CELL ABERRATION

Cell-basic unit of life

Prokaryotic-pre-nucleus-bacteria, single cells
Eukaryote- true nucleus animal cells, plants
Basic function of Cells:
Transfer energy
Take up and assimilate materials from outside te cell
!yntesi"e macromolecules
#aintain omeostatic en$ironment
%eproduce temsel$es
Cell membrane composed of entirely of proteins and lipids
Composition:
&ipid
Protein
'integral proteins-interact (it ydropobic parts of te bilayer)s
pospolipids, and tey are not easy to remo$e* protrude all te (ay
troug te membrane
'periperal proteins+receptor-are positioned at te membrane surface, not
in te bilayer* attaced only to te surface of te membrane and do not
penetrate
Carboydrate
,unction-coats te cell and gi$es sape
a-. semi-permeable membrane
(ater soluble /glucose, ions, and urea.
!electi$ely permeates* easily pass-fat-soluble substances
b-. pat(ay for communication
0ter functions of Cell membrane:
Encloses cell contents
#aintains cell structure
%egulates te mo$ement of materials
Communicates (it oter cells
Cytoplasm
-semi1uid tat 2lls te cell
-cytosol /te 1uid component of a cell3s cytoplasm e4cluding organelles and oter
structures.
'te clear 1uid portion of te cytoplasm (ic contains mainly dissol$ed
proteins, electrolytes, glucose and minute 5uantities of lipid compounds
%ibosome
-granules composed of %67 and protein
-some attaced to E%, some free in cytoplasm
-,unction: syntesi"e polypeptides
8olgi 7pparatus+ /cisternae-series of concentric 1attened saccules (it membranes
resembling tose of te smoot endoplasmic reticulum
-modi2es protein
-packages secreted proteins
-!orts oter proteins to $acuoles and oter organelles
,unction:
Production of polysaccarides
Cemical modi2cation of molecules produced by E% /acti$ation of
en"ymes.
!torage of syntesi"ed molecules
Production of organelle called lysosome
E% $esicles pinces o9 from te E% and fuse (it te 8olgi apparatus
Tese $esicles are processes in te 8olgi apparatus
To form lysosomes, secretory $esicles or oter cytoplasmic components
:acuoles
-membranous sacs
-,unction: transport and store materials, (astes and (ater
&ysosomes /pro$ide an intracellular digesti$e system tat allo(s te cell to digest tereby
remo$e un(anted substances and structures
-membranous sacs
-contains en"ymes to break do(n ingested material and (aste
#itocondria
-po(erouse
-,unction: site of most reactions of cellular respirations
%BC /erytrocytes.-no mitocondria
6ucleus
-Control Center of te Cell
-,unctions:
';67 is transcribed using %67 to make proteins
'cemical reactions (itin te cell
'cell production and mitosis
'transmission of genetic information (ic determines te organism)s
ereditary caracteristics
<nside te 6ucleus
6ucleolus
-granular body, consists of %67 and protein
-,unction: %ibosomal %67 syntesis, ribosomes sub-unit assembly
Cromosomes
-comple4es of ;67 and protein kno(n as cromatin becomes $isible as rod-like
structures (en cell di$ides
-,unction: contains genes tat transmit ereditary information and go$ern cell
structure and acti$ity
Cytoskeleton
#icrotubules-structure and support
#icro2laments structural support
Centrioles- forms te spindle during mitosis
Cilia-mo$ement on te surface of cell
,lagella-cellular locomotion e-g sperm
MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
P7!!<:E T%76!P0%T $s 7CT<:E T%76!P0%T
/permit te substance to follo( /1o( against te concentration
<ts concentration gradient. gradient.
=iger to lo(er &o(er to iger
%e5uires no 7TP %e5uires energy
P7!!<:E T%76!P0%T
>- 0smosis-te di9usion of a solvent (water in biological systems troug a
semipermeable membrane in response to a (ater concentration gradient /less
concentrated to more concentrated solution.-
Because a cell membrane is selecti$ely permeable, it is not al(ays possible for solutes
to pass troug it in response to a concentration gradient- <n suc cases, solvent di9uses
troug te membrane- !uc membranes permeable to sol$ent but not solute, are
speci2cally called te semipermeable membrane-
?- ;i9usion-te process of te net mo$ement of a solute (it te gradient /an area of
ig concentration to an area of lo(er concentration.
