Divisions

InPahlavilanguage,smallerdivisionsofthesphwerereferredtoasvashtandlarger
divisionsweredesignatedasgond.
[3]
Interestingly,theArabicwordjond(Arabic: ),
meaning"army",isderivedfromthelatter.
[4]

Ranks
ErnSpahbed:Commanderinchief.
Spahbed:Fieldgeneral.
PdgospnorPadouspn(ModernPersian:):Commanderofeach
ofthefourprovincialdivisionsdevisedduringthereignofKhosrauI.
MarzbnorKanrang:EquivalenttoMargraveorcommanderoftheborder
guards;accordingtoProcopius,ithadbeenequivalentinranktotheEast
Romanstrategosormagistermilitum.
PoshtikbnSlr:Headoftheroyalguard.
Ernanbraghbad:Seniorrankresponsibleforarmysupplies.
StorBezashk:Seniorvetwholookedafterthecavalryelite'smounts.
Argbadh:Castellan,commanderofacastleorfort.
PyygnSlr:Chiefofaninfantrydivision.
SavrnSardr:Headofacavalrydivision.
GondSlr:Commanderofagonddivision.
Sardar:BrigadierGeneral
Cavalry

ReconstructionofaSassanideracataphract.

AmedievalArmenianminiaturerepresentingtheSassanidWarelephantsintheBattle
ofVartanantz.
ThebackboneoftheSphintheSassaniderawasitsheavyarmouredcavalry,known
sinceClassicalantiquityinthewestasCataphracts.Thiswasmadeupofnoblemen
whounderwentextensiveexercisesinwarfareandmilitarymanoeuvresthrough
militarytraining,gainingdisciplineandbecomingtruesoldiers.
[citationneeded]
Withinthe
Sassanidmilitary,thecavalrywasthemostinfluentialelement,andSassanidcavalry
tacticswereadoptedbytheRomans,Arabs,andTurks.Theirweaponry,battletactics,
tamgas,medallions,courtcustoms,andcostumesgreatlyinfluencedtheirRomano
Byzantineneighbours.
[citationneeded]
TheRomanshadlongcontendedagainstopponents
whofieldedheavycavalry,notablytheSarmatiansandtheParthians,andthe
recurrentwarswiththeSassanidswereanimportantfactorintheRomanturntonew
militaryorganizationsandbattlefieldtacticsthatcenteredaroundtheuseofheavy
cavalryinthe3rdand4thcenturies.TheRomanscalledthesenewlyformedunits
clibanarii;ItissaidthatthewordclibanariiisderivedfromPersianwordgrivpanvaror
grivapanavarameaningneckguardwearer.Another,moredirectandoftenquoted,
etymologyistheGreekwordhoklibanos,whichreferstoacoveredpotinwhichbread
wasbakedorasmalloven;perhapsajokingreferencetotheonepiecemaskhelmets
theywore.TheRomantermappearsforthefirsttimeinthevitaAlexandriSeveri
(56.5)intheHistoriaAugusta,aworkfromtheveryendofthe4thcenturyAD.
ShapurII(r.309379)furtherreformedthearmybyadoptingheavierandmore
