JABATAN PENGAIRAN DAN SALIRAN (JPS)

KEMENTERIAN SUMBER ASLI DAN ALAM SEKITAR (NRE)

MALAYSIA
NOTA KURSUS TAHUN 2006
KM 7, JALAN AMPANG
68000 AMPANG, KUALA T Lw' PU
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- -,-
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1 KURSUS KESTABILAN CERUN DAN 1
TEMBOK PENAHAN
PADA 16 - 18 ME1 2006
DESIGN OF RETAINING
STRUCTURES
NG KOK SENG
Penolong Pengarah Kanan
Bahagian Struktur, Geoteknik dan Empangan
Cawangan Ampang, K.L.
e-mail : ngks@water.gov.my
Tel: 03- 42552509
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS AND
RELATED SOIL INVESTIGATION
REQUIREMENTS
Shear Strength of soils
State of stress of soils
-Terzaghi's Principle of Stresses in soil
0' = 0 - u and u = us + u,
o Total normal stress on a plane
' Effective normal stress on the plane, (due to inter-contact of soil particles)
U pore water pressure (due to water in void)
us static water pressure in voids
u, excess pore water pressure in voids
- When saturated soils are loaded,
- Total stress increases, o
- soil particles (incompressible) rearrange by slidinglrolling - o '
- water pressure in voids immediately increases - excess pore water pressure, u,
- U, dissipate in time if allow to seep
* Before full dissipation 3 applied stress carried by soils particles +water i.e.
undrained condition
* Full dissipation of excess pore pressure, i.e. u, = 0 ,
3 soil particles rearranged to take full applied stress with decrease in volume
i.e. drained condition
Shear Strength of soils
State of stress of soils
- Soil deform and fail when
> applied stresses > shear strength of soil
- Stability of slope and retaining structures required shear resistance I strength of the
soils, i.e. Limit Equilibrium method analysis.
Shear Strength of soils (cont ...)
Coulomb's shear strength - 2 components of shear strength i.e.
- 0 (angle of internal friction) i.e. sliding friction between grains & stress dependent ,
- C cohesion, non- stress dependent
Thus, Coulomb's equation
s = c + a' tan I$
Where,
s = shear strength or shear resistance, kNlm2
c = cohesion, kNlrn2 (not dependent on normal stress)
a' - intergranular pressure acting perpendicular to the shear plane, kNh2
= (o - u ) o = total pressure
u = pore water pressure
= angle of internal frictional of soil, degrees.
Note : a' tan I$ = frictional resistance between soil grains and proportional to normal
pressure
Shear Strength of soils
- Graphical Representative of Coulomb's (straignt Line)
S
Granular/ cohesionless / non-
cohesive or frictional soil
b.)
(coarse grained soil)
s = o' tan I$ where c = 0
0'
Fine-grained or cohesive soil
(fined-grained eg clay, silt &
colloids)
f . s = C
o '
where 0 = 0
Shear Strength of soi l s - by Mohr Circles Envelope
Mohr Circle Envelope - represent shear stresses on
failure plane at failure as function of normal stress
on that plane i.e.
s,=f (0,)
By carrying a series of tests with varying normal
Initial
Conditions
stresses until failure (triaxial), a plot of increasing
normal stresses (resembling confining pressures in
1
'T cell
in-situ) versus shear strength at failure, give the
graph below: -
-n-
Mohr Failure
Envelope
4
t
At failure
1 axial (at f a ) 1
1
cell (at fail) J Oqf
-
cell (at fail) - 3f
Shear Strength of soi l s - Mohr-Coulomb's Envelope
Mohr Failure
01 '
Envelope
I
-
Mohr-Coulomb's Envelope
- a state where combination of shear stress and normal stress
give the stress conditions at the failure plane at failure.
- 4 and c known as strength parameters , important in stability
and foundation analysis.
f Mohr-Coulomb's Envelope
0'
a) For cohesionless soils
- the slope of the straight line tangent t o the series of Mohr circles
represents I$
- Q more pronounced for cohesionless soils and approach zero for soft
cohesive soil.
- series of varying confining pressures in Triaxial tests are reflected by the
plotting of the Mohr Circles
- +, c can be determined from undisturbed samples but usually from SPT
and in-situ penetration cone , direct shear test
- apparent cohesion, c" i.e. cohesionless soil exhibit characteristic of
cohesive soils (evident - stand vertical when cut)
% due either t o capillary attractive forces (when dry of saturation) or
mineralogy action. For capillary action, it usually disappear with
time, thus normally ignore in stability analysis.
Shear Strength of soils - Mohr-Coulomb's Envelope
0'
SPT Vs 41 for cohesionless soils
Type of soil Penetration Anale of Internal friction (kN/m2)
Resistance, N Peck (1974) Meyerhof (1956)
Very Loose sand < 4 < 29 < 30
Loose sand 4 - 10 29 - 30 30 - 35
Medium Sand 10 - 30 30 - 36 35 - 40
Dense Sand 30 - 50 36 - 41 40 - 45
V. Dense Sand > 50 > 41 > 45
Mohr-Coulomb's Envelope
1 s = c
b) For cohesive soil
- shear strength due t o atomic attraction forces between soils particles
- independent of the confining pressures
- Intercept at shear strength axis, 'c' (where principle stress, 0 = zero)
- Soft clay, I$ - o, s= in-situ shear strength, 'c'
- 'c' obtained from triaxial tests, cone penetration tests, vane shear and
unconfined undrained (UU) compression test
Total Stress Vs. Effective stress Analysis
c', $, S, changes with time (in relationship to excess pore water pressure)
When load applied on soil mass, add'l load taken by: -
- Soil skeleton
- Pore water , 3 result in excess pore pressure
Excess pore press. will dissipate in time by seepage, hence c', I$, will change with
time
Designer need to determine critical soil parameters i.e.
- short-term or total stress under undrained conditions analysis (immediately I
during construction)
- long-term or effective stress (after dissipation of excess pore pressure i.e. drained
condition)
-
Short- or long-term afialysis depend on
Type of soil
- coarse grains or cohesionless soil
- fine grain or cohesive soil
- Permeability
- Compressibility
- Soil thickness
- Type of drainage
-1 depend 0+
Total Stress Vs. Effective stress Analysis (cont ...)
Cohesionless Soils - (sandy 1 granular soils)
- Stability = f ( I$' , y , u)
- High permeability + Excess pore water pressure dissipate rapidly
- Need only consider long-term parameters
- Effective stress analysis
For sand, 4 = $' and c' = 0
- Influence of Pore pressure
Submergence no effect on strength
- Shear strength Tests:
C-D Triaxial (not common)
Direct shear test
SPT relationship
Total Stress Vs. Effective stress Analysis (cont ....)
SPT Vs I$ for cohesionless soils
Type of soil Penetration
Resistance, N
Very Loose sand < 4
Loose sand 4 - 10
Medium Sand 10 - 30
Dense Sand 30 - 50
V. Dense Sand > 50
Anqle of Internal friction
Peck (1974) Meyerhof (1956)
< 29 < 30
29 - 30 30 - 35
30 - 36 35 - 40
36 - 41 40 - 45
> 41 > 45
Total Stress Vs. Effecti ve stress Anal ysi s (cont ....)
Cohesive Soils - (clayey soils)
- Low permeability 3 Excess pore water pressure dissipate slowly
- Analysis using either total or effective stress analysis (or check for both)
a) Effective stress stability
- drained conditions
+ = and c = c'
- Shear strength Tests:
- CU I CD Triaxial
- SPT relationship
b)Total Stress stability
- Undrained condition
- In-situ undrained strength with
c=su, r$ = o
- Applied when soil saturated
- Shear strength not affected by
position of water table or phreatic surface
- Shear strength Tests:
- UU 1 CU Triaxial
- Vane shear in-situ test
- Correlation with Plasticity
Index (PI) i.e.
C,/cr,' = 0.1 1 + 0.0037 (PI)
- Clay with >25% PI -3 can develop low
residual shear angles when
disturbed
Tot al Stress Vs. Ef f ect i ve stress Analysis (cont.. ..)
Examples of Time Dependent Shear Strength (cohesive soil)
I
Embankment
I
Cutting
Height
Pore water
pressure (u)
FOS
Steps Involved in Slope Stability and Retaining Structure Analysis - Design
1. Determine Type of Analysis and Parameters Required
2. Determine Type and Method of Geotechnical lnvestigation
Required
3. lnterpret Geotechnical lnvestigation Results
4. Analysis & Design
Steps Involved in Slope Stability and Retaining Structure Analysis - Design
Determine Type of Analysis and Parameters Required
Determine Type and Method of Geotechnical lnvestigation
Required
lnterpret Geotechnical lnvestigation Results
Analysis & Design
1. Determine Type of Analysis and Parameters Required
Type of Analysis Required
k Stability
@ Slope Stability
C? Retaining wallslsheet piles
@ Bearing Capacity
Parameter Required
> Shear Strength
@ Cohesion, c - Triaxial
4 Internal frictional angle, $ - Triaxial
1. Determine Type of Analysis and Parameters Required (cont ...)
Others Parameter Required
(3 Unit Weight, y - Lab
@ Moisture Content - Lab
@ Soil Classification - Lab
(3 Plastic 1 liquid limit - Lab
@ Sensitivity - Lab
@ Phreatic Line (Water Table) - In-situ
Steps Involved in Slope Stability and Retaining Structure Analysis - Design
1. Determine Type of Analysis and Parameters Required
2. Determine Type and Method of Geotechnical Investigation
Required
3. Interpret Geotechnical lnvestigation Results
4. Analysis & Design
-- -- - -
2. Type and Method of Ground Investigation Required
*3 Boreholes with Field Tests + Laboratory Tests
2.1 Boreholes (BS 5930: 1981) - General
Include sampling, in-situ testing and water table observations
Depth > 100 m
Drill through all soils and core through rocks
Types
J
Rotary drilling by circulating fluid - most common
J
Wash boring utilizes the percussive action of a chisel bit to
break up materials and flush to the surface by water or
drilling fluid pumping down the hollow drill rods
2.2 Boreholes - Sampling
a) Wash samples
J Soil Strata Description
b) Install piezometers to measure ground water level
c) Disturbed Samples
J
Split Spoon samples after SPT
2.2 Boreholes -Sampling (Cont.. ...)
d) Undisturbed Samples
- laboratory strength and consolidation tests
J Thin wall sampler
o Cohesive soils up to firm consistency (N <I 0) and free
from large particles eg. marine deposits
J Thin wall piston sampler
o Cohesive soils with low strength like very soft to soft clay
J Continuous sampler
o Identifying sand lenses, description/classification tests
o Usually for soft marine deposits
J Mazier Sampler
o Triple-tube core-barrels containing detachable liners
within the inner barrel
o Undisturbed soil samplers from stiffer soil stratum
2.3 Boreholes - Field Tests
a) Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
b) MackintoshIJKR Probe
c) Field Vane Shear Test eg. Geonor vane
-
to determine in-situ undrained shear strength (S, ) of soft cohesive soil
-
give good results due to insitu testing
-
usually overestimate S, , thus need to be corrected by Bjerrum's
correction factor related to Plasticity Index
d) Static Cone Penetration Test
- Undrained shear strength
- Soil Type
e) Pressuremeter Test
-
Borehole (Menard) or self boring
f) Permeability Test
2.4 Boreholes - Laboratow Tests
a) Classification
J Bulk Density
J Moisture Content
J Specific Density
J Gradation
J Atterberg limits
b) Strength
J Unconfined Compression
J Triaxial Tests (UU, CU, CD with pore pressure
measurement)
J Shear Box
2.4 Boreholes - Laboratory Tests
c) Consolidation
4 One-dimensional test
d) Compaction
J Standard Proctor Compaction
4 Relative Density
e) Permeability
4 Triaxial cell
4 Hydraulic consolidation cell
4 Constant Head permeability test
f) Chemical
J Organic content, sulphate, pH test
Steps Involved in Slope Stability and Retaining Structure Analysis - Design
1. Determine Type of Analysis and Parameters Required
2. Determine Type and Method of Geotechnical Investigation
Required
3. Interpret Geotechnical lnvestigation Results
4. Analysis & Design
3. Interpret Geotechnical Investigation Results
3.1 Field Tests - Mackintosh / JKR Probe
9 Suitable in softlweak layer
9 Determine hard layer or shallow bedrock
9 Preliminary subsoil info
9 Assist in interpolation between boreholes
9 Limited Use
J Shallow Bedrock profile
J Weak zone at shallow depth
J Shallow foundation
o No recent fill and future settlement
o Structure of low risk
o if in doubt, use borehoie
3.2 Correlations between SPT and S,
i. S, = 20 N kNlm2 (Meyerhof)
ii. 2 S,= 13N kNlm2 (Terzaghi & Peck)
iii. S, = 70 N kNlm2 (Reese, Touma & O'Neil)
iv. S, = 4 to 6 N kNlm2 (Stroud & Butler)
v. 2 S, = 0.1 + 0.15 N kNlm2 (Fukuoka) -
(Ref: Fleming et al, Piling Engineering Survey Uni. Press, Glasgow (1985))
vi. ForCHClay
2 S, = 13.7N kNIm2 ) Sambhandharaksa & Pitupakor,
) 1985
2 S, = 10.4N kNIm2 ) for Bangkok Clays
1 Note; N = SPT 'N' corrected I
3.3 Relationship Between SPT, JKRlMackintosh Probe and
Unconfined Compression Strength of Cohesive Soil
Consistency
(Blowlft)
15 - 30 Very stiff
+
Bulk Unit Unconfined JKR Probe
Weight, y, Compressive (Blowlft)
kN/mZ Strength q, (kNI mZ)
Note:- S, = q , where S, = undrained shear strength,
3.4 Relationship Between SPT, JKR /Mackintosh Probe, Allowable
Soil Pressure, Soil Density, Internal Frictional Angle for Granular
Soils
N
(Blowlft)
Allowable
Soil Pressure Probe
(blowllft)
Not suitable 0 - 10
0 - 80 10-30 4 - 10
10 -30
30 -50
> 50
Consistency
Loose
Medium
Dense
Very Dense
Bulk Unit
Weight, y,
kN/mZ
Internal
Friction
anale. &I
15- 20
17- 21
17 - 22
> 21
28 - 30
30 - 36
36-41
41
3.5 Relationship Between SPT and 0
- Recommended for Cohesionless
soils as representative sample of in-situ is
almost impossible to achieve for lab. test
N , , = Corrected N value
N = Actual SPT - N value
o ,, = Vertical effective stress ton/ft2
Anale of Sheanna Resistance. d. darees 1
3.6 Sample Triaxial Test Results
Interpreted From Mohr
" ' I
I000
Effective Stress
1b00 ZQQO Z ~ O Q ZLOQ
NORMAL STRESS lkNfn7
3.7 Example of Some Undrained Shear Strengths by
Various Test Methods
0 I I I I
!
Depth vs. Typical
Undrained Shear Strength
by various Methods for
Morgan City recent
Alluvium, ie.
- Unconfined Compression
- Undrained Triaxial
- Laboratory Vane
- Field Vane
snastreogh an'
3.8 Mackintosh Value Vs Allowable Bearing Capacity
I Macintosh Value (blowslft) I
Allowable Bearinn Ca~acitv Vs Mackintosh Probe
M.P. < 10,
Very loose, wet, fine sand,
silt or clay, genrally
unstable.
M.P. 10 - 40
Moist, fine sand or sand
with large amount of clay
from soft to firm
consistency
M.P. > 40.
Moist sand and clayed
sand from firm t o very hard
consistency.
Note:
-
1. Used for square foundation only, normally founded at least 5' below finished level.
2. Generally can be applied to moist clayey sand soils
3. Mackintosh probe < 18 blowslft, need special treatment
4. If foundation near slope, stability of slope need to be considered
3.9 JKR Probe Vs Allowable Bearing Capacity
(Ooi & Ting, 1975)
. Plate bearing test on sand
A
plate bearing test on'
I Residual granite soil
10 20 30 40 50 SO 70 80 90 100
PENETRATION RESISTANCE (B lows/ft)
3.10 Atterbern Limits to predict soil strenath:
Undrained shear strength&
9 Peck (1 940) - for Chicago clay
9 Skempton (1954)
for normally consolidated clays : C, = (0.1 1 + 0.37 PI) * o
9 P.1 used as Correction Factor for C, measured by Vane
Shear test
Effective Stress Parameter
9 Bjerrum and Simons (1 960)
4' for normally consolidated clays assuming C' = 0
Relationship between sin 4' , and Plasticity Index for
Normally consolidated Soils (Kenney 1959)
Sample of Soil Profile Used for Designlanalysis
0 SPT'N' A JKR Probe
Relevant B.S. for Geotechnical Enginnering
1 BS 1377 (1 990) Methods of Test for soils in Civil
Enginneering Purposes
2 BS 5930 (1981) COP for Site Investigations
3 BS6031(1981) COP for Earthworks
4 BS 8002 (1 994) COP for Earth Retaining Structures
5 BS 8004 (1 986) COP for foundations
6 BS 8005 (1986) COP for StrengthenedlReinforced soils and
other Fills
7 BS 8081 ( I 989) COP for Ground Anchors
Steps Involved in Slope Stability and Retaining Structure Analysis - Design
1. Determine Type of Analysis and Parameters Required
2. Determine Type and Method of Geotechnical Investigation
Required
3. Interpret Geotechnical lnvestigation Results
4. Design Analysis
- Slope Stability Analysis
- Retaining Structures
Kursus Analisa Kesta bilan Cerun
dan Rekabentuk Tembok Penahan
pada 16 - 18 Mei 2006
Design Guide For Retaining Walls
(Adopted from Design Office, JPS Malaysia)
I . 1 SCOPE OF THIS DESIGN GUI DE
Th e s c n o t e s a r e i n t e n d e d a s a Gu i d e f o r u s e i n t h e e s t i ma t i o n of
e a r t h p r e s s u r e f o r c e s , and For t h e d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n of r e t a i n i n g
wa l l s a nd o t h e r e a r t h Ye t a i n i n g s t r u c t u r e s . Recommended met hods
a r e g i v e n For most a s p e c t s o f d e s i g n , e x c e p t f o r r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e , wher e
g u i d a n c e i s g i v e n on o n l y a f ew s p e c i a l p o i n t s . Thr oughout t h e Gu i d e ,
r e f e r e n c e i s made t o r e l e v a n t t e x t b o o k s , Codes and p u b l i s h e d p a p e r s , a nd t h e
r e a d e r s h o u l d c o n s u l t t h o s e o r i g i n a l ' d o c u me n t s f o r more d e t a i l e d c o v e r a g e of
p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t s of t h e s u b j e c t ma t t e r .
I t i s i mp o r t a n t t o remember t h a t e n g i n e e r i n g j udgement s h o u l d
a l wa y s be e x e r c i s e d i n a p p l y i n g t h e t h e o r i e s a nd d e s i g n met hods g i v e n i n t h e
Gu i d e - I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e p r a c ~ i t i o n e r mus t b e a wa r e of c h e l i mi t a t i o n s on
t h e b a s i c a s s u mp t i o n s empl oyed i n a p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e o r e t i c a l o r c o mp u t a t i o n a l
met hod.
1 . 2 RETAINING WALL DESIGN PRINCIPLES
1 . 2 . 1 F/ree-4-tand&tg Re,ta&&~g ~~
I n t h e d e s i g n of f r e e - s t a n d i n g r e t a i n i n g w a l l s , t h e f o l l o wi n g
a s p e c t s need t o be i n v e s t i g a t e d :
( a) t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e s o i l a r o u n d t h e wa l l ,
(b) t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e r e t a i n i n g wa l l i t s e l f ,
( c ) t h e s t r u c t u r a l s t r e n g t h o f t h e wa l l ; and
( d) damage t o . a d j a c e n t s t r u c t u r e s d u e t o wa l l c o n s t r u c t i o n -
The magni t ude of t h e e a r t h p r e s s u r e whi c h w i l l b e e x e r t e d o n a
wall i s de pe nde nt on t h e amount of movement t h a t t h e w a l l u n d e r g o e s .
I t i s us ual t o assume f or f r e e - s t a ndi ng r e t a i n i n g wa l l s i hnt .
s u f f i c i e n t outward movement occur s t o al l ow act i ve (minim~im) e a r t h pr e s s r j t c s
t o devel op. The des i gner must ens ur e chat s u f f i c i e n t movemcnt cnn t ake pl a c c
wi t hout a f f e c t i n g t he s e r v i c e a b i l i t y o r appear ance of t he wal l .
Ml ere i t is not p o s s i b l e f o r t he r equi r ed outward movement t o
o c c u r , f o r i ns t a nc e due t o wal l o r f oundat i on r i g i d i t y , hi gher pr e s s ur e s
w i l l devel op and t he wal l must b e desi gned For t hese. Fur t her gui dance on
t h i s mat t er i s gi ven i n Sect i on 3. 2.
1 . 2 . 2 0;thm Retaivtirtg S. t huct wr e~
I f a s t r u c t u r e pr event s outward movement of the s o i l , t he wa l l
w i l l u s u a l l y be s u b j e c t t o s t a t i c e a r t h p r e s s u r e s g r e a t e r than a c t i v e . This
o c c u r s where a wa l l r e t a i n i n g e a r t h is p a r t of a more ext ens i ve s t r u c t u r e ,
s uc h a basement wa l l i n a b u i l d i n g o r an abut ment wal l of a p o r t a l
s t r u c t u r e . It a l s o occur s when t h e wa l l i s connect ed t o anot her s t r u c t u r e , .
s uch a s a br i dge abutment connect ed t o t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e .