@- ,acilitated di9usion-(en a solute di9uses troug a membrane by speci2c protein
from an area of iger concentration to lo( concentration by passing troug a cannel
(itin permeases /speci2c protein carriers.- 6o energy is consumed by facilitated
di9usion tus it is anoter means of passi$e transport
-in$ol$es a carrier system
-mo$ement of glucose /do not easily pass tru a membrane. some
ions, and amino acids $ia a speci2c carrier proteins
7CT<:E T%76!P0%T
>- Endocytosis
-intake of substances by creating a $esicle or process (ereby cells engulf materials from
teir surroundings
?- Pumps
-=ydrogen, sodium and potassium ions mo$ed by protein pumps
-6a-A pump
6a mo$es from <C, to EC,
Compartment and returns A to te <C, (ere te concentration is @B4
greater tan te outside of te cell
Potassium-muscle strengt
6a-principal cation of EC,
@- Pinocytosis
-random uptake of small amounts of e4tracellular 1uids and solutes
-important in te transport of proteins and strong solutions of electrolytes
C- Pagocytosis
B- %eceptor mediated
-speci2c uptake of molecules after binding a ligand /attaced atom or molecule.
D- E4ocytosis
-secretion of products and (astes $ia secretory $esicles
-mecanism for te secretions of intracellular substances into te e4tracellular spaces
Cell ;e$elopment
,usion of male and female gametes
Endi9erentiated single cell /"ygote.
End of F
t
day
!e$eral cycles of replication a$e occurred
Cell de$elop into distincti$e tissues /bot form and function.
Cell gro(t controlled by:
o 8enerally programmed si"e limits
o Contact inibition/or density-dependent inibition.-recogni"e te presence of oter
cells
Cell di9erentiation in:
!i"e
7ppearance
7rrangement
#itosis
-splitting of one cell into t(o cells
-in response to trauma, surgery, and in1ammatory
-need is met-cell multiplication stops
Cell ;i9erentiation
o Process (ereby proliferating cells are transformed into di9erent and more
speciali"ed cell types
o !tem cells-cells (it no speci2c lineage
Gat appens in cell di9erentiationH
Cells-resemble forbearers
,ully matured
!peciali"ed function and morpology
=igly di9erentiated cell types loose teir ability to undergo cell di$ison/i-e- skeletal
muscles and ner$ous tissues.
#etod-not kno(n
Cell di9erentiation once began proceeds along a pat to(ards speciali"ed function
but cannot re$ert to a pre$ious immature state
,ertili"ed o$a (it potential to produce all te di9erentiated
Cells of te body
Endoderm #esoderm Ectoderm
;<,,E%E6T<7T<06
#ature cells of: #ature cells of: #ature cells of:
Tracea muscles brain
&ungs bones skin
Epitelium connecti$e tissue glands
C Primary Tissues Type /?II types.
>- Epitelial-form glandular tissue /skin.
?- Connecti$e tissue most abundant
-include bone, cartilage, fats, ligaments, and tendons
-support and connect body parts
-produce e4tracellular matri4
@- #uscle tissue-skeletal /largest.
-cardiac
-smoot /blood $essels.
C- 6er$ous tissue-ner$e cells transmit information from one part of te body to anoter
-igly di9erentiated not capable of regeneration in postnatal life
%eplication
Cells replicate in $arying rates
=ig, constant rate of replacement
%eplicate in response to stimulus
:ery limited or no replicati$e capabilities
CE&& CJC&E
Pases ;escription
(Inter!"ase 8I -stationary period of apparent rest
after mitosis takes place
-cells not in cycle but are $iable and
capable of undergoing mitosis if
necessary
8> -5uiescent pase /inacti$e pase.
