Psychological Science in Cultural Context

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Kenneth J. Gergen Swarthmore College
Andrew Lock Massey University
Aydan Gulerce Bogaici University
Gerishwar Misra University o! "elhi
#or the $sychological sciences cultural $rocesses have traditionally served as %ut a single
entry into a considera%le list o! &$henomena under study.& Until recent years' such study
has not %een richly realied. (here are many reasons !or the secondary role o! a culturally
!ocused $sychology. Most $rominently' there are two chie! ways in which culture !igures in
the logic o! $sychological science' and neither o! these !avors a ma)or $ro!essional
investment. *! one views cultures in terms o! a !ield o! di!!erences' then culture largely
serves the same scienti!ic role as the study o! $ersonality' that is' as a moderator or
+uali!ier !or theoretical $ro$ositions o! a more general sco$e. (hus' the vigorous scientist
will $ro$ose a general theory ,$otentially true !or all human organisms- o! learning'
motivation' memory' $erce$tion or the like' in which case cultural variations serve only to
+uali!y the character o! the $rocess in varying conte.ts. (y$ically' %ecause o! the greater
scienti!ic stakes in documenting the general as o$$osed to the $articular' cultural variations
are either de/em$hasied or sim$ly %racketed !or &later study.& *n the second mode o!
study' culture !urnishes the $roving ground !or the universality o! the general theory. (hus'
!or e.am$le' a host o! investigators has sought to demonstrate the universality o! emotional
categories. 0n this model' culture itsel! is o! secondary interest1 cultural distinctiveness is
%ut an im$ediment to achieving the %roader goal o! research.
Although a sturdy and e.$anding %and o! $sychologists have nevertheless generated
volumes o! research on cultural universals and variations ,see !or e.am$le' Berry et. al'
23341 (riandis and Berry' 2356-' others have %egun to e.$lore the limits to the traditional
view o! $sychology and culture. #or e.am$le' some are drawn to a vision o! a culturally
sensitive $sychology as a site !or the study o! the relationshi$ %etween universal $rocess
and cultural rule systems ,see !or e.am$le' 7ckens%erger' 2338-. 0thers see the $rimary
task o! the culturally concerned $sychologist as elucidating $rocesses o! interculturation /
how cultures con!lict and recon!igure through interaction ,see' !or e.am$le' "enou.' 2334-.
Still others see the $rimary challenge as more $ractical in character. 9ather than working
toward a%stract theoretical !ormulations' the culturally engaged $sychologist might hel$ to
a$$raise various $ro%lems o! health' environment' industrial develo$ment and the like in
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American Psychologist, 1996, 51, 496-503
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9e+uests !or re$rints should %e sent to "r. Kenneth Gergen' "e$artment o! :sychology' Swarthmore
College' Swarthmore' :A. 23652' USA.
*t is slowly %eing realied that $sychological $rocesses are rooted in historically varia%le and culturally
mediated $ractical activities. :eo$le construct multi$le socio/historically grounded realities1 a$$rehending
reality !rom an o%server/inde$endent $ers$ective is not $ossi%le. A cultural em$hasis underscores the
constitutive role o! the social conte.t o! understanding. ;e as human %eings o$erate within socially
constituted worlds. #rom this orientation the assum$tions o! a law!ul universe o! human conduct and a%solute
o%)ects with conte.t/!ree $ro$erties are misleading. *nvestigations !rom a culturally rooted $ers$ective tend to
show that many western conce$ts lack e.$eriential grounding in other cultures. (hey o!!er evidence that
$resumed universal and identical $sychological $henomena or $rocesses ,e.g. sel!' emotion' morality' well/
%eing' develo$ment- are not via%le. *nstead' the character o! human action is constituted di!!erently in varying
socio/cultural conte.ts.
terms o! the values' %elie!s and motives $articular to the culture at hand ,see' !or e.am$le'
Moghaddam' 235<1 :andey' 2355-. Such e!!orts are use!ul in e.$loring the $ossi%ilities !or
a uni+ue role !or cross/cultural $sychology' and draw s$ecial attention to the needs !or
more inter$retive and more $ractical orientations to the research $rocess.
*nterestingly' these deli%erations on alternatives have not grown $rimarily out o! =orth
American soil. As many see it' they re!lect the misgivings o! myriad scholars in non/
American' non/;estern' and>or (hird ;orld locales' and $articularly their dou%ts a%out the
im$licit $resum$tion that 2- there is a universally acce$ta%le conce$tion o! $sychological
science' and>or 4- all cultures should emulate $sychology as $racticed in =orth America.
Such discontent has %ecome increasingly vocal in recent years. #or e.am$le' Sinha ,2336-
has +uestioned the $redominance o! &vertical colla%oration'& that is' o! $sychologists !rom
develo$ing countries working on research initiated %y investigators in develo$ed nations1
he $ro$oses &horiontal colla%oration& among researchers working on $ractical $ro%lems
across various regions o! a country or with those in other develo$ing nations. Moghaddam
,235<- has outlined the attem$t o! many 7uro$ean $sychologists to develo$ a $sychology
that is distinctively rooted in 7uro$ean culture. Kagitci%asi ,235?- has $ointed to the way in
which ;estern individualism has im$ortant %iasing e!!ects on social $sychological theory.
Misra and Gergen ,233@- have e.$lored im$ortant limitations o! =orth American theories
and research $ractices when im$orted into the *ndian cultural conte.t.