1. 3 LOAD CASES
1 . 3 . 1 8ah- i ~ Loadingd
The ba s i c pr e s s ur e l oadi ng t o be consi der ed f o r desi gn is :
fiormal l oadi ng = s t a t i c e a r t h p r e s s u r e + wat er pr es s ur e +
p r e s s u r e due t o l i v e l oads o r sur char ge.
The pos s i bl e occur r ence of o t h e r d e s i g n c a s e s , or v a r i a t i o n s oC t h e
one above, caused by c o n s t r u c t i o n sequence o r f u t u r e development of s u r r o u n d i n g
a r e a s shoul d a l s o be cons i der ed. For i n s t a n c e , a d d i t i o n a l s ur char ges may s e e d
-
E d e cons i der ed and al l owance made f o r any p o s s i b l e f u t u r e removal of gr ound
i n - --. f r o n t of --- - t h e wa l l i n c onne c t i on wi t h s e r v i c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e p a s s i v e
r e s i s t a n c e of t h i s ma t e r i a l is i ncl uded 3.n t h e s t a b i l i t y . c a l c ul a t i ons .
The e f f e c t of e x c k t i o n on t h e wa l l be a r i ng c a p a c i t y may a l s o need t o be
c ons i de r e d,
For t he de t e r mi na t i on of e a r t h p r e s s u r e s , i t is u s u a l t o c o n s i d e r
a u n i t l e n g t h of t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n of t h e wa l l and r e t a i ne d s o i l . A. uni t
- l e n g t h i s a l s o ussd i n t h e s t r u c t u r a l des i gn o f c a n t i l e v e r wa l l s and o t h e r
wa l l s wi t h a uni form c r os s - s e c t i on.
2 . 1 GENERAL
For a l l wa l l s h i g h e r t han 5 met r es, e s pe c i a l l y t hose wi t h s l o p i n g
b a c k f i l l , t h e s o i l p r o p e r t i e s of t he n a t u r a l ground and b a c k f i l l sl i oul d be
es t i mat ed i n advance of d e s i g n from t e s t s on samples of t he ma t e r i a l s i nvol ved.
I n a d d i t i o n , s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n shoul d be pai d t o t he det er mi nat i on of ground
Ga t e r l e v e l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y wi t h r e s pe c t t o maximum probabl e va l ue s .
. .
For l e s s i mpor t ant wa l l s , . a n e s t i ma t i on of t he s o i i p r o p e r t i e s
may be made frbm pr e vi ous t est s on s i mi l a r ma t e r i a l s . A c a r e f u l v i s u a l
exami nat i on of t h e ma t e r i a l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t a t t he proposed f oundat i on l e v e l
shoul d be made and i ndex tests c a r r i e d out t o ens ur e t hat t he assumed ma t e r i a l
t ype i s c o r r e c t .
2 - 2 SELECTI ON AMI USE OF BACKFl LL
The i d e a l b a c k f i i l f o r a minimum s e c t i o n wal l i s a f r e e d r a i n i n g
gr a nul a r ma t e r i a l of hi gh s h e a r i n g . s t r e n g t h . However, -t he f i n a l c hoi c e of
ma t e r i a l shoul d be based on t h e c o s t s and a v a i l a b i l i t y of such ma t e r i a l s
bal anced a g a i n s t t h e c o s t of more expensi ve wa l l s .
I n g e n e r a l , t h e u s e of f i ne- gr ai ned cl ayey b a c k f i l l s i s not recommended.
Cl ays a r e s u b j e c t t o s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n s i n moi st ur e cont ent and consequent
s we l l i n g and s hr i nka ge . Th i s e f f e c t may l e a d t o an i nc r e a s e i n p r e s s u r e a g a i n s t
-
a wa l l when t h e s e s o i l s a r e used a s ba c kEi l l . Due t o c ons ol i da t i on, l ong
t er m s e t t l e me n t pr obl ems are cons i der abl y g r e a t e r t han wi t h c ohe s i onl e s s
ma t e r i a l s ,
For c o h e s i v e b a c k f i l l s , s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n must be pai d t o t h e
p r o v i s i o n of d r a i n a g e t o pr e ve nt t h e bui l d-up of wat er pr e s s ur e .
Fr ee d r a i n i n g
c o h e s i o n l e s s ~ t e r i a l s may n o t r e q u i r e t h e same amount of a t t e n t i o n i n t h i s
r e s p e c t -
They may st i l l r e q u i r e p r o t e c t i o n by pr oper l y desi gned f i l t e r ' l a y e r s .
The wa l l d e f l e c t i o n r equi r ed t o produce t he a c t i v e s t a t e i n c ohe s i ve
ma t e r i a l s wi t h a s i g n i f i c a n t cl ay c ont e nt may be up t o 10 t i mes gr e a t e r t han .
f o r c ohe s i onl c s s ma t e r i a l s . Thi s , t oge t he r wi t h t h e f a c t t hat tile former
gener al l y have lower val ues of s l ~ c a r i n g s t r e n g t h , means t ha t t h e amount o f
. s he a r s t r e n g t h mobi l i sed f o r any gi ven wal l movement i s cons i der abl y lower
f o r cohes i ve ma t e r i a l s than f o r c ohe s i onl e s s ma t e r i a l s . The cor r es pondi ng
e a r t h pr es s ur e on t h e a c t i v e s i d e f o r a p a r t i c u l a r wa l l movement w i l l t he r c f or r ?
be hi gher i f cohes i ve s o i l is used f o r b a c k f i l l .
Rock f i l l is a very s u i t a b l e ma t e r i a l f o r u s e a s a b a c k f i l l t o
r e t a i n i n g wa l l s and c ons i de r a t i on shoul d be gi ven t o i t s use when a v a i l a b l e .
I n ge ne r a l , t h e r o c k f i l l shoul d be we l l g;aded and have a nominal maximum s i z e
of 200mm. A wel l -graded densel y compacted r o c k f i l l s houl d not have more t ha n
about 2% f i n e r t han 75um i f i t .is t o remain f r e e - dr a i ni ng.
Movement of s o i l , due t o seepage, i n t o t he r o c k f i l l needs t o b e
pr event ed. Thi s may r e qui r e t he pr ovi s i on of pr oper l y desi gned f i l t e r l a y e r s .
between t he s o i l and t h e r o c k f i l l .
I t is e s s e n t i a l t o s p e c i f y and s upe r vi s e t he pl aci ng of b a c k f i l l t o .
ens ur e t h a t i t s s t r e n g t h and u n i t wei ght p r o p e r t i e s a g r e e wi t h t h e d e s i ~ n
assumpt i ons bot h f o r l a t e r a l e a r t h p r e s s u r e and dead wei ght c a l c u l a t i o n s . Jn
t h i s r egar d, i t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i mpor t ant t o e n s u r e . t h a t t he b a c k f i l l behi nd
a wal l and on a s l o p e is pr oper l y compacted. The b a c k f i l l shoul d nor mal l y
be compacted i n t h i n l a y e r s us i ng l i g h t compact i on p l a n t f or t h e r easons
o u t l i n e d i n Se c t i on -3.10.
The a c t i v e e a r t h pr e s s ur e i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y r educed, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r
a s t e e p l y s l o p i n g b a c k f i l l , i f t h e f a i l u r e - pl ane o c c u r s . i n a ma t e r i a l wi t h a
hi gh a ngl e of s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e . I n some c i r c ums t a nc e s , i t may be economi cal
t o r e pl a c e weaker ma t e r i a l so' t h a t t h e above s i t u a t i o n occur s.
2 . 3 UNI T WEIGIfJ
The u n i t wei ght of s o i l depends on t h e s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y of t h e
s o l i d p a r t i c l e s and t h e pr opor t i ons of s o l i d , a i r and wat er i n t h e , s o i l .
The pr opor t i on of t h e t o t a l volume t h a t is made up of c h i s s o i i d ma t e r i a l
i s dependent on t h e degr ee of compact i on o r c o n s o l i d a t i o n .
A s e s t i ma t e of t h e u n i t wei ght of b a c k f i l l ma t e r i a l t o be used
behi nd a r e t a i n i n g - s t r u c t u r e may br ohi ni ned f r on s t andar d I abor nt or y
compact i on t e s t s on sampl es of t h e ma t e r i a l o r from r ecor ds oE f i e l d ' t e s t i n g .
-
The u n i t weighe chosen must cor r es pond t o t h e compact i on and moi st ur e c o n d i t i o n s
t h a t w i l l a ppl y i n t h e a c t u a l f i e l d s i t u a t i o n .
The u n i t wei ght of n a t u r a l s o i l shoul d be obt ai ned from undi s t ur bed -
s ampl es kept a t t he f i e l d moi s t ur e c ont e nt and volume.
For i n i t i a l des i gn
pur pos e s , dr y d e n s i t i e s i n t h e r ange
1750 t o 1850kg/m3 nay be assumed f o r
a l l s o i l s compacted n e a r optimum moi s t ur e c o n t e n t .
2 . 4
EFFECT1 VE STRESS AND PORE PRESSURE
An e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s may be cons i der ed t o be t he s t r e s s t r ans mi t t ed
t hr ough t he p o i n t s of c o n t a c t between t he s o l i d p a r t i c l e s of t he s o i i .
I t
is t h i s stress t h a t de t e r mi ne s t h e s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e of t he s o i l .
The
e f f e c t i v e stress, a l , . a t any p o i n t i n a s a t u r a t e d s o i l mass may be obt ai ned
by s u b t r a c t i n g t he p r e s s u r e transmitted by wat er i n t h e voi ds , u,
( por e
wa t e r pr e s s ur e ) from t h e t o t a l s t r e s s , a , t hus :
o l = o - u . . . . . ( 1 )
An i n c r e a s e d por e wa t e r pr e s s ur e gi ve s a reduced e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s
and' t h e r e f o r e a r educed s o i l s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e . Thi s l e a ds t o an i nc r e a s e d
f o r c e a ga i ns t a wa l l i n t he a c t i v e c a s e . Conver sel y, an i nc r e a s e i h t he
n e g a t i v e pore p r e s s u r e ( i - e . a por e s u c t i o n ) g i v e s an i ncr eas ed s hear i ng
r e s i s t a n c e and r educes t h e f o r c e a g a i n s t a wa l l i n t h e a c t i v e case.
P o s i t i v e p o r e wat er pr e s s ur e r e s u l t s from a number of f a c t o r s ,
t h e most i mpor t ant bei ng s t a t i c wat er p r e s s u r e , seepage of
groundwat er o r r a i n f a l l and seepage from o t h e r s o u r c e s , such as b u r s t o r
l e a k i n g wat er suppl y mains. I n some s o i l s , shock o r v i b r a t i o n can c a us e
t r a n s i e n t i n c r e a s e s i n por e pr e s s ur e .
I n low pe r me a bi l i t y s o i l s , changes
i n por e wat er p r e s s u r e can r e s u l t from changes i n t o t a l s t r e s s due t o
ground l oa di ng, dewat er i ng o r excavat i on.
These por e p r e s s u r e s d i s s i p a t e
wi t h t i me, b u t may need t o be cons i der ed i n de s i gn.
Por e wat er p r e s s u r e s -
due t o s t a t i c wat er pr e s s ur e and seepage of wa t e r a r e cover ed i n Chapt er 5 -
.
-
..-
- - - - - -
Negat i ve. por e pr es s ur es a r e pr es ent i n many p a r t i a l l y s a r u r a ~ c u
s o i l s . Soi l suct i on may be destroyed by s u r f a c e i n f i l t r a t i o n
o r seepage, m d , - k t i l more i nf or mat i on on its magni t ude, d i s t r i b u t i o n a nd
behavi our becomes a va i l a bl e , i t s e f f e c t on t h e s h e a r r e s i s t a nc e of t l i c s oi l
shoul d not be used i n r e t a i ni ng wal l desi gn.
2 . 5 SHEAR STRENGTIf
I n a l l e a r t h pr es s ur e prohlems t h e magni r ude of e a r t h pr e s s ur e on
a p a r t i c u l a r s t r uc t ur e is a f unc t i on of t he s h e a r s t r e n g t h of t he s o i l .
The s hear s t r e ngt h i s not a uni que pr oper t y of t h e ma t e r i a l but depends upon
t he c ondi t i ons t o which t he s o i l i s s ubj ect ed when i t is s hear ed. Where a
r e t a i ni ng s t r u c t u r e suppor t s a s a t u r a t e d c l a y s o i 1 aE low pe r me a bi l i t y , t h e
undrained s he a r s t r engt h can be used t o c a l c u l a t e t he e a r t h pr e s s ur e f o r
short-term stability, because the s he a r s t r e n g t h oE such s o i l does not change
a s i t i s shear ed quickly ( i . e . t h e excess por e wa t e r pr e s s ur e s cannot
d i s s i p a t e dur i ng s hear ) . However, Hong Kong r e s i d u a l s o i l s a r e not s a t u r a t e d .
and they have r e l a t i ve l y hi gh pe r me a bi l i t i e s . The wat er c ont e nt , t h e r e f o r e ,
can change q u i t e r api dl y, wi t h a consequent change i n pore pr e s s ur e and, he nc e ,
wi t h a change i n shear s t r e ngt h. I t is ne c e s s a r y, t he r e f or e , f o r e a r t h
pr es s ur es i n Hong Kong s o i l s t o be c a l c ul a t e d from s he a r s t r e n g t h s e xpr e s s e d
i n terms of effective stresses.
.-
The s hear s t r engt h of a s o i l i s p r o p o i ~ i o n a l t o t he e f f e c t i v e st ress
which a c t s on t he f a i l u r e pl ane. Labor at or y t e s t s c a n. be car r Led o u t t o
e s t a b l i s h t h e r e l a t i ons hi p bet ween s t r e ngt h, S, e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s , a ' , and t h i s
is commonly termed t he strength envelope. The e nve l ope w i l l ge ne r a l l y b e
cur ved, b u t por t i ons of t he c ur ve can be appr oxi mat ed by t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p :
- s = C ' + o' t a n 0' ....- ( 2)
where c t and 0' a r e termed t h e effective strength parameters.
These par amet er s
shoul d be used f o r e a r t h pr e s s ur e c a l c u l a t i o n s i n Hong Kong s o i l s .
It is
i mpor t ant t o not e t h a t t he de s i gn s t r e n g t h pa r a me t e r s must be t hos e det er mi ned
i n t he l a bor a t or y f o r t he r ange of e f f e c t i v e stress which is a ppr opr i a t e t o the
f i e l d s i t u a t i o n .
Labor at or y t r i a x i a l t e s t s o r s he a r box tests a r e conononly used to
det er mi ne t h e s t r e n g t h e nve l ope of a s o i l .
Gui dance on r h e s e met' hods of.
s - t r engt h measurement and on t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t e s t r e s u l t s c a n b e - o b t a i n e d
f r om Lambe & Wh i t s n ( 1969) and from t h e Ce ot e c hni c a l Manual f o r Sl opes
( Geot echni cal Conzrol Of f i c e , 1979).
The f ol i owi ng two t y p e s of t r i a x i a l t e s t s c a n be us ed :
( a ) Cons ol i dat ed- undr ai ned t e s t s wi t h p o r e p r e s s u r e measurement
(CG t e s t s ) c a r r i e d out on s peci mens s a t u r a t e d u s i n g back
pr es s ur e.
( b) Drzi ned t e s t s (CD t e s t s ) on s a t u r a t e d s peci mens . .
She a r bcx t e s t s a r e s i mpl e r t o c a r r y o u t t ha n t r i a x i a l t e s t s but
o n l y dr ai ned t e s t s can be conduct ed on Hong Kong r e s i d u a l s o i l s . Car e s houl d
b e t aken t o eri st j re chat t e s t . speci mens a r e soaked f o r a s u f f i c i e n t p e r i o d p r i o r
t o t e s t i n g and t h z t submer gence is ma i nt a i ne d d u r i n g s h e a r .
The s h e a r s t r e n g t h , o f a backf i l l ma t e r i a l depends on i t s d e n s i t y ,
. and l a b o r a t o r y s t r e n g t h tests s houl d be c a r r i e d o u t on s peci mens compact ed
t o t h e d e n s i t y t haz w i l l e x i s t i n s i t u . Where i n a d e q u a t e s h e a r , s t r e n g t h
i nf or ma t i on is a v a i l a b l e a t t h e t i me of p r e l i mi n a r y d e s i g n , t h e f o l l o wi n g
v a l u e s may be t a k e s a s gui da nc e t o t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f compact ed llong Kong
-
s o i l s :
- -
For deconposed v o l c a n i c s , 'c ' = 0 , 0' = 3 5 ' . ~d = 1 750kg/m3
0
For decocposed g r a n i t e , c ' = 0, 0' = 39 , yd = 1850kg/m3
2 . 6 BASE SHEAR RESISTANCE
The amount of s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e a v a i l a b l e bet ween t h e b a s e of
t h e wal l and t h e f oundat i on s o i l will depend on t h e n a t u r e of ma t e r i a l s us ed
t o c o n s t r u c t t h e bzs e and on t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e .
The b a s e f r i c t i o n t o be us ed f o r wa l l s wi t h o u t a key i s 26' / 3.
When i t can be ens ur ed t h a t t he e x c a v a t i o n of t h e b a s e w i l l be c a r r i e d o u t
in t h e d r y s e a s o n and t h a t d i s t u r b a n c e and d e t e r i o r a t i o n - . of t h e s u b s o i l is
pr event ed by c o n s t r k t i o n of an a d e q u a t e b l i n d i n g l a y e r inmediately a f t e r
f oundat i on expos ur e, and wher e t h e r e is p r o f e s s i o n a l s i t e s u p e r d i s i o n i t may
b e p o s s i b l e t o j u s t i f y a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n of 0'.
Va l ue s o f b a s e a d h e s i o n ,
cb, used i n cal cul ' at i ons shoul d be t aken a s zer o unl c s s ,specific da t a pr ovi ng
ot he r wi s e a r e a v a i l a b l e .
I f a s hal l ow ba s e key i s us ed, t he f a i l u r e pl ane w i l l ge ne r a l l y be- -
t hr ough t h e f oundat i on s o i l ( s e e Fi gur e 1) and, t he r e f or e , t he s he a r i ng
r e s i s t a n c e may be t aken a s t h a t of t h e s o i l (6b = 0' and cb = c ' ) . Fur t her '
comment on t h i s is gi ven i n Se c t i on 6. 2.
2. 7 W A L L FRICTION
The magni t ude and d i r e c t i o n of t he devel oped wal l f r i c t i o n depends
on t h e r e l a t i v e movement between t he wa l l and t he s o i l . En t he active cas e,
oe moves t h e maximum v a l u e of wa l l f r i c t i o n devel ops onl y when the s o i l wed,
s i g n i f i c a n t l y downwards r e l a t i v e t o t h e r e a r f ace o f t he wa l l . Ln some c a s e s ,
wa l l f r i c t i o n cannot devel op. These i nc l ude c a s e s where t he wal l moves d o n
wi t h t he s o i l , s uch a s a g r a v i t y wa l l on a yi e l di ng f oundat i on o r a s h e e ~ p i l e
w a l l wi t h i n c l i n e d anchor s , and c a s e s where t he f a i l u r e s ur f a c e forms away
from t he w a l l , s uch a s i n c a n t i l e v e r and c ount e r f or t wa l l s ( Fi gur e 9) .
The maximum va l ue s of wa l l f r i c t i o n may b e t aken a s f ol l ows :
Ti mber , s t e e l , pr e c a s t c onc r e t e ,
0 '
6 rnax. = -
2
Cast i n- s i t u c onc r e t e ,
20'
6 max. = -
3
I n g e n e r a l , t h e e f f e c t of wa l l f r i c t i o n is t o r educe a c t i v e pr es s ur e.
The e f f e c t i s s m a l l and o f t e n di s r e ga r de d.
The e f f e c t of wa l l f r i c t i o n on passzve pressures is l a r ge ( s ee
Se c t i on 3 ) .
Cons i de r a bl e s t r u c t u r a l movements may be ne c e s s a r y, however, to
mobi l f s e maximum w a l l f r i c t i o n , f o r whi c h, t he s o i l i n t h e passi ve zone needs
t o move upwar ds r e l a t i v e t o t h e s t r u c t u r e . Ge ne r a l l y, maximum w a l l Er i cr i on
is onl y mobi l i s e d where t h e w a l l t e nds t o move downwards, f o r examplc, i d a
wa l l is founded on compr es s i bl e s o i l , o r f o r s h e e t p i l e d wa l l s wi t h i nc l i ne d
t ens i oned members. Some gui dance on t h e pr opor t i on of maximum w a l l f r i c ~ i o n
which may de ve l op i n va r i ous c a s e s is gi ven i n Table 1 .
