GEOMETRY

In this section some fundamentals of elementary plane geometry are

discussed.
Fundamental elements of geometry are divided into three parts.
1.Point-Line-angle.
2.Triangles.
3.Circle and other geometrical structures.
PART-1
PI!T-LI!"-#!$L"
Point%
In general t&o straight lines intersect at a point.
# point has only one position. It does not have dimensions 'Length( )readth
or height*
Line%
The shortest distance )et&een any t&o points is called a line.
P and + are t&o points and the shortest distance )et&een them is called a line
segment.
#gain( a set of points( &hich have length alone is called a straight line.
# straight line can )e e,tended infinitely on )oth sides of P and +.
# stretched &ire possesses only length. It is one dimensional in nature.
-ere &e ta.e P as the origin.
pt
Q


P
P Q x
P+ produced is called , / a,is. ne coordinate ',* is sufficient to fi, a point on it.
0urface%
# geometrical figure having length and )readth is called a surface. It is t&o
dimensional is nature.
# straight line can )e represented in t&o dimensions also.
-ere t&o coordinates are needed to fi, a point say P',( y* &ith reference to
a,es , and y. , refers to length along , a,is and y refers to )readth along y a,is.
",amples of surfaces are
'1* 1lac. )oard
'2* Ta)le top
'3* uter portion of a foot)all etc.
'# surface need not )e flat*
0pace%
# geometrical figure having length( )readth and height occupies space. 0pace
is three dimensional in nature.
# straight line one dimensional in nature can fit in 3-2. '3-dimensions*.
-ere three coordinates are needed to fi, a point say P',( y( 3* &ith reference to three
a,es ,( y( and 3.
4 refers to length along , -a,is
5 refers to )readth along y -a,is
6 refers to height along 3 -a,is
EXAMPLES:
'1* Cu)e
'2* Foot )all 'as a &hole( including space inside*
'3* # room
#ngle%
The intersection of t&o lines yields a point.
T&o lines # and 1 intersect at .
78 'theta* is the angle )et&een the lines.
!otation%
#1 9 1# 9
#n angle &ill )e al&ays measured in anticloc.&ise direction.
#n angle is measured in degrees.
9 3:( 9 ;<( 9 =: etc.
Y
Q (x
2
, y
2
)
P(x
1
, y
1
)
0 X
Z
Q (x
2
, y
2
, z
2
)
P (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
)

X
Y


B

O A
180 Q
P 180
B

O = 30 A
The total angle occupied )y a straight line is 3=:.
#cute angle%
If > ?:( then it is called an acute angle.
@ight angle%
If 9 ?:( then it is called a right angle or right angle.
)tuse angle%
If lies )et&een ?: and 1A:( then it is called an o)tuse angle.
@efle, angle%
If is more than 1A: and less than 3=:(
then it is called a refle, angle.
Complementary angles%
If the sum of t&o angles is e,actly eBual to ?:(
then the t&o angles are called complementary angles.
-ere # 9 3: and 1 9 =:
# C 1 9 3: C =: 9 ?:
# and 1 are called complementary angles.
0upplementary angles%
If the sum of t&o angles is 1A: or t&o right angles( then the t&o angles are
called supplementary angles.
# 9 12: and 1 9 =:
# C 1 9 12: C =: 9 1A:
# and 1 are called supplementary angles.
B
= 90
O A
B
= 120
O A
O

A = 0
and = 360
B
30
A
60
B

120
A
60
B

@emar.s%
",amples of adDacent complementary and supplementary angles are given
)elo&.
Eertically opposite angles%
T&o lines #1 and C2 intersect at .
and are vertically opposite angles and they are eBual.
0imilarly the opposite angles and are eBual.
",amples% 9

and

1. In the follo&ing diagram( find the angle

POQ
.
0olution%
POQ
9 C

2 C 2

9 1A:
0
-ence
POQ
9 ?:
0
2. In the follo&ing diagram find the remaining angles
#C1 9 1A: - F: 9 11:
2C" 9 11:
C2" 9 ;: and 2"C 9 3:
C
B
55
35
A