*n the e.$ression o! such dou%ts' the $ro!ession o! $sychology is relatively conservative.
As a contrast' in cultural anthro$ology there is enormous concern over the tendency o!
western anthro$ology to construct other cultures in terms saturated with western ideals and
$reconce$tions' to e.$loit other cultures %y using them !or ends that are solely tied to local
western interests' and coloniing other cultures through the e.$ortation o! western ideas'
values and $ractices ,see !or e.am$le' Cli!!ord' 23551 #a%ian' 235@1 Marcus' 235?-. Similar
discontents are mani!est in various geogra$hical area studies. #or e.am$le' in his now
classic work' 0rientalism' Said ,23<5- $ro$oses that research in &0riental Studies& re!lects
the $resum$tion o! western su$eriority' and o$erates as a sel!/serving $ro)ection o! the
investigatorsAconce$tions.
(here is much to %e said !or healthy dissent' and re!le.ive deli%eration on the taken/!or/
granted assum$tions o! the $ro!ession. Bowever' $erha$s the most im$ortant test o! the
critical im$ulse is in terms o! its ca$acity to generate alternative courses o! action' to enrich
the disci$line and the world it serves in im$ortant ways. *t is to this end that we direct the
remainder o! this o!!ering.
#or many o! us there is no more dramatic !orm o! critical re!lection than that stemming !rom
an inversion o! $sychologyAs traditional su%)ect/o%)ect dichotomy. (hat is' rather than
$rivileging the $sychologist as the scrutiniing su%)ect !or whom culture serves as the
o%)ect o! study' we !ind it most !ully li%erating to $lace culture in the vanguard. Let us %egin
with culture' as variously lived %y each o! us' and $lace $sychology under scrutiny. *n this
case we may ask' in what degree and with what e!!ects is $sychological science itsel! a
cultural mani!estationC Beginning in this way' it is immediately a$$arent that the science is
largely a %y$roduct o! the western cultural tradition at a $articular time in its historical
develo$ment. Su$$ositions a%out the nature o! knowledge' the character o! o%)ectivity' the
$lace o! value in the knowledge generating $rocess' and the nature o! linguistic
re$resentation' !or e.am$le' all carry the stam$ o! a uni+ue cultural tradition. Most
interestingly' the character o! $sychological science is in!ormed %y a $riori su$$ositions
concerning the nature o! human $sychology itsel! ,Gergen' 2338-. (hat is' the science is
%ased on certain assum$tions concerning the $sychological !unctioning o! the individual
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scientist1 without these assum$tions the science as we know it would !ail to %e intelligi%le. *t
is $resumed' !or e.am$le' that the scientist $ossesses a conscious or o%serving mind'
ca$a%le o! re!lecting and recording the nature o! a world e.ternal to it1 that the scientist
$ossesses $owers o! inductive and deductive logic1 and that the scientist also har%ors
motives and values that' without sa!eguards' can o%scure o%servation and inter!ere with
logical $rocesses. All o! these grounding assum$tions are constituents o! a western
ethno$sychology ,see Beelas and Lock' 2352-.
*n what !ollows we wish to give !uller voice to s$eci!ic cultural stand$oints. S$eaking !rom
dis$arate cultural %ackgrounds and dis$arate histories o! culturally sensitive study' we
e.$lore a range o! $ro%lems $rovoked %y the $resum$tion o! a universal science o!
$sychology. Bowever' rather than resting secure in criti+ue' we also %egin to e.$lore the
%ene!its !or $sychology when culture is given $rimacy.
(oward *ndigenous *ndian :sychology ,Girishwar Misra-
(he disci$line o! $sychology as $racticed in *ndia is $rimarily %ased on the knowledge and
know/how im$orted !rom the 7uro/American tradition within the conte.t o! the more general
e.$ortation o! ;estern knowledge and education ,". Sinha' 235?-. As such *ndian
$sychology %egan its )ourney %y imitating the research $ro%lems' conce$ts' theories and
methods %orrowed !rom the research done in western countries. Being the reci$ient' it was
su%ordinated to the donor country. (he colonial condition o! *ndia led to gross neglect and
avoidance o! the *ndian intellectual and cultural tradition central to the $ractices o! the
*ndian $eo$le. (he academic world maintained a distance !rom its cultural heritage and
looked down at it with sus$icion. (he colonial incursion was so $ower!ul that while western
conce$ts were acce$ted and welcomed without scrutiny' indigenous conce$ts were denied
entry to the academic discourse. Since the disci$line was imitative' its growth remained
always one ste$ %ehind the develo$ments in the donor country.
Unlike the ;est' $sychology in *ndia did not grow as an integral $art o! the evolutionary
$rocess. (raining %y British or American $sychologists cou$led with the colonial in!luence
$roduced a strong tendency in the academy to engage in a $ractice o! culture %lind
$sychology. Sur$risingly enough this did not create discontent' as researchers were
generally con!ident that they were contri%uting to the cumulatively growing $ool o! universal
knowledge. (hus' deviations were treated as errors and the $ro%lems and issues were
!iltered through the scienti!ic !ramework ,=andy' 23<8-
#or a long $eriod' $sychology taught in the *ndian universities was $ure western
$sychology and attem$ts were made to sa!eguard it !rom the contaminating e!!ects o!
