2 Automation Device Systems and Structures

1
Industrial Automation
1 IAS, Universitt Stuttgart
2 Automation Device Systems and Structures
2.1 Representation of Process Data in Automation Computers
2.2 Automation Computers
2.3 Centralized and Decentralized Structures
2.4 Automation Hierarchies
2.5 Distributed Automation Systems
2.6 Automation Structures with Redundancy
2.1.1 Types of electrical process signals
2.1.2 Types of tasks regarding process signals
2
Analog process signals
amplitude analog
frequency analog
phase analog
Binary process signals
switch position
Digital process signals
n-bit word
Process signals in the form of pulses
rotational speed indicator
Process signals in the form of pulse edges
state transition of a process variable
2.1.2 Types of tasks regarding process signals
3
2.1.2 Types of regarding process signals
Input and output of analog process signals
conversion of analog information into a binary number
using an analog-to-digital-converter (AD-converter)
conversion of a binary number into analog information
using a digital-to-analog-converter (DA-converter)
Input and output of digital process signals
(including binary process signals)
Input and output of pulse shaped process signals
Conversion of analog process variables
value coding by the AD-
converter
bits decimal
representation error
(% of maximum value)
necessary
word length
(in bytes)
0,5%
0,1%
0,025%
0,006%
8
10
12
14
0 ... 255
0 ... 1 023
0 ... 4 095
0 ... 16 383
1
2
2
2
Important: A word length of 16 bit is sufficient for
representing analog analog process variables.
4
Illustration of an analog process variable as a
fixed-point-binary-number of 16 bits
Important: A word length of 16 bit is normally sufficient for
representing digital digital process variables.
0
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
15 14 2 1 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
1
1 3 7
7
3 3
D B
2
14
2
13
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
0
bit #:
binary #
octal #:
13733
8
hexadecimal #:
17DB
16
Example for the representation of 5 contact positions in an
8-bit word
Important: A word length of 16 bit is normally sufficient for
representing binary process variables and pulse
shaped process variables.
Question: Why use 32 bit computers for automation tasks?
1 0 0 1 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 bit position
larger address space
shorter calculation times
5
2.2.1 Programmable logic controllers (PLC)
2.2.2 Microcontrollers
2.2.3 Industrial PC
2.2.4 Process control system
Block diagram of the hardware structure of a PLC
digital and
analog input
program memory
RAM
timer clock
interface to
program-
ming device
central processing
unit (CPU) and
arithmetic logical
unit (ALU)
digital and
analog
output
internal bus
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Features of PLC
Advantage: simple programming through cyclic operational mode
Disadvantage: reaction time on events in the technical process is
a maximum of two program cycles
Program execution time:
cycle time is not constant
1 ms per 1000 instructions
Cyclic operation of a programmable logic controller used as an automation
computer
technical process in
a technical system
automation
program
process
image in
input memory
process
image in
output
memory
PLC
actuator signal
sensor signal
7
Sequence of a cyclic program execution for a PLC
reaction time
process
event
start
of 2nd
cycle
start
of 3rd
cycle
start
of 1st
cycle
start
of 4th
cycle
reaction
on process
event
output
process image
from
output memory
execute
program
load process
image in
input
memory
2.2.3 Industrial PC
8
2.2.2. Microcontrollers
Simplified block diagram of the micro controller 80C167
program-
mable
digital
input/
outputs
10-bit
AD-
converter
with
multiplexor
serial
input/
output
interfaces
pulse
input/
output
interrupt
controller
external
data bus
CAN
bus
interface
16-bit
CPU
2 kBytes
RAM
2kBytes
RAM-
extension
ROM
Watchdog
Timer
clock
direct
memory
access
internal bus 16 bit
8 channels
Microcontroller 80C167
2 channels
111 digital
inputs/outputs
16 analog
inputs
32 inputs/ outputs
56 interrupt
inputs
external
data bus
CAN bus
Features of microcontrollers
short word length
integration of process periphery on chip
extremely low price 1 - 10 DM
high requirements regarding environmental conditions
temperature, humidity
good reliability and long life span
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0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
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4-bit
8-bit
16-bit
World market for microcontrollers
Manufacturers:
Intel
Motorola
National Semiconductor
Toshiba
Application of a
development
environment
in order to test
programs for a
microcontroller
printer
monitor
floppy
keyboard
standard micro
computer
(e.g., PC)
development system
socket for the
microcomputer
which will be
installed in
the product
unmounted
microcontroller
component
mouse
real-time
computer
(bondout chip)
plug
product
10
Differentiation
Microprocessor
processor on a micro electronic chip
Microcomputer
all components on a micro electronic chip i.e., processor,
memory, interface to periphery
Microcontroller
automation computer or an automation computer
system on one chip
