0 at the core
outlet, r2.

Since the capillary pressure at the core inlet can be calculated

from Eq.(7.90), it is only necessary to estimate the water saturation at the

core inlet in order to obtain the required capillary pressure versus saturation
relationship. The water saturation at the core inlet can be estimated from the
average water saturation determined from the amount of water displaced at
each speed. The average water saturation in the core is given by
r2

S wav

r1

S w dr

r2 r1
7-86

(7.91)

Multiplying Eq.(7.91) by

r1 and rearranging gives

r2

Lr1S wav

r1

Sw

(7.92)

r1dr

where L is the length of the core. Noting that

to Pc1 since L is small relative to r1 and r2 and

Lr1 is approximately equal

2r1dr is equal to

dPc1 ,

Eq.(7.92) can be written as

Pc1

Pc1S wav

S w Pc dPc

(7.93)

Differentiating Eq.(7.93) gives the water saturation at the core inlet as

S w1

d Pc1S wav
dPc1

(7.94)

or

S w1

S wav

Pc1

dS wav
dPc1

(7.95)

The approximate water saturation equation, Eq.(7.94) or (7.95), is applicable

for r1/r2 equal to or greater than 0.8. When applied to experimental data,
experience shows that Eq.(7.94) gives a smoother capillary pressure curve
than Eq.(7.95).
The centrifuge method is fast and allows the capillary pressure
measurement to be completed in a day or less.

The method is good for

determining the irreducible water saturation.

Figure 7.48 shows a

comparison of the capillary pressure curves of the same sample from

centrifuge measurement and by the restored state method obtained by
7-87

Hassler and Brunner (1945). Although the capillary pressure curve from
centrifuge measurement is somewhat higher than from the restored state
method, the agreement between the two sets of data is reasonable. In this
figure, the open circles are data obtained by the use of Eq.(7.94) and the open
squares are data obtained by the use of Eq.(7.95) to compute the inlet water
saturation. It should be observed that both equations give somewhat different
results for the water saturations.

Figure 7.49 shows comparisons of the

capillary pressure curves for the same cores measured by the restored state
method (diaphram), mercury injection and centrifuge experiments. The
agreement between the three methods is excellent.
The disadvantages of the method include (1) inability to measure the
displacement pressure since the water saturation at the core inlet is always
less than the average water saturation of the core, (2) the Hassler-Brunner
boundary condition at the core outlet may be violated at high centrifuge
speeds, (3) the calculated water saturation at the core inlet is an
approximation, and (4) inability to obtain spontaneous imbibition capillary
pressure curve.

Melrose (1988) has investigated the Hassler-Brunner

boundary condition and concluded that it was unlikely to be violated under

normal core analysis conditions. Rajan (1986) has presented a more accurate
method for calculating the water saturation at the core inlet.

7-88

Figure 7.48. A comparison of capillary pressure obtained by centrifuge and by

the restored state method (Hassler and Brunner, 1945).

7-89

Figure 7.49. A comparison of capillary pressure curves obtained by centrifuge,

mercury injection and by the restored state method (Hermansen et al., 1991).

Example 7.2
Table 7.7 shows the data obtained in a centrifuge experiment for determining
the air-water capillary pressure curve of a core sample. Other data from the
experiment are as follows:
Core length

2.0 cm

Core diameter

2.53 cm

Core pore volume

1.73 cm3

Core permeability

144 md

7-90

Centrifuge arm (r2)

Water-air density difference

r2

8.6 cm
=

0.9988 gm/cm3

8.6 cm

Table 7.7. Centrifuge Experimental Data

Centrifuge
Volume of Water
Speed
Displaced
(RPM)
(cc)
1300
0.30
1410
0.40
1550
0.50
1700
0.60
1840
0.70
2010
0.75
2200
0.80
2500
0.90
2740
1.00
3120
1.05
3810
1.10
4510
1.20
5690
1.25

1.

Calculate the capillary pressure curves for the sample using Eq.(7.94)
(method 1) and Eq. (7.95) (method 2) for the inlet water saturation.

2.

Compare the capillary pressure curves obtained from the two methods.

3.

Calculate the acceleration imposed on the inlet of the core at the

centrifuge speed of 5690 RPM and compare to the acceleration due to
gravity.

7-91

Solution to Example 7.2

The results of the calculations are summarized in Table 7.8.
1.

The entries in the table were computed as follows at the centrifuge

speed of 1300 revolutions per minute (RPM).

S wav

V p Vw / V p
2 N / 60
2

Pc1

1.73 0.30 /1.73 0.827

1300 / 60 136.14 radians/s

r22 r12

0.9988 136.142 8.62 6.62

Pc1

281362.40 /1.0133x106

Pc1

281362.40 14.696
1.0133 x106

281362.40 dynes/cm2

0.28 atm

4.08 psi

Figure 7.50 shows the graph of S wav Pc1 versus Pc1 . The regression
equation is

S wav Pc1 1.3563Pc0.6217

1
Application of Eq.(7.94) gives the inlet water saturation as

S w1

d S wav Pc1
dPc1

0.6217 1.3563

281362.40 14.696
1.0133 x106

7-92

0.3783

0.495

Table 7.8. Calculated Results for Example 7.2.

1

10

11

Centrifug

Method

Method 2

1(Eq.7.94)

(Eq.7.95)

Speed

Vw

RPM

cc

Swav
radians/

Pc1

Pc1

Pc1

SwavPc1

dynes/cm2

atm

psi

psi

Sw1

dS wav
dPc1

Sw1

psi-1

psi

s
1300

0.30

0.827

136.14

281362.40

0.28

4.08

3.37

0.495

-0.0739

0.525

1410

0.40

0.769

147.65

330992.07

0.33

4.80

3.69

0.466

-0.0590

0.485

1550

0.50

0.711

162.32

399984.12

0.39

5.80

4.12

0.434

-0.0455

0.447

1700

0.60

0.653

178.02

481146.36

0.47

6.98

4.56

0.404

-0.0353

0.407

1840

0.70

0.595

192.68

563657.13

0.56

8.17

4.87

0.381

-0.0283

0.364

2010

0.75

0.566

210.49

672622.63

0.66

9.76

5.53

0.356

-0.0222

0.350

2200

0.80

0.538

230.38

805795.28

0.80

11.69

6.28

0.333

-0.0173

0.335

2500

0.90

0.480

261.80

1040541.4

1.03

15.09

7.24

0.302

-0.0122

0.296

1.23

18.13

7.65

0.282

-0.0095

0.251

1.60

23.50

9.24

0.255

-0.0066

0.238

2.39

35.05

12.76

0.220

-0.0038

0.231

3.34

49.11

15.05

0.193

-0.0024

0.189

5.32

78.17

21.69

0.162

-0.0013

0.179

3
2740

1.00

0.422

286.93

1249915.0
1

3120

1.05

0.393

326.73

1620647.4
3

3810

1.10

0.364

398.98

2416736.5
4

4510

1.20

0.306

472.29

3386354.6
6

5690

1.25

0.277

595.86

5390187.7
2

Figure 7.51 shows the graph of S wav versus Pc1 . The regression equation
is

S wav

1.3563Pc10.3783
7-93

dS wav
dPc1

0.3783 1.3563

281362.40 14.696
1.0133x106

1.3783

0.0739

Application of Eq.(7.95) gives the inlet water saturation as

S w1

S wav

Pc1

dS wav
dPc1

1.73 0.30
1.73

281362.40 14.696
1.0133 x106

0.0739

Figure 7.50. Graph of S wav Pc1 versus Pc1 for Example 7.2.

7-94

0.525

Figure 7.51. Graph of S wav versus Pc1 for Example 7.2.

2.

Figure 7.52 shows a comparison of the capillary pressure curves from

Eqs.(7.94) and (7.95). Both equations give essentially the same capillary
pressure curves. However, Eq.(7.95) shows more scatter in the
computed water saturations than Eq.(7.94).

3.

The acceleration imposed at the inlet end of the core at the centrifuge
speed of 5690 RPM is given by

acceleration

r1

2 N
60

r1

5690
60

6.6

2343288.19 cm/s2

This acceleration is 2388 times the acceleration due to gravity.

7-95

Figure 7.52. Comparison of the capillary pressure curves derived from

Eqs.7.94 and 7.95 for Example 7.1.

7.11 PORE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

7.11.1 Introduction
We saw in Section 7.2 that the capillary pressure versus saturation
relationship of an idealized porous medium captured the pore size
distribution of the medium. It should come as no surprise that one of the
principal applications of capillary pressure curve is for estimating the pore
size distribution of porous media. Because mercury does not wet most solids,
the capillary pressure curve derived from mercury injection is particularly well
suited for probing the pore structure of porous media. Thus, mercury
7-96

injection porosimetry is widely used in the petroleum and material science

industries to determine the pore size distribution of porous materials.
When mercury is injected into the porous medium at a low pressure,
mercury will invade those pores having pore throat radii equal to or greater
than the radius given by Laplace equation:

Pc

2 cos
R

(7.96)

where R is the pore throat radius. As the capillary pressure is increased,

pores with smaller pore throat sizes are invaded by mercury. If the mercury
pressure is high enough, all the pores in the porous medium will be invaded
by mercury. Therefore, the cumulative volume of mercury injected versus the
capillary pressure can be used to determine the pore size distribution of the
medium.
Two different pore size distribution functions can be derived from
mercury porosimetry. The first is the pore volume distribution, which does not
assume a model for the porous medium such as the bundle of capillary tubes
model. The only assumption is that the pore throat is circular. The second
pore size distribution function is based on the assumption of a bundle of
capillary tubes model of the porous medium and represents the distribution of
the pore throat size assuming the pores are capillary tubes. Because they
represent different things, the two pore size distribution functions are not the
same.
7.11.2 Pore Volume Distribution
Consider the result of the mercury injection experiment as shown in
Figure 7.53. The figure shows the cumulative volume of mercury injected
expressed as a fraction of the total pore volume plotted against the capillary
7-97

pressure. This is the raw data obtained from the experiment. Note that the
cumulative volume of mercury injected expressed as a fraction of the pore
volume is the non-wetting phase saturation, Snw. Shown on the capillary
pressure axis is the corresponding pore throat size obtained from Eq.(7.96) as

2 cos
Pc

(7.97)

Figure 7.53. Cumulative pore volume of mercury injected versus capillary

pressure.
Also shown on the figure is the wetting phase saturation versus capillary
pressure obtained from

S w 1 Snw
7-98

(7.98)

It should be noted that the pore throat radius, R, decreases from left to right
in the figure. Let us replot the saturations versus pore throat size such that
the pore throat size increases from left to right as shown in Figure 7.54. It
should be observed that the Sw versus R curve now represents the cumulative
probability distribution function for the pore volume distribution whereas the
Snw versus R curve represents the expectation curve for the pore volume
distribution. At any value of R, Sw is the fraction of the pore volume occupied
by pores having pore throat size equal to R or less. If the probability density
function for the pore volume distribution is f (R), then
R

Sw

f R dR

(7.99)

f R dR 1

(7.100)

R final

where
R0
R final

Differentiating Eq.(7.99) using Leibnitz's rule for differentiating an integral

gives the probability density function as

f R

dS w
dR

(7.101)

Because of the relationship between Sw and Snw, the probability density

function for the pore volume distribution also is given by

f R

dS nw
dR

(7.102)

Various alternative expressions can be derived for the probability density

function by use of Eq.(7.96). From Eq.(7.96),

7-99

Pc R

2 cos

(7.103)

a constant

Differentiating Eq.(7.103) gives

Pc dR RdPc

(7.104)

Figure 7.54. Saturations versus pore throat size from mercury injection.

Substituting Eqs.(7.96) and (7.104) into Eqs.(7.101) and (7.102) gives the
following alternative expressions for the probability density function for the
pore volume distribution:

f R

dS w
dR

Pc dS w
R dPc
7-100

2 cos
R2

dS w
dPc

(7.105)

f R

dS nw
dR

Pc dS w
R dPc

2 cos
R2

dS nw
dPc

(7.106)

Thus, differentiating the saturation versus the pore throat radius curve from
the experiment leads directly to the probability density function for the pore
volume distribution of the rock. Further, a plot of the incremental pore
volume of mercury injected versus pore throat size also is a measure of the
pore volume distribution.
Differentiation of experimental data can be a noisy affair. The threepoint central difference approximation given previously for the calculation of
the welltest derivative function (Eq.(3.65)) can be used to differentiate the
experimental data. It should be noted that the welltest derivative function
should be divided by ti to obtain the first derivative of the function. There are
other differentiation schemes that may be less noisy than the three-point
central difference formula. The five-point central difference formula proposed
by Akima (1970) may be less noisy than the three-point central difference
formula. The computational template for the five-point central difference
formula is shown in Figure 7.55. The first derivative at x3 is given by

7-101

Figure 7.55. Computational template for calculating the first derivative using
Akima's method (Akima, 1970).

dy
dx

x3

m4 m3 m2
m4 m3

m2 m1 m3
m2 m1

(7.107)

where

m4

y5
x5

y4
x4

(7.108)

m3

y4
x4

y3
x3

(7.109)

m2

y3
x3

y2
x2

(7.110)

7-102

y2
x2

m1

y1
x1

(7.111)

7.11.3 Pore Size Distribution Based on Bundle of Capillary Tubes Model

The objective is to estimate the pore size distribution of a porous
medium from the drainage capillary pressure curve based on a bundle of
capillary tubes model of the porous medium. Further, the pore size
distribution should be scaled into a pore size probability density function.
Let the probability density function for the pore size distribution be

( R) , where R is the pore throat radius. Then, for the porous medium,

( R)dR 1

(7.112)

The fractional number of pores with radii between R and R+dR is

( R)dR . The

number of pores with radii between R and R+dR is N ( R)dR , where N is the
total number of pores (capillary tubes) making up the porous medium. The
cross-sectional area of the pores with radii between R and R+dR is given by

dAc

R 2 N ( R)dR

(7.113)

The cross-sectional area occupied by all the pores can be obtained by

integrating Eq.(7.113) to obtain

Ac

AT

N R 2 ( R)dR

(7.114)

where AT is the total cross-sectional area of the porous medium and

porosity of the porous medium. Let

7-103

is the

R2

R 2 ( R)dR

a constant

(7.115)

NR 2

(7.116)

Eq.(7.114) can be rewritten as

Ac

AT

The pore volume of the porous medium is given by

Vp

NL R 2 ( R)dR

AT L

NLR 2

(7.117)

At capillary equilibrium, the wetting phase occupies all the pores with radii
less than R corresponding to the capillary pressure given by

2 cos

Pc ( S w )

(7.118)

The wetting phase volume is given by

R

NL R 2 ( R)dR

Vw

(7.119)

The wetting phase saturation is given by

R

Sw

Vw
Vp

R 2 ( R)dR

R ( R)dR
0

0
2

R ( R)dR
0

Eq.(7.120) can be rearranged as

7-104

R2

(7.120)

R 2 Sw

R 2 ( R)dR
0

r 2 (r )dr

(7.121)

where r is a dummy integration variable, which is not to be confused with the

radius R, the upper limit of the integral. Differentiating Eq.(7.121) with
respect to R gives

dS w
R
dR
2

d
r 2 (r )dr
dR 0

(7.122)

The right side of Eq.(7.122) can be evaluated using Leibnitzs rule for
differentiating a definite integral as follows:
R

d
r 2 (r )dr
dR 0

dR
d0
R ( R)
0 (0)
dR
dR

r 2 (r )
R

dr

(7.123)

The integrand of the integral on the right side of Eq.(7.123) is zero. Therefore,
Eq.(7.123) simplifies to
R

d
r 2 (r )dr
dR 0

R 2 ( R)

(7.124)

Substituting Eq.(7.124) into Eq.(7.122) gives

R2

dS w
dR

R 2 ( R)

(7.125)

Differentiating Eq.(7.118) with respect to R gives

dPc ( S w )
dR

2 cos

R2

7-105

(7.126)

Dividing Eq.(7.126) by Eq.(7.125) gives

R2
R 4 ( R)

2 cos

dPc ( S w )
dS w

(7.127)

The probability density function for the pore size distribution can be obtained
from Eq.(7.127) as

( R)
R2

2 cos
R

dPc ( S w )
dS w

(7.128)

Using Eq.(7.96), Eq.(7.128) can be rewritten in the following alternative form:

( R)
R2

Pc ( S w )
R

dPc ( S w )
dS w

(7.129)

Eqs.(7.118) and (7.129) can be used to calculate the pore size distribution
from a drainage capillary pressure curve as follows:
1. Pick a high Pc(Sw) value corresponding to a low wetting phase
saturation, Sw, and a small pore size, R.
2. Calculate the pore radius, R, using Eq.(7.118).
3. Calculate the derivative of the capillary pressure curve with respect to
the wetting phase saturation at the value of the Pc(Sw) in step 1. Note
that this is a negative quantity.
4. Calculate

( R) / R 2 using Eq.(7.129).

7-106

5. Pick lower values of Pc(Sw) and repeat steps 2 through 4 until the entire
capillary pressure curve has been used in the pore size distribution
calculation.
6. Plot the graph of

( R) / R 2 versus R. Calculate the area under the graph,

Ag. Using Ag, calculate the constant R 2 so as to satisfy Eq.(7.112),

which is the requirement for a probability density function.
7. Using the value of R 2 , calculate and plot the graph of

( R) versus R,

which is the required probability density function for the pore size
distribution.
Eq.(7.129) was derived for a general capillary pressure curve obtained
by any method. In the case of the capillary pressure curve obtained by
mercury porosimetry, Eq.(7.129) can be transformed by substitution of
Eq.(7.104) to obtain the probability density function as

R 2 dS w
R 2 dR

(7.130)

R 2 dS nw
R 2 dR

(7.131)

or

Using Eq.(7.130) or (7.131), the probability density function can easily be

calculated from the mercury injection data.
Figure 7.56 shows the pore size distributions of various sedimentary
rocks determined from drainage capillary pressure curves.

7-107

Figure 7.56. Pore size distributions of sedimentary rocks based on the bundle
of capillary tubes model of the rock (Crocker, 1983).

7-108

Example 7.3
The first three columns of Table 7.9 give the mercury injection data for a low
permeability sandstone sample with k = 0.048 md and

= 5.6%. Calculate

and plot the following graphs:

1.
2.

Snw and Sw versus pore throat radius, R.

Snw versus pore throat radius, R.

3.

Probability density function for pore volume distribution.

4.

Probability density function for pore radius distribution assuming a

bundle of capillary tubes model of the porous medium.

Table 7.9. Mercury Injection Data and Calculated Pore Size Distributions for
Example 7.3.
1

Snw

Sw

Pc

Pc

(psi)

(dynes/cm2

Snw

R
(cm)

Pore Volume

Pore Radius

Distribution

Distribution

f R

dS w
dR

R 2 dS w
R 2 dR

m)

m)

m)

0.000

0.000

0.323

0.002

0.424

0.004

0.508

0.006

0.691

0.012

0.000
0.031
0.068
0.104
0.168

1.000
0.969
0.932
0.896
0.832

124.92
150.75
175.43
200.40
249.77

8.613E+06
1.039E+07
1.210E+07
1.382E+07
1.722E+07

0.0000

8.538E-

0.853

05

0.0312

7.075E-

0.707

05

0.0370

6.080E-

0.608

05

0.0355

5.322E-

0.532

05

0.0640

4.270E-

0.427

05

7-109

0.229
0.330
0.428
0.513
0.577
0.625
0.660
0.686
0.709
0.730
0.748
0.765
0.780
0.794
0.806
0.818
0.829

0.771
0.670
0.572
0.487
0.423
0.375
0.340
0.314
0.291
0.270
0.252
0.235
0.220
0.206
0.194
0.182
0.171

300.12
400.20
499.51
599.28
699.36
799.13
899.29
999.18
1098.89
1198.44
1298.50
1398.24
1498.24
1598.66
1695.09
1797.32
1895.87

2.069E+07
2.759E+07
3.444E+07
4.132E+07
4.822E+07
5.510E+07
6.201E+07
6.889E+07
7.577E+07
8.263E+07
8.953E+07
9.641E+07
1.033E+08
1.102E+08
1.169E+08
1.239E+08
1.307E+08

0.0613

3.554E-

0.355

05

0.1011

2.665E-

0.266

05

0.0981

2.135E-

0.213

05

0.0847

1.780E-

0.178

05

0.0637

1.525E-

0.152

05

0.0478

1.335E-

0.133

05

0.0351

1.186E-

0.118

05

0.0264

1.067E-

0.106

05

0.0227

9.706E-

0.097

06

0.0212

8.900E-

0.089

06

0.0180

8.214E-

0.082

06

0.0165

7.628E-

0.076

06

0.0149

7.119E-

0.071

06

0.0141

6.672E-

0.066

06

0.0124

6.292E-

0.062

06

0.0114

5.934E-

0.059

06

0.0107

5.626E-

0.056

06

7-110

0.928

0.024

1.385

0.064

2.310

0.166

2.499

0.259

2.507

0.354

2.501

0.461

2.289

0.534

2.268

0.654

2.636

0.919

2.637

1.094

2.638

1.284

2.875

1.623

3.042

1.971

3.245

2.394

3.255

2.700

3.268

3.048

3.390

3.518

0.838
0.856
0.871
0.885
0.897
0.907
0.918
0.928
0.937
0.944
0.950
0.956
0.960
0.965
0.968
0.972
0.975

0.162
0.144
0.129
0.115
0.103
0.093
0.082
0.072
0.063
0.056
0.050
0.044
0.040
0.035
0.032
0.028
0.025

2000.98
2196.94
2396.98
2597.89
2799.03
2997.38
3248.15
3495.86
3744.60
3996.64
4246.84
4494.10
4745.57
4997.24
5245.84
5496.45
5746.20

1.380E+08
1.515E+08
1.653E+08
1.791E+08
1.930E+08
2.067E+08
2.240E+08
2.410E+08
2.582E+08
2.756E+08
2.928E+08
3.099E+08
3.272E+08
3.446E+08
3.617E+08
3.790E+08
3.962E+08

0.0095

5.330E-

0.053

06

0.0175

4.855E-

0.048

06

0.0154

4.450E-

0.044

06

0.0135

4.105E-

0.041

06

0.0121

3.810E-

0.038

06

0.0100

3.558E-

0.035

06

0.0113

3.284E-

0.032

06

0.0098

3.051E-

0.030

06

0.0087

2.848E-

0.028

06

0.0065

2.669E-

0.026

06

0.0064

2.511E-

0.025

06

0.0056

2.373E-

0.023

06

0.0047

2.247E-

0.022

06

0.0041

2.134E-

0.021

06

0.0036

2.033E-

0.020

06

0.0035

1.940E-

0.019

06

0.0036

1.856E-

0.018

06

7-111

3.539

4.091

3.800

5.295

3.866

6.413

4.010

7.812

4.038

9.133

4.054

10.514

4.196

12.778

4.253

15.004

4.213

17.054

4.068

18.757

4.068

21.180

4.041

23.561

3.725

24.214

3.675

26.495

3.645

28.956

3.958

34.517

4.128

39.346

0.978
0.981
0.983
0.985
0.987
0.990
0.992
0.995
0.997
0.998
0.999
1.000

0.022
0.019
0.017
0.015
0.013
0.010
0.008
0.005
0.003
0.002
0.001
0.000

5994.05
6246.10
6497.47
6744.53
6996.48
7497.19
7997.18
8494.95
8995.38
9495.55
9996.48
10496.0

4.133E+08
4.307E+08
4.480E+08
4.650E+08
4.824E+08
5.169E+08
5.514E+08
5.857E+08
6.202E+08
6.547E+08
6.893E+08
7.237E+08

0
1.000

0.000

10997.0

7.583E+08

3
1.000

0.000

11495.5

7.926E+08

6
1.000

0.000

11996.4

8.272E+08

7
1.000

0.000

12495.5

8.616E+08

4
1.000

0.000

12996.0
7

8.961E+08

0.0030

1.779E-

0.017

06

0.0025

1.708E-

0.017

06

0.0022

1.642E-

0.016

06

0.0022

1.581E-

0.015

06

0.0016

1.524E-

0.015

06

0.0031

1.423E-

0.014

06

0.0020

1.334E-

0.013

06

0.0025

1.256E-

0.012

06

0.0018

1.186E-

0.011

06

0.0016

1.123E-

0.011

06

0.0009

1.067E-

0.010

06

0.0006

1.016E-

0.010

06

0.0000

9.699E-

0.009

07

0.0000

9.278E-

0.009

07

0.0000

8.891E-

0.008

07

0.0000

8.536E-

0.008

07

0.0000

8.207E-

0.008

07

7-112

3.692

38.296

3.509

39.516

3.491

42.548

3.308

43.446

2.964

41.879

2.913

47.272

2.862

52.840

2.734

56.951

2.661

62.153

2.452

63.825

1.491

43.010

0.524

16.671

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

1.000

0.000

13495.1

9.305E+08

1
1.000

0.000

13995.9

9.650E+08

0
1.000

0.000

14495.6

9.995E+08

8
1.000

0.000

14996.2

1.034E+09

0
1.000

0.000

15495.9

1.068E+09

8
1.000

0.000

15995.1

1.103E+09

3
1.000

0.000

16495.5

1.137E+09

2
1.000

0.000

16995.2

1.172E+09

8
1.000

0.000

17495.3

1.206E+09

3
1.000

0.000

17995.5

1.241E+09

0
1.000

0.000

18495.9

1.275E+09

5
1.000

0.000

18996.3

1.310E+09

7
1.000

0.000

19495.3

1.344E+09

3
1.000

0.000

19995.7

1.379E+09

3
1.000

0.000

20995.3

1.448E+09

1
1.000

0.000

21995.7

1.517E+09

9
1.000

0.000

22995.6
4

1.586E+09

0.0000

7.903E-

0.007

07

0.0000

7.621E-

0.007

07

0.0000

7.358E-

0.007

07

0.0000

7.112E-

0.007

07

0.0000

6.883E-

0.006

07

0.0000

6.668E-

0.006

07

0.0000

6.466E-

0.006

07

0.0000

6.276E-

0.006

07

0.0000

6.096E-

0.006

07

0.0000

5.927E-

0.005

07

0.0000

5.766E-

0.005

07

0.0000

5.615E-

0.005

07

0.0000

5.471E-

0.005

07

0.0000

5.334E-

0.005

07

0.0000

5.080E-

0.005

07

0.0000

4.849E-

0.004

07

0.0000

4.638E-

0.004

07

7-113

0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

1.000

0.000

23995.7

1.655E+09

2
1.000

0.000

24996.3

1.724E+09

4
1.000

0.000

25994.9

1.792E+09

6
1.000

0.000

26995.6

1.861E+09

5
1.000

0.000

27995.6

1.930E+09

6
1.000

0.000

28996.0

1.999E+09

8
1.000

0.000

29995.4

2.068E+09

9
1.000

0.000

30996.2

2.137E+09

1
1.000

0.000

31995.5

2.206E+09

3
1.000

0.000

32996.2

2.275E+09

0
1.000

0.000

33996.5

2.344E+09

7
1.000

0.000

34996.1

2.413E+09

7
1.000

0.000

35996.3

2.482E+09

2
1.000

0.000

36995.5

2.551E+09

3
1.000

0.000

37996.3

2.620E+09

9
1.000

0.000

38996.3

2.689E+09

8
1.000

0.000

39995.7
5

2.758E+09

0.0000

4.445E-

0.004

07

0.0000

4.267E-

0.004

07

0.0000

4.103E-

0.004

07

0.0000

3.951E-

0.004

07

0.0000

3.810E-

0.003

07

0.0000

3.678E-

0.003

07

0.0000

3.556E-

0.003

07

0.0000

3.441E-

0.003

07

0.0000

3.333E-

0.003

07

0.0000

3.232E-

0.003

07

0.0000

3.137E-

0.003

07

0.0000

3.048E-

0.003

07

0.0000

2.963E-

0.003

07

0.0000

2.883E-

0.002

07

0.0000

2.807E-

0.002

07

0.0000

2.735E-

0.002

07

0.0000

2.667E-

0.002

07

7-114

0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

1.000

0.000

41995.3

2.896E+09

0.0000

2.540E-

0.002

07

0.0000

2.424E-

0.002

07

0.0000

2.319E-

0.002

07

0.0000

2.222E-

0.002

07

0.0000

2.134E-

0.002

07

0.0000

2.051E-

0.002

07

0.0000

1.975E-

0.002

07

0.0000

1.905E-

0.001

07

0.0000

1.839E-

0.001

07

9
1.000

0.000

43995.2

3.034E+09

2
1.000

0.000

45993.7

3.171E+09

9
1.000

0.000

47991.1

3.309E+09

8
1.000

0.000

49990.5

3.447E+09

5
1.000

0.000

51989.8

3.585E+09

4
1.000

0.000

53989.7

3.723E+09

5
1.000

0.000

55989.4

3.861E+09

0
1.000

0.000

57988.7

3.998E+09

0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

Solution to Example 7.3

The calculated results are shown in columns 4 to 9 of Table 7.9. For
mercury,

= 480 dynes/cm and

= 140. Figure 7.57 shows the graphs of

non-wetting phase saturation, wetting phase saturation and incremental pore

volume of mercury injected versus pore throat size. It should be observed that
the incremental pore volume of mercury injected provides a rough estimate of
the pore volume distribution for the porous medium.