*ndian culture and thought. *ts teaching maintained a strong universalistic stance. (he
research studied largely !ocused on testing the ade+uacy o! western theories and
conce$ts' wherein su%)ects $rovided o%)ective %ehavioral data. *n this scheme o! scienti!ic
activity' culture was an irrelevant and e.traneous intrusion. (he current western thinking o!
the science o! $sychology in its $rototy$ical !orm' des$ite %eing local and indigenous'
assumed a glo%al relevance' and was treated as a universal or $an/human mode o!
generating knowledge. *ts dominant voice su%scri%es to a deconte.tualied vision with an
e.traordinary em$hasis on individualism' mechanism' and o%)ectivity.
(his $eculiarly western mode o! thinking is !a%ricated' $ro)ected and institutionalied
through re$resentational technologies and scientistic rituals' and trans$orted on a large
scale to the non/;estern societies under $olitico/economic domination. As a result'
western $sychology tends to maintain an inde$endent stance at the cost o! ignoring other
su%stantive $ossi%ilities !rom dis$arate cultural traditions. Ma$$ing reality through ;estern
constructs has o!!ered a $seudo understanding o! the $eo$les o! alien cultures and has
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had de%ilitating e!!ects in terms o! misconstruing the s$ecial realities o! other $eo$les' and
e.oticiing or disregarding $sychologies that are non/;estern. Conse+uently' when $eo$le
!rom other cultures are e.$osed to western $sychology they !ind their identities $laced in
+uestion' and their conce$tual re$ertoires rendered o%solete.
#or many o! us' the universally $ro)ected modernist view o! the individual as a sel!/
determining and sel!/contained %eing is ra$idly losing its !unctional value. *n $articular'
$ost/modern conditions o! massive cultural interchange invite us to think in terms o! glo%al
coordination and coo$eration. Sam$son ,2353- $ro$oses that the western theory o! the
$erson has to %e revised. (o this end he $ro$oses that the community not only descri%es a
$ersonAs identity %ut constitutes it. *n this !ramework $ersons are viewed as guardians o!
culturally %ased assets' and not their owners. Concomitantly' there is a resurgence o!
interest in a$$roaching human action through more local modes o! understanding' and
issues o! su%)ectivity' inter$retation' and everyday understanding %ecome increasingly
salient. (his shi!t signals the $ossi%ility o! develo$ing more culturally grounded and locally
use!ul !orms o! knowledge. *t goes %eyond the $ositivist $osition and $ro$oses that the
knowledge claims in the human domain are relative to the setting in which they are
develo$ed.
#rom this stand$oint' we may see the $erson and the cultural conte.t as mutually de!ining.
*nstead o! searching !or sim$le cause/e!!ect relationshi$s' a conte.t/de$endent strategy is
more desira%le. (he role o! the academic $sychologist might %e %etter envisioned in terms
o! understanding' reading and inter$reting cultural actions1 sensitiing $eo$le to the
$otentialities o! action within the e.isting range o! intelligi%ilities1 and inviting e.$loration
into alternative !orms o! understanding. *nnovative reconstructions o! the academic tool%o.
are re+uired1 !orms o! language re+uire attention' not as re$resentations o! underlying
mental mechanisms %ut as culturally constituting actions. ;e must e.$and not only the
re$ertoire o! our analytical tools' %ut also add new dimensions to the theoretical and
conce$tual arena o! the disci$line. (his also means active interchange with allied
disci$lines. (his kind o! $artici$atory $ractice would %e creative and emanci$atory' acting
so as to enrich and e.tend the cultural traditions.
(here are numerous signs o! movement toward indigenous !orms o! $sychology. At a
metatheoretical level' :ran)$e ,2358- has e.$lored the $ossi%ility o! relating and
contrasting eastern and western conce$ts o! sel!' identity and consciousness. Darma ,in
$ress- has a$$roached the $ossi%ility o! develo$ing a social constructionist !ramework !or
$sychology in *ndia. Misra and Gergen ,233@- have e.$lored the $ossi%ility o! articulating
*ndian ,Bindu- construals o! $sychological !unctioning' with s$ecial em$hasis on the
s$iritual and natural roots o! the ontology o! $ersonhood. An indigenous $sychology' !rom
this stand$oint' would em$hasieE a holistic/organic worldview' coherence and order
across all li!e !orms' the socially constituted>em%edded nature o! the $erson' non/linear
growth and continuity in li!e' %ehavior as transaction' the tem$oral and atem$oral e.istence
o! human %eings' s$atio/tem$orally conte.tualied action' the search !or eternity in li!e' the
desira%ility o! sel!/disci$line' the transitory nature o! human e.$erience' distri%uted rather
than $ersonalied control' and a %elie! in multi$le worlds ,material and s$iritual-.