effectivecavalry.Thesemountedunitswerecladinthickironplateswhichcovered
theirentirebody.Thismadethemlookverymuchlikemovingironstatues.Somewere
armedwithalanceandsomewithaswordand/ormace.
[citationneeded]
Depictionsof
aforementionedcavalrystillsurvive,withoneofthebestpreservedonesbeingarock
reliefatTaqeBostanwhereKhosrauIIisseenridinghisfavouritehorse,Shabdiz.
ThefightingequipmentoftheheavilyarmedSassanidhorsemenwere:
Clibanarii/Cataphractcavalry:helmet,hauberk(Pahlavigriwban),breastplate,
mail,gauntlet(Pahlaviabdast),girdle,thighguards(Pahlaviranban)sword,
mace,bowcasewithtwobowsandtwobowstrings,quiverwith30arrows,two
extrabowstrings,andhorsearmour(zenabzar).
Theheavycavalrywascomplementedbylightercavalry,whichwerenotmadeupof
Sassanids,butwererecruitedfromamongtheiralliesandsupplementedbymercenary
troops.Gelani(Guilani),Albani,Hephthalites,KushansandtheKhazarswerethemain
suppliersofthislighttomediumarmouredcavalry.Theywereanessentialpartofthe
Sphbecauseoftheirenduranceandspeedonthebattlefield.
Itispossiblethatthemainlylightcavalrywereintendedforthebattleswiththecentral
Asiatictribes,whilethemoreheavycavalrywereusedinencounterswithRome.
Inshort,therewerethefollowingclassesofmobilecavalrytroops:
Persianimmortalguard(Zhayedan)
AzadannobilitySavaran:elitecavalryalsodescribedasthePersianknightly
caste(seebelow)
Warelephants
Lightcavalry:primarilyhorsearchers
Mediumcavalry:Mediumarmouredcavalryarmedwithlanceandshield
Cataphract/Clibanariicavalry:Heavyshockcavalryarmedwithlances,swords
andmaces(alsoknownasSavrncavalry)
Warelephants
Formoredetailsonthistopic,seePersianwarelephants.
Bothtypesofcavalryunitsweresupportedbywarelephantsandfootarcherswho
showeredtheenemywithstormsofarrows.
[citationneeded]
Theelephantcorpsheldthe
firstposition.ItwasrecruitedfromIndia,butwasatnotimeverynumerous.Great
storewassetbyit;andinsomeoftheearlierbattlesagainsttheArabsthevictorywas
regardedasgainedmainlybythisarmoftheservice.Itactedwithbesteffectinan
openandleveldistrict;butthevalueputuponitwassuchthat,howeverrough,
mountainous,andwoodythecountryintowhichthePersianarmspenetrated,the
elephantalwaysaccompaniedthemarchofthePersiantroops,andcarewastakento
makeroadsbywhichitcouldtravel.Theelephantcorpswasunderaspecialchief,
knownastheZendhapet,or"CommanderoftheIndians,"eitherbecausethebeasts
camefromthatcountry,orbecausetheyweremanagedbynativesofHindustan.
[2]