Tabl e 1 . . I n d i c a t i v e Pr opor t i ons oE Maximum Wall
Fri.c t i on Developed
4Cr anul ar S o i l s - Pas s i ve Case)
(Roue 6 Peaker , 1965)
Sheet wa l l s w i t h freedom t o move down-
wards under a c t i v e f o r c e s o r i nc l i ne d
anchor l o a d s
St r u c t u r e Type
Cr a vi t y o r f r e e s t a n d i n g wa l l s wi t h
h o r i z o n t a l movement. Sheet p i l e w a l l s
be a r i ng on hard s t r a t u m
Developed Pr opor t i on
of Maximum Wall .
F r i c t i o n
Wal l s where pas s i ve s o i l may s e t t l e
under e x t e r n a l l oads
Where a wa l l w i l l be s ubj e c t e d t o s i g n i f i c a n t . v i b r a t i o n , wa l l
f r i c t i o n s houl d not be i nc l ude d.
Loose
0
Anchorage bl ocks , e t c . which have
freedom t o move upwards on mobi l i z a t i on
of p a s s i v e pr es s ur e.
i
2 . 8 COEFFICIENT OF SUBGRADE KEACTION
Dense
0.5
0
I n t h e des i gn of Foot i ngs and wa l l f ounda t i ons , . t he s i mp l i f i e d
concept of subgr ade can be used t o det er mi ne wal l r o t a t i o n s .
Th i s concept
0
0
i s based on t h e assumpt i on t h a t t he s e t t l e me n t , A , of any el ement of a
l oaded a r e a i s e n t i r e l y i ndependent of t he l oad on t h e a d j o i n i n g el ement s.
I t is f u r t h e r assumed t h a t t h e r e i s a c ons t a nt r a t i o , Ks , bet ween t h e
i n t e n s i t y , 4, of t he Eoundat i on pr e s s ur e on t he el ement and t h e cor r es pondi ng
I I
0
s e t t l e me n t , A , gi ven by :
The f oundat i on pr e s s ur e , q , i s called t h e subgrade reaction, and t h e r a t i o ,
-
K,, is known as t h e coefficient of subgrade reaction.
--
-. -
-
EARTH PRESSURES
3 . 1 STATES OF STRESS
The s t r e s s e s a t any poi nt wi t hi n a s o i l mass may be r epr esent ed on
t h e Mohr co- or di nat e system i n t erms of s he a r s t r e s s , T , and e f f e c t i v e normal
s t r e s s , u'. I n t h i s syst em, t he s he a r i ng s t r e n g t h of t he s o i l a t var i ous
e f f e c t i v e normal s t r e s s e s gi ves an envel ope of t he combi nat i ons of s he a r .?nd
normal st ress.
When t he maximum s he a r i n5 s t r e n g t h is f u l l y mobi l i sed a l ong
a s u r f a c e wi t h i n a s o i l mass, a Fa i l ur e - c ondi t i on k n o w a s a state of pZa.?tic
equi libriurn is reached.
Where t he combi nat i ons of s he a r and normal s t r e s s wi t hi n a s o i l mass
a l l l i e bel ow t he l i mi t i ng envel ope, t he s o i l i s i n a state of elastic
equilibrium ( ~ e r z a ~ h i & Peck, 1967) . A s p e c i a l c ondi t i on of e l a s t i c equi l i br i um
is t he ' a t - r e s t ' s t a t e , where t he s o i l is pr event ed from espandi ng o r compress in^
l a t e r a l l y wi t h changes i n t he v e r t i c a l s t r e s s .
Any l a t e r a l s t r a i n i n t he s o i l
a l t e r s i t s hor i z ont a l s t r e s s c ondi t i on. Depending on t h e s t r a i n i nvol ved, t he
f i n a l h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s can l i e anywhere between two l i mi t i ng ( f a i l u r e )
c ondi t i ons , known a s t h e active and passive f a i l u r e s t a t e s .
3 . 2 AML)UNT AND ' TYPE OF WALL MOVEMENT
The e a r t h pr es s ur e which a c t s on a n e a r t h r e t a i n i n g s t r u c t u r e is
s t r o n g l y dependent on t he l a t e r a l def or mat i ons whi ch occur i n t he s o i l -
Hence, u n l e s s t h e def or mat i on c ondi t i ons can be e s t i ma t e d wi t h r eas onabl e
accur acy, r a t i o n a l pr e di c t i on of t h e magnitude and d i s t r i b u t i o n of e a r t h
pr e s s ur e i n t h e structure i s not pos s i bl e .
The minimum active pr e s s ur e which c a n b e e xe r t e d a ga i ns t a wa l l
oc c ur s when t h e wa l l moves s u f f i c i e n t l y Ea r out war ds f o r t he s o i l behi nd t he
wall t o expand l a t e r a l l y and r e a c h a st at e of p l a s t i c equi l i br i um.
Sf r ni l ar l y,
t h e maximum passive pr e s s ur e occur s when t he w a l l movement is towards t h e
s o i l . The amount of movement neces s ar y t o r e a c h t he s e f a i l u r e c ondi t i oa s is
dependent pr i ma r i l y on t he t ype of b a c k f i l l ma t e r i a l .
Some gui dance on t he s e
mWementS i s gi ven i n Tabl e 3.
10
Tabl e 3
Soi 1-
Sand
Cl ay
Wall Di spl acement s Required t o
Develop Act i ve and Pas s i ve Ear t h
Pr es s ur es (Wu, 1975) .
i t a t e of S t r e s s
Ac t i v e
Act i ve
Pa s s i ve
Pa s s i ve
Act i ve
Act i ve
Pa s s i ve
Type of Movement
--
P a r a l l e l t o wa l l
Rot at i on about base
Pa r a l l e l t o wal l
Rot at i on about base
Pa r a l l e l t o wal l
Ror at i on about bas e
Necessar y
Di spl acement
0.001H
0.001H
0. 05 11
For wa l l di s pl acement s l e s s t han t hose necessar y t o pr oduce t he
f a i l u r e c o n d i t i o n s , t he magni t ude of t he pr e s s ur e on t he wal l l i e s between
t he ext r eme v a l u e s . Fi gur e 2 shows t he t y p i c a l v a r i a t i o n i n wa l l p r e s s u r e
wi t h movement.
For a r i g i d wa l l Eree t o t r a n s l a t e o r r o t a t e about its b a s e , t he
a c t i v e o r pas s i ve c o n d i t i o n occur s i f s u f f i c i e n t movement can t a k e p l a c e , and
the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n remai ns appr oxi mat el y t r i a n g u l a r f o r uni f or m ~ l o p j - n g
ground ( Fi gur e 3 ( a ) ) .
I n some c a s e s , r o t a t i o n about t he ba s e o r t r a n s l a t i o g of a f r e e
s t a n d i n g wal l may be l i mi t e d by a s t r ong f oundat i on o r by some o t h e r r e s t r a i n t
such a s occur s i n br i dge abut ment s o r wa l l s f r amed- i n. wi t h t he s u p e r s t r u c t u r e .
S t r u c t u r a l def or mat i ons f o r wa l l s a r e not u s u a l l y s u f f i c i e n t a l o n e t o a l l ow
development of a c t i v e pr e s s ur e s , and hence t he wa l l is s ubj e c t t o p r e s s u r e s
near t h o s e f o r a t - r e s t c o n d i t i o n s ( Fi gur e 3 ( b ) ) o r t hose caused by compact i on
( Sect i on 3. 10) . Thermal expansi on of - t he s t r u c t u r e may f or c e t h e r e t a i n i n g
w a l l s n t o t he s o i l pr oduci ng hi ghe r e a r t h p r e s s u r e s (Broms & I nge l s on 1 9 7 1 ) -
When t h e t op o f t he wa l l i s r e s t r a i n e d whi l e t he base can r o t a t e , n o t
a l l of t h e r e t a i n e d s o i l pas s es i n t o t he a c t i v e s t a t e . Li mi t ed movement n e a r
t h e t o p of t h e wa l l , t o g e t h e r wi t h ar chi ng, leads t o an appr oxi mat el y p a r a b o l i c
p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , wi t h a cor r espondi ng f or c e on t he wa l l 10 t o 15% h i g h e r
than t h e f o r c e f or t h e a c t i v e cond- i t i on ( Fi gur e 3( c) ) . .
An appr oxi mat e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e magni t ude of t h e t i l t i n g movement
. i
. -
kj t h a t r e s u l t s from t h e b a c k f i l l i n g of a r e t a i n i n g w a l l may-be obt a i ne d- by
s i mul a t i ng t h e Eoundat i on s o i f a s a seri es o f s p r i n g s wi t h a n a p p r o p r i a t e .
c o e f f i c i e n t of s ubgr ade r e a c t i on ( s e e S e c t i o n 2 . 8 ) . The b a s e r o t a t i o n , Ob,
-
. ( r a d i a n s ) i s t he n gi ven by :
0
( Eor eb S - 6 )
L ':
1.2 where V i s t h e v e r t i c a l component of t h e f o u n d a i i o n b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e ,
1-
eb is t h e e c c e n t r i c i t y of t h e l o a d on t h e base
p
-J
L, 0 a r e l e n g t h and br eadt h of t h e ba s e s r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
"
and Ks i s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of s ubgr ade r e a c t i o n (Eqn. 3 ) .
F l e x i b l e wa l l s al l ow compl ex de f or ma t i ons and r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l oa ds .
Loads var y on i n d i v i d u a l s uppor t s dependi ng l s r g e l y on t h e s t i f f n e s s
'': c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t he s uppor t s t hems el ves .
. .
tr,:
7- -
, - -
L:
S t r u t t e d wa l l s have appr oxi mat e f i n a l d e f o r ma t i o n p a t t e r n s a s shown
,, i n Fi gur e 3 ( d ) . Th i s p r o f i l e is s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by c o n s t r u c t i o n d e t a i l s
!.:.
. .
[:-.and pr oc e dur e s , and s o pr es s ur e e n v e l o p e s c o v e r i n g p o s s i b l e a c t u a l p r e s s u r e
d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e used f o r r e t a i n e d h e i g h t s of g r e a t e r t h a n 6 met r es. ' ( Fi g u r e
- (- 2 4 ) *
i:.
-
..
Compact i on of t h e b a c k f i l l c a n pr oduce p r e s s u r e s h i g h e r t han a c t i v e .
L : (2,
Thi s i s d i s c u s s e d i n Sect i ons 3.10 & 3.11. -
ii 3 . 3
RANKINE EARTH PRESSURE THEORY
. *
. .
. ,
,.-
i z Ra nki ne ' s equat i ons g i v e t h e e a r t h p r e s s u r e on a v e r t i c a l p l a n e whi ch
i : .
...
1s somet i mes c a l l e d t he virtual back of t h e wa l l . The e a r t h p r e s s u r e on the
. ..
. :I
&. v e r t i c a l p l a n e a c t s i n a d i r e c t i o n p a r a l l e l t o t h e gr ound s u r f a c e and is
-
d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t a n c e b e l o w t h e gr ound s u r f a c e .
-x.
{:;The p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s t r i a n g u l a r -
%
-
7.--
; 2.
; . -.
Ranki ne' s c ondi t i ons are t h e o r e t i c a l l y o n l y a p p l i c a b l e t o r e r ai ni ng
L
wal l s when t h e w a l l does n o t i n t e r f e r e wi t h t h e f o r ma t i o n o f a n y p a r t of t h e
r.i f a i l u r e wedges t h a t form on e i t h e r s i d e of t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e , as s hor n i n
1 ::
- *&Fi gures 1 & 9 o; vhe r e . a n i mposed boundar y pr oduces t h e c o n d i t i o n s of stress -
- t h a t woul d e x i s t i n t h e u&t e r r upt e d s o i l wedges.
These k o n d i t i o n s r e q u i r e t h a t
1. ' :
I . .
. :- t h e a n g l e o f w a l l f r i c t i o n i s e q u a l t o t h e b a c k f i l l s l o p e ( 6 = m)
Pa s s i ve c a l c u l a t i o n s us i ng Ranki ne
d i r e c t i o n of wa l l f r i c t i o n w i l l be i n c o r r e c t
a r e not recommended, s i n c e t he
and an under es t i mat i on of
pa s s i ve r e s i s t a n c e w i l l r e s u l t .
--
3. 4 COULOMB EARTH PRESSURE THEORY
Coulomb t heor y assumes t ha t a wedge of s o i l bounded by a pl a na r
f a i l u r e s u r f a c e s l i d e s on t h e back of t he wa l l . Hence s he a r i ng r e s i s t a n c e is
mobi l i s ed on bot h back of t h e c a l l and t h e f a i l u r e s u r f a c e . The r e s u l t a n t
pr e s s ur e can be c a l c ul a t e d d i r e c t l y f o r a r ange of wa l l f r i c t i o n s , s l o p e s -
o f wal l and b a c k f i l l s l opes .
Where t h e wal l f r i c t i o n is a t a n g l e s o t h e r t han t h e b a c k f i l l s l o p e
' angl e t h e e qua t i ons a r e an appr oxi mat i on due t o t h e cur ved n a t u r e oE t he
a c t u a l f a i l u r e s ur f a c e and t h e f a c t t h a t s t a t i c e qui l i br i um i s not al ways
s a t i s f i e d . The e r r o r is s l i g h t l y on t he uns a f e s i d e f o r t he a c t i v e c a s e , and
more s e r i o u s f o r t he pas s i ve c a s e . For s i mpl e geomet r i es , t he c h a r t e d va l ue s
o f K, gi ven i n Fi gur es 4 & 5 (Caquot & Ke r i s e l , 1948) may be used; t h e s e were
obt ai ned f o r t he more a c c u r a t e Ea i l ur e mechanism i nvol vi ng cur ved f a i l u r e
s u r f a c e s .
3 . 5 TRl A t WEDGE METHOD
Di f f i c u l t i e s a r i s e i n t he us e of c h a r t s o r e qua t i ons where t h e
, ground s u r f a c e is i r r e g u l a r , where t h e b a c k f i l l pos s e s s e s some ccohesion,
where wat er pr e s s ur e s e x i s t i n t he b a c k f i l l o r where t he b a c k f i l l - c o k p r i s e s
more t ha n one s o i l type.
The s i mpl es t appr oach f o r e a r t h p r e s s u r e de t e r mi na t i on i n t h e s e
c a s e s is t o use a gr a phi c a l pr ocedur e making t h e assumpt i on of p l a n a r f a i l u r e
s u r f a c e s based on Coulomb t heor y. The method i s ver y power f ul i n t h a t
s o l u t i o n s t o most a c t i v e p r e s s u r e probl ems are p o s s i b l e and it a l s o has t he
advant age t h a t t h e des i gner c a n s e e t h e s o l u t i o n devel opi ng and g a i n s an
a p p r e c i a t i o n of the s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e c o n t r i b u t o r y f a c t o r s i nvol ved.
. There a r e , however, c e r t a i n l i mi t a t i o n s in t h e u s e of t h e method for t h e
de t e r mi na t i on of pas s i ve p r e s s u r e s . The pr oc e dur e is knpcm a s t h e T r i a l Wedge
Method o r t h e Coulomb Wedge Method.
-- .
-The met hod -is o u t l i n e d i n Fi gur e s 6, 7 & 8. The b a c k f i l l i s
-
-.
di vi de d i n t o wedges by s e l e c t i n g pl anes t hrough t he h e e l of t he wa l l . The .
f o r c e s act i ng- on each of t he s e wedges a r e combined i n a f o r c e polygon s o c h a t
.--
t he magni t ude of t h e r e s u l t a n t e a r t h pr e s s ur e can be obt ai ned. A ~o r c ' e pol ygon
is c o n s t r u c t e d , al t hough t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on- t he wedge a r e i n ge ne r a l not i n
moment e q u i l i b r i u m. Thi s method i s t h e r e f o r e an appr oxi mat i on wi t h t he same
assumpt i ons a s t h e equat i ons For Coulomb' s condi t i ons , and, f o r a' gr ound
s u r f a c e wi t h a uni f or m s l ope , g i v e s t he same r e s u l t . When t he v a l l f r i c t i o n '
cor r es ponds t o t h a t i mpl i ed by t h e Rankine c a s e , t he va l ue of e a r t h pr es s ur e
obt a i ne d Erorn t h e T r i a l Wedge Method i s e qua l t o :hat obt ai ned from ank kine's
e qua t i on.
Fi g u r e 8 shows t he . ge ne r a 1 method of deal i ng wi t h a c t i v e pr es s ur es
i n more compl ex ground . c ondi t i ons us i ng t h e Tr i a l Wedge Method. I t should
be not e d t h a t t h e method can be r a t h e r l abor i ous i n t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s .
The adhes i on of t he s o i l t o t h e back or' t h e wa l l i n cohesi ve s o i l s
i s u s u a l l y n e g l e c t e d , s i n c e i t s va l ue i s d i f f i c u i t t o det er mi ne and t he
s i c a p l i f i c a t i o n i s c ons e r va t i ve . For t he a c t i v e c a s e , t h e maximum val ue of t h e
e a r t h p r e s s u r e c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e va r i ous wedges is r e qui r e d. T h i s i s a bt a i ne d
by i n t e r p o l a t i n g between t he c a l c u l a t e d val ues ( see Fi gur e 6 ) . For t he p a s s i v e
case, t he r e q u i r e d minimum va l ue is s i mi l a r l y ob:ained. The d i r e c t i o n o f t h e
r e s u l t a n t e a r t h pr e s s ur e i n t h e f o r c e ~ o l y g o n s shoul d be obt af ned b y c o n s i d e r i n g
t he d i r e c t i o n of t h e r e l a t i v e movement between iiie wa l l and s o i l . F o r c a s e s
where t h i s force a c t s p a r a l l e l t o t h e ground s ur f ace, a s u b s t i t u t e consf ant
s l o p e shoul d be used f o r s o i l bot h wi t h and wi t hout cohesi on ( Fi gur e 10) -
Th e o r e t i c a l l y , i n c ohe s i ve s o i l s , t ensi on exists t o a dept h To bel ow
bot h h o r i z o n t a l and s l opi ng ground s u r f a c e s . .
where c
Y
B
-
Yo = -
d
Zc t a n (45' +-
. . . .. ( 5 )
Y -
is the cohesion of t he s o i l i n terms of t o t a l s t r e s s ,
is the bul k u n i t wei ght of t h e soil, arrd
is. the a n g l e of s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e of the s o i l i n te&s of t ot al stress.
Shear s t r e n g t h par amet er s i n t er ms of e r ' f e c t i ve stress (c' 6 9' ) be
us ed i n e qua t i on ( 5 ) .
-
+
Ve r t i c a l t ens i on c r a c k s w i l l devel op i n t h i s zone s i n c e s o i l cannot
s u s t a i n t e n s i o n and w i l l become wa t e r f i l l e d . One of t he s e cr acks w i l l ext end
down t o t h e f a i l u r e s u r f a c e and s o r educe t he l e n g t h on which cohesi on a c t s .
The e f f e c t of t h i s , t oge t he r wi t h t h e s l i g h t l y s ma l l e r wedge wei ght , is t h e
same a s n e g l e c t i n g t he r e d u c t i o n i n t o t a l p r e s s u r e pr ovi ded by t he t e n s i o n
zone a c c or di ng t o t he Ranki ne and Coulomb e q u a t i o n s .
Fi gur e 7 shows t h e wedge
a n a l y s i s Eor t h i s case.
For an i r r e g u l a r gr ound s u r f a c e t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a g a i n s t t he
wal l i s not t r i a n g u l a r . However, i f t h e ground doe s not depar t s i g n i f i c a n t l y
from a pl ane s u r f a c e , a l i n e a r p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n may be assumed, and t he
c o n s t r u c t i o n gi ven i n ' Fi g u r e 1 1 used t o de t e r mi ne t h e poi nt of a p p l i c a t i o n o f
t he a c t i v e f o r c e . A more a c c u r a t e method i s gi ve n i n Fi gur e 12. The La t t e r
shoul d be used when t he r e a r e a b r u p t changes i n t h e ground s u r f a c e , o r t h e r e
a r e non-uniform sur char ges i nvol ve d.
3 . 6 PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURES
The shape o. t h e f a i l u r e s u r f a c e f o r p a s s i v e f a i l u r e i s cur ved, more
s t r o n g l y when wal l f r i c t i o n i s p r e s e n t . Both Coulomb and t he Tr i a l Wedge
t h e o r i e s assume pl ane f a i l u r e s u r f a c e s and l e a d t o s u b s t a n t i a l e r r o r s i n
c a l c u l a t e d va l ue s of p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e .
Methods usi ng cur ved f a i l u r e s u r f a c e s , such a s l og- s pi r al and
-
c i r c u l a r , may be used wi t hout i n t r o d u c t i o n of s i g n i f i c a n t e r r o r . Caquot &
Ker i s el ( 1948) have pr e s e nt e d c h a r t s f o r s i mpl e geomet r i es ( Fi gur es 4 5 )
based on a combi nat i on of l o g - s p i r a l and a p l a n e . For more complex geomet r i es
pa s s i ve p r e s s u r e may be c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g t h e c i r c u l a r a r c method o u t l i n e d i n
Fi gur e 13. Thi s method i s q u i t e l a b o r i o u s f o r e ve n r e l a t i v e l y si mpl e
c ondi t i ons .
The t r i a l wedge method may b e used t o det er mi ne pas s i ve r e s i s t a n c e .