*n more $ointed analyses' there has %een increased +uestioning o! western $sychological
constructs and methods !or e.$licating and understanding *ndian reality. (hese e!!orts to
o!!er alternative construals have taken various !orms' including theoretical and
methodological innovations in social $sychological' clinical and organiational conte.ts. A
!ruit!ul inter!ace %etween indigenous *ndian thought and $sychological discourse is !ound in
the Guru Chela $aradigm o! thera$y ,=eki' 23<@-' the nurturant task style o! leadershi$
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,J.B.:. Sinha'2356-' analyses o! sel! and $ersonality ,=aidu' 23381 (i$athi' 2355-' the
reconce$tualiation o! achievement ,Misra and Agarwal' 235FE "alai' Singh' and Misra'
2355-' analyses o! the *ndian $syche ,Kakar' 23<5-' emotion ,Jain' 2338-' )ustice
,Krishnan' 2334-' morality ,Misra' 2332-' the conce$t o! well/%eing ,".Sinha' 2336-'
develo$ment ,Kaur and Sarawsathi' 2334-' values ,:rakash' 2338-' detachment ,=. :ande
and =aidu' 2334-' and methods o! organiational intervention ,Chakra$orty' 235F-. As
Marriott ,2334- has envisioned' these develo$ments suggest'&that alternative social
sciences are $otentially availa%le in the materials o! many non/western cultures' and their
develo$ment is essential to serve in the many $laces now either le!t to ad hoc descri$tions
or %adly mono$olied %y social sciences %orrowed !rom the ;est.& ,$.4?3-
(his move toward an indigenous *ndian $sychology does not im$ly an a%andonment o! the
western tradition. (he aim is not to generate a set o! mutually e.clusive' culturally %ased
orientations that !ail to regard or a$$reciate the alternatives1 rather' there is an additional
need to generate orientations that intersect and inter$enetrate. 7ven three decades ago'
Sinha ,23?4- indicated a need !or an integration o! modern $sychology with *ndian thought.
*ndian scholars have %een drawn to this $ossi%ility %y attem$ting to mi. western and *ndian
conce$ts and to ada$t western conce$ts to suit *ndian culture. ;hether western scholars
can )oin in such a multi/world endeavor' so that a true dialogue ensues' remains to %e
seen.
:sychology in the Maori Conte.t ,Andrew Lock-
(he $ractice o! $sychology in =ew Gealand' and $articularly within the Maori conte.t'
cannot %e understood without some gras$ o! history. (he Maori are an indigenous $eo$le
whose origins in the country can $erha$s %e traced %ack some @'666 years. A second
grou$ o! $eo$le %egan to arrive some @66 years ago' and have sustained a $ost/
9enaissance *ndo/7uro$ean culture that is generically termed &British.& Largely %ecause o!
their su$erior !orce o! arms' and through a series o! du%ious $olitical &agreements'& the
British gradually asserted their rule o! the territories. Simultaneously' the Maori $eo$le have
!ound themselves the victims o! wide/ranging a%uses' in which they have lost land' the
rights to many o! their traditional $ractices' and governance rights which they !elt had %een
guaranteed %y earlier agreements. (hey have increasingly %een su%)ected to laws and
regulations that either disregarded or actively inter!ered with traditions o! longstanding.
*t has only %een within the $ast !ew decades that a signi!icant $olitical !orce has %een
mounted in o$$osition to these incursions. Bistorically' there is no single Maori culture' as a
recognia%le' coherent unit1 rather' there are many distinctive tri%es each with its own local
customs. Bowever' largely !or $olitical $ur$oses a voci!erous &Maori& voice was develo$ed
to challenge the ever/encroaching British reign. 0nly in 235< did the Maori language
%ecome an o!!icial language o! State. State agencies have since develo$ed mission
statements in which they have committed themselves to o%serving certain Maori rights and
customs. Het' the nature o! their $olicies is still very much an unknown1 all cultural
institutions are going through a $rocess o! re/inventing themselves.
;hat are the im$lications o! the a%ove sketch !or the contem$orary $ractice o!
$sychological scienceC Consider the reaction o! Lawson/(e Aho ,233@-E
$sychology' and clinical $sychology in $articular' has created the mass a%normaliation o!
Maori $eo$le %y virtue o! the !act that Maori $eo$le have %een on the receiving end o!
$sychological $ractice as the hel$less reci$ients o! ,7nglish- de!ined la%els and
treatments... Clinical $sychology is a !orm o! social control derived !rom human intent and
human action and o!!ers no more &truth& a%out the realities o! Maori $eo$leAs lives than a
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regular reading o! the horosco$e $age in the local news$a$er.,$.4?-
*n e!!ect' %ecause $sychology is seen %y the Maori as an instrument devised %y the
dominant $ower' the $ro!ession is $racticed in a highly $oliticied environment. (here are
three im$ortant conse+uences. #irst' %ecause western $sychology $rovides the
instruments o! assessment on which )udgements are made' it is distrusted im$licitly as a
!orce in the continuation o! su$$ression. "urie ,l338- notes that Maori $sychiatric
admission rates are two or three times those o! non/Maori' and that there are no sim$le
e.$lanations !or this. =one/the/less the westerm diagnostic scales can %e socially
re$resented' gras$ed' and characteried %y the Maori as $art o! the $olicing mechanisms
o! a $ost/colonial state.
Second' recent develo$ments in social $sychology in the area o! discourse and &social
construction& have %een seied on as o! central im$ortance !or a $ractical contri%ution !rom
the disci$line ,:otter and ;etherell' l35<1 ;etherell and :otter' l334-. "iscourse studies
are seen as having strong $otential !or undermining the authority o! the elites ,Buygens'
l33@-1 studies o! the discourse o! the o$$ressed hold $romise !or challenging e.isting social
relations ,7ssed' l355-. Smith ,l334-' !or e.am$le' outlines Maori discursive ideologies o!
education and language that have undergirded changes in the educational system1
knowledge o! the discourse o! the disem$owered %rings it into contrasting relie! with the
discourse o! the em$owered and there%y %oth $oses and ena%les a challenge to the status
+uo.