Thesegiantbeastsactedaswalkingtowersonbattlefieldsandcausedpanicand
disorderinenemyranks,creatingopeningsinthelinesthatcavalrycouldtake
advantageof.
Infantry

ASassanidgoldswordhandlewithatwopointsuspension.
Theinfantryweremostlylightlyarmedspearmen,who,liketheirAchaemenid
ancestors,wereusuallyleviedtroopsoflittlefightingability.ProcopiusofCaesarea
famouslyderidedthemas"acrowdofpitiablepeasantswhocomeintobattleforno
otherpurposethantodigthroughwallsandtodespoiltheslainandingeneraltoserve
thesoldiers[i.e.thecavalrymen]".
[5]
Insomebattles,however,heavyinfantrywas
deployed.Thesewerewellpaid,heavilyarmouredinfantry(carryingswordand
javelin).TheDaylamprovincesoftheempireinparticularwerefamousforproviding
highqualityfootsoldiers.
ThearchersformedtheeliteofthePersianinfantry.Theyweretrainedtodelivertheir
arrowswithextremerapidity,andwithanaimthatwasalmostunerring.Thehuge
wattledshields,adoptedbytheAchaemenidPersiansfromtheAssyrians(calledspara
bytheAchaemenids),stillremainedinuse;andfrombehindarowofthese,rested
uponthegroundandformingasortofloopholedwall,theSassanidbowmenshot
theirweaponswithgreateffect;norwasituntiltheirstoreofarrowswasexhausted
thattheRomans,ordinarily,feltthemselvesuponeventermswiththeirenemy.
Sometimesthearchers,insteadofthusfightinginline,wereintermixedwiththeheavy
horse,withwhichitwasnotdifficultforthemtokeeppace.Theygalledthefoewith
theirconstantdischargesfrombetweentheranksofthehorsemen,remaining
themselvesincomparativesecurity,asthelegionsrarelyventuredtochargethe
Persianmailedcavalry.Iftheywereforcedtoretreat,theystillshotbackwardsasthey
fled;anditwasaproverbialsayingwiththeRomansthattheywerethenespecially
formidable.
[6]
Infantrywasdividedintothefollowingtypes:
Daylami:mercenaryheavyinfantry
Paighan:untrainedpeasantsarmedwithspearsandlargewickershields
Kamandaran:archers
Lightrangedtroops,suchasKurdishjavelinthrowers
Siegeweapons
TheSasanianshadorganizedandefficientmethodsofsiegewarfareforconquering
walledtowns.Firstofall,weknowtheywouldminethewallsofbesieged
fortifications,assuchatunnelcontainingthebodyofaSasaniansoldierhasbeen
discoveredunderneaththewallsofRomanDuraEuropos.Theirsiegemachinery
includedcrossbows,catapultsandbatteringrams,buttheyalsohadexcellent
defensivetacticsfortheirfortifications,suchasmethodsforusingandcountering
catapults,forcounteringmining,forthrowingstonesorpouringboilingliquidonthe
attackersorbyhurlingfirebrandsandblazingmissiles.
[citationneeded]
Inthefourth
centuryCE,thePersiansstillusedmovingarmouredsiegetowers,inordertostrafethe
battlementswithartilleryandtoallowtheirsoldierstoclimboverthem.Inthesixhth
centuryhowever,ProcopiusandAgathiasnolongermentionsuchtowers,perhaps
becauseatthattimewheeledvehicleshadalmostentirelydisappearedfromthe
MiddleEast(BullietTheCamelandtheWheel1975).Insteadofsiegetowers,Sasanian
besiegerswouldnowbuildahighsiegemound,placingtheirartilleryonitssummitto
targetthedefendersonthewallsbelow.LiketheRomans,theSasaniansalsoadopted
theperrierortractiontrebuchetoriginatingintheFarEast,theforerunnerofthelater
counterweighttrebuchet.Theyprotectedtheirsappersandsoldierswithearthworks,
sheltersandmantlets.
Crossbow(Pahlaviarx,
[4]
NPcharkhorcharkhkamnSteingass391.Inthe
MiddleEast,thisweaponwasonlyusedinsiegesorotherfixedpositions)
CatapultNPkamnicharkh,kamnigv("oxbow")Steingass1047,thelatter
namesuggestingthatthissecondtypeofcatapultwasnotdrawnwitharatchet
butwiththehelpofalargeandstrongdomesticanimallikeanox.Such
weaponsareknowntohavebeenusedinChina.
Batteringram
SiegetowerAmmianusMarcellinus19.5.1,19.7.2
SiegemoundProcopius1.7.17,2.26.259
PerrierBernardLewis(ed.)IslamfromtheProphetofMuhammadtothe
CaptureofConstantinople(NY1987)I.215:Inarathersymbolicdiscussion
betweenArabsandPersians,writtenbyAlJahiz,theArabsaredenouncedfor
notknowingtheratila(Arabicforacatapult,thoughziyarseemstohavebeen
moreusualHughKennedyTheArmiesoftheCaliphs113;C.CahenUntrait
darmureriecompospourSaladinBulletindetudesorientales12(19478)
133),thearradaandthemanjaniq(Arabicforasmallperrieroperatedbyafew
personsorevenasingleperson(thepoleframedtrebuchet)andalargeperrier
operatedbyupto400peoplerespectively(thetrestleframedtrebuchet))or
anyothersiegemachinery,suggestingallthesemachineswerealreadyknown
tothepreIslamicPersians.Pahlavimangenik,derivedfromGreekmanganikon,
orkoshkanjir
[4]
NPSteingass1033,1062kashkanjr
Earthworks,shelters,mantletsAmmianusMarcellinus19.5.1,7.3