CPU = Central Processing Unit micro processor
RAM = Random Access Memory data memory
EPROM/PROM/ROM = Erasable/ Programmable/
Read Only Memory fixed memory
I/O = parallel or serial
input/output components process and data periphery
Counter/Timer = generation of clock pulses
Interrupt Controller = handling of hardware interrupts
Basic terms
11
2.2.3 Industrial PC
2.2.3 Industrial PC
Industrial PC (IPC)
Harsh environmental conditions
temperature variations
shocks and vibrations
dust and humidity
electrical or electromagnetic disturbances
Protective measures in industrial PCs
vibration absorbing disk drives
high quality of integrated components
special protecting case
12
2.2.3 Industrial PC
Protection forms
of industrial PCs
with IP index
(Ingress
Protection)
1st digit Protection
against solid
objects
2nd digit Protection against
water impact
0 No protection 0 No protection
1 Hand contact
impossible
(50mm objects)
1 Protection against
vertical falling
drops/ condensation
2 Finger contact
impossible
(12mm objects)
drops with a falling
angle of 15
3 Wire contact
impossible
(2.5mm objects)
rain fall up to 60
4 Fine wire
contact
impossible
(1.0mm objects)
spray from all
directions
5 Protection
against harmful
dust
jets of water from all
directions
6 Complete dust
protection
water floods ( during
heavy sea)
water impact up to a
depth of 1m
persistent water
impact for depths
larger than 1m
2.2.3 Industrial PC
Operational areas of industrial PCs
process visualization
process evaluation and monitoring
superordinated control tasks (control room tasks)
Combination of industrial PCs and PLC systems
industrial PC for the user interface
PLC for input/ output of process signals and for
execution of control algorithms
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2.2.3 Industrial PC
Structure
of a PLC -
IPC
systems
CPU, IPC connection device,
input/ output unit
sensors and actuators
PLC
remote maintenance
modem
printer
industrial PC
control
panel
serial connection,
LAN or field bus
2.2.3 Industrial PC
Tasks in a pure IPC solution
acquisition of process data
execution of control program under real-time conditions
interface to the user
Advantages of a pure IPC-solution
better scalability of hardware
many operating systems available
wide spectrum of programming languages available
open system for the integration of ready-made
subsystems
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2.2.3 Industrial PC
Structure of a pure IPC system
remote maintenance
modem
printer
industrial
PC
control
panel
field bus
modules for
input and
output of
signals
. . . .
2.2.3 Industrial PC
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2.2.4 Prozess control system
Process control system (PCS)
Complete solutions from a single manufacturer
no compatibility problems
uniform process operation and monitoring
high availability
defined responsibility
long lifetime
Fields of application of process control systems
power plant automation
process engineering
building automation
production engineering
Components of a PCS
operation and monitoring components
field level components
communication systems
engineering tool
server
central engineering
system
fieldbus
local operation and
monitoring
terminal bus (Ethernet)
central operation and
monitoring
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M M
bus inerface
CM
field bus
actuator/sensor bus
CM
operating interface
PLC PLC
field
level
opera-
tion and
monito-
ing
CM = connection module
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Operation and monitoring components
Functions:
create/ modify recipes/ batch processes
change current values
communication with the process
process alarm messages and operating requirements
process visualization
interface to data base system for process data
logging
Realization:
PC, IPC, Workstation
Windows 95, Windows NT, Unix
Components at the field level
In-house developments of the control system -
manufacturer (proprietary solution)
Setup
automation computer : PLC, IPC
distributed periphery
field devices: sensors, actuators
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System communication
Bus systems
Operation level: standardized Ethernet bus
Process and field level: Field bus e.g., Profibus, H1-Bus, Modbus,
Interbus-S
Lowest field level : fast actuator-sensor buses
operation level
process level
field level
reaction time
amount of data
Engineering
Tasks
Configuration
Programming
Maintenance
Tools
Graphical tools (IEC 1131)
Standardized libraries with components
Powerful editors
18
Example of a graphical configuration tool
Control system manufacturers and their products
Manufacturer Name of the
product
Remarks
ABB AdvantOCS Company-specific field bus
AdvaSoft For small systems
Procontrol P Power plant automation
EB Hartmann
& Braun
Symphony Supports connection to operation level, remote I/O
System automation for large systems
Contronic E Power plant automation, for large installations
Contronic P Process engineering, extension up to 12km
Foxboro-
Eckardt
I/A Serie-
System
Process engineering, field level with PCMCIA-
technology
Siemens SIMATIC PCS
7
Process engineering, user interface based on
Windows 95 and Windows NT. Extensive hardware
supply. Field bus: Profibus. Connection to operation
level possible.