However, s e r i o u s ove r e s t i ma t i on of t h e p a s s i v e p r e s s u r e r e s u l t s when t h e a ngl e
of w a l l f r i c t i o n 6 i s g r e a t e r t ha n 20' 13 ( Mor genst er n & Ei s e ns t e i n, 1970).
Care s houl d b e t aken t he n t o e n s u r e t h a t 6 is not over es t i mat ed, a s t h e e r r o r
is on t h e uns a f e
de t e r mi n2t i on of
s i d e , and the trial wedge .method shoul d n o t be used' f o r t he
pas s i ve p r e s s u r e s when 6 > 0 ' / 3 .
-
-
3'. 7
EARTH PRESSURES FOR SMALL WALL DEFLECTIONS
For c e r t a i n wa l l t ype s , such- a s propped c a n l i l e v e r s and anchored
di aphragm wa l l s , o n l y - s ma l l wal l movements occur and e l a s t i c c ondi t i ons appl y.
--
Where no l a t e r a l movement t a k e s pl a c e from t he i n s i t u condi t i on,
-
t he ' a t - r e s t ' e a r t h p r e s s u r e a p p l i e s . For t h e c a s e of a v e r t i c a l wal l and
a h o r i z o n t a l ground s u r f a c e , i t ha s been shown e mp i r i c a l l y by Jaky ( 1 9 4 4 ) t h a t
t he c o e f f i c i e n t of ' a t - r e s t ' e a r t h p r e s s u r e , KO, f o r nor mal l y cons ol i dat ed
ma t e r i a l s may be t aken a s :
KO = 1 - s i n 0 ' . . . . . ( 6 )
where 0' is t h e angl e of s he a r i ng r e s i s t a n c e of t h e s o i l i n t e r n s of e f f e c t i v e
s t r e s s .
Because of t h e l a c k of d a t a on t h e v a l u e s of KO,
val ues adopt ed f o r de s i gn shoul d not be l e s s t han 0. 5 even f o r s o i l s wi t h hi gh
Er i c t i o n a n g l e s . It shoul d be not ed t h a t , i n some s i t u a t i o n s , val ues much
hi ghe r t han KO = 0. 5 may be found.
For a s l opi ng ground s u r f a c e , KO v a r i e s from t h a t gi ven by equat i on
( 6 ) . The Dani sh Code (Danish Ceot echni cal I n s t i t u t e , 1978) s ugge s t s f o r a
v e r t i c a l wa l l and ground s l opi nga t an a n g l e , w, t h a t t h e ' a t - r e s t ' e a r t h .
pr e s s ur e c o e f f i c i e n t i s KO ( 1 + s i n w) . For o t h e r wa l l a n g l e s and b a c k f i l l
s l o p e s , i t may assumed t h a t t he a t - r e s t p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t v a r i e s pr opor t i on-
a l l y t o t h e ' a c t i v e ' e a r t h p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t , Ka. ' ~ t - r e s t ' e a r t h p r e s s u r e s ,
except f o r over - consol i dat ed s o i l s , may be assumed t o i n c r e a s e l i n e a r l y wi t h
dept h from z e r o a t t h e ground s u r f a c e . The t o t a l a t - r e s t e a r t h pr es s ur e f o r c e
is gi ven by Po = UoY H ' . Thi s a c t s a t H/ 3 from che ba s e of t h e wai l o r from
t h e bot t om of t h e key f o r wa l l s wi t h keys.
I n c ohe s i onl e s s s o i l s , f u l l ' a t - r e s t ' e a r t h p r e s s u r e s occur onl y wi t h
t h e most r i g i d l y suppor t ed w a l l s ( s e e Se c t i o n 3. 10) .
I n h i g h l y p l a s t i c c l a y s ,
Pr e s s u r e s appr oachi ng a t - r e s t may devel op u n l e s s w a l l movement can cont i nue
wi t h time.
3 . 8
INFLUENCE O F GEOMETiZfCAL Sf l APE OF RETAI NI NG STRUCTURE ON WALL F RTCTI ON
When r e l a t i v e movement can o c c u r bet ween a wa l l and t h e s u p p o r t e d
s o i l , che e f f e c t o f wa l l f r i c t i o n must be t aken i n t o account . I n some c a s e s
--
t h e wa l l is f r e e t o move wi t h t h e s o i l , s uch a s i n t he c a s e of l a g g i n g
bet ween s o l d i e r p i l e s . I n t h e s e c a s e s l i t t l e o r no wal l f r i c t i o n i s n wb i l i s c a .
When t h e o u t e r f a i l u r e s u r f a c e from t h e heel of t h e wa l l i n t e r s e c t : s
o r l i e s wi t h i n t h e wa l l Coul omb' s c o n d i t i o n s a ppl y. Ranki ne' s c o n d i t i o n s o n l y
a p p l y t o c a s e s wher e t h i s f a i l u r e s u r f a c e does not i n t e r s e c t t h e wa l l , a s shown
i n Fi gur e 9.
3.9 INFLUENCE OF L I MI T E D BACKFl LL
The met hods given above assume t h a t t h e s o i l is homogeneous f o r a
s u f f i c i e n t d i s t a n c e be hi nd t h e wa l l t o e n a b l e an i nner . f a i l u r e s u r f a c e t o
f or m i n t h e p o s i t i o n wher e s t a t i c e q u i l i b r i u m is s i t i s f i e d ( Fi gur e 12) . Where
a n e x c a v a t i o n i s made t o accommodat e t h e wa l l , t he undi s t ur bed i n s i t u mat eri al
may have a s t r e n g t h d i f f e r i n g from t h e b a c k f i l l . I f e qua t i ons a r e u s e d , t h e .
p o s i t i o n of t wo . f a i l u r e p l a n e s s houl d be c a l c u l a t e d , one us i ng t h e p r o p e r t i e s
of t h e b a c k f i l l ma t e r i a l a n d o n e u s i n g t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t he undi s t ur be d ma t e r i a l -
IE b o t h f a l l wi t h i n t h e p h y s i c a l l i mi t of t h e b a c k f i l l , t he c r i t i c a l E a i l u r e
p l a n e i s o b v i o u s l y t he one c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g t h e b a c k f i l l p r o p e r t i e s .
S i mi l a r l y , i f t h e y b o t h come wi t h i n t h e undi s t ur be d ma t e r i a l , t h e c r i t i c a l o n e
i s t h a t f o r t h e u n d i s t u r b e d ma t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s .
-
. .
Two o t h e r p o s s i b l e s i t u a t i o n s may a r i s e : f i r s t l y where c r i t i c a l f a i l u r e
p l a n e s o c c u r i n b o t h ma t e r i a l s , i n whi ch c a s e t h e one g i v i n g t h e maximum e a r t h
p r e s s u r e i s us e d, and s e c o n d l y wher e t he f a i l u r e pl ane c a l c u l a t e d wi t h t h e
b a c k f i l l p r o p e r t i e s woul d f a l l wi t h i n t h e undi s t ur be d ma t e r i a 1, a nd t h e f a i l u r e
p l a n e f o r u n d i s t u r b e d ma t e r i a l woul d f a l l wi t h i n t he b a c k f i l l . I n t h e l a t t e r
c a s e , whi ch o c c u r s when t h e u n d i s t u r b e d ma t e r i a l ha s a hi gh s t r e n g t h , t h e
-
b a c k f i l l may b e assumed t o s l i d e on t h e p h y s i c a l boundary bet ween t h e t wo
materials. The e a r t h p r e s s u r e e q u a t i o n s do n o t appl y i n t h i s c a s e , b u t t h e
wedge met hod may b e u s e d wi t h t h e a l r e a d y s e l e c t e d f a i l u r e pl a ne and t h e
b a c k f i l l s o i l p r o p e r t i e s . The t o t a l p r e s s u r e t h u s c a l c u l a t e d i s less than
the act i ve v a l u e as s umi ng uni f or m ma t e r i a l behi nd t h e wa l l .
The v a r i a t i o n of
p r e s s u r e wi t h d e p t h i s not l i n e a r , and s houl d be det er mi ned by t h e p r o c e d u r e
g i v e n i n F i g u r e 12-. .
The d e p t h , hc, bel ow whi ch a c t i v e p r e s s u r e due t o t h e wei ght
of t h e o v e r l y i n g s o i l e xc e e ds t h e c ompa c t i on i nduc e d p r e s s u r e i s obt a i ne d
from :
The eEEect of c ompa c t i on on l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e i s s h o w i n Fi gur e
1 4 ( i i ) ( a ) & ( b) and t h e r e s u l t i n g p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n For u s e i n de s i gn,
bas ed on t h i s s i mp l i f i e d t h e o r y , i s shown i n Fi g u r e i 4 ( i i ) ( c ) . I ngol d' s de s i gn
p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n c a n b e s e e n t o b e ve r y s i mi l a r t o t h a t oE Brons shown i n
Fi gur e 14 ( i ) .
3. 11 EFFECTS OF COMPACTION ON CONVENTIONAL WALL DESIGN
The l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e s i nduced by c ompa c t i on ( Fi gur e 1 4 ) can be up
t o t wi c e t h e a c t i v e pr e s s uEe s o b t a i n e d by c o n v e n t i o n a l a n a l y s i s . These
c ompa c t i on p r e s s u r e s l e a d t o h i g h e r s t r u c t u r a l l o a d s , which nay c a us e d i s t r e s s
o r r e s u l t i n s e r v i c e a b i l i t y pr obl e ms wi t h a wa l l .
-
I f movement oE t h e wa l l is a l l owe d t o t a k e pl a c e t h e s e compact i on-
i nduced p r e s s u r e s a r e . r e duc e d. T r a n s l a t i o n s o r r o t a t i o n s of t h e o r d e r o f
H/500 ar e s u f f i c i e n t t o r e d u c e t h e p r e s s u r e s t o near t h e a c t i v e s t a t e . The
f i n a l p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n is p a r a b o l i c r a t h e r t h a n t r i a n g u l a r , and t hus t h e
l i n e o f t h r u s t is r a i s e d .
It i s s a t i s f a c t o r y t o u s e t h e a c t i v e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n when
d e t e r mi n i n g t h e f a c t o r of s a f e t y a g a i n s t s l i d i n g . The bendi ng moments a f t e r
s l i d i n g h a s t a ke n pl ace. may s t i l l b e up t o 50X h i g h e r t han t h o s e p r e d i c t e d
u s i n g a t r i a n g u l a r a c t i v e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n . Ca l c u l a t i o n s of b e a r i n g
p r e s s u r e s a nd o v e r t u r n i n g moments s h o u l d t a k e i nt o a c c ount t h e hi ghe r p o s i t i o n
of t h e l i ne of t h r u s t .
m 4
EFFEGTS OF SURCHARGES
4 . 1 UNIFORM SURCHARGES
Loads imposed
des i gn.
on t h e s o i l behi nd t h e wa l l s houl d be al l owed f o r i n
Uniform s ur c ha r ge l o a d s may be c o n v e r t e d t o an e q u i v a l e n t h e i g h t O F
f i l l and t h e e a r t h p r e s s u r e s c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y g r e a t e r h e i g h t
I n t h i s case t he dept h of t h e t e n s i o n zones i n c o h e s i v e ma t e r i a l is c a l c u l a t e d
from t h e t op of t h e e q u i v a l e n t a d d i t i o n a l f i l l . The d i s t r i b u t i o n of p r e s s u r e
f o r t h e g r e a t e r h e i g h t ' i s de t e r mi ne d by t h e p r o c e d u r e s gi ven i n Cha pt e r 3 . The
t o t a l l a t e r a l e a r t h p r e s s u r e i s c a l c u l a t e d f r om t h e p r e s s u r e di agr am, n e g l e c t i n g
t he p a r t i n t ens i on a nd/ or t h e p a r t i n t h e h e i g h t of f i l l e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e
s ur c ha r ge , a s shown i n Fi gur e 1 2 .
Bui l di ngs wi t h s h a l l o w f o u n d a t i o n may b e t a ke n a s a uni f or m
s ur char ge of lOkPa p e r s t o r e y .
The s t a nda r d l o a d i n g s f o r hi ghway s t r u c t u r e s i n a r e
expr es s ed i n t erms of HA and HB l oa di ng a s d e f i n e d i n BS 5400 : Part 2 : 1978.
I n t he abs ence of - mor e e xa c t c a i c u l a t i o n s , t h e nomi nal l oad due t o l i v e l oad-
s ur char ge may be t aken from Ta b l e 4 .
The two l o a d i n g c a s e s shown i n F i g u r e 16 need t o be c o n s i d e r e d .
Tabl e 4 Sugges t ed Sur c ha r ge Loads t o b e Used i n. t h e Desi gn of
Re t a i ni ng ~ t r u c t u r e s ( P u b l i c Works De pa r t me nt , ' l 977)
r YeMC U N t )
Eq u i v a l e n t
Surcharge
20kPa
1SkPa
1 OkPa
5kPa
t
Road c l a s s
Urban t r unk
Rur al t r u n k
(Road l i k e l y t o b e - r egul ar l y
used by heavy i n d u s t r i a l
t r a f f i c )
Primry d i s t r i b u t o r
Rur al mai n r oad
District and l o c a l d i s t r i b u t o r s
Ot her r u r a l r oa ds
Access Roads, Ca r pa r ks
1 -
Foot pat hs , i s o l a t e d f r om r o a d s
Pl a y a r e a s
Note : 1. It is recommended t h a t t h e s e s u r c h a r g e s b e a p p l i e d . t o t he
1 i n 10 y e a r s t o r m c o n d i t i o n .
2 . For f o o t p a t h s n o t i s o l a t e d f r om r oadways, t h e s u r c h a r g e
a p p l y i n g f o r t h a t - r o a d cl ass s h o u l d be u s e d -
Type of l i v e l o a d i n g
HA + 45 u n i t s of HB
HA + 37% u n i t s of HB
HA
4 . 2 t 1 NE LOADS -
- ,
- -
Where t he r e i s a superi mposed l i n e l oad r unni ng f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e
l e ngt h p a r a l l e l t o t he wal l , t h e Wedge Method of desi gn may be used, and t h e
wei ght per u n i t Length of t h i s l oad can be added t o t h e wei ght of t h e
p a r t i c u l a r t r i a l wedge t o which i t is a ppl i e d. A s t e p thus appear s i n t h e
a c t i v e f o r c e l oc us , a s t he wei ght of t he t r i a l wedge suddenl y i n c r e a s e s when
t h e l i n e l oad i s i ncl uded. The i ncr eas ed t o t a l e a r t h pr es s ur e w i l l be gi ven
from t h e t r i a l wedge pr ocedur e, but t he l i n e l oad w i l l a l s o change t he p o i n t
oE a p p l i c a t i o n oE t h i s t o t a l p r e s s u r e . The method gi ven i n Fi gur e 15 may be
used t o g i v e t he d i s t r i b u t i o n of pr e s s ur e .
When t h e l i n e l oad is s ma l l compared t o t h e a c t i v e e a r t h p r e s s u r e ,
the e Ef e c t o f t h e l i n e l oad 0:: i t s own shoul d b e det er mi ned by t he mechod gi ven
I n Fi gur e 15. Thi s is based on s t r e s s e s i n an e l a s t i c medium modiEied by
exper i menr . The pr essur es t hus det ermi ned a r e superi mposed on t hos e d u e t o
a c t i v e e a r t h pr es s ur e and o t h e r pr e s s ur e s a s a ppr opr i a t e .
4 . 3 P07NTLOAVS .
Poi nt l oads cannot be t aken i n t o account by t r i a l wedge pr ocedur es .
The method based on Boussi nesq' s equat i ons gi ven i n Fi gur e 15 may be u s e d ,
b u t i t shoul d be not ed t h a t t h e method is onl y appr oxi mat e a s t he s t i f - Enes s
of the wa l l i s not taken i n t o account .
c m 5
EFFECTS OF WATER
5. 1 GENERAL
The pr es ence of wa t e r behi nd a wa l l h a s a marked e f f e c t on t h e
p r e s s u r e s a ppl i e d t o t h e wa l l . When t h e p h r e a t i c s u r f a c e i n t e r s e c t s t h e wa l l ,
a h y d r o s t a t i c pr e s s ur e i s e x e r t e d a g a i n s t t h e wa l l , t o g e t h e r wi t h u p l i f t
p r e s s u r e s a l ong t he bas e o f t h e wa l l . Even when t h e r e is no wa t e r i n d i r e c t
c o n t a c t wi t h t he wall., s uc h a s wh e n adequat e d r a i n a g e i s pr ovi ded, t h e r e is an
i n c r e a s e d pr e s s ur e on t h e w a l l due t o t h e i n c r e a s e d e a r t h p r e s s u r e ( S e c t i o n
5. 2) . The e f f e c t of wa t e r behi nd t h e wa l l i s s i g n i f i c a n t ; t h e t o t a l f o r c e
may be more t han doubl e t h a t a p p l i e d For d r y b a c k f i l l . Many r e c or de d wa l l
f a i l u r e s c a n be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e pr es ence of wa t e r .
The he i ght t o whi ch wa t e r can r i s e i n t h e b a c k f i l l , and t h e vol ume .
of f l ow, are bot h of pr i me c onc e r n. To de t e r mi ne t h e s e t he gr ound wa t e r
c o n d i t i o n s must be e s t a b l i s h e d . Thes e may b e b e s t d e r i v e d from t h e
o b s e r v a t i o n of gr oundwat er c o n d i t i o n s p r i o r t o c o n s t r u c t i o n u s i n g p i e z o me t e r s
and by a p p l y i n g t he p r i n c i p l e s o u t l i n e d i n t h i s Sect i on. Not wi t hs t a ndi ng t h e
r e s u l t s o f gr oundwat er moni t or i ng, t h e gr oundwat er l e v e l assumed f o r d e s i g n
s houl d b e n o t l ower t ha n one - t hi r d of t h e r e t a i n e d h e i g h t .
.-
The e f f e c t of l e a ka ge f r om s e r v i c e s c a n be s i g n i f i c a n t . Th e r e i s
evi dence f r om f i e l d measur ement s and f a i l u r e s i n Hong ~ o n g t h a t t h i s l e a k a g e
c o n t r i b u t e s s u b s t a n t i a l l y t o b o t h per ched and mai n gr oundwat er t a b l e s .
Where i nadequat e d r a i n a g e i s pr ovi ded be hi nd a r e t a i n i n g s t r u c t u r e ,
t h e r e may b e a dar ni ng effect whi ch would r e s u l t i n r a i s i n g gr oundwa t e r l e v e l s
l o c a l l y and i n t h e g e n e r a l area. Such a rise may a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t t h e
s t a b i l i t y of s l o p e s and r e t a i n i n g wa l l s . E f f e c t i v e d r a i n a g e me a s ur e s s houl d
al ways be pr ovi ded i n s uch cases.
5.2 EFFECT OF WATER ON EARTH PRESSURES
When a s o i l i s submer ged, i t s e f f e c t i v e u n i t wei ght is r educed t o
Y' = Y sat ' Y W . The l at er al e a r t h p r e s s u r e s h o u l d , i n t h i s case, be
c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g Y ' i n e q u a t i o n s o r c h a r t s .
Al t e r n a t i v e l y , i n g r a p h i c a l
. -
- -
- -
-
pr ocedur es such a s t he t r i a l wedge method, a l l f o r c e s a c t i n g on t he s o i l .
wedge, i nc l udi ng t he h y d r o s t a t i c normal u p l i f t pr e s s ur e on t he f a i l u r e pl ane
and t h e l a t e r a l h y d r o s t a t i c pr e s s ur e , may be i ncl uded i n t he t r i a l wedge
pr ocedur e. his is i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fi gur e 6 t o 8.
In low per meabi l i t y cohesi ve s o i l s , t he por e wat er pr e s s ur e s s e t up
d u r i n g c ons t r uc t i on may be i n exces s of any h y d r o s t a t i c por e pr e s s ur e , s o an
undr ai ned a n a l y s i s may be more a ppr opr i a t e .
When t ensi on c r a c ks occur , l a t e r a l h y d r o s t a t i c wat er pr e s s ur e shoul d
be i ncl uded For t h e f u l l dept h of t he t r a c k , a s gi ven i n Sect i on 3. 5 o r f o r
H / 2 , wh i c h e v e r ' i s l e s s . Fu l l l a t e r a l ' wa t e r pr e s s ur e must be al l owed f o r
below t h e i n v e r t of t he l owest weep hol es o r o t h e r dr ai nage o u t l e t s .
I F t he wat er i n t he s o i l v o i d s ' i s f l owi ng, t he por e wat er pr e s s ur e s ,
a r e changed from t he h y d r o s t a t i c val ues t o values det emi ned by the seepage p a t t e r n .
These v a l u e s have t o be used i n a t r i a l wedge s o l u t i o n t o det er mi ne t he e a r t h
p r e s s u r e .
The a c t u a l f l ow p a t t e r n developed i s ver y dependent on t he
uni f or mi t y and homogeneity o f . t h e ground, and on t h e pos i t i on of any d r a i n s .
*
Fi gur e 17( a ) shows t h e f l ow n e t produced by s t e a dy seepage i n t o a v e r t i c a l
. .
d r a i n when t h e phr e a t i c s u r f a c e i s below ground l e v e l and t h e b a c k f i l l
uni f or m and i s o t r o p i c . Ra i n f a l l of i n t e n s i t y e qua l t o o r g r e a t e r t han t h e
p e r me a b i l i t y of t h e b a c k f i l l w i l l change t h i s f l ow n e t t o t h a t s h o w i?