120
60

A

C B
P
Q


A O B

!0
"0
# C A
B
3. In the diagram given )elo& if a 9 2') C 3:*( find ).
0olution%
a C ) 9 1A: '#llied angles*
2') C 3:* C ) 9 1A:
3) 9 12:
) 9 ;:
PART II
1. Triangles%
The straight lines Doining three noncollinear points form a triangle. The three
points #( 1 and C are called vertices.
'# should not lie on 1C*
#1( 1C and C# are three line segments Doined to form a triangle.
0ym)ol% Triangle 9 .
@emar.s%
'i* In a triangle #1C( sum of the angles is al&ays eBual to 1A:.
i.e. # C 1 C C 9 1A:
'ii* 0um of the lengths of t&o sides &ill al&ays )e greater than the third side.
i.e.( #1 C 1C G C#
or 1C C C# G #1
or C# C #1 G 1C
'one of these three should )e true*
A
A
B C
B C
a $
Classification of triangles%
'1* # triangle &hose sides are all uneBual is called a scalene triangle.
'2* # triangle &ith any t&o eBual sides is called an isosceles triangle.
'3* If all the three sides of a triangle are eBual( then it is called an eBuilateral
triangle.
@emar.%
'i* In a scalene triangle( sides and angles #( 1( C are uneBual.
'ii* In an isosceles triangles(t&o sides #1 and #C are eBual( and 1 9 C.
'3* In an eBuilateral triangle( as all the three sides are eBual( all the three angles are
eBual.
i.e. # 9 1 9 C 9 =: '1A:H3*
';* #cute angled triangle%
If an angle is greater than 3ero and less than ?:( then it is called an acute
angle.
#ll the angles #( 1 and C are acute and must )e acute.
'<* )tuse angled triangle%
If an angle lies )et&een ?: and 1A:( then it is
called an o)tuse angle.
If one angle in a triangle is greater than ?:(
then it is called an o)tuse angled triangle.
-ere # G ?:
A
A
B C
B C
%&a'(n( t)*an+'(
A
A
B C
B C
,-.-&('(- t)*an+'(
AB = AC
A
A
B C
B C
#/0*'at()a' t)*an+'(
AB = BC = CA
A
A
B C
B C
A
B C

'=* @ight angled triangle%
If one angle of a triangle 9 ?:( then it is called
a right angled triangle.
'It is also called a right triangle*
# is a right angle here.
@emar.%
If t&o sides of a triangle are not eBual( then the
angle opposite to the larger side is greater than the angle opposite to the other side.
1C is the largest side. # is the largest angle.
F. ",terior angle%
The angle )et&een a side of a triangle '#C* and an e,tension of another side
'1C* is called e,terior angle of a triangle.
-ere the angle mar.ed as is called the e,terior angle.
Further C C 9 1A:
9 1A: - C.
$"!"@#L P@P"@TI"0 F T@I#!$L"0
1. Iedians of a triangle.
Iedian is a line segment Doining one verte, of a triangle to the midpoint of
the opposite side.
There are three medians in a triangle.
The point of intersection of medians is called centroid.
#2( 1" and CF are called medians.
$ is the centroid.
#$ % $2 9 1$ % $" 9 C$ % $F 92 % 1
A
1 #
2
B C

A
C
B C
A
B C
B
A C
2. #ltitudes of a triangle%
# straight line dra&n from a verte, of a triangle
perpendicular to the opposite side is called altitude.
There are three altitudes( in a triangle The point of intersection of
altitudes is called orthocentre.
The length of the altitude is called height of the triangle.
#2( 1" and CF here are called altitudes. is the orthocentre.
In a right angled triangle( the orthocentre is the verte,
&here there is a right angle.
-ere 1 is a right angle.
1 9 is the orthocentre.
Bisectors of angles in a triangle:
#1C is a triangle. I#( I1 and IC are three lines
&hich )isect angles #( 1 and C.
These three lines are called the )isectors of angles #( 1 and C.
I is called incentre.
@emar.%
# circle can )e dra&n &ith I as center touching the three
sides #1( 1C and C#. 0uch a circle is called incircle.
Four important postlates on congruent triangles.
1. 000 @ule 'side / side / side*%
T&o triangles are congruent if three sides of
one triangle are eBual to the corresponding sides
of the other triangle.
-ere #1 9 #818J 1C 9 18C8 J C# 9 C8#8.
Then #1C 9 #818C8
2. 0#0 @ule 'side / angle / side*%
If any t&o sides and the angle included
)et&een them of one triangle is eBual to another(
then the t&o triangles are congruent.
-ere #1 9 #818 J #C 9 #8C8 and # 9 #8
3. #0# @ule% 'angle / side / angle*%
If in t&o triangles any t&o angles and t&o corresponding
sides are eBual( then they are said to )e congruent.
-ere # 9 #8 J 1 9 18 and #C 9 #8C8.
;. @-0 rule '@ight angled triangle / -ypotenuse / side*
If the hypotenuse and one side of t&o right triangles
are eBual( then they are congruent.
A A3
B C B3 C3
A A3
B C B3 C3
A A3
B C B3 C3
A A3
B C B3 C3
A
,
B C
A
,
B C
A
B = (0) C
A
1 #
O
B C