Teleperm M Process engineering, common. old bus system (CS
275). Migration from Teleperm M to SIMATIC PCS
7 possible.
Teleperm XP Power plant automation, open communication,
extensive hardware supply.
Honeywell PlantScape Process engineering, open system, based on
Windows NT, supports remote I/O. Connection to
operation level possible.
TDC 3000 Process engineering, has several process buses
with different data transmission. MODBUS is
supported.
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2.3.1 Types of automation structures
2.3.2 Combination of automation structures
Structure of the technical process
technical process as an entity
e.g.: drilling process with a drilling machine
technical process consisting of sub-processes
e.g.: manufacturing of a gear
Structure of automation devices
locally concentrated
locally distributed
Functional structure of automation systems
= allocation of automation functions on the automation
devices
functionally centralized
functionally decentralized
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jumper
board,
galvanic
disconnector,
automation
device
display
measured-
value
transformer
correcting
elements
sub-
distributor
monitoring signals
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multi-color
screen for
process
management
Locally
concentrated
automation
devices
Locally
distributed
automation
devices
CM: connection module for
PLC
display
CM
CM
CM
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CM
PLC
master
com-
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multi-color
screen for
process
management
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Functionally centralized automation structure
technical process in a technical system
sub-
process 2
sub-
process n
sub-
process 1
central automation
computer
Functionally decentralized automation structure
sub-
process 1
automation
computer
1
automation
computer
2
sub-
process 2
automation
computer
n
sub-
process n
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Different combinations of automation structures
technical process seen as an
entity
(centralized process structure)
technical process segmented
into sub-processes
(decentralized process
structure)
locally
centralized
deployment
of
automation
devices
locally
decentralized
deployment of
automation
devices
locally
centralized
deployment
of
automation
devices
locally
decentralized
deployment of
automation
devices
functionally
centralized
automation
structure
functionally
decentralized
automation
structure
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notation of the different structures: C = centralized / D = decentralized
1st digit 2nd digit 3rd digit
functional automation structure
local structure of the automation devices
structure of the technical process
CCC CDC DCC DDC
CCD CDD DCD DDD
23
Criteria for a comparison of automation structure features
Costs for devices, cabling, software and maintenance and service
Availability of parts in case of hardware failure or software faults
Flexibility in case of modifications
Coordination of sub processes and optimization of the
overall process
Operability/usability
Comparison of purchasing costs:
no additional costs when upgrading
functionally
decentralized structure
functionally
centralized structure
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c
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number of sub-processes and/or automation functions
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functionally
centralized
functionally decentralized, process
malfunction with two single failures
functionally decentralized, process
malfunction with one single failure
number of sub processes and/or automation functions
Comparison of reliability during operation of technical processes
Two single failures result in process malfunction
One single failure results in process malfunction, constant reliability
Generally weak coupling
No complete failure if two or more automation units fail
Operational reliability is higher in the case of a
functionally decentralized structure than the deployment of
a central process computer
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Decentralized structure
+ flexibility in case of modifications
+ coordination of sub-processes
+ optimization of the overall process
- additional effort for the communication between the
individual automation units
0 operability and user-friendliness
+ localization of malfunctions
+ higher transparency
Evaluation of automation structures regarding the criteria