Fi gur e 17( b) if t h e r e i s no s u r f a c e pr ot ect i on t o pr event i n f i l t r a t i o n .
Ther e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n . wa t e r pr e s s ur e on t h e f a i l u r e s ur f ace f o r t h i s
l a t t e r cas e. It is t hus d e s i r a b l e , f o r t h i s d r a i n a g e ar r angement , t o pr e ve nt
-
wa t e r e n t e r i n g t h e b a c k f i l l from the s ur f ace. Fi gur e 17( c) shows t h e f l ow
n e t due t o heavy r a i n f a l l i n f i l t r a t i o n i n t o an i n c l i n e d dr a i n. The e f f e c t
of t h i s dr a i na ge arrangement i s t o reduce t h e wa t e r p r e s s i r e i n t h e b a c k f i l l
t-o z e r o; t h i s is t h e r e f o r e a v e r y e f f e c t i v e d r a i n a g e measure.
The por e wat er pr e s s ur e s normal t o t h e a c t i v e o r pas s i ve wedge
f a i l u r e s u r f a c e a f f e c t t he f o r c e s a c t i ng on a w a l l .
The r e s u l t a n t t h r u s t on
t h e f a i l u r e s ur f a c e , det ermi ned from a flow n e t ,
i s a ppl i e d in t h e f o r c e
polygon f o r t h e s o i l wedge t oge t he r wi t h any l a t e r a l wat er pr e s s ur e a t t h e
wa l l a s shown i n Fdgures 6 t o 8. The method of det er mi ni ng wa t e r pr e s s ur e s
from t he f l ow n e t , and hence t h e wat er Eorce, is shown i n Fi gur e 1 7 . -
~0.r methods of d e a l i n g wi t h seepage t hr ough a ni s ot r opi c and
non-homogeneous b a c k f i l l s , r e f e r e nc e may be made t o Cedergren ( 1 9 7 7 ) .
5.3 DRAINAGE PROVISIONS
Water pr es s ur es must be i ncl uded i n t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e wa l l
knl e s s s u i t a b l e dr ai nage i s pr ovi ded. Good p r a c t i c e r e qui r e s t h a t dr a i na ge
is al ways pr ovi ded.
For wa l l s l e s s t han 2 met r es hi gh, dr a i na ge ma t e r i a l is u s u a l l y
onl y pr ovi ded on t he back f a c e of t he v a l l , wi t h weep hol es t o r e l i e v e wa t e r
Pr es s ur e. I n some low r i s k s i t u a t i o n s , i t may be ge ot e c hni c a l l y t o l e r a b l e
and economi cal l y advant ageous t o omit t he d r a i n and desi gn f o r t h e h y d r o s t a t i c
water pr es s ur e.
With c or r e c t l y desi gned i n c l i n ~ d dr a i na ge syst ems, such a s t hos e
shown i n Fi gur e s 18(a) & ( c ) , wat er pr es s ur es may be negl ect ed bot h on t h e wa l l
i t s e l f and on t h e s o i l f a i l u r e pl ane. Al t e r na t i ve dr ai nage d e t a i l s a s shown
i n Fi gur es 18(b) & (d) may be used. I n t h e s e c a s e s , t he appr opr i - at e wa t e r
Pr es s ur e shoul d be consi der ed i n desi gn. Hydr os t a t i c pr e s s ur e w i f l act on
t he wa l l bel ow t h e l owest dr a i na ge o u t l e t .
For a dr a i n t o b e e f f e c t i v e i t must b e a b l e t o c a r r y t h e de s i gn l o$
' of wat er wi t hout backi ng up o r bl ocki ng.
Th i s de s i gn flow s houl d i n c l u d e t h e
. f l ows from l e a k i n g or b u r s t s e r v i c e condui t s where a ppr opr i a t e .
To pr event bl ockage, t h e dr a i n must b e pr ot ect ed by a n a de qua t e
! filter, desi gned accor di ng t o t h e r u l e s gi ve n i n Sect i on 5. 4.
The r a t e of seepage i n t o t h e d r a i n from t h e s o i l can be
!
det ermi ned f r om a fl ow n e t t oge t he r wi t h a knowl edge of t h e p e r me a b i l i t i e s
' of t he s o i l s i nvol ved and a fl ow-net .
-
n e wat er f l ow rate t h a t t h e d r a i n a g e l a y e r can accommodate depends
. on t he pe r me a bi l i t y of t h e dr a i na ge medium, t h e t hi c kne s s of t h e d r a i n and t he
-
- -
hydr a ul i c gr a di e nt - i n t he d r a i n . In some c a s e s , i t may be i nt ended t hat t he
f i l t e r i t s e l f shou-ld a c t a s a d r a i n ; i f so, i t shoul d be desi gned t o have
,
adequat e c a p a c i t y . --
-
By t he use of a convent i onal f l ow n e t s k e t c h , t he approxi mat e r a t e
of Elow i n t o t h e d r a i n may be e s t i ma t e d .
Usi ng an a p p r o p r i a t e val ue OF
hydr a ul i c g r a d i e n t , i, and t h e va l ue of p e r me a b i l i t y f o r t h e dr ai nage ma t e r i a l ,
ki, t h e r equi r ed a r e a of dr a i na ge ma t e r i a l , A, normal t o t he di r ect i on- of
Flow can be det er mi ned by a p p l i c a t i o n of ~ a r c y ' s l aw :
where 'Q is t he fl ow r a t e t hr ough t h e d r a i n .
A s a ver y ge ne r a l gui de d r a i n a g e ma t e r i a l shoul d have a per meabi l i t y
a t l e a s t 100 t i mes t h a t of t h e ma t e r i a l i t is meant t o d r a i n . If t h i s is
achi eved, por e wat er pr e s s ur e s due t o s eepage w i l l be minimised a t t he
boundary, and t he s o i l mass w i l l d r a i n a s though i t had a f r e e boundary.
Pe r me a b i l i t i e s of gr anul ar ( dr a i na ge ) ma t e r i a l s a r e gi ven i n Fi gur e 20.
I n s ome- cas es , Fi gur e 19 ( Ceder gr en 1977) nay be us e f ul i n
d e t e r n i n i n g t h e t hi c kne s s of t h e f i l t e r o r d r a i n , b u t i t shoul d be nored t h a t
c o n s t r u c t i o n c ons i de r a t i ons o f t e n gover n t h i c k n e s s .
A
he maximum a l l owa bl e h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n r i n t h e d r a i n depends on
t h e l a r g e s t h y d r o s t a t i c head t h a t c a n s a f e l y devel op wi t hout caus i ng
unde s i r a bl e h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s o r i n f i l t r a t i o n i n t o t h e b a c k f i l l .
I t shoul d be not ed t h a t a c l e a n wel l - gr aded rock b a c k f i l l pr ot ect ed
by an a p p r o p r i a t e F i l t e r would be an e x c e l l e n t s o l u t i o n i n any l oc a t i on where
seepage f r om t h e s o i l o r l eakage from s e r v i c e c o n d u i t s may be a problem.
5. 4 FILTER RE(LU2REMENTS
5 . 4 - 1 Grraded F i B m
All drainage t h a t i s pr ovi ded shoul d b e adequat el y pr ot ect ed by
pr oper l y des i gned f i l t e r l a y e r s a g a i n s t bl ockage- due t o t he movement of the
f i n e r s o i l p a r t i c Le s .
~ i l t e r s s houl d b e more per meabl e than t he pr ot ect ed
s o i l , and f i l t e r ma t e r i a l s s houl d be t r a ns por t e d and pl aced c a r e f u l l y s o t h a t
. s e g r e g a t i o n , and cont ami nat i on by f i n e s , does n o t occur .
Where f i l t e r ma t e r i a l s a r e used i n c onj unc t i on wi t h a c o a r s e r free-
drainage ma t e r i t l such a s cr ushed r ock, the gr a di ng of t he c oa r s e r ma t e r i a l
shoul d c o n f o m t o t he f i l t e r de s i gn c r i t e r i a gi ven i n Tabl e 5 ,
t o p r o t e c t
the f i l t e r fro= e r os i on.
Table 5 F i l t e r Cr i t e r i a
( Geot echni cal Nanual f o r Sl o p e s , 1979)
Rule tiumber F i l t e r Desi gn Rul e .
D15F, < 5 Da5Sf
D15F, < 20 x D15Sf
D15Ff > 5 x D15S,
D50Fc < 25 x U50Sf
1JniEormity c o e f f i c i e n t 4 < D60F
D 1 OF
Should not be gap gr aded
Maximllm p a r t i c l e s i z e : 7 5 mm
Not more t han 5 % tro pa s s 63um s i e v e , and
t h i s f r a c t i o n t o be c o h e s i o n l e s s
* For wel l -graded base s o i l t h i s c r i t e r i o n can be ext ended t o
I n t h i s t a b l e , DI5F is used t o d e s i g n a t e t h e 15% s i z e of t h e f i l t e r
ma t e r i a l ( i - e . t he s i z e o f t he s i e v e t h a t a l l o ws 15% by wei ght of t h e f i l t e r
ma t e r i a l t o pass tlirough i t ) . Si mi l a r l y , Da5S d e s i g n a t e s t h e s i z e of s i e v e
that al l ows 65X by wei ght of the base s o i l t o p a s s t hr ough i t .
D60Fc
i n d i c a t e s t he D s i z e on t h e c o a r s e s i d e of t h e f i l t e r envel ope. D~ o FE
i n d i c a t e s t he Dl0 s i z e on t he f i n e s i d e of the f i l t e r envel ope.
When c e r t a i n gr a di ngs of decomposed v o l c a n i c . ma t e r i a l s wi t h an
a ppr e c i a bl e f i ne s c o n t e n t a r e be i ng used a s b a c k f i l l , the f i l t e r d e s i g n may
r e q u i r e s p e c i a l care.
-
-
I n some c a s e s , it may be p o s s i b l e t o u s e man-made f i b r o u s woven
and non-woven f a b r i c s , known as pot e z t i l e s , t o p r o t e c t t h e dr a i na ge
f a c i l i t i e s .
Ther e are o b j e c t i o n s t o 2 t h & u s e of Some of these mat er i al s, such - -
a s s e r i o u s d e t e r i o r a t i o n on exposur e t o s u n l i g h t and u l t r a - v i o l e t l i g h t ,
cl oggi ng due t o movement of f i nes , . r e duc t i on i n per menhi l i t y due t o compression,
c o n s t r u c t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s and ma t e r i a l s Forming p l a n e s of weakness ifl t he
-
works. IF t h e s e o b j e c t i o n s a r e overcome by a t t e n t i o n t o des i gn, const r uct i on.
and q u a l i t y c o n t r o l , t hen t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of g e o t e x t i l e s pr ovi des new
o p p o r t u n i t i e s Eor i nnova t i ve f i l t e r l d r a i n des i gn and c ons t r uc t i on.
Fa br i c f i l t e r s s houl d be pr oper l y desi gned t o be i n f i l t e r
r e l a t i o n s h i p wi t h t he s ur r oundi ng s o i l . Care must b e taken t o s e l e c t n
g e o t e x t i l e which is a p p r o p r i a t e t o t he gr adi ng of t h e s o i l i t i s i nt ended t o
pr ot e c t and has adequat e d r a i n a g e c a p a c i t y Eor t h e p a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a t i o n .
A summary of des i gn c r i t e r i a f o r f a b r i c f i l t e r s is gi ven i n t he book by
Ranki l or ( 1981) .
Ava i l a bl e l i t e r a t u r e s ugge s t s t h a t Ea br i c s wi t h an e qui va l e nt
openi ng s i z e oE l e s s t han 15Opm ( or a n open a r e a of l e s s than 4%) and t h e
t h i c k e r non-woven f a b r i c s , may be more prone t o c l oggi ng t han o t h e r v a r i e t i e s .
The us e of t he s e t ypes' shoul d t h e r e f o r e be avoi ded unl e s s t he s a t i s f a c t o r y
performance of t h e p a r t i c u l a r soil/fabric/drainage-medium syst em has been
demonst r at ed by pe r me a bi l i t y t e s t . On t he o t h e r hand, some of t he ver y . t hi n
f a b r i c v a r i e t i e s e x h i b i t q u i t e l a r g e v i s i b l e - g a p s caused by uneven
d i s t r i b u t i o n oE f i b r e s , and, t h e us e of such d e f e c t i v e ma t e r i a l s shoul d a l s o
be avoi ded.
-
Duri ng c o n s t r u c t i o n , s t r i n g e n t measures a r e r equi r ed t o eri sure t h a t
t he ma nuf a c t ur e r ' s i n s t r u c t i o n s concer ni ng s t o r a g e and handl i ng a r e s t r i c t l y
f ol l owed, and t h a t s t o r a g e , pl acement and b a c k f i l l i n g of f a b r i c s a r e
c a r e f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d t o a voi d e x c e s s i v e exposur e t o u l t r a - v i o l e t l i g h t ,
mechani cal damage and i n e f f e c t i v e over l appi ng. It i s pr udent t o use t wo
l ayers of f a b r i c as a p r e c a u t i o n a g a i n s t i mpai r ment of t he f i l t e r f u n c t i o n by
mechani cal damage dur i ng pl acement .
6. 1 GENERAL
The s t a b i l i t y of a f r e e s t a ndi ng r e t a i n i n g s t r u c t u ~ e and t he s o i l
cont ai ned by i t i s det er mi ned by computing f a c t o r s of s a f e t y ( or s t a bi l i t y
factors), which may be de f i ne d i n gener al t er ms a s :
F, =
Moments o r f or c e s a i d i n g s t a b i l i t y
. . . . . ( 1 1 )
.Moments o r f or c e s c a us i ng i n s t a b i l i t y
Fa c t or s of s a f e t y s houl d be c a l c ul a t e d f o r t he f ol l ovi ng s e pa r a t e
modes of f a i l u r e and shoul d appl y t o t he 1 i n 10 ye a r groundwater c ondi t i on :
( a) s l i d i n g of t h e wal l out war ds from t he r e t a i ni ng s o i l ,
( b) ove r t ur ni ng of t h e r e t a i n i n g wa l l about i t s t oe ,
(c> f oundat i on be a r i ng f a i l u r e , and
( d) l a r g e r s c a l e s l ope o r ot he r f a i l u r e i n t h e sur r oundi ng s o i l .
The f o r c e s t h a t pr oduce ove r t ur ni ng and s l i d i n g a l s o produce t he
f oundat i on be a r i ng pr e s s ur e s and, t h e r e f o r e , ( a ) and ( b) above a r e i n t e r - r e l a t
with ( c) i n most s o i l s . -
I n c a s e s where t he f oundat i on material is s o i l , over t ur ni ng s t a b i l i t
is us ua l l y s a t i s f i e d i f be a r i ng c r i t e r i a a r e s a t i s f i e d . However, ove r t ur ni ng
s t a b i l i t y may be c r i t i c a l - f o r s t r o n g f oundat i on ma t e r i a l s such a s r ock, o r whc
t he base of t he wa l l i s propped, o r when t h e ba s e of t he wa l l i s small, f o r
i ns t ance wi t h c r i b wa l l s .
-
I n ge ne r a l , t o l i m i t s e t t l e me nt and t i l t i n g of wa l l s on s o i l ma t e r i a l s ,
t he r e s u l t a n t of t h e l oadi ng on t h e base s houl d b e wi t h i n t he mi ddl e t h i r d .
For r ock f oundat i on ma t e r i a l , t h e r e s u l t a n t s houl d b e wi t hi n t he mi ddl e h a l f
of t he bas e.
men c a l c u l a t i n g o v d r a l l s t a b i l 2 t y of a wa l l , t h e l a t e r a l ' e a r t h -
Pr es s ur e is c a l c u l a t e d t o t h e bot t om of t h e b l i n d i n g Layer, o r i n t h e c a s e of
a base wi t h a key, t o the bot t om of t he key where t h e act ual ' f a i l u r e mechanism
ext ends Co t h a t pcint.
- . . - - -
If t he pas s i ve r es i s t ance of t he s o i l i n f r ont of a wal l is i ncl uded
i n t he cal cul at i ons for s l i d i n g s t a b i l i t y , onl y 502 of t he cal cul at ed pas s i ve
r e s i s t a nc e should be used, because oE t he l a r ge deformat i ons r equi r ed t o
mobi l i s e t he Eul l pas s i ve r es i s t ance. . .
St a b i l i t y c r i t e r i a For Erec s t andi ng r et ai ni ng wal l s a r e summarised
i n Fi gur e 22.
SLIDING STABT LITY
6 . 2 . 1 gane wdhuUR a Key
Sl i di ng occur s al ong t he under si de of t he base ( s e e Sect i on 2. 6
Eor f ur t he r di scussi on) .
The f a c t or of s a f e t y, Fs, agai ns t s l i d i n g shoul d not be less t han
Fs ( s l i di ng) =
(Wt + P,)tan 6b + ct B + O . W D
H
where Wt is t he weight of t he w a l l
P, i s t he v e r t i c a l component of ear t h pr es s ur e f or ce
PH is t he hor i zont al component of ear t h pr es s ur e f or ce
6b i s t he angl e of base Eriction
-
cb i s t he adhesion at t he base of t he wal l
B is t he base wi dt h, and
Pp i s t he passi ve pr es s ur e f or ce.
The effects of water f or ces shoul d be taken i n t o account i n chis
equat i on, i ncl udi ng u p l i f t pr essur es below t he wal l bas e, unl es s dr a i ns t h a t
permanently and e f f e c t i v e l y el i mi nat e u p l i f t wat er pr es s ur es a r e provi ded-
-
6 . 2 . 2 4ade utith a Key - -
-.
Huntington (1961) suggest s t h a t w a l l s wi t h shal-low key& shoul d b e
anal ysed assuming t h a t s l i d i n g occur s on a hori zont aP pl ane t hrough t h e s o i l
a t t he bottom of t h e key-. Both active and passi qe forces should-. be- a dj us t e d
t o t ake i nt o account t he dept h of t h e key.
The wei ght of s o i l i n f r o n t of t he
key and bel ow- t he bas e, d o n t o the f a i l u r e s ur f ace, shoul d be i ncl uded i n the
t o t a l we i g h t , Wc . Fi gur e 1 shows t he f o r c e s i nvol ved. The f a c t o r of s a f e t y
a g a i n s t s l i d i n g s houl d be as gi ven i n Se c t i on 6. 2. 1, wi t h t he a n g l e of b a s e
[ r i c t i o n , 6t,, r e pl a c e d by t h e a ngl e of s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e , 0', of t h e
f o u n d a t i o n s o i l .
6. 2. 3 S f i c f i n g on a Rock Foundat;con
I t i s p o s s i b l e t o a na l ys e t h e s l i d i n g of a r e t a i n i n g wa l l on a
rock f o u n d a t i o n i n a s i mi l a r manner t o s l i d i n g of r ock a l o n g a r ock joint.-
The b a s i c f r i c t i o n a n g l e may be i nc r e a s e d by a wavi nes s a n g l e , i,, based on
t he measur ed wavi nes s of t h e exposed r ock s u r f a c e .
The wavi nes s must be of a s u f f i c i e n t s i z e s o t ha: s h e a r i n g ~ h r o u g h
t h e a s p e r i t y does n o t occur . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e must be a s i g n i f i c a n t
component of t h e r ock s u r f a c e i n c l i n e d a t i , i n t h e d i r e c r i o n of s l i d i n g .
, 6 . 3 OVERTURNING STAB1 Ll TY
6 . 3 . 1 G ~ ~ J u !
Moments c a l c c l a t e d about t he bot t om o f t h e f r o n t o f t h e t o e s houl d
gi ve a f a c t o r of s a f e t y , F,, a g a i n s t o v e r t u r n i n g of n o t l e s s t han 2 .
Fs ( o v e r t u r n i n g ) =
M,
.. . . . ( 13)
-
vhere. Mr i s t h e a l g e b r a i c sum of moments r e s i s t i n g o v e r t u r n i n g and
Pi i s t h e a l g e b r a i c sum of moments c a us i ng o v e r t u r n i n g .
--
For s e mi g r a v i t y c a n t i l e v e r and c o u n t e r f o r t / a l l s , o n l y t h e .
o v e r t x n i n g f a c t o r of s a f e t y f o r t h e ~ w a l l as a whol e is s i g n i f i c a n t . For
crib wa l l s and s o l i d g r a v i t y wa l l s f o r whi ch t h e b a s e and t h e upper p o r t i o n
-
of t h e wa l l ar e u s u a l l y s e p a r a t e u n i t s , t h e f a c t o r o f s a f e t y of t h e uppe r
Por t i on a g a i n s t o v e r t u r n i n g a bout its t o e s houl d b e checked.
P a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e s houl d n o t b e i nc l ude d i n c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r Fs
( ove r t ur ni ng) for c o n v e n t i o n a l walls.
Ther e a r e number of ways i n whi ch a f a c t o r of s a f e t y a g a i n s t
o v e r t u r n i n g may be de t e r mi ne d, and t h e s e l e a d t o s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n
t h e comput ed v a l u e of F,.