7-115

Figure 7.57. Graphs of Snw, Sw and Snw versus pore throat radius for
Example 7.3.

Columns 8 and 9 of Table 7.9 show the probability density functions for the
pore volume and pore throat radius distributions calculated with the 5-point
central difference formula of Akima. For the pore radius distribution, R 2 was
found to be 0.003284. Figures 7.58 and 7.59 show the graphs of the
probability density functions for pore volume and pore radius distributions.

7-116

Figure 7.58. Probability density function for pore volume distribution for
Example 7.3.

Figure 7.59. Probability density function for pore throat radius distribution
assuming a bundle of capillary tubes model for the sample of Example 7.3.
7-117

7.11.4 Mercury Injection Porosimeter

Several different types of equipment are used for mercury injection
porosimetry. The mercury injection equipment used by Purcell (1949) was
described in Section 7.9.2. However, more modern mercury porosimeters are
now available. One such porosimeter is the Autopore IV 9520, manufactured
by Micromeritics. Figure 7.60 shows this equipment. It is a compact, high
precision, computer-controlled instrument capable of injecting mercury into a
sample at capillary pressures up to 60,000 psi. Pressure is measured with
transducers that produce an electrical signal that is proportional to the
applied pressure. This analog signal is converted into digital code for
processing by the monitoring computer.
The transducer that detects the volume of mercury injected is
integrated into the sample holder assembly as shown in Figure 7.61. The
sample cup has a capillary stem, which serves both as the mercury reservoir
and as an element of the mercury volume transducer. The capillary stem is
made of glass, which is an insulator but the outer face of the capillary is
plated with metal, which is a conductor. The sample is placed in the sample
cup and the cup along with the capillary stem is filled with mercury, which is
a conductor. The combination of two concentric electrical conductors
separated by an insulator produces a co-axial capacitor, whose capacitance is
a function of the length of mercury in the capillary. As mercury is injected
into the sample, the length of mercury in the capillary decreases and this in
turn changes the capacitance of the penetrometer assembly. The capacitance
of the assembly is measured at each step of mercury injection and used to
calculate the volume of mercury injected into the sample.

7-118

Figure 7.60. Autopore IV 9520 mercury injection porosimeter (from

Micromeritics).

7-119

Figure 7.61. Penetrometer for the Autopore IV 9520 mercury injection

porosimeter (from Micromeritics).

7-120

7.12 CALCULATION OF PERMEABILITY FROM DRAINAGE

CAPILLARY PRESSURE CURVE
7.12.1 Calculation of Absolute Permeability from Drainage Capillary
Pressure Curve
The objective is to estimate the permeability of a porous medium from
the drainage capillary pressure curve based on the bundle of capillary tubes
model of the porous medium. This problem was addressed in Section 3.7.3
using the probability density function for the pore throat diameter. Here, we
present the estimate of the absolute permeability of the porous medium based
on the probability density function for the pore throat radius obtained from
mercury injection porosimetry.
Let the probability density function for the pore throat radius be

( R) ,

where R is the pore throat radius. Then, for the porous medium,

( R)dR 1

(7.132)

The fractional number of pores with radii between R and R+dR is

( R)dR . The

number of pores with radii between R and R+dR is N ( R)dR , where N is the
total number of pores making up the porous medium. The cross-sectional
area of the pores with radii between R and R+dR is given by

dAc

R 2 N ( R)dR

(7.133)

The cross-sectional area occupied by all the pores can be obtained by

integrating Eq.(7.133) to obtain

Ac

AT

N R 2 ( R)dR
0

7-121

(7.134)

where AT is the total cross-sectional area of the porous medium and

is the

porosity of the porous medium. Let

R2

R 2 ( R)dR

a constant

(7.135)

Ac

NR 2

(7.136)

Eq.(7.135) can be written as

AT

The volumetric flow rate for pores with radii between R and R+dR is
given by Hagen-Poiseuilles law as

dq

where

R2
8 ( R)

R 2 N ( R)dR

P
L

(7.137)

( R) is the tortuosity of the porous medium and L is the length of the

medium. Note that the tortuosity is a function of the pore throat size, R. The
wetting phase occupies the pores with radii less than R. The volumetric flow
rate of the wetting phase is obtained by integrating Eq.(7.137) as
R

qw

N P R 4 ( R)
dR
8 w L 0 ( R)

(7.138)

The effective permeability to the wetting phase is given by Darcys law as

kw

qw w L
AT P

N
8 AT

R 4 ( R)
dR
( R)

The pore volume of the porous medium is given by

7-122

(7.139)

Vp

NL R 2 ( R)dR

AT L

NLR 2

(7.140)

At capillary equilibrium, the wetting phase occupies all the pores with radii
less than R corresponding to the capillary pressure given by

2 cos
R

Pc ( S w )

(7.141)

The wetting phase volume is given by

R

NL R 2 ( R)dR

Vw

(7.142)

The wetting phase saturation is given by

R

R
2

Vw
Vp

Sw

R 2 ( R)dR

R ( R)dR
0

R2

R ( R)dR

(7.143)

Eq.(7.143) can be rearranged as

R
2

R Sw

r 2 (r )dr

( R)dR

(7.144)

where r is a dummy integration variable, which is not to be confused with the

pore throat radius R, the upper limit of the integral. Differentiating Eq.(7.144)
with respect to R gives

R2

dS w
dR

d
r 2 (r )dr
dR 0

7-123

(7.145)

The right side of Eq.(7.145) can be evaluated using Leibnitzs rule for
differentiating a definite integral as follows:
R

d
r 2 (r )dr
dR 0

dR
d0
0 (0)
R ( R)
dR
dR

r 2 (r )

dr

(7.146)

The integrand of the integral on the right side of Eq.(7.146) is zero. Therefore,
Eq.(7.146) simplifies to
R

d
r 2 (r )dr
dR 0

R 2 ( R)

(7.147)

Substituting Eq.(7.147) into Eq.(7.145) gives

R 2 ( R)dR
R2

dS w

(7.148)

Substituting Eqs.(7.136) and (7.148) into Eq.(7.139) gives the effective

permeability to the wetting phase as
Sw

kw

R2
dS w
( R)

(7.149)

The R in Eq.(7.149) is the largest pore size filled with the wetting phase. This
can be obtained from the capillary pressure curve as

cos
Pc ( S w )

Let us approximate the tortuosity by a function of the form

7-124

(7.150)

( R)

where a and

a
R

(7.151)

are numerical constants. This function satisfies the

requirement that the tortuosity increases as the pore size decreases.

Substituting Eqs.(7.150) and (7.151) into Eq.(7.149) gives the effective
permeability to the wetting phase as

kw

2 cos

Sw

8a

dS w
Pc 2

(7.152)

The absolute permeability of the porous medium can be obtained from

Eq.(7.152) for the medium fully saturated by the wetting phase as

Let

2 cos

8a

dS w
Pc 2

(7.153)

= 0 and 1/a = F1. Substituting these values into Eq.(7.153) gives the

absolute permeability of the porous medium as

2 cos

F1

dS w
Pc 2
0

(7.154)

If the capillary pressure is in psi, the permeability is in millidarcy and the

surface tension is in dynes/cm, Eq.(7.154) becomes, after the units
conversion,

k 10.6566

cos

F1
0

7-125

dS w
Pc 2

(7.155)

In the case of mercury injection,

= 480 dynes/cm and

= 140. Substituting

these values into Eq.(7.155) gives the permeability as

1

k 1.441x106 F1
0

dS w
Pc 2

(7.156)

Eq.(7.156) is Purcell's equation in which F1 is a lithology factor to

account for tortuosity of the porous medium. Purcell (1949) performed
measurements on core samples and computed the lithology factors that made
the measured permeabilities to be equal to the calculated permeabilities from
the drainage capillary pressure curves of the samples. His results are shown
in Table 7.10.

The permeabilities of samples 17 and 18 were too low to

measure but were estimated to be less than 0.1 md. The calculated lithology
factors ranged from 0.085 to 0.363, with an average value of 0.216. He
suggested the use of the average value of 0.216 for estimating the
permeability of a rock from its drainage capillary pressure curve. However, as
shown in Figure 7.62, there is a positive correlation between the lithology
factor and permeability. Clearly, the higher the permeability, the higher the
lithology factor. Similarly, the lower the permeability, the lower the lithology
factor. The lithology factor is related to the reciprocal of the tortuosity of the
porous medium. Therefore, the positive correlation between the lithology
factor and permeability is to be expected. Because of this correlation, the use
of the average lithology factor of 0.216 to calculate the permeability of all
porous media can lead to poor estimates of permeability. Figure 7.63
compares the measured permeability with the calculated permeability using
the average lithology factor of 0.216 plotted on log scales. The correlation
between the two sets of data appears very strong. However, when the same
data are plotted on linear scales as shown in Figure 7.64, the correlation is
weaker than in Figure 7.63.
Table 7.10. Lithology factors for various core samples (Purcell, 1949).
7-126

Lithology

Calculated
Permeability

Sample

Permeability

Factor

Using F1 = 0.216

No

(md)

1.2

0.085

3.04

12

0.122

21.2

13.4

0.168

17.3

36.9

0.149

53.5

57.4

0.200

61.9

70.3

0.165

91.6

110

0.257

92.3

116

0.256

97.5

144

0.191

163

10

336

0.107

680

11

430

0.216

430

12

439

0.273

348

13

496

0.276

388

14

772

0.185

902

15

1070

0.282

816

16

1459

0.363

865

(md)

17

0.003

18

0.1

19

35.7

0.182

42.2

20

40.2

0.158

54.9

21

184

0.231

172

22

235

0.276

183

23

307

0.215

308

24

320

0.163

422

25

506

0.284

383

26

634

0.272

502

27

1150

0.338

734

7-127

Figure 7.62. Correlation between lithology factor and permeability (Purcell,

1949).

Figure 7.63. A comparison of measured permeability and calculated

permeability using the average lithology factor of 0.216 plotted on log scales
(Purcell, 1949).
7-128

Figure 7.64. A comparison of measured permeability and calculated

permeability using the average lithology factor of 0.216 plotted on linear
scales (Purcell, 1949).

Example 7.4
Estimate the permeability of the sample of Example 7.3 using the mercury
injection capillary pressure data of Table 7.9.
Solution to Example 7.4
Table 7.11 presents the calculated results. Figure 7.65 shows the graphs of Pc
and

1
versus S w . The integration called for in Eq.(7.156) was performed with
Pc2

the trapezoidal rule to obtain

1
0

dS w
Pc2

8.355 x10 6 1/ psi 2

7-129

Using the average lithology factor of 0.216 in Eq.(7.156) gives

k 1.441x106 0.216 0.056 8.355 x10

0.146 md, compared to the measured

permeability of 0.048 md. However, if the correlation of the lithology factor

with permeability is recognized and taken into account, the lithology factor for
the very low permeability sample should be much less than 0.216. Using the
lowest lithology factor of 0.085 in Table 7.10 gives the permeability as

k 1.441x106 0.085 0.056 8.355 x10

0.057 md, compared to the measured

value of 0.048 md. Thus, the low lithology factor of 0.085 gives a better
estimate of the permeability than the average value of 0.216 for this tight
sample.
Figure 3.30 gives a correlation between tortuosity and porosity based on
the experimental data of Winsauer et al. (1952). The equation of the
regression line is

27.35

10.987

For the sample with a porosity of 0.056, the tortuosity predicted by the
regression line is 9.4554. Therefore, the lithology factor (1/ ) predicted by the
correlation is 0.1058. Using the this value of the lithology factor in Eq.(7.156)
gives the estimated permeability as

k 1.441x106 0.1058 0.056 8.355 x10

0.071 md, compared to the measured

permeability of 0.048 md. This estimate also is better than that based on the
average lithology factor of 0.216.

Table 7.11. Calculated Results for Example 7.4.

7-130

1
Pc2

Pc
Sw

psi

1.000

124.919

0.969

1/ psi 2

150.747

Sw
1

dS w
Pc2

1/ psi 2

6.408E-

0.000E+0

05

4.401E-

1.687E-06

05
0.932

175.428

3.249E-

3.104E-06

05
0.896

200.401

2.490E-

4.124E-06

05
0.832

249.768

1.603E-

5.434E-06

05
0.771

300.121

1.110E-

6.266E-06

05
0.670

400.203

6.244E-

7.143E-06

06
0.572

499.515

4.008E-

7.646E-06

06
0.487

599.278

2.784E-

7.934E-06

06
0.423

699.359

2.045E-

8.088E-06

06
0.375

799.133

1.566E-

8.174E-06

06
0.340

899.290

1.237E-

8.223E-06

06
0.314

999.184

1.002E-

8.253E-06

06
0.291

1098.894

8.281E-

8.274E-06

07
0.270

1198.443

6.962E-

8.290E-06

07
0.252

1298.503

5.931E-

7-131

8.302E-06

07
0.235

1398.241

5.115E-

8.311E-06

07
0.220

1498.239

4.455E-

8.318E-06

07
0.206

1598.665

3.913E-

8.324E-06

07
0.194

1695.092

3.480E-

8.328E-06

07
0.182

1797.317

3.096E-

8.332E-06

07
0.171

1895.866

2.782E-

8.335E-06

07
0.162

2000.983

2.498E-

8.338E-06

07
0.144

2196.945

2.072E-

8.342E-06

07
0.129

2396.980

1.740E-

8.345E-06

07
0.115

2597.892

1.482E-

8.347E-06

07
0.103

2799.027

1.276E-

8.349E-06

07
0.093

2997.379

1.113E-

8.350E-06

07
0.082

3248.154

9.478E-

8.351E-06

08
0.072

3495.865

8.183E-

8.352E-06

08
0.063

3744.603

7.132E-

8.353E-06

08
0.056

3996.642

6.261E-

8.353E-06

08
0.050

4246.843

5.545E-

7-132

8.353E-06

08
0.044

4494.100

4.951E-

8.354E-06

08
0.040

4745.567

4.440E-

8.354E-06

08
0.035

4997.241

4.004E-

8.354E-06

08
0.032

5245.841

3.634E-

8.354E-06

08
0.028

5496.453

3.310E-

8.354E-06

08
0.025

5746.203

3.029E-

8.354E-06

08
0.022

5994.055

2.783E-

8.355E-06

08
0.019

6246.104

2.563E-

8.355E-06

08
0.017

6497.474

2.369E-

8.355E-06

08
0.015

6744.532

2.198E-

8.355E-06

08
0.013

6996.476

2.043E-

8.355E-06

08
0.010

7497.188

1.779E-

8.355E-06

08
0.008

7997.178

1.564E-

8.355E-06

08
0.005

8494.954

1.386E-

8.355E-06

08
0.003

8995.378

1.236E-

8.355E-06

08
0.002

9495.550

1.109E-

8.355E-06

08
0.001

9996.479

1.001E-

7-133

8.355E-06

08
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

10496.00

9.077E-

09

10997.02

8.269E-

09

11495.55

7.567E-

09

11996.47

6.949E-

09

12495.53

6.405E-

09

12996.07

5.921E-

09

13495.10

5.491E-

09

13995.90

5.105E-

09

14495.68

4.759E-

09

14996.19

4.447E-

09

15495.97

4.164E-

09

15995.13

3.909E-

09

16495.52

3.675E-

09

16995.27

3.462E-

09

17495.33

3.267E-

09

17995.50

3.088E-

09

18495.94

2.923E-

7-134

8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06

0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

09

18996.36

2.771E-

09

19495.32

2.631E-

09

19995.73

2.501E-

09

20995.31

2.269E-

09

21995.79

2.067E-

09

22995.64

1.891E-

09

23995.72

1.737E-

09

24996.34

1.600E-

09

25994.96

1.480E-

09

26995.65

1.372E-

09

27995.66

1.276E-

09

28996.07

1.189E-

09

29995.49

1.111E-

09

30996.21

1.041E-

09

31995.52

9.768E-

10

32996.19

9.185E-

10

33996.57

8.652E-

7-135

8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06

0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

10

34996.16

8.165E-

10

35996.32

7.718E-

10

36995.53

7.306E-

10

37996.39

6.927E-

10

38996.37

6.576E-

10

39995.75

6.251E-

10

41995.39

5.670E-

10

43995.21

5.166E-

10

45993.78

4.727E-

10

47991.17

4.342E-

10

49990.55

4.002E-

10

51989.83

3.700E-

10

53989.75

3.431E-

10

55989.39

3.190E-

10

57988.76

2.974E-

10

59988.26

2.779E-

10

7-136

8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06
8.355E-06

Figure 7.65. Pc and

1
versus S w for Example 7.4.
Pc2

7.12.2 Calculation of Relative Permeabilities from Drainage Capillary

Pressure Curve
The relative permeability to the wetting phase is given by

7-137

Sw

krw ( S w )

kw
k

dS w
Pc 2

0
1

dS w
Pc 2

(7.157)

The relative permeability to the non-wetting phase is given by

1

krnw ( S w )

knw
k

Sw
1

If

dS w
Pc 2
dS w
Pc 2

(7.158)

= 0, Eqs.(7.157) and (7.158) become

Sw

krw ( S w )

kw
k

0
1

dS w
Pc 2
dS w
Pc 2

(7.159)

and
1

krnw ( S w )

knw
k

dS w
Pc 2
Sw
1

dS w
Pc 2

(7.160)

The weakness of the above relative permeability models is that (krw+krnw) = 1,

which does not agree with experimental observations of relative permeability
functions. Experiments show that, in general, (krw+krnw) < 1. This lack of
agreement of the models with experiments is because the tortuosity of the
7-138

porous medium has been neglected. In fact, the tortuosity of the medium in
the presence of multiphase fluids is a function of saturation. Furthermore, the
models do not allow for residual saturations of the wetting and non-wetting
phases. These defects of the models will be corrected in Chapter 8 to derive
more realistic relative permeability curves from drainage capillary pressure
curves.

7.13 EMPIRICAL CAPILLARY PRESSURE MODELS

Often, it is desirable to fit analytical models to capillary pressure curves
to

simply

reservoir

performance

calculations,

especially

in

numerical

simulations. Capillary pressure appears in the immiscible displacement model

as a derivative, either as

Pc
dPc
or
. Therefore, an analytical model will allow
xD
dS w

the derivatives to be calculated without numerical noise. Several empirical

analytical models are available for this purpose. We present two such models
from Brooks and Corey (1966) and van Genuchten (1980).
7.13.1 Brooks-Corey Capillary Pressure Models
A popular capillary pressure model in the petroleum industry and soil
physics is the Brooks-Corey model (Brooks and Corey, 1966). Based on
evaluations of several drainage capillary pressure curves for consolidated
porous media, Brooks and Corey observed that all the drainage capillary
pressure curves they examined could be represented by linear functions of the
form

ln S w*

ln Pc

or

7-139

ln Pe

(7.161)

ln Pc

ln S w* ln Pe

(7.162)

by an appropriate choice of irreducible wetting phase saturation, where S w* is

the reduced wetting phase saturation defined by

S w S wirr
1 S wirr

S w*

(7.163)

In Eqs.(7.161) and (7.162), Pe is a constant given by the value of Pc on the

straight lines at S w* = 1, and

is the pore size distribution index obtained from

the slopes of the straight lines. It should be observed from Eq.(7.162) that
controls the slope of the linear capillary pressure plot. A large value of

gives

a small slope, which corresponds to the capillary pressure curve with a

narrow pore size distribution whereas a small value of

gives a large slope,

which corresponds to the capillary pressure curve for a wide pore size
distribution. Thus, small values of
whereas large values of

indicate a wide pore size distribution

indicate a narrow pore size distribution. A porous

medium with a uniform pore size corresponds to

observations, Brooks and Corey called

. In view of these

the pore size distribution index.

Eqs.(7.161) and (7.162) give a drainage capillary pressure model of the form
1

Pe S w*

Pc

(7.164)

Brooks and Corey also proposed an imbibition capillary pressure model of the
form
1

Pc

Pe

Se

7-140

(7.165)

where Se is the effective wetting phase saturation defined by

Se

S w S wirr
1 S wirr Snwr

(7.166)

where Snwr is the residual non-wetting phase saturation. To fit this model to
measured drainage capillary pressure data, a log-log plot of the drainage
capillary pressure data is made either as ln S w* versus ln Pc or as ln Pc versus

ln S w* . If the plot is nonlinear, then S wirr is adjusted until the plot is linear. Pe is
determined from the linear log-log plot at S w* 1 and

is determined from the

slope of the straight line. The two parameters are then substituted into
Eqs.(7.164) and (7.165) to calculate the drainage and imbibition capillary
pressure curves.
Example 7.5
1.

Fit the Brooks-Corey model to the air-water drainage capillary pressure

data given in Table 7.12 and compare the result of the model to the
original data.

2.

Derive the spontaneous imbibition capillary pressure curve for the

sample using the Brooks-Corey spontaneous imbibition capillary
pressure model.

Table 7.12. Air-Water Drainage Capillary Pressure Data for Example 7.5.
Drainag
e

7-141

Pc
Sw

psi

1.000

1.973

0.950

2.377

0.900

2.840

0.850

3.377

0.800

4.008

0.750

4.757

0.700

5.663

0.650

6.781

0.600

8.195

0.550

10.039

0.500

12.547

0.450

16.154

0.400

21.787

0.350

31.817

0.300

54.691

0.278

78.408

Solution to Example 7.4

1.

Using Swirr = 0.278 as indicated by the drainage capillary pressure data

of Table 7.12, a log-log graph of S w* versus Pc was plotted as shown in
Figure 7.66. Clearly, the graph is nonlinear. The curve fitting procedure
calls for the adjustment of Swirr until the graph is linear. Figure 7.67
shows the log-log plot with Swirr = 0.100. It is linear. Shown in Figure
7.68 is the corresponding log-log plot of Pc versus S w* for Swirr = 0.100.
As expected, it too is linear.

7-142

Figure 7.66.Log-log plot of S w* versus Pc for S wirr

0.278 for Example 7.5.

Figure 7.67. Log-log plot of S w* versus Pc for S wirr

0.100 for Example 7.5.

7-143

Figure 7.68. Log-log plot of Pc versus S w* for S wirr

0.100 for Example 7.5.

From Figure 7.68, the resulting Brooks-Corey drainage capillary

pressure straight line is

ln Pc

2.1443ln S w*

ln 2.2238

Therefore,

2.1443
0.4664

Pe

2.2238

7-144

The Brooks-Corey drainage capillary pressure equation for this example

is

Pc

Pe S w*

2.2238 S w*

2.1443

Figure 7.69 shows a comparison of the Brooks-Corey capillary pressure

model with the measured capillary pressure curve. The agreement is
good. The Brooks-Corey log-log plot extended the capillary pressure
data to an irreducible wetting phase saturation of 0.10. It also changed
the displacement pressure from 1.973 to 2.224 psi. Figure 7.70 shows
the same comparison as in Figure 7.68 but on an enlarged capillary
pressure scale. The overall agreement between the model fit and the
original data is good.

Figure 7.69. A comparison of the Brooks-Corey drainage capillary pressure

curve with the measured data for Example 7.5.
7-145

Figure 7.70. A comparison of the Brooks-Corey drainage capillary pressure

curve with the measured data on an enlarged capillary pressure scale for
Example 7.5.

2.

Figure 7.71 shows the predicted Brooks-Corey drainage and imbibition

capillary pressure curves for Snwr = 0.25 for the sample of Example 7.5.
Table 7.13 shows the original capillary pressure data along with the
calculated results with the Brooks-Corey model.

7-146

Figure 7.71. A comparison of the Brooks-Corey drainage and imbibition

capillary pressure curves for the sample of Example 7.5.

Table 7.13. Calculated Results with the Brooks-Corey Model for Example 7.5.
Original
Data

Brooks-Corey Model
Drainage
Pc

Drainage

Imbibition

Pc

Pc

Sw

psi

S w*

1.000

1.973

1.000

2.224

0.950

2.377

0.944

2.514

0.900

2.840

0.889

2.863

0.850

3.377

0.833

3.288

0.800

4.008

0.778

3.812

0.750

4.757

0.722

0.700

5.663

0.667

psi

Se

psi

4.468

1.000

0.000

5.305

0.923

0.416

7-147

0.650

6.781

0.611

6.393

0.846

0.958

0.600

8.195

0.556

7.843

0.769

1.679

0.550

10.039

0.500

9.831

0.692

2.669

0.500

12.547

0.444

12.656

0.615

4.075

0.450

16.154

0.389

16.851

0.538

6.163

0.400

21.787

0.333

23.452

0.462

9.448

0.350

31.817

0.278

34.672

0.385

15.032

0.300

54.691

0.222

55.947

0.308

25.620

0.278

78.408

0.198

71.829

0.274

33.524

0.250

0.167

103.678

0.231

49.374

0.200

0.111

247.331

0.154

120.867

0.150

0.056

1093.394

0.077

541.933

0.100

0.000

0.000

The Brooks-Corey capillary pressure model cannot adequately fit a

capillary pressure curve with an inflection (S-shaped curved) such as shown
in Figure 7.13 for sample C. In fact, fitting the Brooks-Corey model to such a
capillary pressure curve will eliminate the inflection and turn the capillary
curve into a hyperbola. The shape of the drainage capillary pressure curve of
Example 7.5 was that of a hyperbola. As a result, the Brooks-Corey model
gave a good fit of the data. If the original data had an inflection as typically
observed in poorly sorted porous media, the Brooks-Corey model would have
given a poor fit, especially at high wetting phase saturations. Since the shape
of the drainage capillary pressure curve is a reflection of the pore throat size
distribution, other capillary pressure models have been devised that preserve
the shape of the drainage capillary pressure curve, especially at high wetting
phase saturation.

7-148

7.13.2 van Genuchten Capillary Pressure Model

An empirical capillary pressure model that preserves the shape of the
capillary pressure curve at high wetting phase saturations was proposed by
van Genuchten (1980). This model is widely used in soil physics and in
hydrology. The model is given by

*
w

1
1

Pc

(7.167)

where , n and m are the fitting parameters.

Example 7.6
Fit the van Genuchten model to the air-water drainage capillary pressure data
given in Table 7.14 and compare the result of the model to the original data.
Solution to Example 7.6
Table 7.14 shows the calculated results for the van Genuchten model using
the following parameters:
= 0.018
m = 45
n=6
Figure 7.72 compares the van Genuchten model with the measured data. The
agreement is good especially at high values of the wetting phase saturation. It
should be observed that this model can match capillary pressure curves with
inflections, unlike the Brooks-Corey model. It can also match a capillary
pressure curve with a hyperbolic shape.

7-149

Table 7.14. Calculated Results for van Genuchten model.

van Genuchten
Measured

Data

Model

Pc
Sw

(psi)

S w*

S w*

Sw

0.20

50.0

0.000

0.000

0.200

0.24

39.0

0.050

0.006

0.205

0.25

38.0

0.063

0.012

0.210

0.28

35.0

0.100

0.065

0.252

0.30

34.0

0.125

0.100

0.280

0.35

32.0

0.188

0.199

0.359

0.40

30.0

0.250

0.332

0.466

0.50

28.5

0.375

0.444

0.555

0.56

28.0

0.450

0.481

0.585

0.60

27.8

0.500

0.496

0.597

0.68

27.0

0.600

0.555

0.644

0.70

26.8

0.625

0.569

0.655

0.70

26.8

0.625

0.569

0.655

0.75

26.0

0.688

0.625

0.700

0.80

24.8

0.750

0.701

0.761

0.85

23.0

0.813

0.798

0.838

0.90

21.0

0.875

0.877

0.902

0.95

18.0

0.938

0.949

0.959

1.00

13.5

1.000

0.991

0.993

7-150

Figure 7.72. A comparison of van Genuchten model with measured capillary

pressure data for Example 7.6.