C = centralized structure
D = decentralized structure
CCC
CDC
DCC
DDC
CCD
CDD
DCD
DDD
typical for the automation of small devices
lower cabling costs as in CCC
unfavorable regarding availability, maintenance,
cabling costs
unfavorable regarding availability and flexibility
favorable regarding maintenance and flexibility,
unfavorable regarding cabling
favorable regarding flexibility, availability,
cabling and transparency
favorable regarding availability, maintenance,
unfavorable regarding cabling costs
favorable regarding flexibility, availability,
cabling and transparency
functional structure
local structure of the automation devices
structure of the technical process
as decentralized as possible, as centralized as necessary
product automation
automotive
electronics
plant automation
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Combination of centralized and decentralized structures by
introducing a hierarchy of automation units
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coordi-
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1
coordi-
nation unit
m
decentralized
automation
unit
2
master unit
coordi-
nation unit
2
decentralized
automation
unit
n
sub-
process n
decentralized
automation
unit
1
sub-
process 1
sub-
process 2
technical process (overall process)
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Allocation of automation functions to the process
management levels
decentralized automation units perform tasks of the field level, high
requirements on availability
coordination units perform the automation functions of the
process level, as well as the coordination of sub-processes,
optimization, process monitoring and safety functions
master units perform the tasks of the operational level
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field level coordination level
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Requirements on the hierarchy levels regarding their
availability and processing capacity
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Prerequisites for the realization of an automation hierarchy
segmentation of the technical process into sub-processes
deployment of intelligent automation units
communication system between automation units
Depending on the size of the company and the extent of the
technical process sub-levels can be added or levels can be joined.
Realization of an
automation
hierarchy with a
bus-oriented
distributed
process computer
system
master
level
coordina-
tion level
field level
master
computer
CM
technical process
user computer
process bus
decentralized
automation
computer
1
decentralized
automation
computer
2
decentralized
automation
computer
n
coordination
computer
1
coordination
computer
2
sub-process
1
sub-process
2
sub-process n
CM CM CM CM CM CM
field bus
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2.5.1 Objectives
2.5.2 Basic structures of communication
2.5.3 Bus systems
2.5.4 Types of communication systems
2.5.1 Objectives
Objectives when using distributed automation systems
High reliability through fault tolerance
failure of a decentralized computer does not lead to an
overall failure
isolation of the fault by way of reconfiguration
Increase of availability through rapid maintenance and service
mutual control with fault diagnostics
Mutual support during peak load times
automatic adaptation of the task distributions
reduction of the standby capacity of the individual units
Simple upgradeability
30
2.5.1 Objectives
Connection of decentralized automation units with a superordinated
computer via a communication system
no hierarchy
Difference to the automation hierarchy
In automation hierarchy, units only communicate with the level
directly above it
Only the process-related information tasks are perceived as
decentralized
2.5.1 Objectives
2.5.3 Bus systems
31
Selection of a communication system
Low cabling costs
Standardized interfaces regarding
plugs, cables (mechanical)
voltage level (electrical)
transmission protocol (logical)
Flexibility in case of modifications
Low requirements on the communication partner
demand on memory size
demand on computation power
High availability and reliability
Safe transfer of information
utilization of test bits
acknowledgment of correct reception
essential costs: more cable cause
more interferences in the wires
Realization of high data transmission rates
Short reaction times on transmission requests
Coupling of various communication partners
Trade-off between partly contradicting criteria.