--
I n o r d e r t o under s t and. why some of t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s oc c ur , t he
f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e s i mpl e r e t a i n i n g w a l l i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fi gur e 22( a) wi l l
b e exami ned. Dry b a c k Ei l l o n l y i s c o n s i d e r e d , and t er ms a r e de f i ne d on t he
di agr am.
Appl i c a t i on of e q u a t i o n (13) g i v e s ( Fi gur e 22) :
W .a
Fs ( o v e r t u r n i n g ) = . -
PA-m
It may be not ed t h a t , f o r t h e u s u a l p r o p o r t i o n s of s o l i d g r a v i t y
r e t a i n f n g wa l l s , t he b a t t e r of t h e back i s u s u a l l y s uch t h a t t h e f i n e of a c t i o n
of PA p a s s e s bel ow t he t o e . he l e ve r - a r m, m, i s t h u s n e g a t i v e and PA
c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e w a l l . A n e g a t i v e value o f . F s t hus indicates
t h a t t h e wa l l cannot o v e r t u r n .
It i s us ual i n retaining wall d e s i g n t o work i n terms of - t h e
h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l component s o f t h e o v e r t u r n i n g f o r c e PA. These Eor ces ,
mu l t i p l i e d by t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e l e v e r ar ms and s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o equat i on- ( 14)
f o r t h e s i mpl e c a s e a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 22( a) . -
g i v e
It i s commonly assumed however
resisting o v e r t u r n i n g and on t h i s basis,
t h a t t h e component Pv c o n t r i b u t e s t o
the f a c t o r of s a f e t y becomes
-
. . . . . (16)
Equat i ons ( 15) and ( 16) d o n o t , of c o u r s e , g i v e t h e same value of
factor of safety.
I t can b e seen t h a t , accor di ng t o e q u a t i o n ( 16) , t h e o v e r t u r n i n g
f a c t o r of s a f e t y is t ha t number by which t h e h o r i z o n t a l component of t h e e a r t h
pr es s ur e would need . t o be mu1~; i pl i ed t o c a u s e o v e r t u r n i n g , t he v e r t i c a l
component of t h i s pr es s ur e remaining unchanged. I t i s un l i k e l y , howcvcr , 1hnL
t h e hor i zont al component of t h e r e s u l t a n t e a r t h p r e s s u r e would i n c r e a s e and
t h e v e r t i c a l component remain unchanged. On t h i s b a s i s , i t would appear chat
t h e procedure r epr es ent ed by equat i on ( 16) is not l o g i c a l .
Although equat i on (16) l eads t o a more c o n s e r v a t i v e r e s u l t t han t h e
pr ocedur e based on equat i on ( 15) , i t is not recommended and t he des i gn c ht a
gi ven i n Fi gure 22 i s based on t he more l o g i c a l pr ocedur e r e pr e s e nt e d by
equat i on ( 1 5 ) - Hunt i ngt on (1961) d i s c u s s e s t h i s t o p i c .
. .
6. 3. 3 W& 14~Lt h Oeep Keg4
Appl i cat i on of an a n a l y s i s of r o t a t i o n a l s t a b i l i t y of wa l l s wi t h
deep keys t o t h e r e a l s i t u a t i o n i s found t o be ver y u n c e r t a i n , a s t he f o r c e s
a c t i n g a r e dependent on t h e r e l a t i v e s t i f f n e s s o f t h e wa l l and the supporting
s o i l , and on t he def or mat i on t h a t t akes p l a c e . I n view of c o n s t r u c t i o n a l
di f f i c ul t i e s a nc ! l i k e l y l a r g e def or mat i ons , wa l l s wi t h deep keys shoul d i n
ge ne r a l be avoi ded ( s ee Se c t i on 1 1 . 7 ) .
6 . 4 FOUtdIATl ON BEARING PRESSURE
The u l t i n a t e be a r i ng capaci t y of t h e f oundat i on s o i l on whi ch a n
e a r t h r e t a i ni ng s t r u c t u r e r e s t s should g e n e r a l l y be de t t nnined.[rcm a t h e o r e t i c a l
a n a l y s i s of t h e f oundat i on, us i ng t he s o i l p r o p e r t i e s obt a i ne d from l a b o r a t o r y
t e s t s . Where a p p r o p r i a t e , t h e s e s hear s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s shoul d be r evi ewed
a s t h e c ons t r uc t i on proceeds. The a ppl i e d l o a d i n g s houl d pr ovi de a f a c t o r o f
s a f e t y of 3.0 a g a i n s t u l t i ma t e bear i ng f a i l u r e .
Foundat i ons of r e t n i n i n g wa l l s a r e u s u a l l y s u b j e c t e d t o i n c l i n e d and
e c c e n t r i c l oads, t h e f oundat i on i t s e l f may b e t i l t e d a t an a n g l e t o t h e
h o r i z o n t a l and sometimes t he wa l l i s founded on s l o p i n g gr ound. A g e n e r a l
expr es s i on for t h e u l t i ma t e bear i ng c a p a c i t y of s ha l l ow f o u n d a t i o n s whi ch c a n
deal with t hese s i t u a t i o n s ha s been gi ven by Vesic (19751, and t h i s is pr esent ed
in Se c t i on 6 -4-2.
. -
Ot her f a c t o r s which may i nl l ue nc e t he bear i ng c a p a c i t y a r e t he
f oundat i on d e p t h , - s o i l c ompr c s s j bi l i c y, s c a l e e f f e c t s and non-homogeneous s o i l
c ondi t i ons . These a r e di s cus s ed by Vesi c ( 1975) . -
6.4.2 8e&q Capaccty Fc r c t oa
The ul t i ma t e bear i ng c a pa c i t y of a shal l ow (DSD) s t r i p f oundat i on
is gi ven by :
- term r e l a t i n g t o e f f e c t s
oE cohesi on )
+ !2 v 8, N S i, t, gy - term r e l a t i n g t o i nf l uence
1
Y Y of uni t wei ght of s o i l ) .... ( t i )
1
- term r e l a t i n g t o s ur char ge)
e f f e c t s
- . - - .. . -
The bear i ng c a pa c i t y f a c t o r s , Nc , Ny , Nq . are f unc t i ons of t he a ngl e
of s he a r i ng r e s i s t a nc e , 0, of t he s o i l and a r e modi fi ed a s a ppr opr i a t e us i ng .
f a c t o r s f o r t he shape of f oot i ng, S,, Sy, S S , i n c l i n a t i o n of l oa d, ic, iy, i
(1 '
t i l t of f oot i ng base , t,, t y , t q , and s l o p e of ground, gc , gy, gq- Values
f o r t he s e f a c t or s a r e gi ven i n Fi gur e 23.
The above be a r i ng capaci t y Fa c t or s have been det er mi ned on t he
assumpt i on t h a t t he f oundat i on ma t e r i a l is r easonabl y i ncompr es s i bl e, so t h a t
f a i l u r e would occur by ge ne r a l s hear i ng. For compr essi bl e ma t e r i a l s , f a i l u r e
occur s by l ocal o r punchi ng f a i l u r e . For t he s e ma t e r i a l s Ter zaghi (1943)
recommended t ha t t he va l ue of cohesi on used shoul d be reduced t o 2 ~ 7 3 , and t h e
- 1
a ngl e of s hear i ng r e s i s t a n c e t o t an ( ( 2 t a n 0')/3). A more a c c ur a t e s o l u t i o n
c ons i de r i ng bot h c ompr e s s i bi l i t y and' s i z e e f f e c t s is gi ven by Vesic ( 1975).
Fo r f o u n d a t i o n s cons t r uct ed on s a t u r a t e d cl ayey s o i l s of low
per meabi l i t y, t he shor t - t er m s t a b i l i t y i s c r i t i c a l , and t he y a r e us ua l l y
anal ys ed i n - t er ns of undr ai ned s t r e n g t h ( 0' _= 0 a n a l y s i s ) -
--
Where a w a l l i s founded on compact ed f i l l ove r l yi ng e i t h e r s o f t
c l a y o r l oos e f i l l , p a r t i c u l a r c a r e must b e t aken. Ref er ence shoul d be made
t o Vesic ( 1975) .
-
6 . 4 . 3 E66ect 06 G~owtdwcLtm Lev&
Equat i on (17) a p p l i e s when t h e groundwat er t a b l e is a t a di s t a nc e
of a t l e a s t B below t h e ba s e of t he f oundat i on. When t he water t a bl e is a t
t he same Level a s t he f oundat i on, t h e submerged uni t wei ght of t he s o i l be l ow'
t he f oundat i on shoul d be used. For i nt e r me di a t e l e v e l s of t hc. . r; nt cr t a b l e ,
t he ul t i ma t e be a r i ng c a pa c i t y shoul d be i nt e r pol a t e d between ~ h c abov'c
l i mi t i ng va l ue s .
6.5 ECCEMRZC LOADS
- .
-
When t he l oad on the f oundat i on i s e c c e nt ki c , t h i s s nbs t anc i a l l y
r educes t he be a r i ng c a pa c i t y. To a l l ow f o r t h i s , t he base wi dt h, B , is
reduced t o an e f f e c t i v e wi dt h B ' gi ven by :
B
where eb i s t he l oad e c c e n t r i c i t y ( eb 5
1.
For a f o o t i n g e c c e n t r i c a l l y l oaded i n two d i r e c t i o n s , t he e f f e c t i v e
di mensi ons of t h e bas e become such t h a t t he c e n t r e of an a r e a , A ' . c o i n c i d e s
wi t h t he v e r t i c a l component, V, of t h e appl i ed l oad. Then :
where L' = L - 2eI, and B' = B - 2 e l , and e l , eb a r e t h e l oad e c c e n t r i c i t i e s
#
i n t he two d i r e c t i o n s .
- .
L' and B ' a r e t hen used i n pl a c e of L and B i n a l l eqi 1at i ons.
- - - -
-.
The f a c t o r of s a f e t y i s gi ven by :
F, ( be a r i ng) = q-fi ...
4 a l l .
V
- f o r a c ont i nuous
Where qall. = f o r a r e c t a ngul a r f pot i ng, and- q a l l - -
B'
strip f o o t i n g ( uni t l e n g t h c ons i de r e d) .
6 . 6 FOUNDATTONS COIJSTRUCTED ON SLOPING GROUND AM) NEAR SLOPE CRESTS
The u l t i ma t e be a r i ng c a p a c i t y of f ounda t i ons c ons t r uc t e d
-on s l o p e s
i s l ower t han t h a t f o r f oundat i ons c ons t r uc t e d on l e v e l ground.
The gr ound
s l o p e f a c t o r s of Vesic (l975), gi ven i n Fi gur e 23, a r e devi s ed t o t a k e t h i s
i n t o account . .- -
Where a Eoundation i s cons t r uct ed on the. c r e s t of a s l ope , t he
be a r i ng c a pa c i t y i ncr eas es wi t h di s t a nc e from t he c r e s t t o a maximum val ue a t
--
d i s t a n c e s from t he c r e s t gr e a t e r than appr oxi mat el y f our t i m e s t he f oundat i an
wi dt h. No exact s ol ut i on i s a va i l a bl e f o r t h i s c a s e . The pr ocedur e out l i ne d
by Bowles (1977) coul d be a p p l i e d ' t o t he val ues gi ven by Vesi c i n Fi gure 23.
Al t e r n a t i v e l y , a s a conser vat i ve assumpt i on, a l i n e a r v a r i a t i o n between t h e
two ext r eme val ues may be used.
The bear i ng capaci t y c a l c ul a t i ons d o not cons i der the f a c t t h a t t h e
s o i l on t h e s l ope i s al r eady under s t r e s s . Thi s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i mpor t ant wh e r e
t h e i n c l i n a t i o n of t he s l ope is gr e a t e r t han 0 ' / 2 . The o v e r a l l s t a b i l i t y of
t h e s l o p e under t he i nf l uence of t he l oaded f oot i ng must t h e r e f o r e be checked,
in a d d i t i o n t o t h e bear i ng capaci t y c a l c ul a t i on.
6. 7 FOUNDATIONS ON ROCK
Foundat i ons on cont i nuous sound rock seldom pr es eni ptoblems s i n c e
t h e r ock i s s t r onge r t han most f oundat i on ma t e r i a l s . St r u c t u r a l d e f e c t s and
d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s , or t he compr es s i bi l i t y of t he r ock mass below t he f oundat i on,
u s u a l l y c ont r ol t he al l owabl e bear i ng pr es s ur e.
Where di s cont i nui t y- cont r ol l ed f a i l u r e mechanisms a r e pos s i bl e , j o i n t
s ur ve ys shoul d b e c a r r i e d out i n t he excavat i on and a dj a c e nt s l ope s . -
The compr es s i bi l i t y of t he rock mass below Eoundation l e ve l depends
on t h e f r equency of j o i n t s and on t he amount and t ype of i n f i l l i n g ~f t h e s e
j o i n t s i n t he zone of i nf l ue nc e of t he f oundat i on. RQD (Rock Qual i t y De s i gna t i on
i s de f i ne d as :
RQD (X) = 100 x
Length of unweathered c o r e . 2 1OOm.m
Length of bor e hol e
I n unweathered r ocks, RQD i n d i c a t e s t he j o i n t i n t e n s i t y , whereas
i n weat her ed r ock i t gi ve s a measure of t he amount of compr essi bl e ma t e r i a l
- b u t no i ndi c a t i on of t h e i n f i l l c ompr e s s i bi l i t y.
Where o n l y t i g h t c l e a n j o i n t s a r c p r e s e n t , t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between
RQD and a l l o v a b l e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e pr opos ed by Peck et a l ( I 9 7 4 ) , gi ven i n
Tabl e b , aay be u s e d .
Ta bl e G. - Al l owa bl e Be a r i ng P r e s s u r e on J o i n t e d Rock
( Pe c k, l l anson & Thor nbur n, 1974 )
A 1 l o v a b l e P r e s s u r e
( kPa )
Not e :
( 1) Use a l l o wa b l e p r e s s u r e or
unc onf i ne d c ompr e s s i ve s t r e n y r t O F
i n t a c t r o c k , whi chever is l e s s .
( 2) ROD i s f o r r ock i n t h e zone
of i n f l u e n c e of t h e f ounda t i on.
For i n f i l l e d j o i n t s de f or ma t i on w i l l be l a r g e r , and e s t i ma t e s of
t h e j o i n t i n f i l l c o mp r e s s i b i l i t y may b e r e q u i r e d . The e f f e c t of j o i n t i n f i l l i n g
On a l l o wa b l e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e f o r a l i mi t e d r a nge o f j o i n t s pa c i ng and t h i c k n e s s
is g i v e n i n t h e Ca na di a n Founda t i on Manual ( Canadi an Ge ot e c hni c a l So c i e t y , 1978) .
6 . & SLOPE FA7 LURE I N SURROUNDING SO7 L
The o v e r a l l s t a b i l i t y oE t h e g r o u n d ' s u r r o u n d i n g t h e r e t a i n i n g w a l l
s houl d be i n v e s t i g a t e d , and c a l c u l a t i o n s s houl d b e c a r r i e d out on t h e f u l l
r ange of p o t e n t i a l f a i l u r e s u r f a c e s t o e n s u r e t h a t an a de qua t e f act or - of s a f e t y
, agai ns t o v e r a l l s l o p e f a i l u r e i s ma i nt a i ne d. The c a l c u l a t i o n s s houl d i n c l u d e
t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e s u r c h a r g e f r om t h e wa l l on t h e s l ope . ' The minimum f a c t o r
of s a f e t y r e q u i r e d a t a s i t e i s de pe nde nt on i t s ha z a r d p o t e n t i a l .
SHEET RETA I N I NG STRUCTURES
7, I GENERAL
Walls whi ch ha ve uni f or m c r o s s - s e c t i o n wi t h de pt h a r e c o n s i d c r c d i n
t h i s c h a p t e r . Thes e i n c l u d e f l e x i b l e s h e e t s t r u c t u r e s , s uc h a s s h e e t - p i l e d and
s o l d i e r - p i l e d wa l l s , a nd more r i g i d wa l l s , i n c l u d i n g di aphr agm and c a i s s o n
wa l l s .
The e a r t h p r e s s u r e whi ch a c t s on an e a r t h s u p p o r t i n g s t r u c t u r e is
s t r o n g l y dependent on t h e amount of l a t e r a l de f or ma t i on whi ch o c c u r s i n t h e
soi l . For f l e x i b l e s h e e t wa l l s , t h e d e t e r mi n a t i o n of d e f o r ma t i o n s , and he nc e
t h e e a r t h p r e s s u r e s , i s n o t s i mp l e , becaus e t h e y i e l d of one p a r t of a f l e x i b l e
. --
wa l l t hr ows pr e s s ur e - on t o t h e more r i g i d p a r t s . Hence, t h e p r e s s u r e s i n- t h e
v i c i n i t y o f t h e s u p p o r t s a r e h i g h e r t ha n i n t h e uns uppor t ed a r e a s , and t h e
l o a d s on i n d i v i d u a l s u p p o r t s v a r y dependi ng on t h e s t i f f n e s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of t h e s u p p o r t s t he ms e l ve s .
Def or mat i on of t h e gr ound a d j a c e n t to e x c a v a t i o n s may c a u s e b r e a k a g e
of wa t e r - c a r r yi ng s e r v i c e s . I n s i t u a t i o n s wher e l a r g e f l ows may r e s u l t , t h e
pr ude nt d e s i g n e r w i l l a l l o w f o r t h e wacer t a b l e be i ng a t :he gr ound s u r f a c e
when c a l c u l a t i n g l o a d s t o b e r e t a i n e d .
M
7 . 2 STRW7EV EXCAVATTONS
S t r u t t e d s h e e t p i l i n g is o f t e n us ed t o pr ovi de t empor ar y s u p p o r t f o r
t h e s i d e s of deep e x c a v a t i o n s . The s h e e t p i l e s a r e u s u a l l y d r i v e n f i r s t wi t h
s u p p o r t s t r u t s b e i n g i n s t a l l e d a s t h e e x c a v a t i o n pr oc e e ds . The f i n a l
d e f o r ma t i o n s of t h e w a l l are h i g h l y dependent on t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n s e que nc e a nd
. d e t a i l i n g . This is d e p i c t e d i n a s i mp l i f i e d manner i n Fi g u r e 28.
- - ..
-
F a i l u r e of a s t r u t t e d w a l l o f t e n r e s u l t s from t h e i n i t i a l f a i l u r e
of o n e of t h e s t r u t s , r e s u l t i n g i n t h e p r o g r e s s i v e f a i l u r e o f t h e whol e . s ys t e m*
- .-
The f o r c e s i n i d e n t i c a l s t r ut s i n a ny p a r t i c u l a r s u p p o r t s ys t e m may d i f f e r
Wi del y b e c a u s e t he y depend on s uc h f a c t o r s as t h e way i n whi ch t h e s t r u t s are
Pt e l o a d e d and t h e t i me. bet ween e x c a v a t i o n and i n s t a l l a t i o n o f s t r u t s . Loads
i n S i mi l a r struts i n any set of o b s e r v a t i o n s ha ve been f ound t o v a r y from t h e
a v e r a g e value by up t o 5 60 p e r c e n t (Lambe e t al. 1970).
Si nce f a i l u r e of strutted cucs o f t e n oc c ur s by s t r u c t u r a l f a i l u r e ,
p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n shoul d be p a i d t o thc s t ~ ~ ~ c t u r n l d e t a i l i n g o f he
i n c e r n a l st rut t inp,. Cu i dancc on r.lic s t r r ~ c t i i r a l dcsi . gn o f srrcli w: t l l s , t oge t he r
wi t h t y p i c a l d e t a i l s o f conncct i ons and s t r u t t i n g s ys t e ms , nr e gj vcn by
Gol dber g e t a 1 ( 1975) . S t r u t s mrlst bc suf f i ci c?nc f o r 311 s t o g c s o f
. . ._ - - --
c o n s t r u c t i o n .
-
The d i s t f i b u t i o n of pr e s s ur e on a- a t r u ~ l ed excavat i on is compl ex,
and i t i s normal t o use a pr e s s ur e envel ope c ove r i ng t he normal r ange p r e s s u r e
d i s t r i b u t i o n s . The envel cpes (F-igure 2 4 ) p,jven by Pe c k ( 1 9 6 9 ) , and t he .Japan
So c i e t y of C i v i 1 Engi neer s ( 1 9 7 7 ) , t oqect i er w i t h l oa di ngs from gr oundwat er and
s u r c h a r g e , s houl d. be used t o det er mr nc s t r u t l oads f o r a l l i n t e r n a l l y s t r u t t e d
e xc a va t i ons . In a s s e s s i n g l oadi ng from gr oundwat er , t he e f f e c t of a c c i d e n ~ a l .
br eakage of wat er c a r r y i n g s e r v i c e s shoul d be c ons i de r e d.
The i oad c a r r i e d by each i n t e r n a l s t r u t is e s t i ma t e d by assumi ng
t h a t t h e s he e t p i l e is si mpl y s uppor r ed between s t r u t s , and t h a t a r e a c t i o n
below t h e base o f t he excavat i oi i e x i s t s . T h i s reac:tion is pr ovi ded by t he
pa s s i ve r e s i s t a n c e of t he s o i l beneat h the c u t .