7.14 CAPILLARY TRAPPING IN POROUS MEDIA

Capillary trapping ensures that an immiscible displacement at normal
interfacial tensions and rates is never complete. There is always a residual
phase that is trapped. Several models have been proposed to explain capillary
trapping. We examine two such models here: the pore doublet model and the
snap-off model.
7.14.1 Pore Doublet Model of Capillary Trapping
Figure 7.73 shows the pore doublet model, which consists of two pores
that are joined at the inlet and outlet ends, with one pore larger than the
other. The pore doublet is initially filled with a non-wetting phase. A wetting
phase is then injected at a rate q to displace the non-wetting phase from both
7-151

branches of the pore doublet. The problem is to determine which of the two
interfaces in the capillary tubes will arrive at the outlet first (Point B). We will
assume that once the interface in one of the capillary tubes has arrived at B,
the non-wetting phase in the other tube will be trapped. To determine which
interface will arrive at B first, we need to derive the expressions for the
velocities of the interfaces as a function of the relevant parameters of the
model. Although it is not necessary to do so, let us assume that the wetting
and non-wetting phases have the same viscosity to simplify the analysis.

Figure 7.73. Pore doublet model. (a) in a porous medium; (b) capillary tubes
approximation.

The pressure drop across each capillary tube is given by

7-152

PA

PB

PA

Pw

Pw

Pnw

Pnw

(7.168)

PB

where Pw and Pnw are the pressures on either side of the interface. From
Hagen-Poisseuille's law,

q1

r14 PA Pw
L1
8

(7.169)

q1

r14 Pnw PB
L L1
8

(7.170)

where L1 is the distance of the interface from the inlet end and L is the total
length of the pore doublet from A to B. Substituting Eqs.(7.169) and (7.170)
into Eq.(7.168) and noting that (Pnw - Pw) is the capillary pressure gives

PA

PB

8q1 L
r14

Pc1

(7.171)

Pc 2

(7.172)

Similarly, for the second capillary tube,

PA

PB

8q2 L
r24

Equating Eqs.(7.171) and (7.172) and rearranging gives

8 L
q1
r14

8 L
q2
r24

Pc 2

Pc1

2 cos

1
r2

1
r1

(7.173)

where the Laplace equation has been used to replace the capillary pressures.
Assuming incompressible fluids,

q1 q2

7-153

(7.174)

Eqs.(7.173) and (7.174) are two linear simultaneous equations in q1 in q2,

which can easily solved to obtain

q1

q2

8 L
q 2 cos
r24
8 L
r14

1
r2

1
r1

1
r2

1
r1

8 L
r24

8 L
q 2 cos
r14
8 L
r14

8 L
r24

(7.175)

(7.176)

Diving Eq.(7.176) by (7.175) and simplifying gives

q2
q1

r2
r1

r24 cos
4 L

q
q

r24 cos
4 L

1
r2
1
r2

1
r1

1
r1

(7.177)

The interface velocities are given by

v1

q1
r12

(7.178)

v2

q2
r22

(7.179)

r2
r1

(7.180)

Let

7-154

q L
r cos

N vcap

(7.181)

3
1

Substituting Eqs.(7.178) through (7.181) into (7.177) gives the ratio of the
interface velocities as

v2
v1

4 N vcap
4 N vcap

1
1

(7.182)

Eq.(7.182) can be used to determine the conditions under which the

non-wetting phase will be trapped in the smaller pore or in the larger pore. If

v2
v1

(7.183)

the non-wetting phase will be trapped in the smaller pore. Substituting

Eq.(7.182) into (7.183) gives the condition for trapping in the smaller pore as
2

N vcap

1
1

(7.184)

If

v2
v1

(7.185)

the non-wetting phase will be trapped in the larger pore. Substituting

Eq.(7.182) into (7.185) gives the condition for the non-wetting phase to be
trapped in the larger pore as

7-155

N vcap

(7.186)

The critical value of N vcap for trapping in either pore is given by

2

N vcapcritical

For fixed values of r1, r2, cos ,

1
1

(7.187)

and L, N vcap will depend on the rate q. If q is

low, the displacement will be dominated by capillary forces and the nonwetting phase will be trapped in the larger pore resulting in a low
displacement efficiency. If q is high, the displacement will be dominated by
the viscous forces and the non-wetting phase will be trapped in the smaller
pore resulting in a high displacement efficiency. These observations are in
qualitative agreement with macroscopic observations in corefloods. Figure
7.74 shows the breakthrough oil recovery as a function of v L obtained by
Rapoport and Leas (1953). The breakthrough oil recovery here is the oil
recovery at the time of water arrival at the outlet end of the core. As such, it is
a measure of the displacement efficiency. It should be observed that v L is
directly proportional to the macroscopic version of

N vcap . Clearly, the

displacement efficiency increases with an increase in v L or N vcap in agreement

with the prediction of the pore doublet model.

7-156

Figure 7.74. Breakthrough oil recovery versus Rapaport and Leas scaling
coefficient, v L (Rapoport and Leas, 1953).

If

v2
v1

(7.188)

the domination of the displacement by the capillary forces will be strong that
the interface in the larger pore will retract resulting in the trapping of the
non-wetting phase in the larger pore and low displacement efficiency.
Substituting Eq.(7.182) into (7.188) gives the condition for this to happen as

7-157

N vcap

1
1
1
4

(7.189)

It is interesting to compare N vcap with N cap , which is the relevant

dimensionless number for diagnosing the problem of capillary end effect.
From Eq.(7.61),
1
N cap

q L
A cos k

(7.190)

A comparison of Eqs.(7.181) and (7.190) shows that both dimensionless

numbers give the ratio of viscous to capillary forces or vice versa. N cap gives the
ratio of capillary to viscous forces at the macroscopic scale whereas N vcap gives
the ratio of the viscous to capillary forces at the pore scale. Once again, we
see the competition between viscous and capillary forces that pervades
immiscible displacements in porous media.
Chatzis and Dullien (1983) and Laidlaw and Wardlaw (1983) provide
more detailed theoretical analyses of the pore doublet model along with
experimental verifications.

7.14.2 Snap-Off Model of Capillary Trapping

When a non-wetting phase is forced through a pore constriction, it can
suffer from capillary instability and snap off (breakup) after exiting the
constriction. This phenomenon is controlled by the ratio of the pore body to
the pore throat size. Figure 7.75 shows oil being displaced in two pores, one
with a low aspect ratio and the other with a high aspect ratio. The aspect ratio
is define as

7-158

Aspect Ratio

D1
D2

(7.191)

where D1 and D2 are the pore body diameter and the pore throat diameter,
respectively. In Figure 7.75a, the aspect ratio is low and the oil is displaced
through the pore without trapping. In Figure 7.75b, the aspect ratio is high
and the oil suffers capillary instability and snaps off at the pore throat and be
trapped.

Figure 7.75. Capillary trapping by snap-off mechanism in a single pore.(a) low

aspect ratio; (b) high aspect ratio (Chatzis et al., 1983).

7-159

Figure 7.76 shows a drop of non-wetting fluid passing through a pore

constriction is a uniform pack of spheres. The drop will become unstable and
breakup when the capillary pressure at the pore neck exceeds the capillary
pressure at the leading edge of the drop. The condition for snap-off is given by

Pcn

1
rn

1
rt

2
rf

(7.192)

Figure 7.76. Snap-off in a porous medium (Stegemeier, 1976).

7-160

Figure 7.77 shows a sequence of mercury injection and withdrawal into

a pore system. Figure 7.77A shows the capillary pressure hysteresis loops
whereas Figure 7.77B shows mercury trapping by snap-off corresponding to
the hysteresis loops.
7.14.3 Mobilization of Residual Non-Wetting Phase
Once a phase has been trapped, the pressure gradient required to
mobilize it can be significantly higher than can be generated under the
flooding conditions. Let us calculate the pressure gradient required to
mobilize a trapped oil blob in a waterflood as shown in Figure 7.78. For the
blob to pass through the pore throat, the pressure drop across the leading
edge must exceed the entry pressure or the displacement pressure of the pore
throat. Thus, the condition for the blob to pass through the pore throat is
given by

PB'

PB

2 cos
r1

(7.193)

PA'

PA

2 cos
r2

(7.194)

From Laplace equation,

Subtracting Eq.(7.194) from (7.193) gives

PB'

PB

PA'

PA

2 cos

7-161

1
r1

1
r2

(7.195)

Figure 7.77. Snap-off in mercury injection-withdrawal experiment. A: capillary

pressure scanning curves; B: corresponding mercury trapping by snap-off
(Stegemeier, 1976).

7-162

or

PA

Because PB'

PB'

PB

PA'

1
r1

2 cos

1
r2

(7.196)

PA' , Eq.(7.196) becomes

PA

PB

2 cos

1
r1

1
r2

(7.197)

The pressure gradient required to mobilize the blob is given by

PA

PB
L

2 cos
L

1
r1

1
r2

(7.198)

Figure 7.78. Trapped oil blob.

Let us estimate the pressure gradient required to mobilize a trapped oil
droplet in a normal waterflood in a reservoir rock using typical values of the
relevant parameters. Let

r1 10 m
7-163

r2

50 m

L 50 m
30 dynes / cm

0
kw

500 md
1 cp

vw 1 ft / day
The pressure gradient required to mobilize the droplet is given by
PA

PB
L

2 30
50 x10

1
100

10 x10

1
100

50 x10

100

1
1.0133 x106

14.696 30.48 psi / ft

or

PA

PB
L

4243.73 psi / ft

This is an enormous pressure gradient requirement. The pressure gradient

generated by the waterflood is given by Darcy's law as

P
L

1 1
0.001127 5.615 500

0.32 psi / ft

We see that the pressure gradient generated by the waterflood is not sufficient
to mobilize the oil droplet. Therefore, it will remain trapped.

7-164

7.14.4 Oil Migration

Figure 7.79 shows an upward migrating oil bubble from a source rock
into a reservoir initially fully saturated with water. The migrating bubble has
encountered a restriction at a pore throat of radius rH. Obviously, in order for
migration to continue, the leading end of the bubble (A) must squeeze through
the pore throat. Assuming that ends A and B of the bubble are hemispherical
with B having a radius rB, one can calculate the length of the oil blob required
for the blob to pass through the restriction and continue its upward
migration. To pass through the restriction, the capillary pressure at the
leading edge of the blob must exceed the displacement pressure of the
restriction. Therefore, the condition for upward migration through the
restriction is

PoA

PwA

2
rH

(7.199)

PoB

PwB

2
rB

(7.200)

Laplace equation gives

From hydrostatics through the water,

PwB

PwA

gh

7-165

(7.201)

Figure 7.79. Migrating oil filament.

7-166

From hydrostatics through the oil,

PoB

PoA

(7.202)

gh

Subtracting Eq.(7.201) from (7.202) gives

PoB

PwB

PoA

PwA

gh

(7.203)

Substituting Eq.(7.200) into (7.203) and rearranging gives

PoA

PwA

gh

2
rB

(7.204)

Substituting Eq.(7.204) into (7.199) gives the condition for upward migration
as

gh

2
rB

2
rH

(7.205)

1
g rH

1
rB

(7.206)

or
2

h
w

Let

rH

10 m

rB

50 m

30 dynes / cm
w = 1.00 g/cm3

7-167

o = 0.70 g/cm3
The minimum length of the blob to continue its upward migration is given by

2 30
1 0.70 981

1
10 x10

1
100

50 x10

100

163.1 cm

7.15 EFFECTS OF WETTABILITY AND INTERFACIAL TENSION

ON CAPILLARY PRESSURE CURVES
The effects of wettability and interfacial tension on capillary pressure
curves can easily be deduced from Laplace equation. The effect of wettability
on capillary pressure curve is shown qualitatively in Figure 7.80. As the
degree of preferential wettability is reduced, the capillary pressure curve will
decrease. The effect of interfacial tension on capillary pressure is shown
qualitatively in Figure 7.81. Capillary pressure decreases as the interfacial
tension of the fluids decrease.

7-168

Figure 7.80. Effect of wettability on capillary pressure curve.

7-169

Figure 7.81. Effect of interfacial tension on capillary pressure curve.

NOMENCLATURE
A

cross sectional area in the flow direction

Bo =

oil formation volume factor

Bw =

water formation volume factor

do =

depth of free water level below water oil contact

fw

fractional flow of wetting phase

fw

fractional flow of water

fnw =

fractional flow of non-wetting phase

fnw2 =

fractional flow of non-wetting phase at the outlet end of porous

medium
7-170

fo

fractional flow of oil

f(R) =

probability density function for pore volume distribution

Fw =

approximate fractional flow of wetting phase

F1 =

lithology factor

gravitational acceleration

height above water oil contact

Leverett J-function

absolute permeability of the medium

ko =

effective permeability to oil

kw =

effective permeability to wetting phase

knw = effective permeability to non-wetting phase

kwr =

end-point relative permeability to wetting phase

kg =

effective permeability to gas

kro =

relative permeability to oil

krw =

relative permeability to water

krg =

relative permeability to gas

krw =

relative permeability to wetting phase

krnw= relative permeability to non-wetting phase

knwr= end-point relative permeability to non-wetting phase
L

length

M =

mobility ratio

ME =

end-point mobility ratio

centrifuge speed in revolutions per minute

NpD =

dimensionless cumulative production

Ncap = dimensionless capillary to viscous force ratio

P

pressure

Pc =

capillary pressure

Pc1 =

capillary pressure at the inlet end of core in a centrifuge

Pd =

displacement pressure

Pe =

displacement pressure for Brooks-Corey model

7-171

Pg =

pressure in the gas phase

Pnw=

pressure in the non-wetting phase

Po =

pressure in the oil phase

Pw =

pressure in the water phase

Pw =

pressure in the wetting phase

total volumetric injection rate

qo =

volumetric flow rate of oil

qg =

volumetric flow rate of gas

qnw=

volumetric flow rate of non-wetting phase

qw =

volumetric flow rate of water

qw =

volumetric flow rate of wetting phase

radius of capillary tube

rm

mean radius of curvature of an interface

r1 , r2 =

radii of curvature of an interface

r1 , r2 =

distance of inlet end and outlet end of core from the center of
rotation in a centrifuge

pore throat radius

Se =

effective wetting phase saturation

Sg =

gas saturation

So =

oil saturation

Sor =

residual oil saturation

Sw =

water saturation

Sw =

wetting phase saturation

Swirr = irreducible wetting phase saturation

Swro = wetting phase saturation at which the imbibition capillary
pressure is zero
Sw1 =

wetting phase saturation at the inlet end of porous medium in a

centrifuge

Snw=

non-wetting phase saturation

Snwr =

residual non-wetting phase saturation

7-172

Swav = average wetting phase saturation

Swav = average water saturation
Swf = frontal saturation

S w* =

normalized wetting phase saturation

time

tD

dimensionless time

flux vector, Darcy velocity vector

vw =

Darcy velocity for the wetting phase

vnw =

Darcy velocity for the non-wetting phase

distance in the direction of flow

xD =

dimensionless distance

height above free water level

density of water

density of wetting phase

nw

density of non-wetting phase

interfacial tension

contact angle

pore size distribution index

viscosity

g =
=

gas viscosity
oil viscosity

w =

water viscosity

w =

wetting phase viscosity

nw=

non-wetting phase viscosity

(R) =

probability density function for pore throat size distribution based

on bundle of capillary tubes model of porous medium

porosity, fraction

tortuosity

liquid specific gravity

7-173

angular velocity of centrifuge

P =

pressure drop

Pw =

pressure drop in the wetting phase

Pnw = pressure drop in the non-wetting phase

=

pore structure

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Abrams, A. : "The Influence of Fluid Viscosity, Interfacial Tension, and Flow
Velocity on Residual Oil Saturation Left by Waterflood," Soc. Pet. Eng.
Jour. (Oct., 1975) 437-447.
Adamson, A.W. and Gast, A.P.: Physical Chemistry of Surfaces, Sixth Edition,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1997.
Afzal, N.: Investigation of Heterogeneities and Fluid Displacements in Porous
Media Using CT, MS Thesis, The University of Texas at Austin, May
1992.
Akima, H.: "A New Method of Interpolation and Smooth Curve Fitting Based
on Local Procedures," J. ACM, Vol.17, No. 4 (Oct. 1970) 589-602.
Anderson, W.G. : Wettability Literature Survey - Part 4: Effects of Wettability
on Capillary Pressure, J. Pet. Tech. (October 1987) 1283-1300.
Anderson, W.G. : Wettability Literature Survey - Part 6: The Effects of
Wettability on Waterflooding, J. Pet. Tech. (December 1987) 1605-1622.
Archer, J.S. and Wall, C.G. : Petroleum Engineering, Graham & Trotman,
London, England, 1986.
Arriola, A., Willhite, G.P. and Green, D.W. : "Trapping of Oil Drops in a
Noncircular Pore Throat and Mobilization Upon Contact With a
Surfactant," SPEJ (Feb. 1983) 99-114.
Bear, J. : Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Elsevier, New York, 1972.
Benner, F.C. and Bartell, F.E. : The Effect of Polar Impurities Upon Capillary
and Surface Phenomena in Petroleum Production, API Drilling and
Production Practice (1941) 341-348.
Bethel, F.T. and Calhoun, J.C. : "Capillary Desaturation in Unconsolidated
Beads," Trans. AIME (1953) Vol. 198, 197-202.
Brooks, R.H. and Corey, A.T. : Properties of Porous Media Affecting Fluid
Flow, Jour. Irrigation and Drainage Div., Proc. Amer. Soc. Of Civil Engr.
(June, 1966) 61-88.
7-174

Brown, H.W : Capillary Pressure Investigations, Trans., AIME (1951) 192,

67-74.
Buckley, S.E. and Leverett, M.C. : Mechanism of Fluid Displacement in
Sands, J. Pet. Tech. (May 1941) 107-116.
Burdine, N.T., Gournay, L.S. and Reichertz, P.P. : Pore Size Distribution of
Petroleum Reservoir Rocks, Trans., AIME (1950) 198, 195-204.
Campbell, G.S. : "A Simple Method for Determining Unsaturated Conductivity
from Moisture Retention Data," Soil Sci., Vol. 117, No. 6 (1974) 311314.
Campbell, G.S. and Gee, G.W. : "Water Potential: Miscellaneous Methods," in
American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI (1986) 619-633.
Charbeneau, R.J. and Daniel, D.E. : "Contaminant Transport in Unsaturated
Flow," Chapter 15, in Handbook of Hydrology, D.R. Maidment (Ed.),
McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, 1993.
Chatzis, I., Morrow, N.R. and Lim, H.T. : Magnitude and Detailed Structure of
Residual Oil Saturation, Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (April 1983) 311-326.
Chatzis, I. and Dullien, F.A.L. : Dynamic Immiscible Displacement
Mechanisms in Pore Doublets: Theory versus Experiment, Jour. Colloid
and Interface Science , vol. 91, No. 1 (Jan. 1983) 199-222.
Chatzis, I. and Morrow, N.R. : Correlation of Capillary Number Relationships
for Sandstones, SPEJ (Oct. 1984) 555-562.
Collins, R.E. and Cooke, C.E.: "Fundamental Basis for the Contact Angle and
Capillary Pressure," Trans. Faraday Soc., 55 (1959) 1602-1606.
Collins, R.E. : Flow of Fluids Through Porous Materials, Research &
Engineering Consultants Inc., 1990.
Core Laboratories Inc. : Special Core Analysis, 1976.
Corey, A.T. : Mechanics of Heterogeneous Fluids in Porous Media, Water
Resources Publications, Fort Collins, Colorado, 1977.
Cosse, R. : Basics of Reservoir Engineering, Editions Technip, Paris, 1993.
Craig, F.F., Jr. : The Reservoir Engineering Aspects of Waterflooding, SPE
Monograph Vol. 3, Society of Petroleum Engineers, Richardson, Texas,
1971.
Cuiec, L.E. : Study of Problems Related to the Restoration of Natural State of
Core Samples, J. Canadian Pet. Tech (Oct. - Dec. 1977) 68-80.
de Gennes, P.G. and Quere, D. : Capillarity and Wetting Phenomena, Springer
Science and Business Media, Inc., 2004.
Donaldson, E.C., Kendall, R.F., Pavelka, E.A. and Crocker, M.E. : Equipment
and Procedures for Fluid Flow and Wettability Tests of Geological
7-175

Materials, DOE/BETC/IC-79/5,
2216, 1980.

Nat. Tech. Info. Sv, Springfield, VA

Douglas, J., Jr., Blair, P.M. and Wagner, R.J. : Calculation of Linear
Waterflood Behavior Including the Effects of Capillary Pressure, Trans.,
AIME (1958) 213, 96-102.
Dullien, F.A.L. : Effects of Pore Structure on Capillary and Flow Phenomena
in Sandstones, J. Cnd. Pet. Tech. (July-Sept. 1975) 48-55.
Dullien, F.A.L. : Porous Media - Fluid Transport and Pore Structure, Academic
Press, New York, 1979.
Forbes, P., Chardaire-Riviere, C., Deflandre, F. and Flcury, M. : Local
Saturation Measurement While Centrifuging (MWC) for Improving
Centrifuge Capillary-Pressure Curve Determination, SCA Conference
Paper Number 9215 (1992).
Gardescu, I.I. : Behavior of Gas Bubbles in Capillary Spaces, Trans., AIME
(1930) 351-370.
Gharbi, R. and Peters, E.J. : Scaling Coreflood Experiments to Heterogeneous
Reservoirs, Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 10, (1993)
83-95.
Garnes, J.M., Mathisen, A.M., Scheie, A. and Skauge, A. : "Capillary Number
Relations for Some North Sea Reservoir Sandstones," SPE/DOE 20264,
Presented at the SPE/DOE Seventh Symposium on Enhanced Oil
Recovery, Tulsa, April 22-25, 1990.
Graue, A., Kolltvelt, K., Lien, J.R. and Skauge, A. : "Imaging Fluid Saturation
Development in Long-Core Flood Displacements," SPE Formation
Evaluation (December 1990) 406-412.
Hassler, G.L. and Brunner, E. : Measurement of Capillary Pressures in Small
Core Samples, Trans., AIME (1945) 160, 114-123.
Haughey, D.P. and Beveridge, G.S.G. : "Structural Properties of Packed Beds A Review, Can. J. Chem. Eng., Vol. 47 (April 1969) 130-149.
Hermansen, H., Eliassen, O., Guo, Y. and Skjaeveland, S.M. : "Capillary
Pressure From Centrifuge - A New Direct Method," Advance in Core
Evaluation II, EuroCAS, London, May 20-22, 1991.
Jennings, H.Y. : Surface Properties of Natural and Synthetic Porous Media,
Producers Monthly (March 1957) 20-24.
Jennings, H.J. : How to Handle and Process Soft and Unconsolidated Cores,
World Oil (June 1965) 116-119.
Keelan, D.K. : "A Critical Review of Core Analysis Techniques The Jour. Can.
Pet. Tech. (April-June 1972) 42-55.

7-176

Killins, C.R., Nielsen, R.F. and Calhoun, J.C., Jr.: Capillary Desaturation and
Imbibition in Rocks, Producers Monthly (February 1953) 18, No. 2, 3039.
Klute, A. : "Water Retention: Laboratory Methods," Methods of Soil Analysis,
Part 1, A. Klute (Ed.), American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI
(1986) 635-686.
Klute, A. : "Hydraulic Conductivity and Diffusivity: Laboratory Methods,"
Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 1, A. Klute (Ed.), American Society of
Agronomy, Madison, WI (1986) 687-734.
Kyte, J.R. and Rapoport, L.A. : Linear Waterflood Behavior and End Effects in
Water-Wet Porous Media, Trans., AIME (1958) 213, 423-426.
Laidlaw, W.G. and Wardlaw, N.C. : "A Theoretical and Experimental
Investigation of Trapping in Pore Doublets," Canadian J. Chemical
Engineering, Vol. 61 (October 1983) 719-727.
Lake, L.W. : Enhanced Oil Recovery, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, 1989.
Land, C.S. : "Calculation of Imbibition Relative Permeability for Two- and
Three-Phase Flow From Rock Properties, SPEJ (June 1968) 149-156.
Leij, F.J., Russell, W.B. and Lesch, S.M. : Closed-Form Expressions for Water
Retention and Conductivity Data, Ground Water Vol. 35, No. 5 (1997)
848-858.
Leva, M., Weintraub, M., Grummer, M. Pollchick, M. and Storch, H.H. : "Fluid
Flow Through Packed and Packed and Fluidized Systems," US Bureau
of Mines Bull. No. 504, 1951.
Leverett, M.C. : Flow of Oil-Water Mixtures through Unconsolidated Sands,
Trans., AIME (1939) 140, xxx-xxx.
Leverett, M.C. : Capillary Behavior in Porous Solids, Trans., AIME (1941)
142, 152-169.
Majors, P.D., Li, P. and Peters, E.J. : "NMR Imaging of Immiscible
Displacements in Porous Media, Society of Petroleum Engineers
Formation Evaluation (September 1997) 164-169.
Marle, C.M. : Multiphase Flow in Porous Media, Gulf Publishing Company,
Houston, Texas, 1981.
Melrose, J.C. : Role of Capillary Forces in Determining Microscopic
Displacement Efficiency for Oil Recovery by Waterflooding, J. Cnd Pet.
Tech. (Oct.-Dec. 1974) 54-62.
Melrose, J.C. : Interpretation of Centrifuge Capillary Pressure Data, The Log
Analyst (January-February 1988) 40-47.

7-177

Melrose, J.C. : "Interfacial Phenomena as Related to Oil Recovery

Mechanisms," Cnd J. Chem. Eng., Vol. 48 (Dec. 1970) 638-644.
Mohanty, K.K., Davis, H.T. and Scriven, L.E. : "Physics of Oil Entrapment in
Water-Wet Rock," SPE 9406 Presented at the 55th Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of
AIME, Dallas, September 21-24, 1980.
Monicard, R.P. : Properties of Reservoir Rocks, Gulf Publishing Company,
Houston, TX, 1980.
Morrow, N.R. : "Capillary Equilibrium in Porous Media," Soc. Pet. Eng. J.
(March 1965) 15-24.
Morrow, N.R. : "Capillary Pressure Correlations For Uniformly Wetted Porous
Media," J. Cnd Pet. Tech. (Oct.-Dec. 1976)) 49-69.
Morrow, N.R. : "Physics and Thermodynamics of Capillary," Ind. Eng. Chem.
Vol. 62 (1970) 32.
Mungan, N. : Enhanced Oil Recovery Using Water as a Driving Fluid; Part 2 Interfacial Phenomena and Oil Recovery: Wettability, World Oil (March
1981) 77-83.
Mungan, N. : Enhanced Oil Recovery Using Water as a Driving Fluid; Part 3 Interfacial Phenomena and Oil Recovery: Capillarity, World Oil (May
1981) 149-158.
Perkins, F.M. : "An Investigation of the Role of Capillary Forces in Laboratory
Water Floods," Trans. AIME (1957) Vol. 210, 409-411.
Purcell, W.R. : Capillary Pressures - Their Measurement Using Mercury and
the Calculation of Permeability There From, Trans., AIME (1949) 186,
39-48.
Purcell, W.R. : Interpretation of Capillary Pressure Data Trans., AIME (1950)
189, 369-371.
Rajan, R.R. : Theoretically Correct Analytical Solution for Calculating
Capillary Pressure-Saturation from Centrifuge Experiments, SPWLA
Trans., 27th Annual Logging Symposium, Paper J, Houston, Tx, June
9-13, 1986.
Rapoport, L.A. and Leas, W.J. : Properties of Linear Waterfloods, Trans.,
AIME (1953) 198, 139-148.
Ritter, L.C. and Drake, R.L. : Pore Size Distribution in Porous Materials, Ind.
Eng. Chem., An. Ed. (1945) 17, 782-786.
Ritter, L.C. and Drake, R.L. : Macropore-Size Distributions in Some Typical
Porous Substances, Ind. Eng. Chem., An. Ed. (1945) 17, 787-791.
Rose, H.E. : An Investigation into the the Laws of Flow of Fluids Through
Granular Material, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. (1945) 153, 141-148.
7-178

Rowlinson, J.S. and Widom, B. : Molecular Theory of Capillarity, Dover

Publications, Inc., Mineola, New York, 1982.
Scheidegger, A.E. : The Physics of Flow Through Porous Media, University of
Toronto Press, Toronto, 1960.
Slobod, R.L., Chambers, A. and Prehn, W.L., Jr. : Use of Centrifuge for
Determining Connate Water, Residual Oil, and Capillary Pressure
Curves of Small Core Samples, Trans., AIME (1951) 192, 127-134.
Stegemeier, G.L. : Mechanisms of Entrapment and Mobilization of Oil in
Porous Media, Presented at the 81st National Meeting of AIChE, Kansas
City, April 12-14, 1976.
Stegemeier, G.L. : Relationship of Trapped Oil Saturation to Petrophysical
Properties of Porous Media, SPE 4754 Presented at the Improved Oil
Recovery Symposium of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME ,
Tulsa, April 22-24, 1974.
Taber, J.J. : "Dynamic and Static Forces Required to Remove a Discontinuous
Oil Phase From Porous Media Containing Both Oil and Water," SPEJ
(March 1969) 3-12.
Tiab, D. and Donaldson, E.C. : Petrophysics, Second Edition, Elsevier, New
York, 2004.
Topp, G.C. and Miller, E.E. : "Hysterisis Moisture Characteristics and
Hydraulic Conductivities for Glass-Bead Media," Soil Sci. Soc. Am.
Proc., Vol. 30 (1966) 156-162.
Topp, G.C., Klute, A. and Peters, D.B. : "Comparison of Water ContentPressure Head Data Obtained by Equilibrium, Steady State, and
Unsteady State Methods," Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc., Vol. 31 (1967) 312314.
Topp, G.C. and Davis, J.L. : "Measurement of Soil Water Using Time-Domain
Reflectometry (TDR): Field Evaluation," Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc., Vol. 49
(1985) 19-24.
Topp, G.C., Davis, J.L. and Annan, A.P. : "Electromagnetic Determination of
Soil Water Content: Measurements In Coaxial Transmission Lines,"
Water Resources Research, Vol. 16 (19805) 574-582.
van Genuchten, M.T. : "A Closed-Form Equation for Predicting the Hydraulic
Conductivity of Unsaturated Soils," Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., Vol. 44 (1980)
892-898.
Welge, H.J. and Bruce, W.A. : A Restored-State Method for Determination of
Oil in Place and Connate Water, API Drilling and Production Practice
(1947) 161-165.
Willhite, G. P. : Waterflooding, SPE Textbook Series Vol. 3, Society of
Petroleum Engineers, Richardson, Texas, 1986.
7-179

Winsauer, W.O., Shearin, H.M., Jr., Masson, P.H. and Williams, M. :

"Resistivity of Brine-Saturated Sands in Relation to Pore Geometry,"
AAPG Bull., Vol. 36, No. 2 (Feb. 1952) 253-277.
Wyllie, M.R.J. and Rose, W.D. : "Some Theoretical Considerations Related to
the Quantitative Evaluation of the Physical Characteristics of Reservoir
Rock from Electrical Log Data, Trans., AIME (1950) 189, 105-118.
Wyllie, M.R.J. and Spangler, M.B. : "Application of Electrical Resistivity
Measurements to Problems of Fluid Flow in Porous Media, AAPG Bull.,
Vol. 36, No. 2 (Feb. 1952) 359-403.