-post-mitotic pase
-%67 and protein syntesis begins
-cell gro(t takes place
! -a period of ;67 syntesis
->I-?I ours
8? -premitotic pase
-;67 syntesis stops
-furtur %67 and protein syntesis
and de$elopment of mitotic spindle
(Mitosis #
Propase
#etapase
7napase
Telopase
-fourt pase
(Cyto#inesis -di$ision of te cytoplasm
7daptation and %epair
' 7dapt-internal en$ironment
' adapt by undergoing canges in si"e, number and type
'occur singly or in combination
'occur in response to need and appropriate stimulus
'ceases after te need as been met
Cell 7daptation by:
'atropy
'ypertropy
'yperplasia
'metaplasia and dysplasia
ATROP$%
-decrease in cell si"e
-(ork demand to cell is less Kmost cells re$ert to a smaller si"e and lo(er and eLcient
le$el of functioning so tat it can sur$i$e
-decrease (orkload decrease o4ygen consumption and decrease protein syntesis
Causes of 7tropy
;isuse
;ener$ation /loss of ner$e supply.
&ack of endocrine stimulation
;ecrease nutrition
<scemia or decrease blood 1o(
$%PERTROP$%
&increase in cell si"e
&due to increase (orkload imposed on an organ or tissue
&cardiac and muscle tissue-adapts to increase
&pysiologic /e4ercise, (ork-out, left $entricle as ticker muscle 2bers compared to oter
cambers to be able to pump out blood into te aorta and ten to te systemic circulation.
or patologic /enlargement of te eart, congestion of lungs.
& 7dapti$e ypertropy-tickening of urinary bladder due to prolonged obstruction
-Compensatory ypertropy-remo$al of one kidney-tus te oter kidney left (ill enlarge
$%PERPLASIA /(ound ealing.
-increase in cell number
-occurs in cells capable of mitotic di$ision /epidermis, skeletal and cardiac muscles.
-occurs in response to an appropriate stimulus and cease after te stimulus is remo$ed
Pysiologic yperplasia
/ormonal and compensatory.
E4- Breast and uterine enlargement during pregnanacy.
Compensatory yperplasia
-li$er regeneration after partial epatectomy
,orms of =yperplasia
Gound =ealing
Callus formation
8ro(t in embryonic tissues is replaced by anoter adult cell type
Pysical agents
#ecanical forces
E4treme temperature
Electrical inMuries
%adiation inMury /ioni"ing and non-ioni"ing.
Cemical inMury /drugs and lead to4icity in paint.
<nMury from biologic agents-inMury from nutritional
imbalances
#ecanism of Cell <nMury
-free-radical inMury
-ypo4ic cell inMury-depri$ed of o4ygen
-impaired calcium/carry cellular en"ymes. omeostasis
%e$ersible Cell <nMury
-inMury tat doesn)t cause cell deat
-cellular s(elling and fatty canges
Cell ;eat
-7potosis /e5uated (it cell suicide.
-6ecrosis /cell deat in an organ or tissue tat is still present in a li$ing tissue.
E4- #yocardial infarction-release of products from dead cells to interstitial 1uid
-8angrene-a considerable mass of tissue undergoes necrosis
E4- ;iabetes mellitus
Tissue %epair
-regeneration of parencymal /contains functioning cells e-g epatocytes.
-connecti$e tissue repair /scar-substitute te parencymal tissue.
,actors 79ecting cellular repair
<nfection, (ound separation and foreign antibodies
Cronic illness /;#, yperglycemia.
Psycosocial
7lteration in Cell 8ro(t
#alignant $s- benign
=yperplasia /increase in cell number.
Gat
causes
inMuryH
#etaplasia /re$ersal process in (ic one adult cell type in an organ is replaced by
anoter adult cell type, te most common type of epitelial metaplasia is te cange of
columnar or psuedostrati2ed columnar epitelium of te respiratory tract to s5uamous
epitelium or s5uamous metaplasia-
;ysplasia /alteration in adult cells caracteri"ed by canges in teir si"e, sape and
organi"ation e-g cer$i4.