The dept h of p e n e t r a t i o n o f t he wal l below the base of t he e xc a va t i on
shoul d be s u f f i c i e n t t o pr ovi de c h i s r e a c t i o n .
-. -
Si nce t he wal l moves t owar ds t he e x c a v a t i o n , i t may be assumed t h a t
a c t i v e and pa s s i ve pr e s s ur e s devel op a g a i n s t t h e wa l l below t he e xc a va t i on
l e ve l , - a nd h o r i z o n t a l e qui l i br i um nay be used t o de t e r mi ne t h e dept h o f
p e n e t r a t i o n . The pas s i ve r e s i s t a n c e shoul d be f a c t o r e d by 2.0.
For s o f t c l a y s * n e g l i b l e p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e s devel op, and t h e l ower
s e c t i o n of t h e wa l r must be desi gned as a c a n t i l e v e r , and t he bending moment
and d e f l e c t i o n must be checked.
The maximum bendi ng movement a t , o r bel ow, t h e l owest s t r u t s houl d be
checked agai nst o v e r s t r e s s i n g of t h e wa l l .
I n s t a b i l i t y of t h e base of a n - e x c a v a t i o n can oc c ur due t o s h e a r
f a i l u r e i n s o f t t o f i r m c l a y s (known as base heave). I n g r a n u l a r ma t e r i a l s ,
p i p i n g o r heave a s s o c i a t e d wi t h gr oundwat er f l o w can o c c u r .
The F a c t o r - o f s a f e t y w- i t h r e s p e c t t o s h e a r f a i l u r e is g i v e n by :
where t h e t e r ms a r e d e f i n e d i n F i g u r e 25. Where Fs is less t h a n 2 s u b s t a n t i a l
d e f o r ma t i o n s may o c c u r wi t h c o n s e q u e n t l oss o f g r o u n d , and t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of
f a i l u r e e x i s t s . Where s o f t c l a y e x t e n d s t o c o n s i d e r a b l e de pt h be l ow t he
e x c a v a t i o n , t h e e f f e c t of i n c r e a s e d s h e e t i n g s t i f E n e s s , o r d e p t h , i s mi ni mal .
However d r i v i n g t h e s h e e t i n g i n t o a h a r d s t r a t u m b e f o r e commencing t h e
e x c a v a t i o n c a n a p p r e c i a b l y r e d u c e t h e d e f o r ma t i o n s .
Co n t r o l of t h e g r o u n d wa t e r a a y be n e c e s s a r y t o pr e ve nt p i p i n g o r
heave a s s o c i a t e d wi t h g r o u n d wa t e r f l o w. Met hods t o a c h i e v e t h i s a r e d i s c u s s e d
i n S e c t i o n 5. 5.
7.3 ANCWRED FLEXIBLE WALLS
7.3.1 W& Anchurred ncmt {he Top
The d e f o r ma t i o n of a n a n c h o r e d s h e e t p i l e de pe nds on t h e r e l a t i v e
s t i f f n e s s o f t h e p i l e l s o i l s y s t e m. For a r e l a t i v e l y r i g i d s ys t e m, s uc h a s a
heavy s e c t i o n i n a l o o s e s a n d , t h e e a r t h p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n c o r r e s p o n d s
c l o s e l y t o t h e t r i a n g u l a r a c t i v e and p a s s i v e c o n d i t i o n s . The t o e of t h e p i l e
is assumed p i n n e d , and t h e F r e e E a r t h S u p p o r t d e s i g n met hod a s o u t l i n s d by
Teng (1962) is a p p r o p r i a t e .
AS t h e s t i f f n e s s of t h e s y s t e m d e c r e a s e s t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n
a l t e r s I n s u c h a way a s t o r e d u c e t h e b e n d i n g moment i n t h e p i l e . AS a
cons equence, t h e s h e e t p i l e s e c t i o n u s e d may b e r e d u c e d a s compar ed wi t h a n
i n f i n i t e l y s t i f f wa l l . Rowe' s Th e o r y o f Moment Re d u c t i o n ( 1952, 1955, 1957)
t a k e s t h i s e f f e c t i n t o a c c o u n t ; i t is s umma r i s e d by Te n g (1962) and i n XIRIA
Repor t NO. 54 ( 1974) .
When c a l c u l a t i n g t h e t o e p e n e t r a t i o n , it i s recommended t h a t no
f a c t o r o f s a f e t y s h o u l d b e a p p l i e d t o t h e a c t i v e p r e s s u r e s .
The p a s s i v e
may b e f a c t o r e d b y 2. 0, o r , a s recommended i n t h e CI RI A r e p o r t , t h e
f o l l o wi n g f a c t o r e d v a l u e s o f 0' a n d 6 , i . e. Q r F and 6F, may be u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e
-
t h e p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e :-
and
-
For s a n d s , F, = 1. 5 s h o u l d be us e d, whi ch g i v e s an a ppr oxi ma t e f a c t o r
of 2.0 on t h e d e r i v e d Kp v a l u e s . I f , however , t h e v a l u e s of 0' and 6 a r e
u n c e r t a i n , t h e n F, = 2.0 s h o u l d b e us e d.
For t h e s h o r t t er m s t a b i l i t y o f wa l l s i n c l a y s , a f a c t o r 2. 0 5 Fs 5 3. 0
s houl d be a p p l i e d t o t he v a l u e o f undr a i ne d c o h e s i o n , c , dependi ng on t h e
r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e par amet er s . For l ong t er m s t a b i l i t y , t h e f a c t o r on t a n @'
c a n be t aken a s I . 2 . S FS 5 1. 5.
P a s s i v e and a c t i v e p r e s s u r e s s houl d b e c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g t h e met hods
g i v e n i n Chapt er 3 .
The mul t i pl e - a nc hor e d s ys t em of wa l l s u p p o r t r e s u l t s i n t h e - r e t a i n i n g
structure b e i n g p r o g r e s s i v e l y f i x e d . Cons e que nt l y, t h e l a t e r a l d e f o r ma t i o n s
are l i mi t e d t o s u c h ail e x t e n t t h a t f a i l u r e wi t h i n t h e r e t a i n e d s o i l is u n l i k e l y .
The e a r t h p r e s s u r e which f i n a l l y a c t s on t h e wa l l de pe nds on t he r e l a t i v e
s t i f f n e s s of t h e w a l l t o t h e s o i l , t h e a nc hor s p a c i n g , t h e anchor y i e l d and
t h e p r e s t r e s s l ocked i n t o t h e a nc hor s a t i n s t a l l a t i o n .
e
The e a r t h pr e s s ur e d i s t r i b u t i o n h a s been shown t o he s i mi l a r t o t h a t
o b t a i n e d f o r i n t e r n a l l y b r a c e d e xc a va t i ons . - A r e c t a n g u l a r p r e s s u r e e n v e l o p e
. .
s i mi l a r t o t h a t adopt ed by Peck ( F i g u r e 2 4 ) is a p p r o p r i a t e . The e a r t h p r e s s u r e
8
c o e f f i c i e n t may b e t aken a s Ka. However, i t is common t o use a v a l u e bet ween
Ka and KO, s uc h a s (K, + K0) / 2, i n a n a t t e mp t t o c o n t r o l s u r f a c e movement s.
Su c c e s s f u l d e s i g n s have been made u s i n g t r i a n g u l a r p r e s s u r e
d i s t r i b u t i o n s wi t h e a r t h p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t s v a r y i n g bet ween Ka and KO.
However, be c a us e of t he mechani sm i n v o l v e d , t he r e c t a n g u l a r d i s t r i b u t i o n is
c ons i de r e d more a p p r o p r i a t e (Hanna, 1980). Anchor l o a d s may be c he c ke d u s i n g
b o t h d i s t r i b u t i o n s , and t h e wor s t c a s e t a ke n.
-
The d e t e r mi n a t i o n o f v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l s p a c i n g o f a n c h o r s u s i n g
-
-
t h e pr oc e dur e f o r i n t e r n a l s t r u t s p a c i n g g i v e s a c c e p t a b l e r e s u l t s . - Anot her
appr oach is t h e s e mi - e mpi r i c a l de s i gnme t hod of James 6 J a c k ( 1974) whi c h
s i mul a t e s t h e f i e l d c ons t r uc t i on pr ocedur e usi ng t r i a ngul a r pr e s s ur e
d i s t r i b u t i o n s . Thi s . method al l ows det er mi nat i on of t he dept h of pe ne t r a t i on
r e qui r e d, and r e s u l t s cor r espond we l l t o f i e l d and l abor at or y t e s t s .
Anchors a r e us ua l l y i nc l i ne d downwards, t r a ns mi t t i ng t he v e r t i c a l
component of t he anchor f or c e i n t o t he anchored member. Thi s Eorce s houl d. be
cons i der ed i n de s i gn, t oge t he r wi t h t h e weight of t he member i t s e l f ( Whi t e,
1974) .
A number of c a s e s have been r ecor ded where s o l d i e r p i l e s have f a i l e d
i n end be a r i ng due t o t he v e r t i c a l component of t he anchor f or c e .
7 . 4 C Wl L E V E R E D WALLS . . -
These r e l y e n t i r e l y on t h e development of pas s i ve r e s i s t a nc e i n f r o n t of t h e
-
wal l f o r t h e i r s t a b i l i t y . A s a consequence, c ons i de r a bl e movement must oc c ur
bef or e e qui l i br i um is r eached, and deep pe ne t r a t i on is r equi r ed. The d e f l e c t i o n
a t the t op of t he wa l l may be t he gover ni ng c r i t e r i o n . Such w a l l s shoul d n o t
normal l y be used a s permanent s t r u c t u r e s t o r e t a i n a hei ght of more t han 5m
unl es s c a n t i l e v e r e d from r ock.
The pr e s s ur e d i s t r i b u t i o n . a t f a i l u r e approxi mat es t h e c l a s s i c a l
t r i a n g u l a r p a t t e r n . Fu l l a c t i v e pr e s s ur e shoul d be used and t he pa s s i ve
pr es s ur e shoul d be f a c t or e d wi t h Fs = 3 on t an 0' and t a n 6 ( r e f e r t o Se c t i on
2-7 f o r a ppr opr i a t e va l ue s of 6). Thi s hi gher f a c t o r of s a f e t y is r e qui r e d
because of t h e l a r g e def or mat i ons needed t o devel op f u l l pa s s i ve r e s i s t a n c e .
?owever, i f i t can be shown t h a t w a l l def or mat i ons w i l l not caus e d i s t r e s s
t.0 nei ghbour i ng s t r u c t u r e s o r s e r v i c e s , t hen a lower f a c t o r may be
?PPPopr i at e.
-
f
- The dept h of pe ne t r a t i on i s obt ai ned by t aki ng moments about t h e
ke* The maximum bendi ng moment may b e obt ai ned by t a ki ng moments of t h e
e s s u r e ~ , above va r i ous c u t s , u n t i l t h e maximum va l ue is det er mi ned
I n s t a l l a t i o n of a dr ai nage and f i l t e r medium behi nd t h e w a l l may be
f i c u l t and so f u l l h y d r a s t a t i c pr e s s ur e may have t o be cons i der ed f o r the
RE1 NFORCED EARTH RETAIN I NG WAUS
It is recommended, a t p r e s e n t , t h a t des i gns shoul d be i n accor dance
wi t h t he Techni cal Mernorandurrl ( Br i dges ) B E 3/78 (Department of Tr a n s p o r t , UK,
- . - . -
19781. It fi a l s o recommended t h i t f o r t he b a c k f i l l , t he gr adi ng and p l a s t i c i t y
i ndex r equi r ement s of t h e Feder al Highways Admi ni s t r at i on ( 1978) , o u t l i n e d i n
Tabl e 7 , shoul d a l s o b e met , because of t he l i mi t e d documented e xpe r i e nc e of
r e i nf or c e d e a r t h r e t a i n i n g wa l l s c o n s t r u c t e d us i ng ma t e r i a l s wi t h a h i g h f i n e s
c ont e nt and p l a s t i c i t y i ndex.
Cl ose s u p e r v i s i o n i s r e qui r e d t o e ns ur e t h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n pr oceeds
accor di ng t o s p e c i f i c a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y a l l a s p e c t s of t h e b a c k f i l l
s p e c i f i c a t i o n . Di f f i c u l t i e s wi t h l a t e r pr ovi s i on of s e r v i c e s and t h e -
s t e r i l i z a t i o n of l a nd above f o r b u i l d i n g development may pr ecl ude t h e u s e of
r e i nf or c e d e a r t h i n c e r t a i n ci r cums t ances .
Ta bl e 7 Minimum Sp e c i f i c a t i o n f o r Se l e c t Ba c k f i l l For
Rei nf or ced Ear t h Ret ai ni ng Wal l s
( a f t e r Fe de r a l Highway Admi ni s t r at i on, 1978)
Si e ve Si z e
Per cent ago Pa s s i ng
and P1 < 6
OR I f per cent age pa s s i ng 75urn i s g r e a t e r t han 25%,
-
and pe r c e nt a ge f i n e r t ha n 15pm i s less t han t 5%,
ma t e r i a l i s a c c e pt a bl e i f 0 5 30' as
det er mi ned by t he a p p r o p r i a t e t e s t and P . I . < 6 .
I . I GENERAL
A c r i b wal l s t r u c t u r e i s made by p l a c i n g a number o f c r i b l i k e c e l l s
o g e t h e r and f i l l i n g them wi t h s o i l o r r ock f i l l t o g i v e them s ~ r e n g t h and
r ei ght . The w a l l e s s e n t i a l l y a c t s a s a g r a v i t y r e t a i n i n g wa l l . Cr i b wal l
i n i t s may be b u i l t of p r e c a s t c o n c r e t e , s t e e l o r of t r e a t e d t i mb e r . The
j a nuf a c t ur e r s of c r i b wa l l u n i t s pr oduce des i gn d a t a f o r c r i b wa l l s , but i n
g e n e r a l c a r e must be exercised i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s
dat a.
The f r o n t f a c e of a c r i b wa l l us ua l l y c o n s i s t s of a g r i d of c o n c r e t e
members s o s paced t h a t t h e s o i l ' i n f i l l a t i t s angle of r epcs e d o e s not s p i Ll
t hrough t h e s pa c e r s . Ho r i z o n t a l members of such a grid a r e t e me d stretckers.
The f a c e members a r e connect ed by t r a n s v e r s e members termed h e ~ d a r s t o a s f mi l a r
g r i d of s t r e t c h e r s , p a r a l l e l t o t h e f a c e , f or mi ng :he back f ace o f t h e wall
( Fi gur e 2 6 ) . The minimum t h i c k n e s s of wa l l s s houl d be one n e t r e , except c h e r e
t he wa l l is non-suppor&ing f or l ands capi ng.
A 1.2 n t h i c k n e s s is u s u a l l y a
b e t t e r e z g i n e e r i n g s o l u t i o n . Ad d i t i o n a l s pa c e r s bet ween t h e s t r e t c h e r s - wi t h i n
t h e f r o n t and back grids may be used i f t h e s y s t e n r e q u i r e s i t , a nd t he s e a r e
termed false headers o r piZlow bZocks. Headers s h o u l d i n g e n e r a l be
Pr ependi ' cul ar t o t h e face of t h e wa l l , al t hough s o m e a v a i l a b l e systems have
v a r i a t i o n s t o t h i s .
The s ys t em u s u a l l y a l l o w f o r t h e a d d i t i o n of one o r mor e g r i d s of
p a r a l l e l t o the f a c e and s i t u a t e d behi nd the s t r u c t u r e d e s c r i b e d above,
-
B0 forming mu l t i p l e de pt h wal l s of g r e a t e r h e i g h t ,
Such addi t i onal g r i d s are-
P
-
connect ed t o t h e grid i n the f r o n t by a he a de r s y s t m.
9.2 DESIGN
The g e n e r a l d e s i g n criteris f o r g r a v i t y valls a p p l y co c r i b wal l s .
The p r e s s u r e s a c t i n g on a c r i b wa l l s houl d be d e t e r a i n e d by the met hods given
- i n Ch a p t e r 3. The resul t ant s houl d al ways l i e i n the mi ddl e t h i r d o f t h e -&ill
c r o s s - s e c t i o n . Fi gur e 26 shows t he e a r t h p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a c t i n g on a
t y p i c a l wa l l and some t y p i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n d e t a i l s - Fi gur e 27 gives desigzt
curves whi ch may b e used f o r pr e l i mi na r y des i gn o n l y .
TO a g r e a t e x t e n t , t h e per f or mance of a c r i b wa l l depends on t h e
a b i l i t y of t he c r i b me mb e r s t o c o n t a i n t he e n c l o s e d s o i l . An a l y s i s of t h e
stresses and l o a d i n g s i n t h e c r i b members and c o n n e c t i o n s i s bas ed on t h e
e a r t h pr es s ur e i n s i d e t h e c r i b . The i n d i v i d u a l u n i t s f o r c r i b wa l l s s h o u l d b e
de s i gne d t o wi t h s t a n d t h e . t o r s i o n , bendi ng moment s, s h e a r f o r c e s and t e n s i l e
f o r c e s exer t ed on t hem. The t h e o r e t i c z l d e t e r mi n a t i o n of t h e ~ o r c e s on c r i b
u n i t s and t h e a c t u a l s t r e n g t h of t h e u n i t s i s d i f f i c u l t and is u s u a l l y ba s e d
on e a r t h pr e s s ur e s f r om b i n p r e s s u r e t h e o r i e s ( Sc h u s t e r e t a l , 1975;
Ts c h e b o t a r i o f f , 1951), t h e s t r u c t u r a l form of t h e c r i b u n i t s and t h e e a r t h
p r e s s u r e from t he b a c k f i l l . However, i t ha s been found by S c h u s t e r e t a 1 ( 1 9 7 5 )
t h a t s t r e s s e s meas ur ed' i n c r i b wa l l u n i t s a r e much h i g h e r chan t h o s e p r e d i c t e d
u s i n g l oads on t h e u n i t s f r om b i n p r e s s u r e t h e o r i e s .
S p e c i f i c a t i o n CD209 -
Cr i b wa l l i ng and Notes ( Mi n i s t r y of Works and Devel opment N . 2 . , 1980) s p e c i f i e s
t h a t c r i b u n i t s b e a b l e t o wi t h s t a n d l oa di ngs whi ch i mpl y e a r t h p r e s s u r e s t wi c e
t h o s e gi ven by b i n p r e s s u r e s . Th i s r equi r ement f ol l owe d an e xa mi na t i on o f
s a t i s f a c t o r y and u n s a t i s f a c t o r y c r i b wa l l u n i t s .
Good d e t a i l i n g and d e s i g n i s
r e q u i r e d a t t he c o n n e c t i o n bet ween u n i t s t o e n s u r e t h e s a t i s f a c t o r y t r a n s f e r o f
f o r c e s . Cr i b wa l l f a i l u r e s have oc c ur r e d be c a us e o f poor s t e e l r e i n f o r c e me n t
d e t a i l i n g .
The S p e c i f i c a t i o n CD209 a l s o gi ve s u s e f u l a d v i c e on r e q u i r e me n t s f o r
t h e s t r e n g t h and t e s t i n g of c r i b u n i t s and t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of c r i b wa l l s .
Ca r e f u l q u a l i t y c o n t r o l d u r i n g manuf act ur e of t h e c r i b u n i t s is r e q u i r e d .
. e s p e c i a l l y wi t h r e g a r d t o c o n c r e t e c o v e r , t h e pl acement of s t e e l r e i n f o r c e me n t ,
c o n c r e t e n i x d e s i g n , and t h e di me ns i ona l t o l e r a n c e s o f i n d i v i d u a l u n i t s -
Many c r i b wa l l s have f a i l e d becaus e of d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l e me n t of t h e
w a l l s t r u c t u r e . Becaus e of t h i s , a l l c r i b wa l l s s h o u l d be f ounded a t l eas t 3 0 0 ~
bel ow ground l e v e l on a c a s t i n - s i t u r ei nf or ced c o n c r e t e b a s e s l a b of 150nm
minimum t hi cknes s o v e r t h e whol e p l a n a r e a of t h e wa l l .
-
9 . 3 BACKFILL
The c r i b w a l l u n i t s s h o u l d al ways b e i n f i l l e d w i t h a f r e e - d r a i n i n g
ma t e r i a l pl aced a nd we l l compact ed i n l a y e r s i n a way t h a t doe s n o t d i s t u r b
t h e c r i b u n i t s .
Where s o i l i s u s e d , a r e l a t i v e compact i on o f at l east 98%- t o .
-
' 85 1377 : 1975 Test 12 s h o u l d be o b t a i h e d . Where r o c k f i l l is us e d, t h e
r e l a r i v e d e n s i t y t o be o b t a i n e d s h o u l d be s p e c i f i e d .
The s t r e n g t h o f t h e
completed vall depends on t he s t a n d a r d of t h i s b a c k f i l l i n g .
9. 4
the
. .
was
PROVI SI ON OF ' DRAINAGE
Adequat e dr a i na ge of t h e whole c r i b s t r u c t u r e is e s s e n t i a l . -Many of
F a i l u r e s i n c r i b wa l l s have occur r ed because ma t e r i a l of low pe r me a bi l i t y
used a s b a c k f i l l , t hus devel opi ng hi gh s t a t i c o r seepage wat er pr e s s ur e s .
h s u b s o i l d r a i n s houl d be i n s t a l l e d a t t h e he e l of t he wal l khe r e ve r pos s i bl e ,
ot her wi s e pondi ng may occur .