7-180

7-181

CHAPTER 8

RELATIVE PERMEABILITY

8.1 DEFINITION OF RELATIVE PERMEABILITY

In a petroleum reservoir, it is possible for two or three fluids to flow
simultaneously. Examples are (a) the flow of gas and water in a gas reservoir,
(b) the flow of oil and water in an oil reservoir, (c) the flow of oil and gas in an
oil reservoir and (d) the flow of oil, water and gas in an oil reservoir.

In

multiphase flow situations, the absolute permeability of the porous medium is

no longer sufficient to calculate the flow rate of each fluid type or to calculate
the total flow rate of all the fluids.
In order to make quantitative predictions for multiphase flow, we need
to know the permeability to each fluid in the presence of the other fluids in
the rock. The permeability of one fluid in the presence of the other immiscible
fluids is known as the effective permeability to that fluid. To calculate the
flow rate of each fluid in multiphase flow, we extend Darcys Law to
multiphase flow. For example, for simultaneous flow of oil, water and gas in
an inclined linear system, Darcys Law is applied to each phase as follows:
qo

ko A
o

qw

kw A
w

Po
x
Pw
x

8-1

g sin

(8.1)

g sin

(8.2)

kg A

qg

Pg

where

(8.3)

g sin

is the angle of inclination with the horizontal. Eqs.(8.1) to (8.3) show

that using the concept of an effective permeability, Darcys Law is applied to

each phase as if the other phases did not exist. Capillary equilibrium between
the phases gives
Po

Pw

Pc / ow S w

(8.4)

Pg

Po

Pc / go So

(8.5)

Pc / ow

Pc / go

(8.6)

Pc / gw

It is often more convenient to work with a dimensionless effective

permeability known as the relative permeability obtained by dividing the
effective

permeability

by

base

permeability

such

as

the

absolute

permeability of the porous medium. Thus, for the three phase example, using
the absolute permeability of the porous medium as the base permeability, the
relative permeabilities to oil, water and gas are given by

kro

ko
k

(8.7)

krw

kw
k

(8.8)

krg

kg

(8.9)

In terms of relative permeabilities, Eqs.(8.1) through (8.3) become

qo

kkro A
o

Po
x

8-2

g sin

(8.10)

qw

kkrw A
w

qg

kkrg A
g

Pw
x

g sin

(8.11)

g sin

(8.12)

Pg
x

Sometimes, the effective permeability to the non-wetting phase at the

irreducible wetting phase saturation is used as the base permeability for
defining the relative permeability.

In this case, the end point relative

permeability to the non-wetting phase will be 1.0. As the base pressure

appears in Darcy's law as shown in Eqs.(8.10) to (8.12), it is necessary to
ascertain the base permeability used to define a relative permeability curve
before such a curve is used in performance calculations. Failure to do so will
lead to wrong results.
Figure 8.1 shows typical imbibition relative permeability curves for a
two-phase system.

The following observations can be made about the key

features of the relative permeability curves.

1.

The relative permeability curves are nonlinear functions of fluid

saturation.

2.

The sum of the relative permeabilities at each saturation is always less

than 1.0.

3.

There is an irreducible wetting phase saturation (Swirr) at which the

relative permeability to the wetting phase is zero and the relative
permeability to the non-wetting phase attains a maximum end point
value (knwr)

4.

There is a residual non-wetting phase saturation (Snwr) at which the

relative permeability to the non-wetting phase is zero and the relative

8-3

permeability to the wetting phase attains a maximum end point value

(kwr).

Figure 8.1. Typical imbibition relative permeability curves.

5.

The relative permeability curves are not defined in the saturation ranges
given by 1 S nwr

6.

S w 1 and 0

Sw

S wirr .

Two phase flow occurs over the saturation range S wirr

Sw

1 S nwr .

Imbibition relative permeability curves typically are used to perform the

following reservoir performance calculations:
Waterflood calculations in a water wet reservoir in which water
displaces oil and/or gas.

8-4

Natural water influx calculations in a water wet reservoir in which water

displaces oil and/or gas.
Oil displaces gas, which occurs when oil is forced into a gas cap.
Figure 8.2 shows typical drainage relative permeability curves with
features that are very similar to the imbibition curves of Figure 8.1. The
obvious differences between the drainage and imbibition curves are that the
drainage curve for the wetting phase starts at a wetting phase saturation of
1.0 and that of the non-wetting phase is zero at the wetting phase saturation
of 1.0. This is because at the start of the drainage relative permeability
measurements, the porous medium was fully saturated with the wetting
phase. The permeability of the wetting phase is then equal to the absolute
permeability of the porous medium. Of course, at the start of the experiment,
there was no non-wetting phase in the medium. Therefore, the relative
permeability to the non-wetting phase must be zero. This is the only occasion
in which the sum of relative permeabilities is equal to 1.0 because there was
only one phase present. As will be shown later, because of capillary pressure
hysteresis, the drainage and imbibition relative permeability curves will be
different.
Drainage relative permeability curves typically are used to perform the
following reservoir performance calculations:
Solution gas drive calculations in which gas displaces oil.
Gravity drainage calculations in which gas replaces drained oil.
Gas drive calculations in which gas displaces oil and/or water.
Oil or gas displacing water in tertiary recovery processes.

8-5

Figure 8.2. Typical drainage relative permeability curves.

8.2 LABORATORY MEASUREMENT OF TWO-PHASE RELATIVE

PERMEABILITIES BY THE STEADY STATE METHOD
The most straight-forward laboratory measurement technique for
relative permeabilities is the steady state method.

For imbibition relative

permeability measurement, the test starts with the core initially saturated
with an irreducible wetting phase saturation (Swirr) and a non-wetting phase
saturation of (1-Swirr). Then a mixture of the two phases is injected into the
inlet face of the core at a fixed ratio of

qnw
until steady state is achieved.
qw

Steady state is achieved when the pressure drop across the core no longer
changes with time and the ratio of the produced fluids is the same and the
ratio of the injected fluids. The steady state pressure drop across the core and
8-6

the injection rate of each phase are measured. The relative permeabilities are
calculated with the integrated forms of Darcy's law for two phase flow as
shown later. The saturations are usually calculated by material balance.
At steady state, the continuity equations for the wetting and nonwetting phases for horizontal flow are
vw
x

(8.13)

vnw
x

(8.14)

Darcy's law applied to each phase gives

vw

k w Pw
x
w

vnw

knw Pnw
x
nw

a constant

a constant

(8.15)

(8.16)

From capillary equilibrium,

Pnw

Pw

Pc S w

(8.17)

where Pc(Sw) in this case is the imbibition capillary pressure. If the

saturations, Sw and Snw, are uniform throughout the porous medium, then
kw, knw and Pc are independent of x. Then, Eqs.(8.15) and (8.16) can be
integrated to give

v L
Pw

knw
Since Pc S w is uniform,

q L
A Pw

w w

kw

v L
Pnw

nw nw

Pw and

w w

(8.18)

q L
A Pnw

(8.19)

nw nw

Pnw are equal and the pressure drop across

the core can be measured in either phase and used to calculate the effective
8-7

permeabilities with Eqs.(8.18) and (8.19). The steady state saturation

distribution in the core can be calculated with Eq.(7.83), which is reproduced
here for convenience:

dS w
dxD

fw
1
Fw
dJ
N cap krnw
dS w

(7.83)

with a specified inlet boundary condition. Of course, to do so, krw , krnw and
Pc S w must be known.

If the saturation distribution in the core is not uniform because of

capillary end effect, then Eqs.(8.18) and (8.19) are not valid and cannot be
used to calculate the effective permeabilities. As there are no alternative
equations to use, the relative permeability experiment will be a failure.
Therefore, in the steady state experiment, the total injection rate q

qw

qnw

should be sufficiently high to minimize capillary end effect as outlined in

Chapter 7.
Figure 8.3 shows an apparatus that can be used for the steady state
experiment. A typical sequence of steps for obtaining the imbibition relative
permeability curves might be as follows:
1.

Install the clean, dry core sample in the Hassler apparatus as shown in
Figure 8.3.

Evacuate the core and saturate with the wetting phase.

Determine the absolute permeability of the core by wetting phase flow.

2.

Displace the wetting phase with the non-wetting phase until no more
wetting phase flows from the core.
phase

saturation

and

the

initial

Calculate the irreducible wetting

non-wetting

phase

saturation.

Measure the steady state pressure drop and the non-wetting phase

8-8

injection rate and calculate the relative permeability to the non-wetting

phase at the irreducible wetting phase saturation by use of Eq.(8.19) as

krnw
3.

q L
kA Pnw
nw nw

(8.20)

Inject a mixture of the wetting and non-wetting phases at rates qnw and
qw such that the ratio, qw/qnw, is very much less than 1 until steady
state is achieved.

Steady state is achieved when the injected and

produced qw/qnw ratios are equal and the pressure drop no longer
changes with time.
4.

Measure the pressure drop and calculate the wetting phase saturation
by material balance. Calculate the relative permeabilities to the nonwetting and wetting phases at the latest wetting phase saturation using
Eq.(8.20) and (8.18) as

krw
5.

q L
kA Pw
w w

(8.21)

Increase the ratio qw/qnw and repeat steps 3 and 4 to calculate the
relative permeabilities at higher and higher wetting phase saturations.

6.

Finally, inject only the wetting phase until no more non-wetting phase
flows from the core.
saturation.

Calculate the residual non-wetting phase

Measure the steady state pressure drop and the wetting

phase injection rate and calculate the relative permeability to the

wetting phase at residual non-wetting phase saturation. This completes
the relative permeability measurements.
In the steady state relative permeability experiment, it is necessary to
minimize capillary end effect.

This can be accomplished by injecting at a

sufficiently high total rate or by other means as discussed by Richardson et

al. (1952). Figures 8.4 and 8.5 show the pressure profiles in the gas and oil
8-9

Figure 8.3. Hasslers apparatus for relative permeability measurement (Osoba

et al., 1951).

phases for a gas-oil steady state relative permeability experiment conducted at

two rates by Richardson et al. (1952). At the lower injection rate (Figure 8.4),
capillary end effect is apparent whereas at the higher rate (Figure 8.5), there
is little or no capillary end effect. Note also, that when the capillary end effect
has been eliminated, the pressure drop in each phase is the same. Therefore,
the pressure drop measured in either phase is sufficient for calculating both
relative permeabilities.

8-10

The various steady state methods such as the Penn State method,
single core dynamic method, dispersed feed method, Hafford method and
Hassler method differ primarily in the techniques used to minimize or
eliminate capillary end effect (Richardson et al., 1952). When capillary end
effect has been eliminated, all the steady state methods give the same results
as shown in Figures 8.6 and 8.7.

Figure 8.4. Steady state oil and gas pressure profiles at a relatively low
injection rate (Richardson et al., 1952).

8-11

Figure 8.5. Steady state oil and gas pressure profiles at a relatively high
injection rate (Richardson et al., 1952).

8-12

Figure 8.6. Relative permeability curves from six steady state methods, short
core section (Richardson et al., 1952).

8-13

Figure 8.7. Relative permeability curves from six steady state methods, long
core section (Richardson et al., 1952).
The

major

problem

with

the

steady

state

method

for

permeability measurements is that it takes too long to complete.

relative
It is not

unusual for a steady state experiment to take several weeks to complete. An

alternative and much faster technique is the unsteady state method or the
dynamic displacement method based on immiscible displacement theory.
Because the calculation of relative permeabilities from unsteady state
experiment is based on the solution of two-phase immiscible displacement
equation, we must first solve the two-phase immiscible displacement problem
before we can discuss the unsteady state relative permeability measurements.
8-14

8.3 THEORY OF ONE DIMENSIONAL IMMISCIBLE

DISPLACEMENT IN A POROUS MEDIUM
8.3.1 Mathematical Model of Two-Phase Immiscible Displacement
Consider the displacement of a non-wetting phase by a wetting phase in
a linear inclined core as shown in Figure 8.8. Darcys Law applied to each
phase gives
kkrnw A

qnw

Pnw
x

nw

qw

kkrw A

Pw
x

nw

g sin

g sin

(8.22)

(8.23)

Capillary equilibrium gives

Pnw

Pw

(8.17)

Pc S w

Assuming incompressible fluids, mass conservation requires that

(8.24)

qw qnw

The true fractional flows of the wetting and non-wetting phases are defined as
follows:

fw

f nw

qnw
q

qw
q

qw
qw qnw

qnw
qw qnw

1 fw

(8.25)

(8.26)

The continuity equation for the wetting phase is

Sw
t

qw
x

8-15

(8.27)

Figure 8.8. Displacement of a non-wetting phase by a wetting phase in an

inclined core.

The saturation constraint gives

Sw

(8.28)

Snw 1

Subtracting Eq.(8.22) from (8.23) and rearranging gives

qw w
kkrw A

qnw nw
kkrnw A

Pnw
x

Pw
x
8-16

nw

g sin

(8.29)

Substituting Eqs.(8.17) and (8.24) into (8.29) gives upon rearrangement

qw
q

kkrnw A
q nw

Pc
x

k
1 rnw
krw

nw

g sin
(8.30)

w
nw

Let an approximate fractional flow of the wetting phase be defined as

1
k
1 rnw
krw

Fw

(8.31)
w
nw

Substituting Eqs.(8.30) and (8.31) into (8.25) gives the true fractional flow of
the wetting phase as
fw

Fw 1

kkrnw A
q nw

Pc
x

nw

(8.32)

g sin

Let the dimensionless distance from the inlet end be defined as

xD

x
L

(8.33)

Let the spontaneous imbibition capillary pressure curve be given in terms of

its Leverett J-function as
cos
J Sw ,
k/

Pc S w

(8.34)

Substituting Eqs.(8.83) and (8.34) into (8.32) gives the true fractional flow of
the wetting phase as

fw

Fw 1

A cos k
q nw L

krnw

J
xD

krnw

Eq.(8.35) can be written as

8-17

kA

nw

nw

g sin

(8.35)

fw

J
xD

Fw 1 N cap krnw

krnw N g

(8.36)

where N cap is given by

N cap

A cos k
q nw L

(7.61)

and N g is given by

Ng

kA

g sin

nw

(8.37)

nw

N cap is the same dimensionless number we encountered in the analysis of

capillary end effect. It represents the ratio of capillary to viscous forces in the
displacement. N g is a new dimensionless number, which represents the ratio
of gravity to viscous forces in the displacement. The mobility ratio of the
displacement is given by

M Sw

krw
krnw

nw

(8.38)

The mobility ratio as defined in Eq(8.38) is a function of saturation and will be

different at each point in the porous medium depending on the saturation. A
characteristic mobility ratio for the displacement can be defined in terms of
the end-point relative permeabilities as

ME

kwr
knwr

nw

(8.39)

where kwr and knwr are the end-point relative permeabilities for the wetting and
non-wetting phases. The mobility ratio given in Eq.(8.39) is a characteristic
dimensionless number for the displacement that is independent of saturation.
Eq.(8.36) can also be written as

8-18

J
xD
1
1
M

1 N cap krnw
fw

krnw N g
(8.40)

where the approximate fractional flow of the wetting phase is given by

Fw

(8.41)

1
1
M

In order to maximize the displacement efficiency of the non-wetting

phase, we need to minimize the fractional flow of the wetting phase at each
point in the porous medium.

Much can be deduced about the immiscible

displacement from the fractional flow equation, Eq.(8.40). Examination of this

equation leads to the following qualitative deductions about immiscible
displacements in porous media:
1.

The fractional flow of the wetting phase is a strong function of

saturation.

2.

The displacement behavior can be rate-sensitive if the effect of

capillarity or gravity is significant.

3.

Capillarity is detrimental to the displacement efficiency as it increases

the fractional flow of the wetting phase at a given saturation.

4.

Gravity

is

beneficial

to

the

displacement

efficiency

for

up-dip

displacement of the lighter non-wetting phase by the heavier wetting

phase as it reduces the fractional flow of the wetting phase at a given
saturation. Conversely, gravity will be detrimental to the displacement
efficiency for down-dip displacement of the lighter non-wetting phase by
the heavier wetting phase.
5.

The displacement efficiency can be increased by reducing the mobility

ratio. This can be accomplished in practice by increasing the viscosity
8-19

of the wetting phase (the injected fluid) by use of a polymer. This is the
basis for polymer flooding as an improved oil recovery technique.
6.

The effects of gravity and capillarity on the displacement can be reduced

by increasing the injection rate.
There are additional facts about the immiscible displacement that are

not apparent from the fractional flow equation. The fractional flow equation
indicates that the displacement efficiency can be improved by injecting the
wetting phase at a high enough rate to minimize capillary smearing of the
displacement front.
displacement.

This is generally true for a favorable mobility ratio

If the mobility ratio is unfavorable, an increase in rate can

result in viscous instability which reduces the displacement efficiency. The

fractional flow equation suggests that the effect of gravity will be eliminated if
the porous medium is horizontal. This is misleading because, in practice, if
there is a density contrast between the fluids, the injection rate is sufficiently
low and the core has a vertical dimension (which it does), gravity segregation
will occur even in a horizontal medium. In this case, the one dimensional
displacement model is inadequate to describe the displacement.

multidimensional model is needed to correctly describe the gravity-dominated

displacement. The only fail proof way to eliminate the effect of gravity is to
eliminate the density contrast between the fluids or perform the displacement
in outer space. One can create a gravity number for displacement in a
in Eq.(8.37) by the aspect ratio (d/L).

horizontal core by replacing sin

The partial differential equation for the wetting phase saturation can be
derived as follows. Let
Sw

Sw

Fw krnw N g

krnw

dJ
dS w

Eq.(8.36) then becomes

8-20

(8.42)
(8.43)

f w Sw

Sw

N cap

Sw

Sw
xD

(8.44)

Eq.(8.27) can be written in dimensionless form as

Sw
tD

fw
xD

tD

qt
A L

(8.45)

where t D is given by
(7.63)

Substituting Eq.(8.44) into (8.45) gives the partial differential equation for the
wetting phase saturation as
Sw
tD

Sw
d
dS w xD

N cap

xD

Sw

Sw
xD

(8.46)

We have reduced the immiscible displacement problem to the solution of a

second order, nonlinear, parabolic partial differential equation for the wetting
phase saturation. When supplemented with appropriate initial and boundary
conditions, Eq.(8.46) can be solved, usually numerically, to obtain the wetting
phase saturation in time and space.
8.3.2 Buckley-Leverett Approximate Solution of the Immiscible
Displacement Equation
Eq.(8.46) cannot be solved analytically for the saturation profiles. Here,
we examine the approximate solution obtained by Buckley and Leverett
(1941). The continuity equation, Eq.(8.45), can be written as

Sw
tD
where the true fractional flow

df w S w
dS w xD

(8.47)

of the wetting phase for horizontal

displacement is given by

8-21

dJ S w
dS w xD
1
1
M

1 N cap krnw
fw

(8.48)

It should be observed that the true fractional flow function contains

Sw
,
xD

which is unknown. Buckley and Leverett (1941) obtained an approximate

solution to Eq.(8.47) by making a key simplifying assumption. They dropped
the capillary pressure term from Eq.(8.48) and as a result, they approximated
the fractional flow of the wetting phase as

fw

(8.49)

Fw

Substituting Eq.(8.49) into (8.47) gives the partial differential equation for the
wetting phase saturation as

Sw
tD

dFw S w
dS w xD

(8.50)

Eq.(8.50) is known as the Buckley-Leverett equation in the petroleum

industry. The Buckley-Leverett approximation changes the original second
order parabolic partial differential equation for the wetting phase saturation to
a first order, hyperbolic partial differential equation. This is a radical change
in the structure of the mathematical problem. However, the change allows an
approximate analytical solution to be obtained for the wetting phase
saturation profiles that is adequate for making gross performance calculations
for the immiscible displacement.
Eq.(8.50) is a nonlinear, first order, hyperbolic partial differential
equation that can be solved by the method of characteristics. From calculus,
the total time derivative of S xD , t D is given by
Sw
tD

dxD
dt D

Sw
xD

8-22

dS w
dt D

(8.51)

Subtracting Eq.(8.50) from (8.51) gives

dxD
dt D

dFw
dS w

Sw
xD

dS w
dt D

(8.52)

Eq.(8.52) can be decomposed into the following two simultaneous equations:

dFw
dS w

dxD
dt D

dS w
dt D

(8.53)

(8.54)

Eq.(8.53) gives the characteristic path for the hyperbolic partial differential
equation given by Eq(8.54).

Eq.(8.54) shows that along the characteristic

path given by Eq.(8.53), the saturation is a constant.

Eq.(8.53) can be integrated to determine the distance traveled by a
constant saturation at a given time as

xDSw tD

xDSw

tD tD 0

dFw
dS w

(8.55)

If there was no prior injection, t D 0 will be zero and all the saturations from Swi
to (1 - Snwr) will be located at the inlet end of the system, making xDSw

equal

to zero. In this case, Eq.(8.55) becomes

xDSw tD

tD

dFw
dS w

(8.56)

Eq.(8.56) can be written as

xD

tD

dFw
dS w

8-23

(8.57)

where xD is the dimensionless distance traveled by a given saturation at time

t D . Eq.(8.57) can be written in dimensional form as

x

Qi t dFw
A dS w

(8.58)

Eq.(8.58) is usually referred to in the petroleum industry as the BuckleyLeverett frontal advance equation. It should be emphasized that Eq.(8.57) or
(8.58) applies to a particular wetting phase saturation. To determine the
dimensionless distance traveled by a particular saturation S w1 at time t D , we
use Eq.(8.57) to compute the distance as

xD

tD

dFw
dS w

(8.59)
S w1

where the derivative of the approximate fractional flow curve is evaluated at

S w1 . Eq.(8.57) can be used to derive a similarity transformation for an

immiscible displacement. The similarity transformation is given by

xD
tD

dFw
dS w

df w
dS w

(8.60)

If the saturation profiles for an immiscible displacement are plotted as S w

versus

xD
, all the saturation profiles will collapse into one curve. If the
tD

saturation profiles in an immiscible displacement are imaged say by CT or by

NMR, then Eq.(8.60) can be used to calculate the true fractional flow curve,
including the effect of capillarity, as

f w Sw

Sw
S wirr

xD
dS w
tD

(8.61)

Given the relative permeability curves and the viscosity ratio, the
approximate fractional flow function and its derivative can be computed and
8-24

plotted as shown in Figure 8.9. In this figure, the S-shaped curve ADBC is
the approximate fractional flow curve (Fw) obtained from the relative
permeability curves and the viscosity ratio. The curve AFE is the derivative of
this function

dFw
. Using Eq.(8.59) and this derivative function, the distance
dS w

traveled by each wetting phase saturation between Swirr and (1-Snwr) at a

given time t D can be computed. Figure 8.10 shows the saturation profile that
will be obtained before wetting phase breakthrough by use of Eq.(8.59) and
the approximate derivative function.

We see that the Buckley-Leverett

approximation gives rise to multiple-valued saturations at various xD which is

physically impossible. This multiple-valued solution is caused by neglecting
the capillary term in the fractional flow equation. It is no accident that the
multi-valued solution occurs in the saturation range S wirr

Sw

S wf where the

capillary pressure gradient is high and should not have been neglected.
To eliminate the multiple-valued solution, we appeal to physical reality
as follows. At time t, Qi(t) of wetting phase has been injected and the flood
front has traveled a distance x f into the medium. A volumetric balance of the
injected wetting phase can be used to calculate x f as follows:
Qi t

xf
0

A S w S wirr dx

(8.62)

Integration of Eq.(8.62) by parts and substitution of Eq.(8.58) gives

Qi t

Ax f S wf

S wirr

Qi

S wf

1 Snwr

dFw
dS w
dS w

(8.63)

Upon performing the integration in Eq.(8.63) and rearranging, one obtains

8-25

Figure 8.9. Approximate fractional flow function and its first derivative. Note
the tangent construction.

Figure 8.10. Calculated water saturation distribution based on the BuckleyLeverett approximation showing the discontinuity in saturation as required by
a material balance.
8-26

Ax f

Qi t

Fw S wf
S wf

S wirr

(8.64)

From the Buckley-Leverett frontal advance equation, Eq.(8.58), one can also
obtain
Ax f

Qi t

dFw
dS w

(8.65)
S wf

A comparison of Eqs.(8.64) and (8.65) gives

dFw
dS w

Fw S wf
S wf

S wf

S wirr

(8.66)

The saturation distribution in Figure 8.10 will be single valued if all the
saturations between Swirr and the frontal saturation, Swf, are eliminated.
Eq.(8.66) shows that the frontal saturation (Swf) is the saturation at which the
straight line passing through the point Sw = Swirr and Fw = 0 is tangent to the
approximate fractional flow curve, Fw. This line is shown in Figure 8.9 as AB.
This tangent construction was first suggested by Welge (1952). The effect of
the tangent construction is to correct the approximate fractional flow curve Fw
for the capillary term that was neglected to obtain the true fractional flow
curve fw. Such a correction is needed at the front (low wetting phase
saturation) where the capillary pressure gradient is high and should not have
been neglected. With the tangent construction correction in place, the true
fractional flow curve, fw, is now given by the curve ABC (Fig. 8.9) thereby
eliminating the S-shaped lower portion of Fw, which led to the tripple-valued
saturation solution of Figure 8.10. With this correction, the derivative of the
true fractional flow curve

df w
dS w

used in the solution is given by the curve

EFG (Fig. 8.9). After the tangent construction, the true fractional flow curve
and its derivative are given by
8-27

Figure 8.11. Similarity transformation for an immiscible displacement.

Figure 8.12. Integration of the transformed saturation data to calculate the

true fractional flow curve including capillarity.