6eoplasia /formation or e4istence of tumors.
C7E!E! 0, 7&TE%7T<06 <6 CE&& !T%ECT%E 76; ,E6CT<06<68
#aMor causes of cellular alterations include:
'canges in gene structure and function
'degeneration of normal tissues due to
-aging, e4cessi$e use, in2ltration by foreign substances
7ging-cells age and die
-older adults
Cell less acti$e, slo(er turno$er rate and begin to decline in
eLciency
-7ging cells
!rink in si"e
Protein syntesis slo(s
8olgi apparatus so(s signs of disintegration
#itocondria may undergo formation
!ome teories about aging:
Enrepaired mutations accumulate on ;67 canges leading to aging
8enetic clock-go$erns our lifespan* a 2nite number of di$ision for eac cell type
<nMury
<nMured cells inMured organelles speci2c functions cannot be carried out /i-e-
mitocondria stops producing 7TP.
,7CT0%! T=7T 7,,ECT T=E ENTE6T 0, ;7#78E:
-nature, intensity and duration of te stressor
-(eter blood supply is a9ected
-state of di9erentiation of metabolic acti$ity of te cells
#odifying ,actors:
a- 6utrition
b- Emotional !tate
c- E4cessi$e Ese
Can degrade normal tissues
Gear and tear of tissues and cells
d- Cemical agents
;amage cells by />.destroying or altering teir structure and /?.disturbing teir
metabolism
<nMury to cell depends on />. cemical)s strengt and to4icity and /?. cells)
susceptibility
Poisons
E4oto4in
En$ironmental cemicals
&ead-based paint
-destroys cells in te ner$ous system mental retardation /young cildren.*
a9ects blood cell production, damages te kidney
Carbon mono4ide poisoning
-binds to emoglobin ?>I4 tigtly tan o4ygen
e- <nfectious agents
Bacterial inMury /endoto4ins and e4oto4ins.
:iral inMury
E4- =uman papilloma $irus
<##E6E #EC=6<!#
<mmune sur$eillance ypotesis
-postulates tat te immune system plays a $ital role in resistance against te
de$elopment of tumors
;ecline in immune system)s sur$eillance capacity
Elderly increase incidence of cancer
=<:
8enetic disorders
Psycogenic factors /pysical and en$ironmental.
0ters /ypo4ia and e4treme temperature.
%<!A ,7CT0%! ,0% C76CE%
En$ironmental ,actors
&ifestyle
8enetic ,actors
E7%&J ;ETECT<06
N'rse(s Role
-cancer risk assessment
-case 2nding
-counsel and direct patients to proper sources of elp
-information about risk factors and prediasposition
-education about risk factors
-ealt education
0ter topics for cancer pre$ention and detection
B!E
T!E
;ietary modi2cation and (eigt control
;ecrease alcool intake
!moking cessation
Personal ygiene measures
!kin-self e4amination
Ano( te F (arning signals of cancer
<mportance and fre5uency of screening tests
<mportance of early detection
!C%EE6<68
Breast cancer-B!E
Testicular cancer-T!E
Prostate cancer-P!7 /Prostatic speci2c antigen. and digital rectal e4am
Colorectal cancer ,0BT /,ecal occult blood test. for adults o$er BI years
;<7860!<! 0, C76CE%
Cystologic E4aminations
/Pap smear.
Biopsy
-obtaining tissue for istologic e4amination
-@ Types
a- 6eedle b- <ncision/large umors. c- E4cision /remo$al of
entire tumor.
<maging
-con$entional radiograpic e4ams /(it or (itout contrast.
-mammograpy
-lympangiograpy
-Tomograpy /CT scan.
-6uclear imaging
-ultrasound
Tumor markers /con2rm relapses.
--biocemical substances syntesi"ed and released by tumor cells
-indicators of te presence of tumors
-may be present in benign conditions
-used to diagnose, determine response to terapy, predict or con2rm relapse and
assess prognosis
Prostatic acid pospate
OE!E! 6E:E% ,7<&!, T%E!T <6 =<# 7&G7J! : .