(hird' the $oliticied conte.t o! $sychology serves to highlight the constructed nature o!
social li!e and institutions' such that in the hands o! skilled workers' new and e!!ective
!orms o! $ractice can %e esta%lished. 7.am$les include the &Just (hera$y& o! Charles
;aldegraveAs grou$ in ;ellington ,7.G.;aldegrave and (a$$ing' 2336- and "avid
7$stonAs contri%ution to the develo$ment o! &narrative thera$y& ,e.g.' ;hite and 7$ston'
l336-.
*n my view' the $olitical $olariation o! the disci$line is not merely derived !rom local
relations o! dominance and su%mission' %ut involves a clash o! cultures. (here is' here' a
clash o! values' o! logics' and o! conceived worlds and $ersonhood1 it is a di!!erence in
linguistic and other $ractices with incommensurate historical roots. &:ersonhood& in the two
cultures cannot $ro$erly %e e+uated. Su$er!icially we might locate similarities' !or e.am$le'
in the conce$tion o! the mind/%ody relation' %etween the tinana and wairua. But these latter
words are em%edded in a com$le. we% o! cultural $ractices' and the direct translation o!
tinana as %ody' and wairua as mind' cannot %e su%stantiated. (he &ma$ o! the sel!& is
di!!erent in each culture' and each culture could %e said to re+uire its own se$arate
&$sychological science.&
* have !ound coming to terms with this conclusion very di!!icult. *n this case' the academic
$sychology o! e.$erimentation and measurement is not %eing challenged on
e$istemological grounds' nor on its constitution and inter$retation o! its data / its &truth
status'& i! you like. (hese could %e interesting discussions. 9ather' academic and a$$lied
$sychology are )ust deemed irrelevant. ;hy would a Maori want to measure intelligence' or
sanity' !or e.am$leC ;estern schools and western asylums are not the Maori way o!
education nor treatment !or the trou%led. As * con!ront this !act' great dou%t suddenly o$ens
u$. At one time / not so long ago / western cultural institutions did not re+uire such
measures. ;hat' a!ter all' is the status o! the measurements created %y such scalesC
*ntelligence as a conce$t has no $urchase on an o%)ective reality1 it does not ma$ anything
in the &real& natural worldE rather the conce$t o! intelligence seems historically constituted
to meet the challenges !aced %y western institutions in gaining control o! their constituents
?
,see' !or e.am$le' 9ose' 2336-. (hese thoughts have %een raised %e!ore' %ut as
$hiloso$hical and social criti+ues grounded in a shared tradition o! thought' rather than
directly %y a cultural tradition that de!ines a lived/in human reality in which these &things&
are irrelevant e.ce$t as instruments o! $olitically motivated su$$ression.
*! it is to have a !uture here' $sychology has to %e $ractical within its cultural conte.t. (his is
not to say that the western tradition has nothing to o!!er. (here are' !or one' some
a$$roaches within contem$orary western $sychology that have sim$le instrumental utility.
(o a$$eal to an im$ecca%le study such as "an Slo%inAs Cross Linguistic "evelo$mental
:ro)ect ,235F/2334- increases the chances o! gaining !unding !or setting u$ Maori
Language and Cultural Schools1 it is high/status research' and thus a$$eals to the
governments o! =ew Gealand. 0ne could also teach develo$mental $sychology' %ut
%ecause o! its $ractical im$lications' more use!ully !rom a Dygotskian $ers$ective than a
:iagetian one. *n $articular' the !ormer admits the constitutive role o! culture as an integral
$art o! develo$ment rather than a %ackground varia%le. 0ne could teach social $sychology
as $ractical rhetoric' %ut as little else' !or e.$erimental social $sychology is recognied %y
many scholars as a %ranch o! an ideologically im%ued system o! thinking' value saturated'
and im$erialistic in am%itions. (he &narrative& tradition is currently the most attractive
candidate !or the survival o! ,near- mainstream academic $sychology ,Sar%in' 2358-. Bow
to tell oneAs story e!!ectively is a $ressing $ro%lem in this country' not only in terms o!
sustaining $ride!ul traditions %ut in the generation o! a &level $laying !ield.& #urther' such
racial discourses also contri%ute im$ortantly to a su%stantial data %ase in social $sychology
,as contained' !or e.am$le' in the )ournal' "iscourse and Society-. "iscourse studies are
seen as committed to e.$ressing the worlds o! the unvoiced $eo$les.
*n $art' the challenge o! %ecoming a $sychologist in =ew Gealand came !rom $revious
work' in which :aul Beelas and *' as editors' outlined a universal model o! %elie!s a%out the
mind ,Beelas and Lock' 2352-. *n one cha$ter o! this volume' Jean Smith ,2352- wrote on
an e.otic culture' the Maori' in which %eing a sel! was di!!erently conceived. ;e as editors'
however' !elt the Maori view was &encom$assa%le& within our science. ;e conceived o! a
universal &moral science& in which agents were aware o! the res$onsi%ilities which their
cultural categories constructed !or them. (his model may still have some validity. Bowever'
the challenge has turned out to %e the validity o! that validity' the morality o! my morality'
and the human use o! my science. 0nce cannot sim$ly do as George Miller once
advocated / give $sychology away / when the gi!t is an im$osition' seen as an element in a
$olicing $rocess that denies the validity o! a culture to determine its own ends.