8-28

f w Sw

S w S wirr
Fw S wf
S wf S wirr
Fw S w for S wf

S w S wf

dFw
dS w

for S wirr
S wf

Sw

S wf

(8.67)

S w 1.0

and

df w
dS w

dFw
dS w
dFw
dS w

= a constant for S wirr

Sw

S wf

S wf

(8.68)

for S wf

S w 1.0

Sw

The similarity transformation for the immiscible displacement is given

by the curve EFGH (Fig. 8.9) and is shown in Figure 8.11. Figure 8.12 shows
how the transformed saturation data can be integrated to obtain the true
fractional flow curve that includes the effect of capillarity.
We now show that the intersection of the tangent line with the line Fw =
1 (point J in Fig. 8.9) gives the constant average wetting phase saturation
behind the front before and at wetting phase breakthrough. The slope of the
tangent line can be written as
dFw
dS w

1 Fw S wf
S wf

S wav

S wf

(8.69)

which can be rearranged as

S wav

S wf

1 Fw S wf
dFw
dS w

(8.70)

S wf

Before breakthrough, the average wetting phase saturation behind the front is
given by

8-29

1 Snwr

S wav

AxdS w
Ax f

(8.71)

Substituting Eq.(8.58) into (8.71) and integrating gives the average wetting
phase saturation behind the front as

S wav

S wf

1 Fw S wf
dFw
dS w

(8.72)

S wf

Eq.(8.72) is identical to Eq.(8.70), which confirms that the intersection of the

tangent line and the line Fw = 1 gives the wetting phase saturation (Swav)
corresponding to point J in Figure 8.9. Thus, the average wetting phase
saturation at breakthrough can be obtained graphically from the tangent
construction.
The average wetting phase saturation after breakthrough can be
obtained by a tangent construction at the outlet wetting phase saturation
between Swf and 1 - Snwr. The intersection of the tangent line and the line
Fw = 1 gives the average wetting phase saturation in the porous medium
corresponding to the outlet wetting phase saturation.

By this tangent

construction, the Buckley-Leverett approximation can be used to predict the

performance of the one-dimensional immiscible displacement after wetting
phase breakthrough. Before breakthrough, the amount of non-wetting phase
recovered is equal to the amount of fluid injected.

Thus, the entire

displacement performance can be predicted for a given set of wetting and nonwetting relative permeability curves and wetting and non-wetting viscosity
ratio.

8-30

8.3.3 Waterflood Performance Calculations from BuckleyLeverett

Theory
We now apply Buckley-Leverett theory to calculate a waterflood
performance from beginning to end. It is assumed that the true fractional flow
curve and its derivative have been computed using the relative permeability
curves, the viscosity ratio and the Welge tangent construction. Therefore, the
equations in this section are written in terms of the true fractional flow curve.
The methodology presented also applies to the calculation of the performance
of a gas flood using gas-oil drainage relative permeability curves.
Oil Recovery at any Time
The oil recovery at any time after the initiation of water injection is
given by

S wav S wirr
1 S wirr

(8.73)

where R is the oil recovery as a fraction of the initial oil in place, Swav is the
average water saturation in the porous medium at the time of interest and
Swirr is the initial water saturation in the porous medium before water
injection which is assumed to be the irreducible water saturation. Thus, in
principle, the oil recovery can be calculated at any time by first calculating the
average water saturation in the porous medium at that time and applying
Eq.(8.73). However, depending on the stage of water injection, Eq.(8.73) may
not offer the most direct way to calculate the oil recovery. Let us examine the
waterflood performance at various stages of the flood.
Oil Recovery Before Water Breakthrough
Consider

constant

rate

water

injection

project.

Assuming

incompressible fluids, the amount of oil recovered before water breakthrough

must equal the amount of water injected. Thus, at reservoir conditions,

8-31

qBwt

Qi t

(8.74)

Qo t

where q is the constant water injection rate, in surface units, Bw is the water
formation volume factor, t is the time of interest before water breakthrough,
Qi is the cumulative water injected at time t in reservoir units and Qo

is

the cumulative oil produced at time t in reservoir units. The cumulative oil
produced at surface conditions is

Cumulative Oil Produced

qBwt
Bo

Qi t
Bo

Qo t
Bo

(8.75)

where Bo is the current oil formation volume factor. The oil recovery as a
fraction of the initial oil in place is given by

qBwt
AL 1 S wirr

Qi t
AL 1 S wirr

Wi
1 S wirr

(8.76)

where Wi is the pore volume of water injected.

Oil Recovery at Water Breakthrough
From the BuckleyLeverett frontal advance equation, Eq.(8.58), the
distance traveled by a given saturation is given by

qBwt df w
A dS w

Qi t
A

Sw

df w
dS w

(8.77)
Sw

Let us apply Eq.(8.77) to the frontal water saturation Swf to get

xf

qBwt df w
A dS w

S wf

Qi t
A

df w
dS w

(8.78)
S wf

At the moment of water breakthrough, the frontal saturation arrives at the

outlet end of the porous medium and x f equals L. At the moment of water
breakthrough, Eq.(8.78) then becomes
8-32

qBwt df w
A dS w

Qi t
A

S wf

df w
dS w

(8.79)
S wf

Eq.(8.75) can be rearranged as

Wi

qBwt
AL

Qi t
AL

1
df w
dS w

(8.80)
S wf

where Wi is the pore volume of water injected. The cumulative oil recovery at
water breakthrough is equal to the cumulative water injected in reservoir
volumes. The fractional oil recovery at water breakthrough is obtained from
Eq.(8.80) as

Wi
1 S wi

Qi t
AL 1 S wi

qBwt
AL 1 S wi

1
1 S wi

df w
dS w

(8.81)
S wf

The breakthrough time, tbt, can be obtained from Eq.(8.80) as

AL
df w
dS w

tbt
qBw

(8.82)
S wf

or in dimensionless form as
1

t Dbt

df w
dS w

(8.83)
S wf

The average water saturation in the porous medium behind the displacement
front before and at water breakthrough is given by
1 Sor

S wav

AxdS w
Ax f

8-33

(8.71)

Figure 8.13 shows a typical water saturation distribution at time t before

breakthrough. From Figure 8.13, we see that the integral (area under the
curve) in Eq.(8.71) can be split into two parts as follows:

S wav

1 Sor

AS wf x f

AxdS w

S wf

Ax f

(8.84)

Substituting Eq.(8.58) into (8.84) gives the average water saturation as

S wav

S wf

Qi t

1 Sor
S wf

dFw

Ax f

(8.85)

Performing the integration in Eq.(8.85) gives

S wav

S wf

Qi t

f w 1 Sor

f w S wf

Ax f

(8.86)

But Fw at Sw = (1 Sor) is equal to 1.0. Thus, Eq.(8.81) can rewritten as

S wav

Qi t 1 f w S wf

S wf

Ax f

(8.87)

Substituting Eq.(8.78) into (8.87) gives the average water saturation behind
the front as

S wav

S wf

1 f w S wf
df w
dS w

(8.72)

S wf

It should be observed in Figure 8.9 that the average water saturation behind
the front up until water breakthrough as given in Eq.(8.72) is the same as the
water saturation at which the tangent to the fractional flow curve intersects
the Fw = 1 axis. Thus, the average water saturation in the porous medium at
water breakthrough can easily be determined graphically. The average water
8-34

saturation can then be substituted into Eq.(8.73) to calculate the oil recovery
at water breakthrough. We can easily show that the result obtained by this
approach will be the same as that obtained by Eq.(8.81). Substituting
Eq.(8.72) into Eq.(8.73) gives

Figure 8.13. Typical water saturation profile at time t before water

breakthrough.

8-35

1 f w S wf

S wf

df w
dS w

S wirr

Swf

(8.88)

1 S wirr

From the equation of the tangent line in Figure 8.9, we find that
df w
dS w

f w S wf
S wf

S wf

(8.66)

S wirr

Substituting Eq.(8.66) into (8.88) gives the oil recovery at water breakthrough
as
1

(8.89)

df w
dS w

1 S wi

S wf

which is identical to Eq.(8.81).

Oil Recovery After Water Breakthrough
After water breakthrough, Eq.(8.77) applied to the outlet end of the
porous medium gives

qBwt df w
A dS w

Qi t
A

Sw 2

df w
dS w

(8.90)
Sw 2

where Sw2 is the water saturation at the outlet end of the porous medium
which now lies between Swf and (1 Sor). Rearrangement of Eq.(8.90) gives
the pore volumes of water injected as

Wi

qBwt
AL

Qi t
AL

8-36

1
df w
dS w

(8.91)
Sw 2

where Wi is the pore volumes of water injected since the initiation of water
injection. Eq.(8.91) is analogous to Eq.(8.80) before breakthrough.
A material balance for the water after water breakthrough gives
L

Qi t

A Sw

(8.92)

S wirr dx Qw t

The integral in Eq.(8.92) can be performed using integration by parts.

Performing integration by parts, Eq.(8.92) can be written as

Qi t

A S w S wirr x

1 Sor

Sw 2

AxdS w

(8.93)

Qw t

Substituting the limits for the first integral gives

Qi t

1 Sor

AL S w 2 S wirr

Sw 2

AxdS w

Qw t

(8.94)

Qw t

(8.95)

Substituting Eq.(8.77) into (8.94) gives

Qi t

AL S w 2 S wirr

Qi t

1 Sor
Sw 2

df w

Performing the integration in Eq.(8.95) gives

Qi t

AL S w 2

S wirr

Qi t

f w 1 Sor

f w Sw2

Qw t

(8.96)

or

Qi t

AL S w 2

S wirr

Qi t 1 f w S w 2

Qw t

(8.97)

since fw at Sw = 1Sor is equal to 1. Eq.(8.97) can be rearranged as

Sw2

S wirr

Qi t

Qw t
AL

Qi t
1 f w Sw2
AL

8-37

(8.98)

Sw2

S wirr

N pD Wi 1 f w S w 2

(8.99)

Sw2

S wi Wi 1 f w S w 2

(8.100)

N pD

where NpD is the oil recovery as a fraction of the total pore volume. We observe
that the sum of the first two terms on the right hand side of Eq.(8.99) is the
average water saturation in the porous medium after water breakthrough.
Thus, Eq.(8.99) can be rewritten as

Sw2

S wav Wi 1 f w S w 2

(8.101)

Substituting Eq.(8.91) into (8.101) and rearranging gives the average water
saturation in the porous medium after water breakthrough as
S wav

Sw2

1 f w Sw2
df w
dS w

(8.102)

Sw 2

which is analogous to Eq.(8.72) at water breakthrough. Figure 8.14 shows

that the average water saturation after water breakthrough as given by
Eq.(8.102) is equal to the water saturation where the tangent line to the
fractional flow curve at the outlet water saturation intersects the Fw = 1 axis.
The average water saturation in the porous medium after water
breakthrough could also have been derived using Eq.(8.71) and the water
saturation profile shown in Figure 8.15. The average water saturation is then
given by

S wav

AS w 2 L

1 Sor
Sw 2

AL

AxdS w

(8.103)

Substituting Eq.(8.77) into (8.103) gives the average water saturation as

8-38

S wav

Sw2

Qi t

1 Sor
Sw 2

df w

AL

(8.104)

Figure 8.14. Average water saturation after water breakthrough.

Performing the integration in Eq.(8.104) gives

S wav

Sw2

Qi t

f w 1 Sor
AL

f w Sw2

(8.105)

But fw at Sw = 1 Sor is equal to 1.0. Thus, Eq.(8.105) can be rewritten as

8-39

Figure 8.15. Typical water saturation profile at time t after water

breakthrough.

S wav

Sw2

Qi t 1 f w S w 2
AL

(8.106)

Substituting Eq.(8.90) into (8.106) gives the average water saturation after
water breakthrough as
S wav

Sw2

1 Fw S w 2
dFw
dS w

8-40

Sw 2

(8.107)

which is identical to Eq.(8.102).

Water Production
There is no water production before water breakthrough. After water
breakthrough, the water oil ratio is given by

WOR

fw
Bw

qw
qo

fo
Bo

Bo
Fw
Bw 1 Fw

(8.108)

The pore volumes of water produced is given by material balance on the water
as

Water produced

Cumulative water injected

Water stored

(8.109)

Substituting appropriate symbols into Eq.(8.109) gives

Wp

Wi

S wav

(8.110)

S wirr

Substituting Eq.(8.91) into (8.110) gives the pore volumes of water produced
as

Wp

1
df w
dS w

S wav

S wi

(8.111)

Sw 2

Example 8.1
A waterflood is to be performed in a linear reservoir. The relative permeability
curves for the reservoir are adequately described by the following analytical
models:

krw

k wr Se3

8-41

(8.112)

krnw

knwr 1 Se

(8.113)

where Se is defined as

Se

S w S wirr
1 S wirr Snwr

(8.114)

The other pertinent data are as follows:

S wirr

0.20

S nwr

0.30

knwr

0.95

k wr

0.35

nw

Bo

10 cp

1 cp
1.20 RB/STB

Bw 1.0 RB/STB
1.

Calculate and plot graphs of the relative permeability curves.

2.

Calculate and plot graphs of the approximate fractional flow curve

Fw and its derivative

3.

dFw
.
dS w

Perform the Welge tangent construction and from it determine the

frontal water saturation
breakthrough
derivative

S wav

S wf , the average water saturation at water

and the true fractional flow curve

df w
.
dS w

8-42

fw

and its

4.

Plot the graphs of the true fractional flow curve and its derivative.

5.

Calculate the end point mobility ratio for the waterflood.

6.

Calculate and plot graphs of the water saturation profiles at tD = 0.20,

0.30 and 1.0.

7.

Calculate the dimensionless breakthrough time.

8.

Calculate the breakthrough oil recovery as a fraction of the initial oil in

place.

9.

Calculate and plot the graph of oil recovery versus pore volume of water
injected before and after water breakthrough.

10.

Calculate and plot the graph of water oil ratio versus oil recovery.
Solution to Example 8.1

The results of the calculations are summarized in Table 8.1.

1.

The relative permeability curves calculated with Eqs.(8.112) and (8.113)

are shown in Figure 8.16.

2.

Figure 8.17 shows the approximate fractional flow curve calculated with
Eq.(8.41) and its derivative calculated by differentiating Fw with respect
to Sw analytically.
Table 8.1. Calculated Results for Example 8.1.
tD

tD

tD

0.20

0.30

1.00

Sw

krw

krnw

Fw

dFw
dS w

fw

df w
dS w

xD

xD

xD

Wi

WOR

0.200

0.00000

0.950

0.00000

0.000

0.000

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.210

0.00000

0.912

0.00003

0.009

0.028

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.008

0.023

0.000

0.220

0.00002

0.876

0.00026

0.039

0.056

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.016

0.045

0.000

0.230

0.00008

0.839

0.00090

0.094

0.083

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.025

0.068

0.000

0.240

0.00018

0.804

0.00222

0.176

0.111

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.033

0.091

0.000

8-43

0.250

0.00035

0.770

0.00453

0.290

0.139

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.041

0.113

0.000

0.260

0.00060

0.736

0.00815

0.441

0.167

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.049

0.136

0.000

0.270

0.00096

0.703

0.01348

0.632

0.194

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.057

0.158

0.000

0.280

0.00143

0.670

0.02094

0.866

0.222

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.066

0.180

0.000

0.290

0.00204

0.639

0.03097

1.147

0.250

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.074

0.202

0.000

0.300

0.00280

0.608

0.04403

1.473

0.278

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.082

0.223

0.000

0.310

0.00373

0.578

0.06057

1.844

0.305

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.090

0.243

0.000

0.320

0.00484

0.549

0.08103

2.254

0.333

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.098

0.263

0.000

0.330

0.00615

0.520

0.10575

2.693

0.361

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.106

0.281

0.000

0.340

0.00768

0.492

0.13496

3.150

0.389

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.115

0.299

0.000

0.350

0.00945

0.466

0.16875

3.607

0.416

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.123

0.315

0.000

0.360

0.01147

0.439

0.20703

4.044

0.444

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.131

0.330

0.000

0.370

0.01376

0.414

0.24949

4.439

0.472

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.139

0.343

0.000

0.380

0.01633

0.389

0.29560

4.772

0.500

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.147

0.355

0.000

0.390

0.01921

0.365

0.34465

5.024

0.527

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.156

0.365

0.000

0.400

0.02240

0.342

0.39576

5.181

0.555

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.164

0.374

0.000

0.410

0.02593

0.320

0.44794

5.238

0.583

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.172

0.381

0.000

0.420

0.02981

0.298

0.50019

5.195

0.611

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.180

0.388

0.000

0.430

0.03407

0.277

0.55153

5.058

0.638

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.188

0.393

0.000

0.440

0.03871

0.257

0.60109

4.842

0.666

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.197

0.398

0.000

0.450

0.04375

0.238

0.64815

4.561

0.694

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.205

0.403

0.000

0.460

0.04921

0.219

0.69216

4.234

0.722

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.213

0.407

0.000

0.470

0.05511

0.201

0.73274

3.879

0.749

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.221

0.411

0.000

0.480

0.06147

0.184

0.76969

3.511

0.777

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.229

0.416

0.000

0.490

0.06829

0.168

0.80296

3.144

0.805

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.237

0.421

0.000

0.491

0.06900

0.166

0.80608

3.107

0.808

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.246

0.423

0.000

0.492

0.06971

0.164

0.80917

3.071

0.810

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.254

0.426

0.000

0.493

0.07043

0.163

0.81222

3.035

0.813

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.262

0.428

0.000

0.494

0.07115

0.161

0.81524

2.999

0.816

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.270

0.430

0.000

0.495

0.07188

0.160

0.81822

2.964

0.819

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.278

0.432

0.000

0.496

0.07262

0.158

0.82117

2.928

0.822

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.287

0.434

0.000

0.497

0.07335

0.157

0.82408

2.893

0.824

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.295

0.436

0.000

0.498

0.07410

0.155

0.82695

2.857

0.827

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.303

0.438

0.000

0.499

0.07485

0.154

0.82979

2.822

0.830

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.311

0.440

0.000

0.500

0.07560

0.152

0.83260

2.788

0.833

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.319

0.442

0.000

8-44

0.500

0.07568

0.152

0.83288

2.784

0.833

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.328

0.444

0.000

0.500

0.07575

0.152

0.83316

2.781

0.833

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.336

0.445

0.000

0.500

0.07583

0.152

0.83343

2.777

0.833

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.344

0.447

0.000

0.500

0.07583

0.152

0.83343

2.777

0.833

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.352

0.449

0.000

0.500

0.07586

0.151

0.83357

2.775

0.834

2.775

0.555

0.833

2.775

0.360

0.450

6.010

0.501

0.07636

0.150

0.83537

2.753

0.835

2.753

0.551

0.826

2.753

0.363

0.451

6.089

0.502

0.07712

0.149

0.83810

2.718

0.838

2.718

0.544

0.816

2.718

0.368

0.452

6.212

0.503

0.07789

0.147

0.84081

2.684

0.841

2.684

0.537

0.805

2.684

0.373

0.453

6.338

0.504

0.07866

0.146

0.84347

2.650

0.843

2.650

0.530

0.795

2.650

0.377

0.454

6.466

0.505

0.07944

0.144

0.84611

2.616

0.846

2.616

0.523

0.785

2.616

0.382

0.455

6.598

0.506

0.08023

0.143

0.84871

2.583

0.849

2.583

0.517

0.775

2.583

0.387

0.456

6.732

0.507

0.08102

0.142

0.85127

2.549

0.851

2.549

0.510

0.765

2.549

0.392

0.457

6.868

0.508

0.08181

0.140

0.85380

2.516

0.854

2.516

0.503

0.755

2.516

0.397

0.458

7.008

0.509

0.08261

0.139

0.85630

2.483

0.856

2.483

0.497

0.745

2.483

0.403

0.459

7.151

0.510

0.08341

0.137

0.85877

2.450

0.859

2.450

0.490

0.735

2.450

0.408

0.460

7.297

0.520

0.09175

0.123

0.88169

2.137

0.882

2.137

0.427

0.641

2.137

0.468

0.469

8.943

0.530

0.10062

0.110

0.90160

1.850

0.902

1.850

0.370

0.555

1.850

0.540

0.479

10.995

0.540

0.11005

0.097

0.91878

1.591

0.919

1.591

0.318

0.477

1.591

0.628

0.489

13.575

0.550

0.12005

0.086

0.93351

1.360

0.934

1.360

0.272

0.408

1.360

0.736

0.499

16.849

0.560

0.13064

0.074

0.94606

1.154

0.946

1.154

0.231

0.346

1.154

0.866

0.508

21.048

0.570

0.14183

0.064

0.95668

0.974

0.957

0.974

0.195

0.292

0.974

1.027

0.518

26.502

0.580

0.15364

0.055

0.96561

0.816

0.966

0.816

0.163

0.245

0.816

1.226

0.528

33.693

0.590

0.16609

0.046

0.97306

0.678

0.973

0.678

0.136

0.203

0.678

1.474

0.537

43.348

0.600

0.17920

0.038

0.97923

0.559

0.979

0.559

0.112

0.168

0.559

1.788

0.546

56.589

0.610

0.19298

0.031

0.98430

0.456

0.984

0.456

0.091

0.137

0.456

2.191

0.555

75.235

0.620

0.20745

0.024

0.98841

0.368

0.988

0.368

0.074

0.110

0.368

2.716

0.564

102.358

0.630

0.22262

0.019

0.99171

0.292

0.992

0.292

0.058

0.088

0.292

3.420

0.573

143.471

0.640

0.23852

0.014

0.99430

0.228

0.994

0.228

0.046

0.068

0.228

4.392

0.581

209.224

0.650

0.25515

0.009

0.99629

0.172

0.996

0.172

0.034

0.052

0.172

5.798

0.589

322.295

0.660

0.27254

0.006

0.99777

0.126

0.998

0.126

0.025

0.038

0.126

7.966

0.597

537.909

0.670

0.29070

0.003

0.99882

0.086

0.999

0.086

0.017

0.026

0.086

11.663

0.605

1020.015

0.680

0.30966

0.002

0.99951

0.052

1.000

0.052

0.010

0.016

0.052

19.193

0.612

2444.665

0.690

0.32942

0.000

0.99988

0.024

1.000

0.024

0.005

0.007

0.024

42.067

0.619

10402.648

0.700

0.35000

0.000

1.00000

0.000

1.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

8-45

Figure 8.16. Relative permeability curves for Example 8.1.

8-46

Figure 8.17. Approximate fractional flow curve and its derivative for Example
8.1.
3.

The Welge tangent construction is shown in Figure 8.17. From the

tangent construction,

S wf
df w
dS w

S wav
4.

0.500035

2.775
S wf

0.5603

The true fractional flow curve and its derivative obtained from the
tangent construction are shown in Figure 8.18.

8-47

Figure 8.18. True fractional flow curve and its derivative for Example 8.1.

5.

The end point mobility ratio for the waterflood is given by

ME

6.

krw /

/ krnw /

nw

0.35 /1 / 0.95 /10

3.68

The water saturation profiles calculated with Eq.(8.57) are shown in

Figure 8.19.

8-48

Figure 8.19. Water saturation profiles for Example 8.1.

7.

The dimensionless breakthrough time is calculated with Eq.(8.83) as

t Dbt

8.

df w
dS w

1
2.775

0.460 pore volume injected.

S wf

The breakthrough oil recovery as a fraction of the initial oil in place is

calculated with Eq.(8.81) as
1

Rbt
1 S wirr

9.

df w
dS w

1
1 0.20 2.775

0.450

S wf

Before water breakthrough, the oil recovery is a linear function of the

pore volume injected and can be calculated with Eq.(8.86). After water
8-49

breakthrough, the oil recovery is calculated with Eq.(8.100) as

N pD

1 S wirr

Figure 8.20 shows the calculated oil recovery curve.

Figure 8.20. Oil recovery curve for Example 8.1.

10.

The producing water oil ratio is zero before water breakthrough. After
water breakthrough, the producing water oil water ratio is calculated
with Eq.(8.108). After breakthrough, the producing water oil ratio
increases rapidly as shown in Figure 8.21.

8-50

Figure 8.21. Producing water oil ratio for Example 8.1.

8.4 LABORATORY MEASUREMENT OF TWO-PHASE RELATIVE

PERMEABILITIES BY THE UNSTEADY STATE METHOD
The

major

problem

with

the

steady

state

method

for

relative

permeability measurements is that it is too slow. An alternative and much

faster technique is the unsteady state method or the dynamic displacement
method (Welge, 1952; Johnson et al., 1959; Jones and Roszelle, 1978).

In

this method, for an imbibition test, the core is first saturated with the nonwetting phase at irreducible wetting phase saturation as in the steady state
method. However, only the wetting phase is injected into the core to displace
the non-wetting phase.

As the experiment progresses, the wetting phase

breaks through at the outlet end of the core and over time a higher and higher
fraction of the total produced fluid is the wetting phase.
8-51

By measuring the produced fractions of the wetting and non-wetting

phases at the outlet end of the core and the pressure drop across the core
versus time, the relative permeability curves can be calculated from the
production and pressure data using the theory of immiscible displacement in
porous media.

This method is much faster than the steady state method,

usually requiring a few hours to complete compared to several weeks for the
steady state method.
displacement

If adequate precautions are taken, the dynamic

method

will

give

relative

permeability

curves

that

are

comparable to those obtained by the steady state method.

Figure 8.22 shows the experimental setup and the measured data.
Because the point of observation is the outlet end of the core, it is necessary
that capillary end effect be minimized otherwise the calculated relative
permeability-saturation relationship will be wrong. It should be noted that
relative permeability curves can only be obtained over the saturation range Swf
to 1-Snwr. Therefore, it is necessary to choose the fluid viscosities that will give
the widest possible saturation window. This is obtained by using performing
and

adverse

mobility

ratio

displacement.

favorable

mobility

ratio

displacement will be unsuitable because for such a displacement, Swf is equal

to (1-Snwr) and there is no saturation window for calculating the relative
permeability curves. The relative permeability to the wetting phase below Swf
can only be obtained by extrapolating the data above Swf.
The

technique

for

calculating

relative

permeability

curves

from

unsteady state measurements was developed by Welge (1952) and Johnson,

Bossler and Neumann (JBN, 1959).

The fractional flow of the non-wetting

phase at the outlet end of the core is given by

f nw 2

1
k
1 rw
krnw

8-52

(8.115)
nw
w

Figure 8.22. Unsteady state method for determining two-phase relative

permeability curves; (a) coreflood; (b) measured data.

It should be noted that for saturations above Swf, Eq.(8.115) gives the true
fractional flow of the non-wetting phase because above Swf, the true fractional
flow and the approximate fractional curves are equal. Eq.(8.115) can be
rearranged to calculate the wetting-non-wetting phase relative permeability
ratio as
krw
krnw

nw

f nw 2

(8.116)

The fractional flow of the non-wetting phase at the outlet end of the core is
also given by
8-53

f nw 2

qnw
q

dQnw t

dN pD

dQi t

dWi

(8.117)

where Qnw(t) and Qi(t) are the cumulative non-wetting phase produced and
the cumulative wetting phase injected and N pD and Wi are their dimensionless
counterparts as fractions of the total pore volume. Eqs.(8.116) and (8.117)
were first presented by Welge (1952). It should be noted that these equations
give no useful information before breakthrough because the fractional flow of
the non-wetting phase at the outlet end of the core is 1 and the relative
permeability to wetting phase is zero. This is why the unsteady state relative
permeability method is limited to only post breakthrough wetting phase
saturations between Swf and 1-Snwr.
After wetting phase breakthrough, we need to associate the computed
relative permeability ratio with the wetting phase saturation at the outlet end
of the core, the point of observation.