-ere #1 9 #818 and #C 9 #8C8.
0IIIL#@ T@I#!$L"0.
T&o triangles are said to )e similar( if their
corresponding sides are proportional .The
corresponding angles are eBual in t&o similar triangles
The triangles #1C and #818C8 are said to )e proportional if
4 4 4 4 4
4
A C
CA
C B
BC
B A
AB
= =
# 9 #8 % 1 9 18 and C 9 C8
T!ree si"ilarit# rles:
1. 0#0 rule%
T&o triangles #1C and #818C8 are said to )e
similar if a pair of corresponding angles and eBual
and the sides including there are proportional.
-ere # 9 #8 J #1 9 #818 and #C 9 #8C8.
2. ### rule%
T&o triangles #1C and #818C8 are said to )e
similar if t&o pairs of their corresponding angles are eBual.
-ere # 9 #8 and C 9 C8.
3. 000 rule%
T&o triangles are similar if their corresponding
sides are proportional. 'e,plained in rule 1*
'This condition itself is sufficient for t&o triangles to )e similar*.
T!ale$s t!eore":
# line dra&n parallel to one side of a triangle divides the other t&o sides
proportionally.
The line 2" is parallel to 1C .#1C is proportional to #2"
EC
AE
DB
AD
=
@esult%
In a right angled triangle( a perpendicular dra&n from the verte,
to the opposite side( divides the given triangle into t&o similar triangles.
12 is perpendicular to #C . #12 and 12C are similar.
"4#IPL"0%
1. #1C is a triangle and 2" is the line Doining the midpoints of
#1 and #C. Khat is 2"L
#.
3
2
#1 1.
3
1
#C C.
2
1
1C 2. !one of these
If 2 and " are midpoints of #1 and #C( then the line 2" is parallel to 1C.
2" 9
2
1
1C
2. ne angle of a right- angled isosceles triangle is ;<. Khat &ill )e the ratio of its
sidesL
A
#
B C

A

B C
A
#
B C
A A3
B C B3 C3
A A3
B C B3 C3
A A3
B C B3 C3
Let a )e its side.
a
2
C a
2
9 #C
2
AC a = 2
a % a % 2 a
1 % 1 % 2 &ill )e the ratio of its sides.
3. In the diagram given )elo& 1C 9 #C J
#2 9 2"J and 1 9 ;: J " 9 3: . Khat is angle C#2L
2#" 9 1A: - F: 9 11:
C#2 9 11: - 1#C - 2#" 9 11: - ;: - 3: 9 ;:
;. In the diagram given )elo&( find the angle #12.
1C# 9 =: J #1C 9 <: J 21# 9 13:
PART %: &IR&LE A'( OT)ER GEOMETRI&AL *IG+RES%
&IR&LE:
1. If a point P moves such that its distance from a
fi,ed point 78 is al&ays a constant( then P descri)es a circle.
2istance P 9 r is called the radius of the circle.
is called the center of the circle.
#ny line PP8 passing through the
center 78 is called the diameter of the circle.
PP8 9 2r
2. #rea of the circle 9 r
2
.
P Q P
A B
5 Q

O
)
P
A
"0
120
#
B C
A
!5
a
!5
B a C
P3

O
)
P
A
!0 30

B C #

3. Circumference of the circle 9 2r
;. Part of the circumference of a circle is called arc
of the circle.# straight line Doining t&o points on the circumference
is called a chord.
#P+1 is .no&n to )e a maDor arc
and #@1 is called a minor arc.
<. If #1 is a diameter of a circle( #P1 is called a semicircle.
#P1 9 ?: as angle in a semicircle is a right angle.
=. Let )e the center of a circle. #1 )e a chord of the
circle. Let C )e perpendicular to #1.
Then C &ill )e the midpoint of #1( i.e. #C 9 C1
F. Let #1 and C2 )e t&o eBual chords of a circle &ith
center at 78. Let us dra& P and + perpendicular
to #1 and #C. Then P 9 +
Conversely( if P 9 +( then #1 must )e eBual to C2.
A. In a circle( the angle su)tended )y an arc at the center is dou)le
the angle su)tended )y the same arc at the circumference.
1C 9 21#C
?. # straight line &hich meets a given circle at only one point is called a tangent to
the circle.
P is called the point of contact.
B
P
A
A
O
B C
A
B P O C