Bridge 0ver (rou%led ;atersE A (urkish Dision ,Aydan Gulerce-
*n $arallel to the glo%al trans!ormations taking $lace' $sychology in (urkey is ra$idly
&develo$ing.& *n large measure the $ro!ession has %een !ollowing ,sometimes %lindly- the
!ootste$s o! so/called western ,mainly American- $sychology / with considera%le delay.
*ronically' it is not the strategies !or de!ining the $lace o! $sychology in society and
im$roving its $restige' that have %een trans$orted' so much as $sychological technology
and theoretical conce$ts. *n s$ite o! this generally un!ortunate condition' a su%stantial
num%er o! $ioneer $sychologists in (urkey are trans!orming the $sychological know/how
ac+uired in western educational insitutions in order to meet the s$eci!ic needs o! the
$resent sociocultural conte.t. (hey have made su%stantial e!!orts to &think glo%ally' act
locally'& recogniing the $ossi%ility o! moderniation without o%literating the local culture
,see' !or e.am$le' Kagitci%asi' 235?-
At the same time' it would not %e so di!!icult to conclude that American $sychology has
largely %een &thinking locally' acting glo%ally.& (he reader interested in the $otentially
<
damaging im$act o! western $sychology in develo$ing countries can consult with
numerous writings %y cross/cultural $sychologists' including one in the (urkish conte.t
,Kagitci%asi' 2358-' and a s$ecial issue o! the *nternational Journal o! :sychology devoted
to this to$ic ,Sinha and Boltman' l358-. Much has already %een written a%out the value/
ladeness and other sel!/induced constraints o! contem$orary $sychological science. =ot
sur$risingly' there are also many e.am$les in which American $sychology seems all too
$arochial when contrasted to the enduring characteristics o! (urkish tradition ,c!.
Kagitci%asi' 23541 0ner' 2354-. *n my own in+uiry into ethno$sychological
conce$tualiations o! mental health ,Gulerce' l336-' child develo$ment ,Gulerce' l334-' and
the !amily ,Gulerce' l334-' !or e.am$le' evidence was $rovided !or traditional moral'
religious' and sociocultural values that di!!ered or clashed with those im$licit in American
$sychology ,when checked against "SM/***' develo$mental $sychology and contem$orary
!amily models-. (here was also evidence !or the di!!usion o! a western ideology o!
individualism and related construals' indirectly ,via cultural arti!acts like media- or directly
through $sychological theories and $ractices ,such as &assertiveness training&-' in this
socioculturally rich and dynamic society.
(o me' any attem$t to &re$air& or &re$lace& the western tradition' $rior to considering its
$hiloso$hical and methodological assum$tions' along with its $lace in a world o! $ractical
a!!airs' would largely %e useless. (o %e sure' cross/cultural $sychologists were +uick to
notice cultural &shortsightedness& o! western $sychology ,see' !or e.am$le' Berry' l3361
Seagal et al' l336-. *n general' however' they have %een una%le to a%andon mainstream
scientism in general' remaining loyal to em$iricism' and testing western theories with
&culturally& ,geogra$hically- diverse data. *n a similar vein' (urkish $sychologists have %een
concerned $articularly with the cultural>ecological validity o! various research and
a$$lication tools ,see' !or e.am$le 0ner' l3381 Savisir and Sahin' l35F-. 7normous energy
has %een invested in the ada$tation and normaliing o! western instruments. Clearly' the
im$ortation o! measures' conce$ts and hy$otheses involves a mutually su$$ortive
relationshi$ with the di!!usion o! $ositivist/em$iricist conce$tions o! science. *t is also
unclear what in)ustice is done to local intelligi%ilities %y the im$ortation o! western
conce$tions. ;hen $sychological terminology is translated into (urkish' the local language
loses its richness o! connotation along with its multi$licitous !unctioning in the society. *t
was not until recently that the conce$tual validity o! the western models or theories %ehind
the technology were challenged and a &re$lacement& $rocess %egun ,e.g.' Gulerce' l334-.
*t is in this res$ect that the indigenous $sychology movement ,e.g' Beelas and Lock' l3521
Kim and Berry' l33@-' a$$ears to o!!er good $otential !or making the disci$line
socioculturally relevant' and !or constructing culturally valid and intelligi%le theories.
Beyond %eing culturally a$$ro$riate' indigenous conce$tions may in turn contri%ute to the
revision o! western theories. (o illustrate the $oint with works !rom (urkey' Kagitci%asi
,l35F- demonstrated that &culture o! se$arateness& and &culture o! relatedness& a$$ear
com$ati%le and interde$endent in our society' and hence are not mutually the e.clusive
$olarities assumed in western theoriing. Again' my own studies on the conce$tualiation
o! transitional $henomena ,Gulerce' l33l- and the use o! traditional o%)ects ,Gulerce' l33l-'
argue !or the coe.istent trans!ormations towards %oth &individuation& and &connectedness'&
contradicting not only western theory' %ut classical assum$tions a%out human develo$ment
/ such as unidirectionality' unilinearity' universalism' hierarchical and $rogressive order' etc.
Additionally' many other theoretical assum$tions relying on a view o! rational' materialist'
$ragmatic' !unctionalist' sel!/centered' and sel!/contained human %eing !all short in
a$$lication to understanding o! much (urkish %ehavior. A guiding model is re+uired which
5
leaves room !or the irrational' s$iritual' altruistic' conservative' other/centered' community/
oriented' and interde$endent human %eing.
At the same time' * do not !eel content with the incor$oration o! &culture& into $sychology at
the level o! theory alone. (he indigeniation o! $sychology still !aces im$ortant challenges.