To determine the wetting phase

saturation at the outlet end of the core, we perform a material balance for the
wetting phase after breakthrough to obtain

Sw2

S wirr

N pD Wi 1 Fw S w 2

(8.99)

Eq.(8.99) can be written in terms of the fractional flow of the non-wetting

phase as

Sw2
Using Eqs.(8.116) and (8.118),

S wirr

N pD Wi f nw 2

(8.118)

krw
versus S w 2 can be computed.
krnw

Johnson, Bossler and Neumann (JBN, 1959) presented equations for

calculating the individual relative permeability curves by the unsteady state
method by incorporating the pressure drop into the computations.
pressure drop across the porous medium at time t is given by

8-54

The

P
dx
x

(8.119)

Darcys Law for the non-wetting phase gives

kkrnw A P
x
nw

qnw

(8.120)

Dividing Eq.(8.120) by q and rearranging gives the pressure gradient as

q nw
f nw
kkrnw A

P
x

(8.121)

Substituting Eq.(8.121) into (8.119) gives

q nw
kA

f nw
dx
krnw

(8.122)

Applying the Buckley-Leverett frontal advance equation, Eq.(8.77), at the

outlet end of the core after breakthrough gives

Qi t
A

df w
dS w

(8.90)
Sw 2

Dividing Eq.(8.77) by (8.90) gives

x
L

f w'
f w' 2

(8.123)

where f w' and f w' 2 are the derivatives of the fractional flow functions at any
distance and at the core outlet, respectively. Differentiating Eq.(8.123) with
respect to f w' gives

dx

L
df w'
'
f w2

8-55

(8.124)

Substituting Eq.(8.124) into (8.122) and rearranging gives

f w' 2

f nw '
df w
krnw

PkAf w' 2
q nw L

(8.125)

a constant

(8.126)

Let
q
P

kA
nw L

Substituting Eq.(8.126) into (8.125) gives

f w' 2
0

q
P

f nw '
df w
krnw

f w' 2
s

q
P

(8.127)

Let a relative injectivity ratio be defined as

Ir

q
P
q
P

(8.128)
s

Substituting Eq.(8.128) into (8.127) gives

f w' 2
0

f w' 2
Ir

f nw '
df w
krnw

(8.129)

Differentiating Eq.(8.129) with respect to f w' 2 gives

f nw 2
krnw

d
df w' 2

f w' 2
Ir

(8.130)

1
Wi I r

(8.131)

Substituting Eq.(8.91) into (8.130) gives

f nw 2
krnw

d
1
d
Wi

8-56

Eq.(8.131) can be used to calculate the relative permeability of the nonwetting phase as

krnw

f nw 2
d
1
d
Wi

1
Wi I r

(8.132)

Knowing the relative permeability of non-wetting phase, the relative

permeability of the wetting phase can be calculated from Eq.(8.116) as
krw

nw

f nw 2

1 krnw

(8.133)

The advantage of the unsteady method over the steady state method of
relative permeability measurement is that it is considerably faster. Because
the method is based on the Buckley-Leverett displacement model, the
unsteady state method can only be used to calculate relative permeability
curves between Swf and the wetting phase saturation at the residual
nonwetting phase saturation (1-Snwr) as previously noted. If Swf is high as in
the case of a favorable mobility ratio displacement, then much of the relative
permeability curves cannot be obtained because one is limited to a very small
saturation observation window. To solve this problem, unfavorable mobility
ratio displacements are typically used to determine relative permeability
curves by the unsteady state method. Further, in order to minimize capillary
end effect, high displacement rates are also typically used. The combination
of high rate and adverse mobility ratio can lead to viscous instability that will
make the displacement performance to be rate sensitive. If this happens, the
relative permeability curves obtained by the unsteady state method will be
rate sensitive and can be quite different from the relative permeability curves
of the same porous medium obtained by the steady state method (Peters and
Khataniar, 1987).

8-57

Eqs.(8.117)

and

(8.132)

call

for

differentiating

the

measured

experimental data. The challenge in calculating the relative permeability

curves from these equations is to ensure that the curves are smooth. Any type
of finite difference approximation of the derivatives will result in numerical
noise leading to noisy relative permeability curves. The best way to process
the experimental data is by fitting well behaved functions to the experimental
data and then differentiating the functions. Peters and Khataniar (1987) have
suggested the following curve fits, which they have shown to work well.

N pD
1
ln
Wi I r

A1

A2 ln Wi

B1

1
B2 ln
Wi

A3 ln Wi

1
B3 ln
Wi

(8.134)
2

(8.135)

Example 8.2
Table 8.2 gives the experimental data for an unsteady state relative
permeability measurement for a sandpack. In the experiment, water was used
to displace a viscous oil at a constant injection rate. The pore volume of water
injected (Wi), the cumulative oil produced (Qo) and the pressure drop across
the sandpack ( P) were measured as functions of time.
Table 8.2. Experimental Data for Unsteady State Relative Permeability
Measurements.
Wi

Qo

PV

%IOIP

psi

0.339

38.28

9.02

0.351

38.95

8.30

0.395

40.10

6.91

0.439

40.91

6.07

0.502

41.92

5.42

0.587

42.95

4.87

8-58

0.670

43.77

4.55

0.840

45.11

4.00

1.137

46.55

3.32

1.604

47.96

2.78

2.029

48.96

2.52

2.624

50.08

2.42

3.225

50.78

2.30

4.346

51.78

2.13

5.719

52.67

1.99

7.092

53.23

1.90

8.464

53.67

1.83

10.516

54.16

1.79

11.203

54.34

1.75

12.578

54.60

1.74

13.271

54.71

1.70

14.644

54.82

1.70

16.016

54.90

1.70

Other data for the experiment are as follows:

Injection rate

100 cc/hr

Irreducible water saturation

11.90%

Length of porous medium

54.7 cm

Diameter of porous medium

4.8 cm

Average porosity of porous medium

30.58%

Absolute permeability of porous medium

3.42 Darcies

Oil viscosity

108.37 cp

Oil density

0.959 gm/cm3

Water viscosity

1.01 cp

Water density

0.996 gm/cm3

Oil-water interfacial tension

26.7 dynes/cm

8-59

Effective permeability to oil at irreducible water saturation

Darcies

3.16

Oil recovery at water breakthrough

38.28 % IOIP

Final oil recovery at termination of experiment

54.9 % IOIP

1.

Plot graphs of the raw experimental data.

2.

Perform the curve fits suggested in Eqs.(8.134) and (8.135) and display
the results graphically.

3.

Calculate the oil-water relative permeability curves for the porous

medium using the Johnson-Bossler-Neumann (JBN) method.

4.

Plot graphs of the relative permeability curves.

5.

Plot the graph of the true fractional flow curve measured in the
experiment.

6.

How long was this test?

Solution to Example 8.2

The results of the calculations are summarized in Table 8.3.
1.

Figure 8.23 shows the graphs of the raw experimental data.

2.

Figures 8.24 and 8.25 show the curve fits of N pD versus ln Wi and
ln

1
Wi I r

N pD

versus ln

1
. The curve fit equations are
Wi

0.4026 0.0474 ln Wi

1
ln
Wi I r

0.0066 ln Wi

1
2.3600 1.5798ln
Wi

1
0.1130 ln
Wi

These equations can be differentiated analytically to obtain

8-60

f nw 2

f nw 2
krnw

dN pD

2 0.0066 ln Wi
Wi

0.0474

dWi
d

1
Wi I r

1
d
Wi

1.5798
1
Wi

2 0.1130 ln

1
Wi

1
Wi

2.3600 1.5798ln

1
Wi

0.1130 ln

1
Wi

Table 8.3. Calculated Results for Example 8.2.

Wi

NpD

PV

PV

P
psi

ln(Wi)

ln

fnw2

Sw2

Ir

1
Wi I r

Wi

ln

f nw 2

Wi I r

k rnw

0.119

krnw

krw

0.924

0.000

0.339

0.337

9.02

-1.082

1.082

0.182

0.395

4.335

0.680

-0.385

0.368

0.494

0.021

0.351

0.343

8.30

-1.047

1.047

0.174

0.401

4.711

0.605

-0.503

0.356

0.490

0.022

0.395

0.353

6.91

-0.929

0.929

0.151

0.413

5.659

0.447

-0.804

0.319

0.473

0.025

0.439

0.360

6.07

-0.823

0.823

0.133

0.421

6.442

0.354

-1.040

0.290

0.457

0.028

0.502

0.369

5.42

-0.689

0.689

0.113

0.432

7.214

0.276

-1.287

0.258

0.436

0.032

0.587

0.378

4.87

-0.533

0.533

0.093

0.443

8.029

0.212

-1.550

0.226

0.411

0.037

0.67

0.386

4.55

-0.400

0.400

0.079

0.452

8.594

0.174

-1.751

0.203

0.388

0.042

0.84

0.397

4.00

-0.174

0.174

0.059

0.467

9.775

0.122

-2.106

0.170

0.349

0.052

1.137

0.410

3.32

0.128

-0.128

0.040

0.483

11.778

0.075

-2.595

0.136

0.295

0.066

1.604

0.423

2.78

0.473

-0.473

0.026

0.500

14.065

0.044

-3.116

0.108

0.237

0.084

2.029

0.431

2.52

0.708

-0.708

0.019

0.512

15.517

0.032

-3.449

0.094

0.199

0.097

2.624

0.441

2.42

0.965

-0.965

0.013

0.526

16.158

0.024

-3.747

0.082

0.162

0.113

3.225

0.447

2.30

1.171

-1.171

0.010

0.534

17.001

0.018

-4.004

0.074

0.135

0.125

4.346

0.456

2.13

1.469

-1.469

0.006

0.547

18.358

0.013

-4.379

0.064

0.100

0.144

5.719

0.464

1.99

1.744

-1.744

0.004

0.559

19.649

0.009

-4.722

0.057

0.074

0.162

7.092

0.469

1.90

1.959

-1.959

0.003

0.566

20.580

0.007

-4.983

0.053

0.057

0.175

8.464

0.473

1.83

2.136

-2.136

0.002

0.573

21.367

0.006

-5.198

0.050

0.045

0.185

10.516

0.477

1.79

2.353

-2.353

0.002

0.580

21.844

0.004

-5.437

0.047

0.033

0.197

11.203

0.479

1.75

2.416

-2.416

0.001

0.582

22.344

0.004

-5.523

0.047

0.030

0.200

12.578

0.481

1.74

2.532

-2.532

0.001

0.586

22.472

0.004

-5.644

0.045

0.025

0.206

8-61

13.271

0.482

1.70

2.586

-2.586

0.001

0.588

23.001

0.003

-5.721

0.045

0.022

0.208

14.644

0.483

1.70

2.684

-2.684

0.001

0.590

23.001

0.003

-5.820

0.044

0.019

0.213

16.016

0.484

1.70

2.774

-2.774

0.001

0.592

23.001

0.003

-5.909

0.043

0.016

0.217

Figure 8.23. Raw experimental data for the unsteady state relative
permeability measurements of Example 8.2.

8-62

Figure 8.24. Curve fit of N pD versus ln Wi for Example 8.2.

Figure 8.25. Curve fit of ln

3.

1
1
versus ln
Wi I r
Wi

for Example 8.2.

The oil-water relative permeability data calculated with Eqs.(8.132) and

(8.133) are presented in Table 8.2.

4.

Figure 8.26 shows the oil-water relative permeability curves from the
unsteady state experiment. It should be noted that the relative
permeability curves are obtained over the limited saturation range of

0.395 S w
and S wf

0.592 . The relative permeability curves between

S wirr

0.119

0.395 cannot be obtained from the experiment. They can only

be obtained by extrapolation of the computed data to the conditions at

the irreducible water saturation where krw

8-63

0.000 and knwr

0.924 . The

experiment

predicts

residual

oil

saturation

of

40%

in

this

homogeneous high permeability sand.

Figure 8.26. Computed relative permeability curves for Example 8.2.

5.

The true fractional flow curve measured in the experiment is shown in

Figure 8.27. It is interesting to note that it is only that portion of the
true fractional flow curve that is equal to the approximate fractional
flow curve that can be measured in the experiment. If the saturation
profiles in the experiment could be imaged, then it would possible to
calculate the true fractional flow curve between S wirr and S w by the
similarity transformation and the integration outlined in Figures 8.11
and 8.12.

6.

The unsteady state experiment lasted 48.48 hours compared to several

weeks for the steady state experiment.

8-64

Figure 8.27. True fractional flow curve measured in the unsteady state
experiment of Example 8.2.

8.5 FACTORS AFFECTING RELATIVE PERMEABILITIES

The factors that affect or could affect relative permeability curves
include (1) fluid saturation, (2) fluid saturation history, (3) Wettability, (4)
injection rate, (5) viscosity ratio, (6) interfacial tension, (7) pore structure, (8)
temperature and (9) heterogeneity.
8.5.1 Fluid Saturation
Relative permeabilities are strongly dependent on fluid saturations. The
higher the fluid saturation, the higher the relative permeability to that fluid.
In general, relative permeabilities are nonlinear functions of fluid saturation
as shown in Figures 8.6 and 8.7.
8-65

8.5.2 Saturation History

Like capillary pressure curves, relative permeability curves show
saturation hysteresis. Figure 8.28 shows typical relative permeability curves
for drainage and imbibition.

The imbibition non-wetting phase relative

permeability curve is generally lower than the drainage curve at the same
saturations.

The imbibition wetting phase relative permeability curve is

slightly greater than the drainage curve. These differences can easily be
explained. During drainage, the non-wetting phase flows through the large
pores displacing the wetting phase along the way. The thin film of wetting
phase that coats the grain surface acts as a lubricant for the flow of the nonwetting phase. Therefore, the relative permeability to the non-wetting phase
will be high during drainage. That of the wetting phase also will be high
because it starts from 1 and decreases as the non-wetting phase begins to
occupy some of the pores that were previously occupied by the wetting phase.
During imbibition, some of the non-wetting phase will be trapped in the large
pores. This capillary trapping reduces the amount of non-wetting phase
available to flow during imbibition compared to during drainage. It also
reduces the cross-sectional area of the medium occupied by the connected
non-wetting phase. As a result, the imbibition relative permeability to the
non-wetting phase is reduced compared to that during drainage. Because of
capillary trapping of the non-wetting phase during imbibition, the wetting
phase is forced to occupy and flow through pore sizes that are larger than it
would otherwise have flowed if there was no trapping of the non-wetting
phase. This forcing of the wetting phase to flow through larger pores than it
would otherwise have done in the absence of trapping enhances the relative
permeability of the wetting phase on the imbibition cycle compared to the
drainage cycle. These observations are in accord with the experimental results
shown in Figure 8.28.

8-66

Figure 8.28. Relative permeability hysteresis (Osoba et al., 1951).

8.5.3 Wettability
Relative permeability curves are markedly affected by the wettability of
the medium. Jennings (1957) measured steady state oil water relative
permeability curves on a core that was initially strongly water wet. He then
treated the core with a surface active agent (organo chlorosilane) that
rendered

the

core

oil

wet

and

repeated

the

relative

permeability

measurements. The results are shown Figure 8.29. In general, the relative
permeability to oil decreases while the relative permeability to water increases
as the medium changes from a strongly water wet to a strongly oil wet
8-67

medium. It is interesting to replot the relative permeability curves of Figure

8.29 as functions of wetting phase saturation instead of water saturation. The
replotted curves are shown in Figure 8.30. We see that when plotted against
the wetting phase saturation, the relative permeability curves for the oil wet
core and the water wet core are close to each other. They are not identical
because the degree of wettability preference in the two experiments may be
different. However, the relative permeability curves for the wetting phase and
the non-wetting phase from the two experiments are essentially the same.
Based on experimental observations, Craig (1971) gives the following
rules of thumb about the relative permeabilities for water wet and oil wet
media. (1) The irreducible water saturation for a water wet medium is usually
greater than 20% to 25% whereas that of an oil wet medium it is generally
less than 15%, and frequently less than 10%. (2) The water saturation at
which the oil and water relative permeabilities are equal is greater than 50%
for a strongly water wet medium whereas it is less than 50% for a strongly oil
wet medium. (3) The end-point relative permeability to water is generally less
than 30% for a strongly water wet medium and greater than 50% and
approaches the oil end point for a strongly

oil wet medium.

These

observations are consistent with the effect of wettability on the fluid

distribution and displacement discussed in Section 6.3.4.
It should be emphasized that the above rules of thumb are applicable
only to systems that show a strong preferential wettability to either water or
oil. In general, one cannot infer the wettability of a porous medium based
solely on the relative permeability curves. For example, relative permeability
curves that intersect at a water saturation of 50% does not mean that the
medium is of neutral wettability.

8-68

Figure 8.29. Effect of strong preferential wettability on steady state relative

permeability curves (Jennings, 1957).

Figure 8.30. Relative permeability curves from Figure 8.28 replotted as

functions of wetting phase saturation (adapted from Jennings, 1957).
8-69

At a given saturation, the relative permeability for a phase is higher

when that phase is the non-wetting phase than when it is the wetting phase.
This is observation can be seen in Figure 8.29. At any water saturation, the
relative permeability to water is higher when the water was the non-wetting
phase than when it was the wetting phase. Similarly, at any water saturation,
the relative permeability to oil is higher when the oil was the non-wetting
phase than when it was the wetting phase.
Owens and Archer (1971) measured relative permeability curves of
sandstones that were rendered progressively oil wet with a surface active
agent. Figure 8.31 shows their results for contact angles ranging from 0 to
180. Note the general decrease in the oil relative permeabilities and increase
in the water relative permeabilities as the system was made progressively
more oil wet.

Note also, that the strongly preferentially wet systems with

contact angles of 0 and 180 generally obey Craigs rules of thumb regarding
the end-point water relative permeability and the water saturation at which
the water and oil relative permeabilities are equal. The rules of thumb do not
strictly apply to the intervening degrees of wettability.
8.5.4 Injection Rate
Injection rate usually does not affect relative permeabilities obtained by
the steady state method provided the rate is sufficiently high to minimize
capillary end effect. However, Peters and Khataniar (1987) have shown that
relative permeabilities obtained by the unsteady state displacement method
can show rate sensitivity due to viscous instability. Figures 8.32 and 8.33
show the effects of rate and viscosity ratio on relative permeability curves for
oil wet and water wet sandpacks. Both the curves for the oil wet medium and
the water wet medium shift to lower water saturations as the injection rate
(stability number) is increased.

It should be noted that for the water wet

system, the relative permeability curves obtained by the unsteady state

method deviate from the steady state curves as the degree of instability is
8-70

increased. The water curve increases and the oil curve decreases away from
the steady state curves as the degree of instability of the displacement
experiment increases.

Figure 8.31. Relative permeabilities for range of wetting conditions (Owens

and Archer, 1971).

8-71

Figure 8.32. Effect of stability number on unsteady state relative permeability

curves for oil wet sandpacks (Peters and Khataniar, 1987).

8-72

Figure 8.33. Effect of stability number on unsteady state relative permeability

curves for water wet sandpacks (Peters and Khataniar, 1987).

8.5.5 Viscosity Ratio

Viscosity ratio usually does not affect relative permeabilities obtained by
the steady state method since there is no displacement involved. Figure 8.34
shows the relative permeability curves obtained with the steady state method
at various viscosity ratios.

Clearly, no viscosity ratio effect is apparent.

However, Peters and Khataniar (1987) have shown that relative permeabilities
obtained by the unsteady state displacement method at adverse viscosity
ratios can show sensitivity to injection rate and viscosity ratio due to viscous
instability (Figures 8.32 and 8.33).

8-73

Figure 8.34. Effect of viscosity ratio on relative permeability curves obtained

by the steady state method (Leverett, 1939).

8.5.6 Interfacial Tension

Relative permeability curves are affected by interfacial tension only at
interfacial tensions lower than 0.1 dyne/cm.

Above this value, relative

permeabilities are unaffected by interfacial tension.

Bardon and Longeron (1978) studied the effect of interfacial tension on
gas-oil

relative

permeabilities

using

methane

and

normal

heptane

displacement experiments. In their study, interfacial tensions were calculated

using parachors and the gas-oil relative permeabilities were calculated using
relative permeability models and a numerical simulator to history match the
displacement data. Figure 8.35 shows the relative permeability curves that
gave the best fit to the displacement recovery data at the calculated interfacial
tensions.

The results show that the relative permeabilities to gas and oil
8-74

increased as the interfacial tension decreased. The residual fluid saturations

decreased as the interfacial tension decreased as expected from the effect of
capillary number on residual fluid saturations.

In the limit, at ultra-low

interfacial tensions, the relative permeability curves were approximately

straight lines.

These general trends in the effect of interfacial tensions on

relative permeability curves have been confirmed by Amaefule and Handy

(1981).

Figure 8.35. Effect of interfacial tension on gas-oil relative permeability curves

(Bardon and Longeron, 1978).

8.5.7 Pore Structure

Morgan and Gordon (1970) have presented results that show that rocks
with large pores and correspondingly small specific surface areas have low
irreducible water saturations that leave a relatively large amount of pore
8-75

space available for multiphase flow.

Therefore, for such rocks, end point

relative permeabilities are high and a large saturation change may occur
during two phase flow.

By contrast, rocks with small pores have larger

specific surface areas and larger irreducible water saturations that leave less
room for multiphase flow. As a result, the end point relative permeabilities
are lower and the saturation range for two phase flow is smaller than in rocks
with large pores. Finally, rocks having some relatively large pores connected
by small pores have a large surface area, resulting in high irreducible water
saturation and relative permeability behavior that is similar to rocks with
small pores only. These observations are summarized in Figure 8.36.
8.5.8 Temperature
There are data in the literature that suggest that relative permeability
curves are affected by temperature. Poston et al., (1970) found that
temperature causes residual oil saturation to decrease and irreducible water
saturation to increase, with corresponding increases in relative permeability
curves (Figure 8.37). On the other hand, there are data in the literature that
also show that relative permeabilities are not temperature dependent (Miller
and Ramey, 1985). Apparently, the effect of temperature on relative
permeabilities is still and open question. This situation is understandable
because temperature can affect rock and fluid properties which in turn can
affect relative permeability curves. For example, high temperature can change
the wettability of the rock which affects relative permeabilities. It can also
reduce interfacial tensions, which can affect relative permeabilities and the
irreducible saturations. Because of the effect of temperature on the other
properties of the system that can affect relative permeabilities, it is difficult to
categorically determine the effect of temperature on relative permeabilities.

8-76

Figure 8.36. Effect of pore structure on relative permeability curves; (a)

sandstone with large, well-connected pores with k = 1314 md; (b) sandstone
with small, well-connected pores with k = 20 md; (c) sandstone with a few
large pores connected with small pores with k = 36 md (Morgan and Gordon,
1970).

8-77

Figure 8.37. Effect of temperature on relative permeability curves (Poston et

al., 1970).
8.5.9 Heterogeneity
Relative permeabilities are typically measured on homogeneous core
samples. These curves are then used in numerical simulators to model the
performance of heterogeneous reservoirs. It is often necessary to adjust the
laboratory measured relative permeability curves in order to successfully
history match the performance of the heterogeneous reservoirs. Gharbi and
Peters (1993) simulated the waterflood performance of a heterogeneous
reservoir using a set of input relative permeability curves and then used the
simulated oil recovery versus pore volumes of water injected and the
simulated pressure drop to calculate the equivalent relative permeability
curves for the heterogeneous medium by the JBN method.
8-78

Figure 8.38

compares the input relative permeabilities with the computed equivalent

relative permeabilities for the heterogeneous medium.

The effect of the

heterogeneity is to shift the oil and water relative permeabilities to low water
saturations thereby increasing the water relative permeability curve and
decreasing

the

oil

relative

permeability

curve.

Thus,

the

relative

permeabilities for the heterogeneous medium are similar to the relative

permeabilities for a strongly oil wet medium.

Figure 8.38. Effect of heterogeneity on relative permeability curves (Gharbi

and Peters, 1993).

8.6 THREE-PHASE RELATIVE PERMEABILITIES

Three phase relative permeabilities are required to predict the
performance of three phase flow of oil, water and gas. There are considerably
less experimental data in the literature on three phase relative permeabilities
than two phase relative permeabilities. Figure 8.39 shows, on a ternary
8-79

saturation diagram, the approximate regions of single phase flow, two phase
flow and three phase flow in an oil, water and gas system ( Leverett and Lewis,
1941). It can be seen that the three phase flow region is small compared to
single phase and two phase flow regions. Figures 8.40, 8.41 and 8.42 show
the three phase water, oil and gas relative permeabilities measured by
Leverett and Lewis (1941). They found that the relative permeability to water
was only a function of the water saturation. However, the relative
permeabilities to oil and gas were functions of all three fluid saturations.

Figure 8.39. Approximate limits of saturations giving 5 per cent or more of all
components in flow stream for the flow of nitrogen, kerosene and brine.
Arrows point to increasing fraction of respective components in stream
(Leverett and Lewis, 1941).

8-80

Figure 8.40. Three phase relative permeability to water (Leverett and Lewis,
1941).

Figure 8.41. Three phase relative permeability to oil (Leverett and Lewis,
1941).

8-81

Figure 8.42. Three phase relative permeability to gas (Leverett and Lewis,
1941).

Three phase relative permeabilities are not routinely measured in the

laboratory as two phase relative permeabilities. Instead, three phase relative
permeabilities are usually calculated from two phase relative permeability
data using various relative permeability models.

Delshad and Pope (1989)

have reviewed the various three phase relative permeability models and found
that some of them do not always agree with the available experimental three
phase relative permeability data.

8.7 CALCULATION OF RELATIVE PERMEABILITIES FROM

DRAINAGE CAPILLARY PRESSURE CURVE
In Section 7.12.2, we derived the following approximate drainage
relative permeability curves for wetting and non-wetting phases from the
drainage capillary pressure curve:

8-82

Sw

kw
k

krw ( S w )

0
1

dS w
Pc 2

(7.159)

dS w
Pc 2

and
1

knw
k

krnw ( S w )

dS w
Pc 2
Sw
1

(7.160)

dS w
Pc 2

We found that these models were defective in two respects: (1) they do not
include trapped residual saturations and (2) the sum of the relative
permeabilities is equal to 1, which is contrary to experimental observations.
These deficiencies result from the fact that the models neglect certain facts
about the nature of two phase flow in porous media. First, the cross-sectional
area open to the flow of the wetting phase is not a constant as assumed in the
models but is a function of the wetting phase saturation. Second, the
tortuosity for the flow of the wetting phase, which was neglected in the
models, is also a function of the wetting phase saturation. Burdine (1953)
proposed the following normalized drainage relative permeability models,
which account for these saturation dependencies in the cross-sectional area
and the tortuosity for two phase flow:
S w*

krw ( S w* )

*
w

kw ( S )
k w ( S w* 1)

S w*

0
1

1
dS w*
2
Pc
1
dS w*
Pc2
1

krnw ( S w* )

knw ( S w* )
knw ( S w* 0)

1 S w*

2 S*
w
1

8-83

1
dS w*
2
Pc
1
dS w*
2
Pc

(8.136)

(8.137)

where S w* is the normalized wetting phase saturation given by

S w*

S w S wirr
1 S wirr

(8.138)

In Eqs.(8.136) and (8.137), the ratios of the integrals on the right side
account for the cross-sectional area changes with saturations and the terms
S w*

and

1 S w*

account for the tortuosity changes with saturations. It

should be noted that the base permeability used in Eq.(8.136) to define the
normalized relative permeability to the wetting phase is equal to the absolute
permeability of the medium, whereas the base permeability used to define the
normalized relative permeability to the non-wetting phase in Eq.(8.137) is
equal to the effective permeability to the non-wetting phase at the irreducible
wetting phase saturation. Thus, the normalized wetting phase relative
permeability given by Eq.(8.136) is also the true relative permeability to the
wetting

phase.

However,

the

normalized

non-wetting

phase

relative

permeability given by Eq.(8.137) must be multiplied by the end point relative

permeability to the non-wetting phase (knwr) in order to obtain the true nonwetting phase relative permeability. Furthermore, the normalized non-wetting
phase relative permeability of Eq.(8.137) starts at a wetting phase saturation
of 1.0 or a non-wetting phase saturation of zero. Normally, a critical nonwetting phase saturation is required before the non-wetting phase can flow.
Thus, the end-point non-wetting phase relative permeability and a critical
non-wetting phase saturation must be introduced into Eq.(8.137) to obtain
the true relative permeability for the non-wetting phase. Given the drainage
capillary pressure curve, the integrals in Eqs.(8.136) and (8.137) can easily be
calculated numerically to obtain the normalized drainage relative permeability
curves.
An alternative approach to evaluating the integrals in Eqs.(8.136) and
(8.137) is to fit the Brooks-Corey (1966) model to the drainage capillary
8-84

pressure curve and then integrate the resulting linear function. As discussed
in Section 7.13.1, the Brooks-Corey drainage capillary pressure model is given
by

ln S w*

ln Pe

(7.161)

ln S w* ln Pe

(7.162)

ln Pc

or

ln Pc
and

Pc

where

Pe S w*

(7.164)

is the pore size distribution index obtained from the straight line

given by Eq.(7.161) or (7.162). Substituting Eq.(7.164) into Eqs.(8.136) and

(8.137) and performing the integrations gives the normalized drainage relative
permeability curves as
2 3

S w*

krw ( S w )

(8.139)

and
krnw ( S w )

1 S w*

S w*

(8.140)

A critical saturation can be introduced into the relative permeability model for
the non-wetting phase as

krnw ( S w )

S S wirr
1 w
Sm S wirr

8-85

S w*

(8.141)

where Sm is the wetting phase saturation corresponding to the critical nonwetting phase saturation. Finally, the true relative permeability curve for the
wetting and non-wetting phases are given by
2 3

krw ( S w )

krnw ( S w )

knwr

S w*

S S wi
1 w
Sm S wi

(8.142)
2

S w*

(8.143)

where knwr is the non-wetting phase relative permeability at the irreducible

wetting phase saturation.
Example 8.3
Use the air-water capillary pressure data of Table 8.4 to calculate the
drainage relative permeability curves by the method of Brooks and Corey for a
core sample.
Table 8.4. Drainage Capillary Pressure Curves for Example 8.3.
Saturation

Capillary Pressure
(psi)

1.000

1.973

0.950

2.377

0.900

2.840

0.850

3.377

0.800

4.008

0.750

4.757

0.700

5.663

0.650

6.781

0.600

8.195

0.550

10.039

0.500

12.547

0.450

16.154

0.400

21.787

0.350

31.817

8-86

0.300

54.691

0.278

78.408

Solution to Example 8.3

*

Figure 8.43 shows the graph of lnPc versus lnS w for Swirr = 0.10. The
equation of the resulting straight line is given by

ln Pc

2.1443ln S w*

ln 2.2238

Therefore,

2.1443
0.4664

Pe

2.2238
*

Figure 8.44 shows the graph of lnS w versus lnPc for Swi = 0.10. It also is
linear and could have been used for the subsequent calculations. The BrooksCorey drainage capillary pressure equation is given by

Pc

Pe S

*
w

2.2238 S w*

2.1443

Figure 8.45 shows the normalized drainage relative permeability curves

calculated with Eqs.(8.139) and (8.140). Figure 8.46 shows the true drainage
relative permeability curves for Sm = 0.95 and knwr = 0.961. The results of the
calculations are summarized in Table 8.5.