Q

O
A C B

P
A B
1:. If #1 and C2 are t&o chords of a circle &hich intersect internally or e,ternally(
then P# . P1 9 PC. P2
,a-rilateral:
# geometrical figure o)tained )y Doining four
non-collinear points is called a Buadrilateral.
#1( 1C( C2 and 2# one sides of a Buadrilateral.
#C and 12 are diagonals of the Buadrilateral. #L 9 d1 and
1I 9 d2 are dra&n perpendicular to 12 and #C.
#rea of the Buadrilateral 9 *12 d 'd
2
1
2 1
+
Trape.i":
# Buadrilateral &ith one pair of opposite sides parallel
is called a trape3ium.
-ere #1 and C2 are parallel. 2" is perpendicular to #1.
#rea of the trape3ium #1C2 9
2
1
2" '#1 C C2*.
@emar.%
If the non-parallel sides #2 and 1C are eBual( then it is called isosceles
trape3ium. In this case C 9 2 and # 9 1.
Parallelogra":
If in a Buadrilateral( )oth the sets of opposite sides are parallel and
eBual( then it is called a parallelogram.
In a parallelogram #1C2
1. pposite sides are parallel and eBual
2. #1 is parallel to C2 and #2 is parallel to C1.
3. Further #1 9 C2 and #2 9 C1.
;. pposite angles are eBual # 9 C and 1 9 2
<. # C 1 9 1A: J 1 C C 9 1A:
C C 2 9 1A: and 2 C # 9 1A:
=. 2iagonals )isect each other # 9 C and 1 9 2.
F. "ach diagonal )isects the parallelogram into t&o congruent triangles.
#1C is congruent to #2C.
#21 is congruent to 2C1.
A. 2iagonals divide a parallelogram into four eBuals triangles.
i.e. #rea of #2 9 area of #1 9 area of 1C 9 area of 2C.
C
O
A B
C
A # B

d
1
6 7
A C

d
2
B
A C
P
B
(,nt()na' d*8*-*.n)
A
B
O P

C
(#xt()na' d*8*-*.n)
Area of a parallelogra":
#rea of a parallelogram is )ase altitude.
#1C2 is a parallelogram. 2" is dra&n perpendicular to #1.
2" is the altitude.
#rea of the parallelogram 9 #1. 2".
Rectangle:
In a parallelogram if angle at every verte, is a right
angle( then it is called a rectangle.
# 9 1 9 C 9 2 9 ?:
#rea of a rectangle 9 length )readth 9 #1 1C 'or* C2 #2.
R)OMB+S:
In a parallelogram( if
1. #ll the sides are eBual '#1 9 1C 9 C2 9 2"*
2. 2iagonals )isect each other at right angles or(
3. "ach diagonal )isects angles at the vertices or(
'#C )isects angles # and C and 12 )isects angles 1 and 2.
then it is called a rhom)us.
#rea of the rhom)us 9
2
1
the product of diagonals. 9
2
1
#C . 12
EXAMPLES:
1. T&o radii # and 1 of a circle of area 1= su)tend an angle of =: at the center
7M. Find #1.
#rea of the circle 9 1=
@adius of the circle 9 ;
i.e. # 9 1 9 ;
#1 9 =:
2 is dra&n perpendicular to #1
#2 9 3:
#2 9 # sin 3: 9 ;.
2
1
9 2.
#1 9 ; units.
2. The lengths of t&o sides of a parallelogram are Acm and = cm and the length of
one diagonal is 1: cm. Find the area of the parallelogram.
#1C2 is the parallelogram.
#rea of #12 9 * c s *' ) s *' a s ' s
Khere s 9 12
2
A = 1:
2
c ) a
=
+ +
=
+ +
#rea of #1C 9 2; ; 2 = 12 =
#rea of the parallelogram #1C2 9 2 2; 9 ;A sB. units.
C
10 6
A 8 B
A
B O
C
C
A B
C
A # B
A

30 B
O
3. $iven that area of a rhom)us is 2; sB. cm and the sum of the lengths of the
diagonals is 1; cms( find the side of the rhom)us.
Let d1 and d2 )e the lengths of the diagonals.
2!
2
1
2 1
= d d
d1d2 9 ;A ------- '1*
Further
d1 C d29 1; ---------- '2*
0olving '1* and '2*(
d1 9 = cm and d2 9 A cms
'side*
2
9 2<
2
d
2
d
2
2
2
1
=

;. In the diagram given )elo&( " and F are the mid-points of opposite sides of a
rectangle. Find the area of the shaded region.
#rea of shaded region 9 #rea of rectangle - #reas of '2$F C $#" C "C1*
9'1=,A*-'1H2,;,AC1H2,;,A C1H2,A,A*
9 12A / '=;* 9 =;
<. #1C2 is a parallelogram of area 1:: sB. cm. " and F are midpoints of #1 and #2.
Find the area of the triangle #"F.
#rea of the parallelogram #1C2 9 1:: sB. cm
21 is a diagonal
#rea of triangle #21 9 <: sB. cm
Triangles #"F and #21 are similar.
2
1
#1
#"
#2
#F
= =
Triangle #"F is half the triangle #21.
#rea of triangle #"F 9 2.< sB. cm
C
1
A # B
1 C
! 6

2 8
6
A B
# "6