Conce$tual and o$erational de!initions o! culture' !or e.am$le' are ma)or sources o!
di!!iculty. Converting culture !rom &inde$endent varia%le& to &inde. varia%le'& drawing
regional>commmunal %oundaries' relying on grou$ statistics / all at the e.$ense o! &$rivate
cultures& and local $sychology / not only has the $otential danger o! generating a &sense o!
understanding& the other ,lodged in oneAs local assum$tions-' %ut o! creating new $olarities.
#urther e!!orts at o$ening $sychology to diverse traditions at all levels o! in+uiry' $articularly
in the areas o! e$istemology' ethics' aesthetics' and $ra.is are much needed.
At this $oint it is im$ortant to recognie that' )ust as there are $sychologists in (urkey who
are unwittingly more &American& than the American' there are $sychologists living in the
States who are also contri%uting im$ortantly to the $resent discussion. Darious $rograms
have develo$ed concurrently under the general headings o! &cultural& and
&cultural>historical& $sychology to study culturally constituted $rocesses ,e.g.' Cole' l336'
23341 Markus and Kitayama' l33l1 9ogo!!' 23361 Shweder' l3361 Dalsiner' 2353' 23321
;ertsch' 2332-. (heir studies o! human $rocesses in cultural conte.ts hel$ in
understanding and incor$orating culture into $sychology at a !undamental level. Similarly'
we are $rovided with signi!icant $hiloso$hical and historical criti+ues o! $sychologyAs strong
commitments to !oundationalism' em$iricism' and the sel!/contained individual ,see' !or
e.am$le' "aniger' 23361 Gergen' 23381 Jahoda' 233@1 Sar%in' l3531 Shotter' 233@-.Such
re!lections hel$ the disci$line to realie its $articular historical and cultural location.
(aking advantage o! my $resent location' looking !rom the %ridge %etween 7ast and ;est'
literally and meta$horically' * %elieve we must $ress !urther toward an a$$reciation o!
di!!ering $hiloso$hic traditions and in the direction o! $sychologyAs inter/culturation.
Continuous consideration o! the varied e$istemological and meta$sychological
assum$tions underlying and !ertiliing mainstream s$yshcology is necessary to so!ten the
disci$lineAs rigid %oundaries. 7+ually im$ortant to me is the acce$tance o! novelty that
ena%les creative growth and increases conce$tual>ecological ade+uacy o! knolwedge and
its use around the glo%e ,Gulerce' in $ress-. 0therwise it is all too easy to see the situation
in terms o! western $roducers o! $sychological knowledge' as against non/western
im$orters. Het' in the long run this kind o! dichotomous thinking is un$roductive' and again'
western ,Cartesian- in origin. *t seems !urther to sustain an &us vs. them& mentality' and
thus inhi%its the develo$ment o! true dialogue among the cultures ,to say nothing o!
dialogic methodology within the !ield itsel!-. *t may not only %e arrogant ,ironically' even in
the search !or solutions to &neo/coloniation&-' %ut also e$istemologically erroneous' to
view the ;est inde$endent o! the rest.
*! the ;est has gained su!!icient sel!/re!le.ivity to $revent !urther &$atroniing'& and the rest
has gained su!!icient sel!/assertion !or &emanci$ation'& we can ho$e !or genuine
intercultural interchange. *n my view' a strong commitment to any $articular e$istemology
and methodology is un$roductive. *t is my s$eci!ic ho$e that we might move together
toward a disci$line that would ena%le us to &live together more com!orta%ly ,with-in the
universe& as o$$osed to &gaining control over& it. =eedless to say' the ca$acity !or diversity
and $luralism' a tolerance !or am%iguity and the unknown' and an acce$tance o! / and
$eace with / limitations in the +uest !or knowledge are not well develo$ed western +ualities.
Alternative $hiloso$hical $ositions' * %elieve' would hel$ to $revent $sychological science
!rom an.ious reductionisms ,as in %ehaviorism and cognitivism- and !rom su$er!icial and>or
3
conce$tually !lawed constructions o! human reality ,as in $ragmatism and rationalism-.
:erha$s they would encourage what !or the world might %e a &%etter& or more humane
$sychological science.
* am sometimes o$timistic a%out the $ossi%ilities o! inter/cultural dialogue / $articularly as
western $sychology %ecomes less isolated. Bowever' it sometimes a$$ears that American
$sychologists are too %usy with their own +uantitative re$roductions that they cannot !ind
time even !or reading each otherAs work' much less conce$tually unsettling contri%utions
!rom a%road. And' * !ear' the enormous $roduction o! data in the United States is seldom
a$$lica%le even to local social $ro%lems' to say nothing o! the $ro%lems con!ronting other
cultures. ;e see an enormous &waste& o! material and human resources' creating not
knowledge %ut largely irrelevant in!ormation.
*n S$eaking (ogether
Although these commentaries were generated inde$endently' and in highly diverse cultural
conte.ts' we !ind the e.tent o! our agreement striking. And' in s$ite o! our shared
misgivings regarding traditional $ractices' we !ind common grounds !or what we %elieve
could %e a $articularly !ruit!ul range o! inter/cultural dialogues. #or entry into such dialogue'
it is !irst essential that no single $aradigm o! $sychological in+uiry %e granted $reeminence.