8-87

Figure 8.43. Log-log graph of Pc versus S w for Example 8.3.

Figure 8.44. Log-log graph of S w versus Pc for Example 8.3.

8-88

Figure 8.45. Normalized drainage relative permeability curves for Example

8.3.

Figure 8.46. True drainage relative permeability curves for Example 8.3.

8-89

Table 8.5. Results of Drainage Relative Permeability Calculations for Example

8.3
Brooks-Corey
Original Data

Model

Pc

Drainage Relative Permeability Curves

Pc
psi

krw S w

krnw S w

1.000

2.224

1.000

0.000

1.000 0.000

2.377

0.944

2.514

0.659

0.001

0.659 0.000

0.900

2.840

0.889

2.863

0.424

0.006

0.424 0.002

0.850

3.377

0.833

3.288

0.265

0.017

0.265 0.008

0.800

4.008

0.778

3.812

0.160

0.036

0.160 0.022

0.750

4.757

0.722

4.468

0.093

0.063

0.093 0.044

0.700

5.663

0.667

5.305

0.052

0.098

0.052 0.073

0.650

6.781

0.611

6.393

0.028

0.140

0.028 0.111

0.600

8.195

0.556

7.843

0.014

0.189

0.014 0.156

0.550

10.039

0.500

9.831

0.006

0.244

0.006 0.208

0.500

12.547

0.444

12.656

0.003

0.304

0.003 0.266

0.450

16.154

0.389

16.851

0.001

0.371

0.001 0.331

0.400

21.787

0.333

23.452

0.000

0.443

0.000 0.401

0.350

31.817

0.278

34.672

0.000

0.521

0.000 0.479

0.300

54.691

0.222

55.947

0.000

0.605

0.000 0.562

0.278

78.408

0.198

71.829

0.000

0.643

0.000 0.601

0.250

0.167

103.678

0.000

0.694

0.000 0.652

0.200

0.111

247.331

0.000

0.790

0.000 0.749

0.150

0.056

1093.394

0.000

0.892

0.000 0.852

0.100

0.000

0.000

1.000

0.000 0.962

Sw

psi

1.000

1.973

0.950

*
w

8-90

krw

krnw

NOMENCLATURE
A

cross sectional area in the flow direction

Bo =

oil formation volume factor

Bw =

water formation volume factor

fw

fractional flow of wetting phase

fw

fractional flow of water

fnw =

fractional flow of non-wetting phase

fnw2 =

fractional flow of non-wetting phase at the outlet end of porous

medium

fo

fractional flow of oil

Fw =

approximate fractional flow of wetting phase

gravitational acceleration

Ir

relative injectivity

Leverett J-function

absolute permeability of the medium

ko =

effective permeability to oil

kw =

effective permeability to water

kwr =

end-point relative permeability to wetting phase

kg =

effective permeability to gas

kro =

relative permeability to oil

krw =

relative permeability to water

krg =

relative permeability to gas

krw =

relative permeability to wetting phase

krnw= relative permeability to non-wetting phase

knwr= end-point relative permeability to non-wetting phase
L

length

M =

mobility ratio

ME =

end-point mobility ratio

Ncap

Ng =

gravity number

NpD =

dimensionless cumulative production

dimensionless capillary to viscous force ratio

8-91

Nvcap

pressure

capillary number

Pc =

capillary pressure

Pe =

displacement pressure for Brooks-Corey model

Pg =

pressure in the gas phase

Pnw=

pressure in the non-wetting phase

Po =

pressure in the oil phase

Pc/ow =

oil-water capillary pressure curve

Pc/go =

gas-oil capillary pressure curve

Pc/gw =

gas-water capillary pressure curve

Pw =

pressure in the water phase

Pw =

pressure in the wetting phase

total volumetric injection rate

qo =

volumetric flow rate of oil

qg =

volumetric flow rate of gas

qnw=

volumetric flow rate of non-wetting phase

qw =

volumetric flow rate of water

qw =

volumetric flow rate of wetting phase

Qi =

cumulative injection

Qnw =

cumulative non-wetting phase produced

Qo =

cumulative oil produced

oil recovery as a fraction of initial oil in place

Se =

effective wetting phase saturation

Sg =

gas saturation

So =

oil saturation

Sor =

residual oil saturation

Sw =

water saturation

Sw =

wetting phase saturation

Swirr

irreducible wetting phase saturation

8-92

Swro=

wetting phase saturation at which imbibition capillary pressure is

zero

Sw2 =

wetting phase saturation at the outlet end of porous medium

Snw=

non-wetting phase saturation

Snwr

residual non-wetting phase saturation

Swav

average wetting phase saturation

Swav

average water saturation

Swf

frontal saturation

S w* =

normalized wetting phase saturation

time

tbt =

breakthrough time

tD

dimensionless time

flux vector, Darcy velocity vector

vw =

Darcy velocity for the wetting phase

vnw =

Darcy velocity for the non-wetting phase

distance in the direction of flow

xf =

distance to the displacement front

xD =

dimensionless distance

xDf =

dimensionless distance to the displacement front

Wi =

dimensionless pore volume injected

Wp =

cumulative water produced

WOR

x =

water oil ratio

small length in the neighborhood of the outlet end of porous

medium

density of gas

density of oil

density of water

density of wetting phase

nw

density of non-wetting phase

interfacial tension
8-93

contact angle

pore size distribution index

viscosity

g =
=

gas viscosity
oil viscosity

w =

water viscosity

w =

wetting phase viscosity

nw=

non-wetting phase viscosity

porosity, fraction

tortuosity

liquid specific gravity

angular velocity of centrifuge

P =

pressure drop

Pw =

pressure drop in the wetting phase

Pnw

pressure drop in the non-wetting phase

pore structure

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Amaefule, J.O. and Handy, L.L. : The Effect of Interfacial Tensions on
Relative Oil-Water Permeabilities of Consolidated Porous Media,
SPE/DOE 9783, presented at the SPE/DOE 2nd Joint Symposium on
Enhanced Oil Recovery of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, Tulsa,
OK, April 5-8, 1981.
Anderson, W.G. : Wettability Literature Survey - Part 5: The Effects of
Wettability on Relative Permeability, J. Pet. Tech. (November 1987)
1453-1468.
Bardon, C. and Longeron, D. : Influence of Low Interfacial Tensions on
Relative Permeability, SPE 7609, presented at the 53rd Annual Fall
Technical Conference and Exhibition of the Society of Petroleum
Engineers, Houston, Tx, October 1-3, 1978.
Brooks, R.H. and Corey, A.T. : Properties of Porous Media Affecting Fluid
Flow, Jour. Irrigation and Drainage Div., Proc. Amer. Soc. Of Civil Engr.
(June, 1966) 61-88.

8-94

Brutsaert, W. : "Some Methods of Calculating Unsaturated Permeability,"

Trans. of the Amer. Soc. of Agricultural Engineers, Vol. 10 (1967) 400404.
Buckley, S.E. and Leverett, M.C. : Mechanism of Fluid Displacement in
Sands, J. Pet. Tech. (May 1941) 107-116.
Burdine, N.T. : Relative Permeability Calculations
Distribution Data, Trans., AIME (1953) 71-78.

From

Pore

Size

Campbell, G.S. : "A Simple Method for Determining Unsaturated Conductivity

from Moisture Retention Data," Soil Sci., Vol. 117, No. 6 (1974) 311314.
Charbeneau, R.J. and Daniel, D.E. : "Contaminant Transport in Unsaturated
Flow," Chapter 15, in Handbook of Hydrology, D.R. Maidment (Ed.),
McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, 1993.
Collins, R.E. : Flow of Fluids Through Porous Materials, Research &
Engineering Consultants Inc., 1990.
Corey, A.T. : Mechanics of Heterogeneous Fluids in Porous Media, Water
Resources Publications, Fort Collins, Colorado, 1977.
Craig, F.F., Jr. : The Reservoir Engineering Aspects of Waterflooding, SPE
Monograph Vol. 3, Society of Petroleum Engineers, Richardson, Texas,
1971.
Daniel, D.E. : "Permeability Test for Unconsolidated Soil," Geotechnical
Testing Journal., Vol. 6, No. 2 (1983) 81-86.
Daniel, D.E., Trautwein, S.J., Boyton, S.S. and Foreman, D.E. : "Permeability
Testing with Flexible-Wall Permeabilities for Unconsolidated Soil,"
Geotechnical Testing Journal., Vol. 7, No. 3 (1984) 113-122.
Delshad, M. and Pope, G.A. : Comparison of the Three-Phase Oil Relative
Permeability Models, Transport in Porous Media 4 (1989) 59-83.
Douglas, J., Jr., Blair, P.M. and Wagner, R.J. : Calculation of Linear
Waterflood Behavior Including the Effects of Capillary Pressure, Trans.,
AIME (1958) 213, 96-102.
Dullien, F.A.L. : Porous Media - Fluid Transport and Pore Structure, Academic
Press, New York, 1979.
Dykstra, H. and Parsons, R.L. : The Prediction of Oil Recovery by Waterflood,
Secondary Recovery of Oil in the United States, American Petroleum
Institute (1950) 160-175.
Gharbi, R. and Peters, E.J. : Scaling Coreflood Experiments to Heterogeneous
Reservoirs, Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 10, (1993)
83-95.

8-95

Gharbi, R.: Numerical Modeling of Fluid Displacements in Porous Media

Assisted by Computed Tomography Imaging, PhD Dissertation, The
University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, August 1993.
Graue, A., Kolltvelt, K., Lien, J.R. and Skauge, A. : "Imaging Fluid Saturation
Development in Long-Core Flood Displacements," SPE Formation
Evaluation (December 1990) 406-412.
Hardham, W. D.: Computerized Tomography Applied to the Visualization of
Fluid Displacements, MS Thesis, University of Texas at Austin,
December 1988.
Honarpour, M., Koederitz, L. and Harvey, A.H. : Relative Permeability of
Petroleum Reservoirs, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida, 1986.
Jennings, H.Y. : Surface Properties of Natural and Synthetic Porous Media,
Producers Monthly (March 1957) 20-24.
Jennings, H.J. : How to Handle and Process Soft and Unconsolidated Cores,
World Oil (June 1965) 116-119.
Johnson, E.F., Bossler, D.P. and Naumann, V.O. : Calculation of Relative
Permeability from Displacement Experiments, Trans., AIME (1959)
216, 370-372.
Jones, S.C. and Roszelle, W.O. : Graphical Techniques for Determining
Relative Permeability from Displacement Experiments, J. Pet. Tech.
(May 1978) 807-817.
Keelan, D.K. : "A Critical Review of Core Analysis Techniques The Jour. Can.
Pet. Tech. (April-June 1972) 42-55.
Khataniar, S. and E. J. Peters:
The Effect of Heterogeneity on the
Performance of Unstable Displacements, Journal of Petroleum Science
and Engineering, 7, No. 3/4 (May 1992) 263-81.
Khataniar, S. and E. J. Peters: A Comparison of the Finite Difference and
Finite Element Methods for Simulating Unstable Displacements,
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 5, (1991) 205-218.
Khataniar, S. : An Experimental Study of the Effect of Instability on Dynamic
Displacement Relative Permeability Measurements, MS Thesis,
University of Texas, Austin, Tx, August 1985.
Khataniar, S.:
A Numerical Study of the Performance of Unstable
Displacements in Heterogeneous Media, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of
Texas at Austin, August 1991.
Killins, C.R., Nielsen, R.F. and Calhoun, J.C., Jr.: Capillary Desaturation and
Imbibition in Rocks, Producers Monthly (February 1953) 18, No. 2, 3039.

8-96

Klute, A. : "Water Retention: Laboratory Methods," Methods of Soil Analysis,

Part 1, A. Klute (Ed.), American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI
(1986) 635-686.
Klute, A. : "Hydraulic Conductivity and Diffusivity: Laboratory Methods,"
Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 1, A. Klute (Ed.), American Society of
Agronomy, Madison, WI (1986) 687-734.
Kyte, J.R. and Rapoport, L.A. : Linear Waterflood Behavior and End Effects in
Water-Wet Porous Media, Trans., AIME (1958) 213, 423-426.
Lake, L.W. : Enhanced Oil Recovery, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, 1989.
Land, C.S. : "Calculation of Imbibition Relative Permeability for Two- and
Three-Phase Flow From Rock Properties, SPEJ (June 1968) 149-156.
Land, C.S. : "Comparison of Calculated with Experimental Imbibition Relative
Permeability, SPEJ (Dec. 1971) 419-425.
Lefebvre du Prey, E.J. : Factors Affecting Liquid-Liquid Relative
Permeabilities of a Consolidated Porous Medium, Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (Feb.
1973) 39-47.
Leva, M., Weintraub, M., Grummer, M. Pollchick, M. and Storch, H.H. : "Fluid
Flow Through Packed and Packed and Fluidized Systems," US Bureau
of Mines Bull. No. 504, 1951.
Leverett, M.C. : Flow of Oil-Water Mixtures through Unconsolidated Sands,
Trans., AIME (1939) 140, xxx-xxx.
Leverett, M.C. : Capillary Behavior in Porous Solids, Trans., AIME (1941)
142, 152-169.
Li, Ping: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Fluid Displacements in
Porous Media, PhD Dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin,
Austin, Texas, August 1997.
Majors, P.D., Li, P. and Peters, E.J. :NMR Imaging of Immiscible
Displacements in Porous Media, Society of Petroleum Engineers
Formation Evaluation (September 1997) 164-169.
Marle, C.M. : Multiphase Flow in Porous Media, Gulf Publishing Company,
Houston, Texas, 1981.
Miller, M.A. and Ramey, H.J., Jr. : Effect of Temperature on Oil/Water
Relative Permeability of Unconsolidated and Consolidated Sands, Soc.
Pet. Eng. J. (Dec. 1985) 945-953.
Morrow, N.R., Cram, P.J. and McCaffery, F.G. : "Displacement Studies in
Dolomite With Wettability Control by Octanoic Acid," SPEJ (August
1973) 221-232.

8-97

Morgan, J.T. and Gordon, D.T. : Influence of Pore Geometry on Water-Oil

Relative Permeability, J. Pet. Tech. (October 1970) 1199-1208.
Mungan, N. : Enhanced Oil Recovery Using Water as a Driving Fluid; Part 2 Interfacial Phenomena and Oil Recovery: Wettability, World Oil (March
1981) 77-83.
Mungan, N. : Enhanced Oil Recovery Using Water as a Driving Fluid; Part 3 Interfacial Phenomena and Oil Recovery: Capillarity, World Oil (May
1981) 149-158.
Mungan, N. and Moore, E.J. : "Certain Wettability Effects on Electrical
Resisitivity in Porous Media," J. Cdn. Pet. Tech. (Jan.-March 1968) 7,
No.1, 20-25.
Muqeem, M.A., Bentsen, R.G. and Maini, B.B. : Effect of Temperature on
Three-phase Water-oil-gas Relative Permeabilities of Unconsolidated
Sand, J. Canadian Pet. Tech. (March 1995) 34-41.
Osoba, J.S., Richardson, J.G., Kerver, J.K., Hafford, J.A. and Blair, P.M. :
Laboratory Measurements of Relative Permeability, Trans., AIME
(1951) 192, 47-56.
Perkins, F.M. : "An Investigation of the Role of Capillary Forces in Laboratory
Water Floods," Trans. AIME (1957) Vol. 210, 409-411.
Peters, E.J. : Stability Theory and Viscous Fingering in Porous Media, PhD
Dissertation, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada,
January 1979.
Peters, E.J. and Flock, D.L. : The Onset of Instability During Two-Phase
Immiscible Displacement in Porous Media, Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (April 1981)
249-258; Trans., AIME (1981) 271.
Peters, E. J., J. A. Broman and W. H. Broman, Jr.: Computer Image
Processing: A New Tool for Studying Viscous Fingering in Corefloods,
SPE Reservoir Engineering (November 1987) 720-28
Peters, E. J. and W. D. Hardham: A Comparison of Unstable Miscible and
Immiscible Displacements, SPE 19640, Proceedings of the 64th Annual
Technical Conference of the Society of Petroleum Engineers (October
1989) San Antonio.
Peters, E.J., Afzal, N. and Gharbi, R. : On Scaling Immiscible Displacements
in Permeable Media, Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 9,
(1993) 183-205.
Peters, E.J. and Gharbi, R. : Numerical Modeling of Laboratory Corefloods,
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 9, (1993) 207-221.

8-98

Peters, E.J. and Hardham, W.D. : Visualization of Fluid Displacements in

Porous Media Using Computed Tomography Imaging, Journal of
Petroleum Science and Engineering, 4, No. 2, (May 1990) 155-168.
Peters, E.J. and Khataniar, S. : The Effect of Instability on Relative
Permeability Curves Obtained by the Dynamic-Displacement Method,
SPEFE (Dec. 1987) 469-474.
Pirson, S.J. : Oil Reservoir Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1958.
Poston, S.W., Ysreal, S.C., Hossain, A.K.M.S., Montgomery, E.F., III, and
Ramey, H.J., Jr. : The Effect of Temperature on Irreducible Water
Saturation and Relative Permeability of Unconsolidated Sands, Soc.
Pet. Eng. J. (June 1970) 171-180; Trans., AIME (1970) 249.
Purcell, W.R. : Capillary Pressures - Their Measurement Using Mercury and
the Calculation of Permeability There From, Trans., AIME (1949) 186,
39-48.
Rapoport, L.A. and Leas, W.J. : Properties of Linear Waterfloods, Trans.,
AIME (1953) 198, 139-148.
Richardson, J.G. : Flow Through Porous Media, Section 16, Handbook of
Fluid Dynamics, Edited by V.I. Streeter, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, 1961.
Richardson, J.G., Kerver, J.K., Hafford, J.A. and Osoba, J.S. : Laboratory
Determination of Relative Permeability, Trans., AIME (1952) 195, 187196.
Rose, H.E. : An Investigation into the the Laws of Flow of Fluids Through
Granular Material, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. (1945) 153, 141-148.
Scheidegger, A.E. : The Physics of Flow Through Porous Media, University of
Toronto Press, Toronto, 1960.
Stiles, W.E : Use of Permeability Distributions in Water Flood Calculations,
Trans., AIME (1949) 186, 9-13.
van Genuchten, M.T. : "A Closed-Form Equation for Predicting the Hydraulic
Conductivity of Unsaturated Soils," Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., Vol. 44 (1980)
892-898.
Vauclin, M. : "Flow of Water and Air: Theoretical and Experimental Aspects,"
in Unsaturated Flow in Hydrologic Modeling: Theory and Practice, H.J.
Morel-Seytoux (Ed.), NATO ASI Series C: Mathematical and Physical
Sciences, Vol. 275, 1989.
Welge, H.J. : A Simplified Method for Computing Oil Recovery by Gas or
Water Drive, Trans., AIME (1952) 195, 91-98.

8-99

Willhite, G. P. : Waterflooding, SPE Textbook Series Vol. 3, Society of

Petroleum Engineers, Richardson, Texas, 1986.
Wyllie, M.R.J. and Spangler, M.B. :Application of Electrical Resistivity
Measurements to Problems of Fluid Flow in Porous Media, AAPG Bull.,
Vol. 36, No. 2 (Feb. 1952) 359-403.
Wyllie, M.R.J. and Spangler, M.B. :Application of Electrical Resistivity
Measurements to Problems of Fluid Flow in Porous Media, AAPG Bull.,
Vol. 36, No. 2 (Feb. 1952) 359-403.

8-100

APPENDIX A

A Systematic Approach To Dimensional Analysis

Summary
This appendix presents a systematic method for obtaining the
complete set of independent dimensionless groups pertinent to a
problem. The algebraic theory underlying the method is presented. It is
shown that the dimensionless groups occupy the null space of the
dimensional matrix. The eigenvectors of this null space, which constitute
the bases vectors for the null space, contain a complete set of
independent dimensionless
dimensionless

groups. Other complete and independent

groups can be obtained systematically by a careful

navigation through this vector space. An example problem is presented

in detail to demonstrate the method.
Introduction
Dimensional analysis is a powerful tool for solving engineering
problems. It can be used to design cost effective experimental programs,
organize presentations of experimental as well as numerical simulation
results, and to scale the results of model experiments to predict the
performance of a large scale system, the prototype system.
Dimensional analysis is typically covered in a cursory manner in
fluid mechanics courses in which ad hoc techniques are presented for

A-1

deriving the dimensionless groups. Perhaps, because of this cursory

treatment, most engineers have failed to appreciate the power of the
technique and have therefore not taken advantage of it in their work.
The objective of this appendix is to present a systematic method for
obtaining the complete set of independent dimensionless groups
pertinent to a problem. The algebraic theory underlying the method is
presented. An example problem is presented in detail to demonstrate the
method.
Algebraic Theory of Dimensional Analysis
Let a physical process be described by n variables u1 , u2 ,..., un .
Suppose each of these variables can be expressed dimensionally in terms
of the primary variables of mass (M), length (L) and time (T) such that
dimensionally,
ui

M ai Lbi T ci

(A.1)

The dimensional analysis problem may now be stated as follows. We wish

to determine the exponents of real numbers x1 , x2 ,..., xn such that the
power product u1x1 u2x2 ...unxn is dimensionless; that is, has the dimensions of
M0L0T0.
The dimension of the power product is given by

u1x1 u2x2 ...unxn

a1 x1 a2 x2 ... an xn

b1 x1 b2 x2 ... bn xn

c1 x1 c2 x2 ... cn xn

(A.2)

The power product will be dimensionless if and only if the following

conditions are met:

A-2

a1 x1 a2 x2 ... an xn

(A.3)

b1 x1 b2 x2 ... bn xn

(A.4)

c1 x1 c2 x2 ... cn xn

(A.5)

Eqs. (A.3) to (A.5) are derived from Eq.(A.2) by setting the dimensions of
mass (M), length (L) and time (T) to zero, respectively. Eqs.(A.3) to (A.5)
constitute a homogeneous system of linear algebraic equations for the n
unknowns x1 , x2 ,..., xn . The system of equations is homogeneous because
the right-hand side is zero. Dimensional analysis always gives rise to a
homogeneous system of linear algebraic equations similar to Eqs.(A.3) to
(A.5).
Eqs.(A.3) to (A.5) may be written in matrix notation as

a1

a2

a3

a4 ... an

b1

b2

b3

b4

c1

c2

c3

c4

... bn
... cn

x1
x2
x3
x4
...
xn

0
0

(A.6)

or
Ax

(A.7)

where the dimensional matrix A is given by

a1

a2

a3

a4 ... an

b1
c1

b2
c2

b3
c3

b4
c4

A-3

... bn
... cn

(A.8)

and x is the vector of the unknowns. In general, because there are more
unknowns than equations, the dimensional matrix is usually an
mxn matrix in which m

n . A homogeneous system of linear algebraic

equations with more unknowns than equations usually has an infinite

number of nontrivial solutions. It is these nontrivial solutions that give
rise to the dimensionless

groups we seek.

If the rank of the dimensional matrix A is r, then we can solve for r

of the variables in terms of the remaing n r variables. Such a solution
will result in
dimensionless

n r

independent dimensionless groups, usually called

groups. Thus, to predict the number of independent

dimensionless groups in advance, we need to form the dimensional

matrix and then determine its rank. The rank r of a matrix A is the
largest rxr submatrix of A with a nonzero determinant. Thus, for the mxn
dimensional matrix A, the rank is m or less. We can easily determine the
rank of A by calculating the determinants of all possible

mxm

submatrices. If we fail to find an mxm submatrix with a nonzero

determinant, then we calculate the determinants of all possible
m 1 x m 1 submatrices until we determine the rank of A.

Equation (A.6) or (A.7) can be solved by simple row and column

operations on the dimensional matrix A. We know from linear algebra
that an mxn system of homogeneous linear algebraic equations does not
have a unique nontrivial solution. Put another way, we know that an mxn
system of homogeneous linear equations has an infinitely large number
of solutions. In the case in which the dimensional matrix has a rank of 3,
it is possible for the system of equations to be reduced to the following
row echelon form by row and column operations:

A-4

x1
1 0 0 a14
0 1 0 a24
0 0 1 a34

a15
a25
a35

... a1n
... a2 n
... a3n

x2
x3

x4
x5

0
0

(A.9)

...
xn

Thus, the initial objective of the solution procedure is to reduce the

dimensional matrix using row and column operations such that an rxr
unit submatrix appears at the beginning of the transformed matrix as
shown in Eq.(A.9).
We can now solve Eq.(A.9) to obtain the following result:

x1

a14 x4 a15 x5 ... a1n xn

(A.10)

x2

a24 x4 a25 x5 ... a2 n xn

(A.11)

x3

a34 x4 a35 x5 ... a3n xn

(A.12)

We supplement Eqs.(A.10) to (A.12) with the following additional

solutions:

x4

x4

(A.13)

x5

x5

(A.14)

xn

(A.15)

...
xn

A-5

Eqs.(A.10) to (A.15), which constitute the required solution to the

dimensional analysis problem, can be rearranged as a linear combination
of n r vectors as follows:
x1
x2

a14
a24

a15
a25

a1n
a2 n

x3

a34

a35

a3n

x4
x5
...

1
0

x4

...
0

xn

0
1

x5 ...

...
0

0
0

(A.16)

xn

...
1

Eq.(A.16) shows that the solution to the system of linear homogeneous

algebraic equations arising in dimensional analysis consists of a linear
combination of n r vectors. We can identify these vectors e1 , e2 ,..., en r in
Eq.(A.16) as

e1

These

n r

a14
a24
a34
1 , e2
0
...
0

a15
a25
a35
0 ,..., en
1
...
0

a1n
a2 n
a3n
0
0
...
1

(A.17)

vectors are the eigenvectors of the null space of the

dimensional matrix. These eigenvectors play a critical role in the

dimensional
dimensionless

analysis.

They

contain

groups (Buckinghams

complete

set

from

them

are

also

linearly

A-6

n r

theorem). Because, these

eigenvectors are linearly independent, the dimensionless

derived

of

independent.

groups

Because

the

eigenvectors are the bases vectors for the null space of the dimensional
matrix, their linear combinations can be used to access every part of the
vector space thereby allowing us to derive other
independent

groups. The

n r

complete and

groups derived from the eigenvectors are

complete in the sense that any other

group that we derive will be

found to be a combination of this initial set of

are independent in the sense that each
algebraic manipulation of the other

groups. The

groups

group cannot be obtained by

groups.

Eq.(A.16) shows that solutions to the dimensional analysis problem

can be constructed by arbitrarily choosing the values for x4 , x5 ,..., xn . Such
choices can be used to obtain an initial set of complete and independent
dimensionless

groups. The choices can also be used to transform this

initial complete set of independent dimensionless

groups into new

complete and independent sets, which may be more convenient for

applications than the initial set.
An initial complete set of

groups can be obtained systematically

as follows. Let us choose x4

1, x5

x6 ... xn

0. The solution given by

Eq.(A.16) becomes
x1
x2

a14
a24

x3

a34

x4

e1

x5

...
xn

...

