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Particle
Physics
By:
Aditya ‘quark’ Tiwari
Tushant ‘vacuum’ Jha
Yusuf ‘string’ Jamal
Preface
This topic is definitely less of Mathematics, and more of
definitions, not because Particle Physics doesn’t consider
mathematical aspects, but because our target audience may
not be able to comprehend that level of mathematics in just
half an hour. To some, initially it may sound chemistry
too, but then not our fault, it’s there in Physics Book too.
Quarks:
These are the particles which make protons and neutrons.
Bosons [Interactions]:
Bosons, or the so-called ‘force carriers’, are particles
which follow Bose-Einstein Statistics, and have integral
spin. Bose-Einstein Statistics allow more than one
particle of same kind to be at same place and same time.
Gluons:
The gluons are gauge bosons, which like
the photons, travel at ‘c’. It carries the
‘color charge’ and is called the
‘STRONG FORCE’.
Photons:
These are the particles which carry electromagnetic field.
It is also the force that makes things visible.
Weak Force:
Two kinds of W bosons exist with +1 and −1 elementary
units of electric charge; the W+ is the antiparticle of
the W−. The Z boson (or Z) is electrically neutral and is
its own antiparticle. All three particles are very short-
lived with a mean life of about 3×10−25 s.
These bosons are heavyweights among the elementary
particles. With a mass of 80.4 GeV/c2 and 91.2 GeV/c2,
respectively, the W and Z particles are almost 100 times
as massive as the proton—heavier than
entire atoms of iron. The masses of these bosons are
significant because they act as force carriers; their
masses thus limit the range of the weak interaction.
The electromagnetic force, by contrast, has an infinite
range because its force carrier (the photon) is massless.
All three types have a spin of 1. The emission of
a W+ or W− boson either raises or lowers the electric
charge of the emitting particle by 1 unit, and alters the
spin by 1 unit. At the same time a W boson can change
the generation of the particle, for example changing
a strange quark to an up quark. The Z boson cannot
change either electric charge nor any other charges, only
spin and momentum, so it never changes the generation
or flavor of the particle emitting it
Comparative Strength:
The Reason:
The Virial Theorem states that for a closed system,
EK = -∑(F*r)/2
Where EK represents Kinetic Energy,
F represents Force,
r represents position
But Fritz observed 400 times more energy than calculated,
Since,
EK = ½mv2
And ‘v’ couldn’t had been 20 times more than what was
observed, it would mean that there was 400 time more mass in
the system.
For 40 years after Zwicky's initial observations, no other
corroborating observations indicated the presence of dark
matter. Then, in the late 1960s and early 1970s,Vera
Rubin, a young astronomer at the Department of
Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution of
Washington presented findings based on a new
sensitive spectrograph that could measure the velocity
curve of edge-on spiral galaxies to a greater degree of
accuracy than had ever before been achieved. Together
with fellow staff-member Kent Ford, Rubin announced at
a 1975 meeting of the American Astronomical
Society the astonishing discovery that most stars in spiral
galaxies orbit at roughly the same speed, which implied
that their mass densities were uniform well beyond the
locations with most of the stars (the galactic bulge).
Answers:
The possible solutions to
this problem are :
1. WIMPS, or Weakly
Interacting Massive
Particles which are
particles which
interact only through ‘weak’ or lower.
2. MACHO, or Massive Astrophysical Compact Halo
Objects, which attributes this stuff to star-decays. It
is also referred as Hot Dark Matter, as they will
travel at relativistic speeds
3. RAMBO, or Robust Associations of Massive
Baryonic Objects, which postulates quark-seas.
4. Or to check our Gravitational Concepts again.
But later when Dark Matter was studied, cosmologists discovered that the
net energy of universe was more than first thought. The total amount of
Baryonic Matter and Dark Matter put together was observed to be
insufficient to produce the amount of Space-Time curvature we observe.
Putting the newly found facts into Hubble’s Theory, it was postulated that
the expansion of universe should decelerate as matter shows Gravitational
effects.
Also the Theory of Large Scale Structure, which governs the formation of
structure in the universe (stars, quasars, galaxies and galaxy), suggests
that the density of baryonic matter and dark matter in the universe is only
30% of the critical density. There should be something to account for the
remaining mass in and that something is dark energy. (Mass and Energy
are related. Remember E=mc2).
1. Cosmological Constant:
2. Quintessence:
The concept that Einstein called his ‘blunder’ is today found to be the
determining factor behind the fate of universe. If cosmologists could
rightly study the mechanism of Dark Energy, they could tell if the
universe would die in ‘fire’ or ‘ice’.
Cosmologists estimate that the acceleration began roughly 5 billion years
ago. Before that, it is thought that the expansion was decelerating, due to
the attractive influence of dark matter and baryons.
If the acceleration continues indefinitely, the ultimate result will be
that velocity of the expansion of space will exceed the speed of
light. This does not violate the Special Theory of Relativity as it only
applies to flat space-time and not to curved space-time. Thus, local
clusters would soon be invisible to us.
Lambda-C.D.M. Model:
The Lambda-CDM Model is the simplest known model
that is in general agreement with observed phenomena. It
takes into account:
1. Λ (Lambda), or the cosmological constant, which is
a dark energy term that allows for the current
accelerating expansion of the universe. The
cosmological constant is often described in terms
of ΩΛ, the fraction of the energy density of a flat
Universe in the form of the cosmological constant.
Currently, 0.74, implying 74% of the energy
density of the present universe is in this form.
2. Cold dark matter is the model where the dark
matter is explained as being cold (i.e. its velocity is
non-relativistic or
much less than ‘c’ at
the epoch of radiation-
matter equality),
which is possibly non-
baryonic,
dissipationless (can
not cool by radiating
photons) and
collisionless (i.e., the
dark matter particles interact with each other and
other particles only through gravity). This
component makes up 22% of the energy density of
the present universe.
3. The remaining 4% is all of the matter (and energy)
that makes up the atoms (and photons) that are the
building blocks of planets, stars, and gas clouds in
the universe. This fraction of universe (strangely
having more matter than anti-matter) is involved in
nucleosynthesis in stars.
4. It also assumes that universe has no
‘observable’ topology or space-time rips, so that the
universe is much larger than the observable particle
horizon. These are predictions of cosmic inflation.
5. It takes many parameters like:
a. Hubble’s Constant, which describes the speed
of recession between galaxies.
b. Baryon Density, the absolute density of
baryonic matter
c. Dark Matter Density, the density of dark
matter present in universe
d. Critical Density, the relation between gravity
and anti-gravity (dark energy), etc.
But the one of the few problems this has is that it predicts
many smaller dimensions, but first lets understand what
is a smaller dimension:
Youtube, etc.