(his is at once to honor the many traditions o! western $sychology / em$iricist'
$henomenological' critical school' !eminist' hermeneutic' social constructionist' and more /
as well as those e.tant in other cultural traditions. At the same time' it is to invite a certain
humility. Should $ractitioners !ail to a$$reciate the limitations necessarily inherent in their
local $aradigms' and treat the alternatives as !lawed in!eriors' currently e.isting con!licts
will not give way to $roductive dialogue.
;ith dialogue con!igured in this way' we see the various cultures o! the world o!!ering to
each other an enormously rich array o! resources. (hese include multi$le 2- conce$tions o!
knowledge ,metatheory-' 4- discourses o! human !unctioning ,indigenous theory-' @-
culturally located descri$tions o! action ,research outcomes-' and 8- $ro!essional $ractices
,e.g. thera$y' counseling' meditation' mediation-. *n e!!ect' the richly variegated traditions
must %e e.$lored' articulated and cele%rated !or the range o! resources they can %ring to
the $ractice o! $sychology as a glo%al coo$erative. *n our view' the most $ositive !orms o!
$ro!essional interchange occur' not when one attem$ts to im$rove or englighten the other'
%ut when the !ascinating' the novel and the $ractical !rom one conte.t are made availa%le
!or others to a$$ro$riate selectively as their local circumstances invite. *t is to the $ractical
means o! achieving such dialogue that attention is now re+uired.
By $lacing culture in the vanguard o! our concerns' we are !inally drawn to the enormous
glo%al need !or a $sychology o! $ractical signi!icance. ;estern $sychology has had the
lu.ury o! devoting most o! its research to +uestions o! a%stract theory' and viewing
a$$lication as a second/rate derivative. Bowever' not only do we !ind such theories largely
$arochial ,even when $ur$orting universality-' %ut very little o! the research has $ractical
$ayo!!. 7.$enditures on %ehal! o! a%stract theory testing seem largely wasted. *n contrast'
culturally sensitive research into $eo$leAs %ehavior in such domains as health ,e.g. trust in
medicine' sa!e se.-' %irth control' child a%use' drug addiction' ethnic and religious con!lict'
and the e!!ects o! technology on society are in des$arate need. (his is not to a%andon
a%stract theory. Bowever' in a world o! e.tended hardshi$' the chie! !unction o! such theory
may %e that o! constructing intelligi%le !utures. Alternative conce$tions o! the $erson invite
alternative modes o! action' new institutions' and new $olicies. *n e!!ect' theory %ecomes a
$ractical device !or constructing the !uture.

26
9e!erences
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assessment o! $rogress in *ndian rsearch. *nternational Journal o! :yschology' 45' l83/l?3.
Berry' J.' :oortinga H.' Segall' M.' and "asen' :.' ,l334- Cross/cultural $sychologyE
9esearch and a$$lications. Cam%ridge1 Cam%ridge University :ress.
Chakra%orty' S. ,233@- Managerial trans!ormation %y valuesE Cor$orate $ilgrimage. =ew
"elhiE Sage.
Cli!!ord' J. ,l355- (he $redicament o! culture. Cam%ridgeE Barvard University :ress.
Cole'M. ,l336- Cultural $sychologyE A once and !uture disci$lineC *n J. Berman ,ed.-
=e%raska Sym$osium on Motivation. Dol. @< ,$$. 4<3/@@?- LincolnE University o! =e%raska.
Cole' M. ,l334- Conte.t' modularity and the cultural constitution o! develo$ment. *n L.(.
;inegar and J. Dalsiner ,eds.- ChildrenAs develo$ment within social conte.t. Dol. 4.
9esearch and methodology. Billsdale' =JE 7rl%aum.
"alal' A.K.' Singh' A.K. and Misra' G. ,l355- 9econce$tualiation o! achievement %ehaviorE
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"aniger' K. ,l336- Constructing the su%)ect. Cam%ridgeE Cam%ridge University :ress.
"enou.' : ,l334- Les modes dAa$$rehension de la di!!erence. (oulouseE University o!
(oulouse.
"urie' M.B. Maori $sychiatric admissionsE :atterns' e.$lanations and $olicy im$lications.
S$icer' J.' (rlin' A.' and ;alton' J.A. ,eds.- Social dimensions o! health and diseaseE =ew
Geland $ers$ectives. :almerston' =orth =ew GealandE "unmore :ress.
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Gergen' K.J. ,l338- 9ealities and relationshi$s' soundings in social construction.
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Gulerce' A. ,l33l- (ransitional o%)ectsE A reconsideration o! the $henomenon. *n 9udmin'
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Gulerce' A. ,l334- AH"AE Aile Ha$isini "egerlendirme AraciE 7lkita%i ve (urk normlari.
,#amily structure assessment deviceE (he manual and (urkish norms-. *stan%ulE
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#ogel' M.C.".: Lyra and J. Dalsiner ,eds.- :rocess o! changeE "eterminism and
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Beelas':. I Lock' A. ,l35l- *ndigenous $sychologiesE (he anthro$ology o! the sel!. LondonE
Academic :ress.
22
Buygens'*. ,l33@- A letter' an idea. =ew Gealand :sychological Society Bulletin' <?' 44/4F.
Jahoda' G. ,l33@- Crossroads %etween culture and mindE Continuities and change in
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Jain' U. ,2338- (he socio/cultural construction o! emotions. :sychology and "evolo$ing
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Kagitci%asi' C. ,l35@- 7arly childhood education and $reschool interventionE 7.$eriences in
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