The corresponding dimensionless

group is given by

A-7

(A.18)

u1 a14 u2 a24 u3 a34 u14u50 ...un0

Next, we choose x5 1, x4

0. The solution given by Eq.(A.16)

x6 ... xn

becomes
x1
x2

a15
a25

x3

a35

x4

e2

x5

...
xn

...
0

The corresponding dimensionless

group is given by

u1 a15 u2 a25 u3 a35 u40u51 ...un0

We continue in this fashion until we finally choose xn

x4

x5

... xn

0.

(A.19)

1,

The solution given by Eq.(A.16) becomes

x1

a1n

x2

a2 n

x3

a3n

x4
x5

The last dimensionless

en

0
0

...

...

xn

group is then given by

n r

u1 a1n u2 a2 n u3 a3 n u40u50 ...u1n

A-8

(A.20)

Transformations of the Dimensionless

The

groups

1,

2,

...,

nr

Groups

are complete and independent. However,

they are not unique. By appropriate choice of the values for x4, x5, ..., xn,
other complete and independent dimensionless

groups can be derived.

However, these new complete sets will be found to be transformations of

1,

2,

...,

nr.

must derive

To ensure that the new set of

n r

groups is complete, we

of them. To ensure that the new

groups are

independent, we must use a different eigenvector in forming each of the

dimensionless

groups. For example, if the new set of

designated as

1,

2,

...,

nr,

then

groups is

must contain the eigenvector e1

either alone or as a linear combination with one or more of the other

eigenvectors;

must contain e2 either alone or in combination with the

other eigenvectors and

must contain en

nr

either alone or in

combination with one or more of the other eigenvectors.

Example Problem
We wish to investigate experimentally the factors that affect
dispersion in porous media. A preliminary analysis shows that dispersion
in porous media in the direction of flow can be characterized by a
longitudinal dispersion coefficient. The preliminary analysis further
indicates that the longitudinal dispersion coefficient is a function of the
fluid properties, the porous medium and the displacement conditions.
Let us write the functional relationship as

DL

f1

, D p , u , Do ,

A-9

,g

(A.21)

The

objective

is

dimensionless

to

derive

complete

and

independent

set

of

groups that affect the longitudinal dispersion coefficient

by dimensional analysis.
Procedure
Step 1.
The first step is to determine if the number of variables can be
reduced by combining some of them. For example, gravity segregation of
two fluids always involve the combination of variables ( o s)g or
we can replace the three variables

s,

and g by the one variable

g. So,
g.

Step 2.
Next, we form the power product of all the variables involved in the
problem to obtain
x1
s

D px2 u x3 Dox4

x5
o

x6

DLx7

a dimensionless constant

(A.22)

Step 3.
Third, we express each of the variables in Eq.(A.22) in terms of the
primary dimensional variables of mass (M), length (L) and time (T). The
dimensions of each variable in Eq.(A.22) are shown in Table 1.
Step 4.
Fourth, we substitute the dimensions of each variable from Table 1
into Eq.(A.22) and insist that the power product become dimensionless
(i.e., has dimensions of M0L0T0). This step gives rise to the following

A-10

system of linear homogeneous algebraic equations for the powers x1, x2,
x3, x4, x5, x6 and x7:

x1
x1

x2

x5

x3 2 x4

x1 x3

x4

x6

(A.23)

x5 2 x6
x5 2 x6

2 x7
x7

(A.24)

(A.25)

Table 1 Dimensions of the Variables in Example Problem

Variable

Symbol

Dimensions

Mean grain diameter

Dp

M0L1T0

Interstitial velocity

M0L1T1

Diffusion coefficient

Do

M0L2T1

Solvent viscosity

M1L1T1

Oil viscosity

M1L1T1

Buoyancy group
Dispersion coefficient

g
DL

M1L2 T2
M0L2T1

Eq.(A.23) comes from insisting that the power product have a mass
dimension of M0. Similarly, Eq.(A.24) comes from L0 and Eq.(A.25) comes
from T0.

Let us organize Eqs.(A.23), (A.24) and (A.25) into a matrix

equation as follows:

A-11

x1
x2
1

1 1
1 0

1
1

2
1

x3

2
2

2
1

x4
x5

0
0

1
1

(A.26)

x6
xn

Eq.(A.26) is a matrix equation similar to Eq.(A.7) where the dimensional

matrix is given in this case by
1
A

1 1

1 0

(A.27)

We could have derived the dimensional matrix directly from Step 2.

However, Steps 2 and 3 were presented to show the origin of the
dimensional matrix. Let us combine Steps 3 and 4 into one step and call
it Step 3(revised).
Step 3 (revised).
Next, we derive the dimensional matrix using the information in
Table 1. The result is shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Dimensional Matrix for Example Problem
x1

x2

x3

x4

x5

Dp

Do

x6
g

x7
DL

A-12

It should be noted that the first row of the dimensional matrix is the
power of M in each variable, the second row is the power of L and the
third row is the power of T. This is what the first column of Table 2 is
designed to show. It should also be noted that the variables and their
powers in Eq.(A.2) have been placed on top of the dimensional matrix to
remind us of the relationship between the variables and the entries in
the dimensional matrix.
Step 4 (revised).
Next, we solve Eq.(A.26) to obtain the powers of the variables that
will make the power product dimensionless. An initial reaction to solving
Eq.(A.26) is to propose the solution x1 = x2 = x3 = x4 = x5 = x6 = x7 = 0.
This is the trivial solution in which we are not interested. Our interest is
in the nontrivial solutions.
There is extensive theory in linear algebra about the solutions of a
system of homogeneous linear algebraic equations such as Eq.(A.26).
Although we cannot review all of this theory at this point, we will use
some of it to enable us to solve Eq.(A.26) to obtain a complete set of
independent dimensionless
unknowns)

than

equations

groups. Eq.(A.26) has more unknowns (7

(3

equations).

system

of

linear

homogeneous algebraic equations with more unknowns than equations

has many (infinite number of) solutions. These are the solutions we
want.
The dimensional matrix A has a rank of r where r is the largest rxr
submatrix of A with a nonzero determinant. Buckinghams

theorem

states that the number of complete and independent dimensionless

groups is equal to the number of variables minus the rank of the
dimensional matrix, (nr). Therefore, we can predict the number of
A-13

complete and independent dimensionless

groups in advance by

determining the rank of the dimensional matrix without actually solving

the system of equations.
To determine the rank of the dimensional matrix in this example, we
compute the determinant of the first 3x3 submatrix of A. This gives a
determinant of 1 as shown in Eq.(A.27).
1

determinant 1 1
1 0

1
1 1xdeterminant
0
1

1
1

(A.28)

Because the determinant of a 3x3 submatrix of A is nonzero, the rank, r,

of A is 3. Therefore, there will be 73 or 4 complete and independent
dimensionless

groups in this example problem. In this example, the

rank of the dimensional matrix , r, is equal to the number of equations,

m. However, we should be aware that it is possible for the rank of the
dimensional matrix to be less than the number of equations if the rows of
the dimensional matrix are linearly dependent. Whatever the rank of A is,
we can find it by examining all possible 3x3 submatrices and if need be,
all possible 2x2 submatrices. If we examine all possible 3x3 submatrices
and fail to find a nonzero determinant, then the rank is obviously less
than 3. We will then examine all possible 2x2 submatrices to see if the
rank is 2.
Let us proceed to solve Eq.(A.26) by Gaussian elimination, which is
a standard method for solving a system of linear algebraic equations.
Gaussian elimination involves only simple row and column operations. In
this example, the variables in the dimensional matrix have been carefully
arranged initially to avoid column exchanges during the solution steps.
Therefore, only simple row operations will be required to solve the system

A-14

of equations. Our initial objective in the solution process is to perform

the elimination to the point that the first 3x3 submatrix of A is
transformed into a unit matrix of the form
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

(28)

as shown in Eq.(A.9). Because the right hand side of Eq.(A.26) is zero

and will always remain zero no matter how we manipulate the equations,
we can ignore it in the solution procedure until the end and concentrate
on performing the row and column operations on the dimensional matrix
(A) alone.
Let us solve Eq.(A.26) systematically as follows. Add rows 1 and 2
and place the outcome in row 2. The result is shown in Table 3.
Table 3
x1

x2

x3

x4

x5

x6

Do

x7
DL

Add rows 1 and 3 of Table 3 and place the outcome in row 3. The result
is shown in Table 4.

Table 4
x1

x2

x3

x4

x5

Do

A-15

x6
g

x7
DL

Add rows 2 and 3 of Table 4 and place the outcome in row 2. The result
is shown in Table 5.
Table 5
x1

x2

x3

x4

x5

x6

Do

x7
DL

Multiply row 3 of Table 5 by 1 and place the outcome in row 3. The

result is shown in Table 6.
Table 6
x1

x2

x3

x4

x5

x6

Do

x7
DL

We have achieved our initial objective of obtaining a 3x3 unit

submatrix at the beginning of the modified dimensional matrix as shown
in Table 6. Let us now bring the right hand side of Eq.(A.26) into the
picture to complete our solution. The right hand side of Eq.(A.26) has
remained zero and has been unaffected by the row operations on the

A-16

dimensional matrix A. With the right hand side of Eq.(A.26) brought into
the picture, we can now solve for the 7 unknowns as follows:

x1

x5

(A.29)

x6

x2

x4

2 x6

x7

(A.30)

x3

x4

x6

x7

(A.31)

x4

x4

(A.32)

x5

x5

(A.33)

x6

x6

(A.34)

x7

x7

(A.35)

The solutions presented in Eqs.(A.29) to (A.35) appear somewhat

confusing and unclear. Let us reorganize them into a linear combination
of the eigenvectors of the null space of the dimensional matrix as follows:

Dp

x1
x2

0
1

1
0

1
2

0
1

x3

Do

x4

1 x4

0 x5

0 x6

0 x7

x5

x6
x7

g
DL

(A.36)

The variables associated with the solution have been placed in column 1
of Eq.(A.36) for orientation purposes. We can readily identify the (nr)
eigenvectors of the null space of A in Eq.(A.36) as

A-17

0
1
1
1 , e2
0
0
0

e1

1
0
0
0 , e3
1
0
0

1
2
1
0 , e4
0
1
0

0
1
1
0
0
0
1

(A.37)

We are now ready to obtain the predicted 4 (nr) complete and

groups from the solutions given in

independent dimensionless
Eq.(A.36).
Step 5.

Next, we obtain the predicted (nr) complete and independent

dimensionless

groups by constructing nontrivial solutions of Eq.(A.26)

as follows. Eq.(A.36) shows that nontrivial solutions can be constructed

by arbitrarily choosing numerical values for x4, x5, x6 and x7. Let us
choose x4 = 1, x5 = 0, x6 = 0 and x7 = 0. The solution becomes

Dp

x1
x2

0
1

x3

Do

x4

x5

x6
x7

g
DL

The corresponding dimensionless

e1

(A.38)

group is obtained by substituting this

solution into Eq.(A.25) to obtain

0
s

D p 1u 1 D01

0
o

A-18

DL0

D0
uD p

(A.39)

The dimensionless

group could have been obtained directly by

inspection of Eq.(A.38). The first column of Eq.(A.38) contains the

variables and the last column contains the powers of the variables in the
dimensionless

group. Therefore,

D0
could have been written down
uD p

directly by inspection. Next, let us choose x5 = 1, x4 = 0, x6 = 0 and x7 =

0. The solution then becomes

Dp

x1
x2

1
0

x3

Do

x4

x5

x6
x7

g
DL

The corresponding dimensionless

1
2

e2

(A.40)

group is

D p0 u 0 D00

1
o

DL0

(A.41)

Next, let us choose x6 = 1, x4 = 0, x5 = 0 and x7 = 0. The solution then

becomes

x1

Dp

x2

x3

Do

x4
x5

g
DL

The corresponding dimensionless

1
2
1
e3

0
0

x6

x7

group is

A-19

(A.42)

1
3

2
p

0
0

0
o

Du D

D p2

0
L

g D

(A.43)

Finally, let us choose x7 = 1, x4 = 0, x5 = 0 and x6 = 0. The solution given

by Eq.(A.36) then becomes

x1

Dp

x2

x3

Do

x4
x5

g
DL

0
s

(A.44)

0
0
0

x7

group is

D p 1u 1 D00

The dimensionless groups

e4

x6

The corresponding dimensionless

0
o

1,

2,

DL
uD p

DL1

and

(A.45)

constitute a complete set

of independent dimensionless groups. The

groups are complete

because any other dimensionless groups derived from the solutions will
be some combination of
because each of the
remaining
3

and

Further,

1,

2,

and

Similarly,
3

The groups are independent

groups cannot be formed by combining the

groups. For example,

4.

4.

cannot be formed by combining

cannot be formed by combining

cannot be formed by combining

cannot be formed by combining

convince oneself that
Do appears only in
DL appears only in

1,

1;
4.

2,

1,

and

2
4

and

1,

3.

and

1,
4.

and

Finally,

2,
4.
4

A physical argument to

are independent is to observe that

appears only in

2;

g appears only in

Since Do appears only in

A-20

1,

3;

and

it is impossible to

manipulate

2,

independence of

and
2,

to get

and

1.

A similar reasoning establishes the

4.

Transformations of the Dimensionless

Groups for Example

Problem
The dimensionless

groups

1,

2,

and

are complete and

independent but are not unique. Other legitimate complete sets of

groups can be formed. However, these other groups will be found to be
transformations of the original basic group

1,

2,

and

4.

There are occasions in which the transformations of the original

groups into new ones are necessary. Let us demonstrate the need for
transformations of the

groups in our example problem. The result of

the dimensional analysis obtained so far is given by

f2

(A.46)

or

DL
uD p

f2

Do
,
uD p

D p2

(A.47)

Suppose we wish to conduct an experimental study to investigate the

variation of
establish

the

as a function of
nature

of

the

1,

and

function

3.

In other words, we wish to

f2

experimentally.

experimental strategy requires that we vary one

constant, then vary

finally, vary

while keeping

2
1

while keeping
and

A-21

constant.

good

group at a time to

determine its influence. For example, we should vary

and

and

while keeping
3

constant and

For a given fluid pair and porous medium,

o,

s,

Do,

, D p and of

course, g are fixed. The only variable available for varying

However, we see in Eq.(A.47) that u occurs in
occurrence of u in
and

4,

and

1
3.

is u.
The

poses no problem. However, its occurrence in

poses a serious problem in controlling the experiments if we were

to plan the experiments based on the current

will simultaneously change
tell if an observed change in
change in

3.

and

1
4

3.

groups. A change in u

Therefore, it would impossible to

was caused by the change in

or by the

What we need is a new set of complete and independent

groups that allows us to exert more experimental control by being able to

vary one

group while keeping the other

set of dimensionless
current set of

1,

2,

groups constant. Such a new

groups can be obtained by transforming the

3

and

4.

To perform the transformation systematically, we return to the

vector space spanned by the eigenvectors e1 , e2 , e3 and e4 . We recall that
the complete set of dimensionless

groups was obtained by our

judicious choice of the values of x4, x5, x6 and x7 to obtain the solutions
to Eq.(A.26). We can choose these values in some fashion to access
different parts of the vector space spanned by e1 , e2 , e3 and e4 . This
vector space contains an infinite set of complete and independent (nr)
dimensionless

groups. The challenge in the transformations is to find

these complete sets of dimensionless

groups without including the

linearly dependent ones. Careful navigation through the vector space

allows us to meet this challenge.
Let us form a new set of complete and independent dimensionless
groups that we shall call

1,

2,

and

A-22

by choosing the values x4, x5,

x6 and x7 in the following manner. Let us choose x4 = 1, x5 = 0, x6 = 0

and x7 = 0. The solution given by Eq.(A.36) becomes

Dp

x1
x2

0
1

x3

Do

x4

x5

x6
x7

g
DL

The corresponding dimensionless

0
s

D1p u1 D0 1

e1

(A.48)

group is

0
o

uD p

DL0

D0

(A.49)

Let us choose x5 = 1, x4 = x6 = x7 = 0. The solution then becomes

x1

Dp

x2

x3

Do

x4
x5

g
DL

1
s

D p0 u 0 D00

e2

(A.50)

0
1

x6

x7

The corresponding dimensionless

group is

1
o

DL0

(A.51)

Let us choose x6 = 1, x4 = 1, x5 = 0 and x7 = 0. The solution becomes

A-23

x1

Dp

x2

x3

Do

x4
x5

g
DL

e1 e3

x6

x7

The corresponding dimensionless

1
3

D 3p u 0 D0 1

(A.52)

group is

0
o

g DL0

D 3p

Do

(A.53)

3
1

Finally, let us choose x7 = 1, x4 = 1, x5 = 0 and x6 = 0. The solution then

becomes

x1

Dp

x2

x3

Do

x4
x5

g
DL

e1 e4

x6

x7

group is

The corresponding dimensionless

0
s

D p0 u 0 D0 1

The dimensionless groups

(A.54)

0
o

1,

2,

DL1

and

DL
Do
4

(A.55)

4
1

constitute a new set of

complete and independent dimensionless groups. However, note that

they are transformations of the original complete set of

1,

2,

and

4.

The new set was obtained by a careful manipulation of the vector space

A-24

as a linear combination of the eigenvectors. To ensure that the

groups

are complete, we formed the theoretically required (nr) new groups. To

ensure that the groups are linearly independent, we used a different
eigenvector to form the different
used e2 to form

2,

groups. We used e1 to form

we used e3 (in combination with e1 ) to form

we used e4 (in combination with e1 ) to form

4.

1,
3,

we

and

These choices of

eigenvectors and eigenvalues preserve the linear independence of the

dimensionless

groups.

The transformations lead to the result

f3

(A.56)

or

DL
Do

f3

uD p
Do

D p3

Do

(A.57)

We see that the new set of dimensionless

groups allows us more

experimental control. Note that u now appears in

possible to vary
vary

keeping

while keeping

while keeping
1

and

and

2
3

and

only. It is now

constant. Similarly, we can

constant. We can also vary

while

constant. Therefore, we are now in a position to

experimentally investigate the separate effects of

1,

and

on

4.

In the laboratory experiment for determining the dispersion

coefficient, the viscosity of the injected solvent must be matched with
that of the displaced fluid. Therefore,

is a constant equal to 1. The

effect of this dimensionless group is eliminated from the experiment.

A-25

Also, the density of the injected solvent must be matched with that of the
displaced fluid. Therefore, the dimensionless group

D 3p
Do

is a

constant equal to zero. Its effect is eliminated from the experiment. With
these restrictions imposed on the experiments, Eq.(A.57) becomes
DL
Do

f4

uD p

(A.58)

Do

A similar equation can be written for the transverse dispersion coefficient

as
DT
Do

f5

uD p

(A.59)

Do

The experimental program will then consist of determining the functions

f4 and f5 by varying the Peclet Number,

uD p
Do

. The results of such

experimental programs are shown in Figures 5.27 and 5.28, which are
reproduced here for convenience.

Figure 5.27. Correlations for dimensionless longitudinal and transverse

A-26

dispersion coefficients plotted on the same scale (Perkins and Johnson,

1963).

Figure 5.28. Correlation for dimensionless longitudinal dispersion

coefficient by various authors (Pfannkuch, 1963; Saffman, 1960).

Some Practical Considerations

There are several interesting observations that can be made about
solving the dimensional analysis problem.
1.

In general, there are usually more unknowns than equations. In

the example problem, there are 7 unknowns and 3 equations. This
is an over-determined system with an infinite number of nontrivial
solutions.

2.

Reduction of the dimensional matrix to row echelon form without

any row becoming zero shows that the rank r of the dimensional

A-27

matrix is equal to the number of equations. In the example

problem, the rank of the dimensional matrix was determined in
advance to be equal to 3. This is confirmed by the fact that upon
reduction to row echelon form (Table 6), none of the rows became
zero. Thus, the rank of the dimensional matrix in this case is equal
to the number of equations. If one of the rows had become zero
during the reduction to row echelon form, then the rank of the
dimensionless matrix would have been 3-1 or 2. A row will become
zero during the row operations if that row is a linear combination
of the other rows. In such a case, no new information is contained
in the extra row. These are important considerations because
according to Buckinghams -theorem, the number of independent
dimensionless groups is equal to the number of variables minus
the rank of the dimensional matrix.
3.

Because there are n unknowns and r equations, r unknowns can

be solved for in terms of the remaining (nr) unknowns. In the
example problem, we solved for x1, x2 and x3 in terms of x4, x5, x6
and x7.

4.

The choice of which r variables to solve for in terms of the

remaining (nr) variables can be used to good advantage. The
variables whose powers are given by the remaining (nr) unknowns
will each appear in only one dimensionless group. Thus, this
choice can be used to isolate the most important variables of the
problem into one dimensionless group. In the example problem, in
forming the initial dimensionless

groups, we solved for x1, x2 and

x3 in terms of x4, x5, x6 and x7. Therefore, in the initial set of

dimensionless
o

groups, Do whose power is x4 appeared only in

whose power is x5 appeared only in

appeared only in

3;

2;

g whose power is x6

and DL whose power is x7 appears only in

A-28

1;

4.

On the other hand, the variables whose powers are given by the r
variables solved for can appear in more than one dimensionless
group.
5.

The

initial

arrangement

of

the

variables

is

important

in

constructing the dimensional matrix. Since the initial objective of

the solution of the homogeneous system of the linear algebraic
equations arising in dimensional analysis is to reduce the first
mxm or rxr submatrix of the dimensional matrix to a unit matrix,
it is advantageous to arrange the variables in such a way that the
first mxm or rxr submatrix of A is a diagonal matrix if possible.
There are two significant advantages from such an arrangement.
The first advantage is that the rank of the matrix can be
determined easily by inspection because the determinant of a
diagonal matrix is equal to the product of the diagonal terms. The
second advantage is that solution of the resulting system of
homogeneous system of algebraic equations is considerably
simplified if the first rxr submatrix of the dimensional matrix is a
diagonal matrix. Reduction to row echelon is then easily achieved
by dividing each row of the dimensional matrix by the first nonzero
entry of that row. Of course, the dimensional analysis can still be
performed with the variables arranged in any order. In such a case,
both row and column operations may be necessary to solve the
resulting homogeneous system of equations.

Finally, since the

dependent variable of the problem needs to be isolated into only

one dimensionless

group, this variable should be placed in the

rightmost column of the dimensional matrix. In the example

problem, the dependent variable DL was placed in the last column
of the dimensional matrix to ensure that it appeared in one
dimensionless

group only.

A-29

Concluding Remarks
A systematic procedure has been presented to derive the complete
and independent set of dimensionless

groups pertinent to a given

problem. The theoretical basis of the method has been presented and
discussed. It is shown that a complete set of independent dimensionless
groups is given by the eigenvectors of the null space of the dimensional
matrix. These eigenvectors contain a set of complete and independent
dimensionless

groups. By appropriate choice of eigenvalues, the initial

set of dimensionless

groups can be transformed systematically to

obtain other complete and independent dimensionless

groups that may

be more convenient to use in experiments than the initial set. It is hoped

that the systematic approach to dimensional analysis presented here will
inspire those who have hitherto neglected this powerful tool to employ it
in solving their engineering and scientific problems.

Nomenclature
DL

longitudinal dispersion coefficient

Dp

mean grain diameter of the porous medium

f1

an unknown function we wish to determine experimentally

f2

an unknown function we wish to determine experimentally

f3

an unknown function we wish to determine experimentally

f4

an unknown function we wish to determine experimentally

f5

an unknown function we wish to determine experimentally

Do

binary diffusion coefficient between the solvent and oil

gravitational acceleration

interstitial displacement velocity

viscosity of the displaced fluid

A-30

solvent viscosity

density of the displaced fluid

solvent density

= initial set of dimensionless groups (has nothing to do with 3.141..)

=

transformed set of dimensionless groups

References
Birkoff, G.: Dimensional Analysis and Partial Differential Equations,
Elec. Eng., Vol. 67, p. 1185-1188, 1948.
Brand, L.: The pi-Theorem of Dimensional Analysis, Am. Math.
Monthly, Vol. 59, p. 516, 1952.
Bridgman, P.W.: Dimensional Analysis, Yale University Press, New
Haven, 1937.
Buckingham, E. : On Physically Similar Systems: Illustrations of the
use of Dimensional Equations, Phys. Rev., Vol. 4, pp. 345-376,
1914.
Catchpole, J.P. and Fulford, G.: Dimensionless Groups, Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 58, No. 3 (March 1966) 4660.
Chen, W.: Algebraic Theory of Dimensional Analysis, J. Franklin Inst.,
Vol. 292, No. 6, pp. 403-422, Dec. 1948.
Corrsin, S.: A Simple Geometrical Proof of Buckinghams p-Theorem,
Am. J. Phys., Vol. 19, pp. 180-181, 1951.
Decius, J.C.: Dimensional Analysis: An Approach from Transformation
Theory and a Criterion for Scaling Model Experiments, J. Franklin
Inst., Vol. 245, pp. 379-387, 1948.
Drobot, S.: On the Foundations of Dimensional Analysis, Studia Math.,
Vol. 14, pp. 84-99, 1953.
Happ, W.W.: Computer-oriented Procedures for Dimensional Analysis,
J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 38, pp. 3918-3926, 1967.
Hellums, J.D. and Churchill, S.W.: Dimensional Analysis and Natural
Circulation, Chemical Engineering Symposium Series, pp. 75-80.
Huntley, H.E.: Dimensional Analysis, New York, Dover, 1967.
Langhaar, H.L.: A Summary of Dimensional Analysis, J. Franklin Inst.,
Vol. 242, pp. 459-463, 1946.
Langhaar, H.L.: Dimensional Analysis and Theory of Models, John Wiley
and Sons Inc., New York, 1953.

A-31

Luchsinger, W.: Dimensional Analysis, Brown Boveri Rev., pp. 175-180,

1940.
Marle, C.M.: Multiphase Flow in Porous Media, Gulf Publishing
Company, 1981.
Moon, P. and Spencer, D.E.: A Modern Approach to Dimensions, J.
Franklin Inst., Vol. 248, pp. 495-521, 1949.
Pankhurst, R.C.: Dimensional Analysis and Scale Factors, Chapman and
Hall Ltd., London, 1964.
Schmidt, R. and Housen, K.: Problem Solving with Dimensional
Analysis, The Industrial Physicist, 1995, 2124.
Rayleigh, J.W.S., Lord: On the Stability of the Flow of Fluids, Phil.
Mag., 34, 59, 1892.
Rayleigh, J.W.S., Lord: The Principle of Similitude, Nature, 95, 66,
1915.
Ruark, A.E.: Inspectional Analysis: A Method Which Supplements
Dimensional Analysis, J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc., 51, 127
(1935).
Sedov, L.I.: Similarity and Dimensional Methods in Mechanics, New York,
Academic Press, 1959.
Silberberg, I.H. and McKetta, J.J., Jr.: Learning to Use Dimensional
Analysis, Part I. Which Dimensional System Should You Use?
Petroleum Refiner, Vol. 32, No. 3, 179-183, April 1953.
Silberberg, I.H. and McKetta, J.J., Jr.: Learning to Use Dimensional
Analysis, Part II. The Correct Use of Dimensional Systems
Petroleum Refiner, Vol. 32, No. 3, 147-150, May 1953.
Silberberg, I.H. and McKetta, J.J., Jr.: Learning to Use Dimensional
Analysis, Part III. The Rayleigh Method? Petroleum Refiner, Vol.
32, No. ??, 101-103, June 1953.
Silberberg, I.H. and McKetta, J.J., Jr.: Learning to Use Dimensional
Analysis, Part IV. The Buckingham Pi Theorem Petroleum Refiner,
Vol. 32, No. 3, 179-183???, July 1953.
Shook, M., Li, D. and Lake, L.W.: Scaling Immiscible Flow Through
Permeable Media by Inspectional Analysis, In Situ (1992) 16, No.
4, 311-349.
Sloan, A.D. and Happ, W.W.: Literature Search: Dimensional Analysis,
NASA Rept. ERC/CQD 68-631, Aug. 1968.
Sloan, A.D. and Happ, W.W.: Matrix Methods of Dimensional Analysis,
NASA Rept. ERC/CQD 68-6231, Sept. 1968.

A-32

Sloan, A.D. and Happ, W.W.: Computer Program for Dimensional

Analysis, NASA Rept. ERC/CQD 68-621, Aug. 1968.
Van Driest, E.R.: On Dimensional Analysis and the Presentation of Data
in Fluid Flow Problems, J. Appl. Mech., Vol. 68, A-34 (March
1946) pp. A-34-A40.
Zlokarnik, Marko: Dimensional Analysis and Scaleup in Chemical
Engineering, SpringerVerlag, New York, 1991.

A-33