e.g.: high availability and reliability through redundant
bus systems can cause high cabling costs
32
Basic topologies of communication in distributed automation systems
DAU
CAU
DAU
DAU
DAU
DAU
DAU
a) star topology
CAU
D
A
U
D
A
U
DAU
b) ring
topology
D
A
U
D
A
U
CAU
DAU
DAU
DAU
DAU
c) net
topology
d) bus

topology
CAU
DAU DAU DAU
CAU = centralized automation unit
DAU = decentralized automation unit
star topology
failure of the central unit causes failure of the communication system
ring topology
each unit can only transmit messages to its direct neighbors
net topology
parallel information transmission, short reaction time, many
interfaces, high cabling costs
bus topology
only one participant at a time is able to send, simultaneous
information reception from all participants
Basic topologies of communication
33
2.5.1 Objectives
2.5.3 Bus systems
2.5.3 Bus systems
Parallel bus
addresses, data and control signals are transmitted parallel
bundles of wires
Serial bus
bits of a message are transmitted one after another
transmission time is longer than that of parallel bus
lower cabling costs
increase of reliability
flexibility regarding the transmission protocol
distance: up to 20 m
distance : 20 m up to 15 km
34
2.5.1 Objectives
2.5.3 Bus systems
Types of communication systems
Open communication system
OSI = Open-System-Interconnection
Manufacturer-specific communication system
(proprietary systems)
CSI = Closed-System-Interconnection
35
ISO/ OSI - Basic reference model
ISO IS 7498
application
(7) application layer
(6) presentation layer
(5) session layer
(4) transport layer
(3) network layer
(2) data link layer
(1) physical layer
physical medium
Tasks of ISO/OSI- layers
layer 1: Physical layer - transmission medium
- type of coding
- interface
- topology
layer 2: Data link layer - error detection/ handling
- access mode
- synchronization
layer 3: Network layer - net protocols
- data addressing
- data switching
- routing
layer 4: Transport layer - route parallelism
- packet retransmission
- packet sorting
layer 5: Session layer - establish
- control
- stop communication
layer 6: Presentation layer - language adjustments
(e.g., between ASCII &
EBCDIC)
- data encoding
- data decoding
layer 7: Application layer - basic services
- standard applications
- application-specific
36
2.6.1 Types of redundancy
2.6.2 Fault-tolerant structures
2.6.3 Hardware redundancy
2.6.4 Software redundancy
Types of redundancy
Process operation personnel monitors simultaneously with a process
computer
Hardware redundancy
redundant hardware
Software redundancy
redundant software
Measured value redundancy
redundant measured value
dependent measured value
Time redundancy
multiple inquiry of the same measured value in certain
intervals
hardware and software redundancy implies a bigger effort
higher availability
safety-relevant systems
37
Fault-tolerant structures
Objective: Design the systems in such a way that, they are able to
function as a whole even if faults occur in individual
components.
Levels of fault-tolerance
complete fault-tolerance
reduced operational capacity
transition to a safe state
fail operational
fail soft,
graceful degradation
fail-safe
38
The principle of fault-tolerance
Contruct a system with redundant modules (hardware and software) in order
to maintain a functioning system in case errors occur.
Types of redundancy
Static redundancy
all redundant modules are permanently in operation
Dynamic redundancy
redundant modules are only used after a failure occurs
blind redundancy
redundant modules do not act in fault-free cases
function-participating redundancy redundant modules run
stand-by-functions in fault-free cases
39
Goal: Detection of hardware failures
Operation principle:
m-of-n-redundancy
majority ruling
no faults, until multiple defects occur
Realization of redundancy
double computer structures
triple computer structures
Double computer structures with static redundancy
computer 2 computer 1
input signal (e.g., measured value)
comparator
2-out-of-2
alarm signal
output signal
(e.g., manipulated variable)
40
Double computer structures with dynamic blind redundancy
main
computer
stand-by
computer
input signals
M M
output signals
alarm
message
M = Monitoring Program
Double computer structures with dynamic function-
participating redundancy
computer
1
computer
2
input signals
M M
alarm
message
necessary
output signals
less important output
signals
M = Monitoring Program
41
computer 1 computer 3 computer 2
comparator
2-out-of-3
output signals
input signals
Triple computer structures with static redundancy
42
Software redundancy
Objective: detection of errors in software
Starting point:
Redundancy measures for software
heterogenous structure of program components
the same input data must lead to the same results
software has errors
Heterogeneity of software with identical functionality
(diversity)
independent development teams solve the same problem
intentional development of different strategies, algorithms and
software structures
Application and execution of diverse software components
Redundant software alternatives are executed one after another and
are compared with the help of a voter (not for real-time systems
with high requirements on timeliness)
simultaneous execution of redundant software components on
redundant multi-computer systems
cyclic alternation of diverse components
Comparison difficult
Two algorithms with different processing times
Both results can be correct even though their values might be
different

2 Automation Device Systems and Structures

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2 Automation Device Systems and Structures

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