9 . 5 MULTIPLE DEPTH WALLS
The s t a b i x i t y of wa l l s of more t han s i n g l e de pt h s houl d be checked
a t t h e changes f r om s i n g l e t o doubl e and doubl e t o t r i p l e , e t c . , t o e ns ur e
t ha t t h e r e s u l t a n t f o r c e l i es wi t hi n t he mi ddl e t h i r d of each s e c t i o n
consi der ed, and t h a t . - t h e ove r t ur ni ng c r i t e r i o n s t a t e d i n Fi gur e 22 i s m e t .
-
-
9. 6 WALLS CURVED IN PLAN
Cr i b walls wi t h a convex f r o n t f a c e a r e much more s u s c e p t i b l e t o
damage by transverse def or mat i ons t han a r e concave wa l l s .
Gabion wall are aesthetically appealing For the purpose of design, the lateral earth
and many configurations are possible as pressure coeff~cient Ka is derived from the
shown below: --
equations as follows:
I
I
/
I:
i = backfill inclination
a = wall inclination
4 = internal friction - -
angle of soil
6 = wail friction angle.
a. Embankment
sin2(a + qD )
s m (@ + 61 s ~ n 1
stn ( a - 6) s m ln +r I
For vertical wall with horizontal backfill,
( i = 6 = 0 and a = 90")
b. Wall with footing
c. Tilted
In terms of design..the external stability of
gabion wall is treated a s with any ot her
gravity structures.
Active earth pressure conditions ar e
assumed in the design. Adequate safety
factor must be provided against sliding and
overturning of t he gabion structure.
- -
The foundation soil must be checked
against bearing failure.
For cohesionless soil with a sloping surface
behind a smoot h vertical retaining wall,
(a = 90. 6 = 0)
ci
J - )COS r
COS I + COS I -COS 51, I
Typical safe soil bearing capacities (Ref.
B.S. code CPI 01. 1963)
kN/ m2
-
Soft clay & silts 50- 1 00
Stiff G sandy clay 200-400
Loose sand dry 1 00-200
Loose sand submerged 50-100
Compacted sand or loose
graded sand dry 200400
Compacted sand or loose
graded sand submerged i 00-200
Compacted gravel-sand
mixture dry 400600
Compacted gravel-sand mixture
submerged 200-300
Shale G soft sandstone 1000-2000
Limestone G hard
sedimentary rock 3004000
Sound igneous rock -1 0000
Example: Horrizontal backfill with
surcharge.
For the purpose of the following
design, the wall friction is
neglected.
Given : H = 3 m
Soil
Parameters : 'y, = 16 kN/mJ
4, = 30"
7,
= 18 kN/mJ
gabion
structure = l ~ k ~ / ~ "
t
2 Check against Overturning
By taking moment s about pt. A: '
Disturbing moment.
M, = 23.76(1) + 14 85(1.5) --
= 46.04 kN.m
Restoring moment
M, = 6(18) (1.5) + jl(i6) (2.5) + 0.5 (16)
(2.75))
= 224 kN.m
1 Check against sliding
I 2
Lateral earth force. Pa = - Ka- yH
2
Surcharge force, P, = 1.5 x K, qH
= 1.5(0. !3)(10)(3)
= 14.85.kN/ m
Disturbing forces = 23.76 t 14.85
= 38-61 kN/ m
Restoring force, F, = ( W, i- W,)tan d,
=[6(18) + 1.5( 16)]ran.30
= 132 tan 30"
=76.21 kN/m
Safety Factor.
Safety factor against overturning with
respect to the toe should be at least 2.0.
3.Bearing Capacity
The vertical componeni R act i ng on the .
base is equal to the s un of the forces
aciing downward. and x i i l have an
eccentricity e with resperi to !he
ge~~net r i caf center of i h l base. By
taking moments about ~ t . A (toe)
3 224 -46.04 = 0. ,5
eccentricity. e = - -
2 122
Hence eccentricity i s within middle third.
maximum
R 6 e
pressure. 6 max = i(l + T)
76.21
Thus, safety Factor S = -
38.61
The safet y factor against bearing failure
= 1.97 > 1.5
must be at least 2.0. Hence :he ultimate
bearing capacity of the foundation soil - -
Safety factor against s!iding should be at must exceed;
least 1.5 for cohesionless backfill and 2.0
for cohesive backfill. 57.2 x 2 = 114.4 kN/m2
WE ASPECTS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN AN[> DETAILING -
1 1 . 1 IMRODUCTION
Th i s chapt er d o e s n o t aim t o c ove r a l l a s p e c t s of r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e
desi gn a s i t a p p l i e s t o r e t a i n i n g wa l l s . Ther e a r e , however, s e v e r a l a s p e c t s
of t he d e s i g n and d e t a i l i n g whi ch a r e not a de qua t e l y cover ed i n t h e commonly
a v a i l a b l e l i t e r a t u r e o r p r e s e n t Codes and Regul at i ons , and some gui dance is
gi ven h e r e on t h e s e . . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e j u n c t i o n s between members a r e o f t e n
poorl y d e t a i l e d and s u g g e s t i o n s a r e c ont a i ne d i n Se c t i on 11. 9 f o r improvements
Ref er ence s houl d be made t o compr ehensi ve p u b l i c a t i o n s on r e i n f o r c e d
concr et e ( e . g . S c o t t et a l , 1965; Park & Paulay, 1975) f o r compl et e d e t a i l s o f
concr et e r e t a i n i n g wa l l d e s i g n and d e t a i l i n g .
.11.2 GENERAL NOTES
11.2.1 Co d a
Rei nf or ced c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n shoul d be i n accor dance w i t h
t he a p p r o p r i a t e s t a n d a r d c u r r e n t l y used.
The Code b e i n g used w i l l s p e c i f y t h e l oad f a c t o r s o r p a r t i a l f a c t o r s
t o be used.
11. 2. 3 C o v a .to Rei vl ~o/ rcment
P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n s houl d be gi ve n t o t he cover of r e i nf or c e me nt ,
bot h i n t h e d e t a i l i n k and d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n . Bl i ndi ng concreGe s h o u l d al ways
-
Se used on s o i l - l i k e ma t e r i a l s .
13. 3 TOE DESIGN
Shear i n a t o e is u s u a l l y t he c r i t i c a l l oadi ng c a s e .
The c r i t i c a l
s e c t i o n o f t h e t o e may b e t aken a t d i s ~ a n c e ' d' o u t from t h e f a c e o f t h e
s uppor t a s shown i n Fi g u r e 32. The d e t a i l i n g of t h e c u r t a i l me n t and anchor age
of r e i nf or c e me nt is i mpor t a nt ( see Se c t i on 11. 8) .
-
1 1 . 4 . 1 SZof t ondi rq
. -
For t he stem desi gn c a n t i l e v e r and c ount e r f or t wa l l s , i t is nor n~al
p r a c t i c e t o t ake t he e a r t h pr e s s ur e a c t i n g on t h e v e r t i c a l pl ane chrough the
r e a r of t h e he e l a s bei ng pr oj e c t e d ont o t h e st em ( s e e Fi gur e I ) . tiowever, i n
ne a r l y a l l wa l l s , t he e a r t h pr e s s ur e a c t i n g on t he s t r u c t u r a l s e c t i o n of the
wa l l is d i f f e r e n t From t h i s , because of t he l a t e r a l pr e s s ur e s chat de vc l np
dur i ng t he compacting of t he b a c k f i l l . Such l a t e r a l pr e s s ur e s a r c u s u a i l y mu c h
hi gher t han a c t i v e and can be hi ghe r t han a t - r e s t pr e s s ur e s . . The magnitude of
such l a t e r a l pr es s ur es is di s cus s ed i n Sect i o n s 3.10 & 3. 1 1 .
-
Ther ef or e, i n des i gni ng st em of a wa l l th-e e a r t h pressi1rc.s f r o m
compact i on shoul d always be c a l c u l a t e d . In many c a s e s , t h i s w i l l be t he
c r i t i c a l l oadi ng. There i s L i t t l e evi dence t o show t h a t t h e d e f l e c t i o n o f
c a n t i l e v e r wa l l s w i l l reduce t he compact i on pr e s s ur e s . ( See Se c t i on 3. 11) .
- .
1 1. 4. 2 Bi ndi ng Mamenb and Sheaa Faac u in Xlze SXern~ oh CounXe/r~on-t Waled
The bottom of a st em, where i t j o i n s t he he e l , shoul d be r e i n f o r c e d
f o r v e r t i c a l spanni ng a c t i on i n a d d i t i o n t o h o r i z o n t a l spanni ng a c t i o n .
Hor i z ont a l s t e e l should be cont i nuous in bot h faces-. Hor i zont al bendi ng moment
v a r i a t i o n s wi t h hei ght shoul d be c a t e r e d f o r by var yi ng t h e r ei nf or cement
s paci ng i n pr ef er ence t o changi ng t he b a r s i z e s . -
* .
Shear f or ces shoul d b e c a l c ul a t e d a t t h e Face oE. t h e c o u n t e r f o r t s .
Shear s t r e s s e s w i l l us ual l y govern t he st em t hi c kne s s .
The bendi ng moments and s h e a r f o r c e s i n st ems shoul d be c a l c u l a t e d
by methods which pr oper l y t a ke i n t o account t h e f i x i t y of each= edge of t he
stem s l a b and t he d i s t r i b u t i o n of p r e s s u r e s on t h e s l a b .
Hunt i ngt on (1961)
-
gi ve s u s e f u l gui dance on t h i s based on work done by t he US Por t l a nd Cement
As s oci at i on. Bowl e s (1977) gi ve s similar i nf or mat i on.
-
-
-
- -
- -
17. 5 HEEL SLAB DESIGN
-- .- - - -
--
- 1 7 -5. 1 L O & ~
The design loading on t h e h e e l s l a b is shown i n Fi gur e SO.
The
- --.
bear i ng pr e s s ur e s f o r us e i n s r r u c r u r a l de s i gn are n o t t he same as t hos e - us e d
t o check t h e Fa c t or of s a f e t y a g a i n s t u l t i ma t e be a r i ng f a i l u r e (Section 6 . 4 ) .
They a r e nor mal l y t aken a s t h e be a r i ng pr e s s ur e s a t working Loads, a s Eollows:
I f t he r e s u l t a n t pa s s e s t hr ough t h e base wi t hi n t he r ~ i t l t i l c
t h i r d , t h e t oe and h e e l p r e s s u r e s f o r s t r u c t u r a l des i gn nwy
be c a l c u l a t e d from
where V is t h e normal component of the r e s ul t i i nt l oadi ng on
- .
-
t he ba s e , B i s t he ba s e wi dt h, and L is t h e l e ngt h of wal l
f o r which t h e r e s u l t a n t e a r t h pr e s s ur e i s c a l c u l a t e d ( us ua l l y
u n i t y ) , and eb i s t h e e c c e n t r i c i t y of t he l oa d. -
I f t he r e s u l t a n t Li es o u t s i d e t h e mi ddl e t h i r d :
7 1 . 5 . 2 He d SLabn 60h Courztw~boat O d L s
The h e e l s l a b f o r c o u n t e r f o r t w a l l s s houl d be des i gned a s a s l a b
spanni ng i n two d i r e c t i o n s , The r e f e r e n c e s gi ven i n Se c t i on 1 1 . 4 . 2 may be
cons ul t ed f o r t h i s pur pose.
A s i n Se c t i on 11.4..2, t he c r i t i c a l s e c t i o n f o r s he a r i s a t t h e f a c e
of t h e c o u n t e r f o r t s . Agai n, s he a r stresses u s u a l l y govern t h e he e l t hi c kne s s .
-
17.6 COUNTERFORT DESI GN - -
. .
Ve r t i c a l s t e e l i n t h e c o u n t e r f o r t i s r e qui r e d t o ca- r r y t h e n e t t e n s i l e
l oad from each s t r i p of t h e h e e l s l a b i n t o t h e c our l t e r f or t .
The mai n moment
r ei nf or cement f o r t h e wa l l is. us ua l l y c onc e nt r a t e d a t t h e back o f t h e c o u n t e r f o r t
Hor i z ont a l st eel i n t h e c o u n t e r f o r t i s r e q u i r e d t o c a r r y t he n e t l oad on each
h o r i z o n t a l s t r i p of s t e m. The d e t a i l i n g of t h i s steel shoul d b e done So as t o
pr ovi de a de qua t e anchor age bet ween t h e s t e m s l a b and t h e c o u n t e r f o r t ( Fi ga r e
31) . Cons i de r a t i on shoul d be gi ven t o s t a g g e r i n g t h e l a p s i n t h e s e anchor age
ba r s .
Cut-off p o s i t i o n s f o r t he mai n t e n s i l e s t s el i n t h e c o u n t e r f o r t s
a r e shown i n Fi gur e 31.
1 1 . 7 KEY DESIGN
I n ge ne r a l t he r a t i o of d e p t h t o t h i c k n e s s oE rhc kcy sl i o*~l d bt.
less t han 2. 0. I t is d i f f i c u l t t o pr e di c t wh a t ' t h e force a c t i n g on the key
w i l l be. Approxi mat el y :
Desi gn hor i z ont a l -
h o r i z o n t a l l oa ds
t o t a l v e r t i c a l l oads
- t endi qg t o c a us e - 0. 4 x
l oad on key above bl i ndi ng layer
s l i d i n g
I t may be assumed t h a t t h i s l oad a c t s a c one- t hi r d of t he key h e i g h t
from t h e bot t om of key. The key shoul d be d e t a i l e d i n accor daqce wich Se c t i o n
11. 8 & 11. 9. Note t h a t t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s a r e c a r r i e d from t h e k e y i n t c t h e
bot t om of t h e h e e l s l a b , and t h e r e f o r e some r ei nf or cement is c a l l e d f or i n t h a t
a r e a .
I l . 8 CURTAILMENT AND ANCHORAGE OF RETNFORCEMEM
The c ur t a i l me nt of r ei nf or cement i n r e t a i n i n g wa l l s is c r i t i c a l . A
b a r must ext -end beyond t he poi nt where i t i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y no l onger r ~ q u i r e d
. .
t o a l l o w f o r i na c c ur a c i e s i n l oa di ng and a n a l y s i s , t o al l ow f o r i naccur aci es
. .
i p pl a c i ng b a r s , and t o avoi d l a r g e cr acks a t t h e c u r t a i l me n t s e c t i on. Such
c r a c k s r educe t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o s h e a r f or c e s and i nt r oduc e hi gh peak s c r e s s c s
i n t h e t e n s i o n r ei nf or cement .
1 1 . 9 VETAT L1 NG OF' REZNFORCED CONCRETE CORNERS AI W J O I N S
Many r e i nf or c e d c o n c r e t e wa l l s i nvol ve c a n t i l e v e r s t h a t meet at
r i ght a n g l e s . A t t h i s j unct i on, t h e r e i s - ' t he - c ombi r i a t i m of peak bending
moments and peak $hear f or c e s . Such c a n t i l e v e r s and c o v e r s Gus t be c a r e f u l l y
l e t a i l e d t o a v o i d wide cr ack width, , and s o ens ur e t h e . s t r e n g t h and s e n i c e a b i l i t y
)f t h e s t r u c t u r e s . Some gui dance on s u i t a b l e d e t a i l i n g is gi ve n i n t h i s Chapt er-
. . .-
Resear ch work by Ni l s s on 6 Losberg (1976) h a s shown t h a t r ei ni or cemi nt
jetails commonly used i n c a n t i l e v e r wa l l s have ultimate c a p a c i t i e s s i g n i f i c a n t l ~
Less t h a n are u s u a l l y assumed i n c a l c u l a t i o n s , a nd t he y r e s u l t i n exces s i vel y
l i d e c o r n e r c r a c k wi dt hs a t what would normally be worki ng l o a d s .
For
u l t i ma t e c a p a c i t y , and a t a l oad of 55% o f t h e c a l c t l l a t e d ul t i r nat c r.:lp;ici t y ,
t h e r e was a c o r n e r c r a c k 2.51nm wi de. . The d e t a i 1 shown i n Fi gur e 33b. w h i I t .
_ havi ng s u f f i c i e n t u l t i ma t e monlenc c a p a c i t y . had 3 c o r n e r c r a c k 5.3mn1 wi dc s t
a l oad of 55% of t he c a l c u l a t e d u l t i ni at e ' capl c i c y . Ot he r conunonly used
d e t a i l s had a n even wor s e per f or mance. Th e s e t e s t s were a t r e l a t i v e l y s ma l l
s t e e l p e r c e n t a g e s of 0 . 5 t o 0.8;;. Swann ( 1 4 6 9 ) c.21-ricd t ~ u t a s l n l j l n r srric:s
of tests a t t h e hi ghe r steel p e r c e n t a g e of 3.i and significantly worsc nion~cnt
c a p a c i t i e s wer e obt a i ne d. Such j o i n t s s h o u l d be c a p a b l e of r e s i s t i n g a moment
a t l e a s t as l a r g e a s t h e c a l c u l a t e d f a i l u r e moment i n a d j a c e n t c r o s s section:;.
The c r a c k s t h a t form i n t h e i n s i d e of c o r n e r s s houl d have a c c e p t a b l e c r a c k
wi dt hs f o r l o a d s i n t h e wor ki ng r a nge . Al s o t h e r e i nf or c e me nt i n c o r n e r s
s houl d b e e a s y t o f a b r i c a t e and p o s i t i o n , and t h i s s h o u l d nor mal l y avoi d t he
need f o r s r i r r u p s or t i es.
For t h e r e i n f o r c e me n t of c o r n e r s s u b j e c t e d t o an openi ng bendi ng - -
rncment, Ni l s s o n & Los ber g ( 1976) recommended t h a t t h e r e i nf or c e me nt l oop f r m
each a d j a c e n t p a r t of t h e s t r u c t u r e s houl d b e t a ke n o u t i n t o t h e c o r n e r
.
r e gi on, a s f a r as cover r e s t r i c t i o r ~ s a l l o w, and s houl d t he n be br ought back
i n t o t h e same c r o s s - s e c t i o n a d j a c e n t co the i r-i cl i ncd r e i nf or c e me nt ( s e c
Fi gur e s 32( c) and 32( d) ) . The mai n r e i n f o r ~ c me n r s houl d be des i gned on t he
b a s i s of the moments i n c h c , dj , i ccnt s e c t i o n s ( PI 1 6 F: 2) , i g n o r i n g t h e
e f f e c t of r e i nf or c e me nt l o o p c u r t a i l me n t i n t h e compr es s i on zone and t he
i n c l i n e d r e i nf or c e me nt . The c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of t h 2 i n c l i n e d
r e i nf or c e me nt s houl d b e a p p r o x i ma t e l y one - ha l f t h e a r e a of t h e l a r g e s t main
r e i n f o r c e me n t . Bars s h o u l d ne ve r be s p l i c e d i n t h e c o r n e r r e gi on.
1 1 - 9 . 2
R ei rzdmung S Z e d DetaiLcng R@culnrnc?~~dc&o~~,.
Ba s e d' on t he r ecommendat i ons i n S e c t i o n 11. 9. 1, &he c o r n e r s i n
r e t a i n i n g wa l l s s houl d b e r e i n f o r c e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n s gi ve n
i n t h e f o l l o wi n g pa r a gr a phs .
\ h e n t h e l e n g t h
s houl d b e r e i n f o r c e d a s a
r e i nf or c e me nt i n t h e . b a s e
c ove r r e qui r e me nt p e r mi t s
When t h e l e n g t h
o f t h e t o e is Les s t h a n t h e s t e m t h i c k n e s s , t h e j o i n t
c o r n e r s u b j e c t e d t o a n openi ng moment. The
s l a b s houl d be t a k e n o u t i n t o t h e t o e a s f a r a s t h e
(see Fi g u r e 3 2 ( c ) ) .
o f t h e t o e i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e st ern t h i c k n e s s , and
I
t h e l e n g t h of t h e t o e i s s u f f i c i e n t t o pr ovi de a d e q u a t e a nc hor a ge l e n g t h ,
r ei nf or cement can be a s i n Fi g u r e 3 2 ( d ) . The c onc r e c e Code o r Regul at i on
r equi r ement s r e g a r d i n g bendi ng r a d i u s , s p a c i n g o f benr b a r s and cover s houl d
hc bor ne i n mind. To l i m i t c o r n e r c r a c k widths, i n c l i n e d r ei nf or cement
c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a a ppr oxi ma t e l y one h a l f t h e a r e a o f t h e l a r g e s t main
r ei nf or cement s houl d be us ed. The Li mi t a t i o n s on s t e e l p e r c e n t a g e gi ve n i n
Se c t i o n 11. 9. 1 a p p l y o n l y t o t h e mai n r e i nf or c e me nt , and t h e di a gona l b a r s
s houl d n o t b e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s p e r c e n t a g e .
Haunches i n t h e r e - e n t r a n t c o r n e r , accommodat i ng s u b s t a n t i a l d i a g o n a l
f l e x u r a l b a r s , f o r c e t h e p l a s t i c h i n g e away from t h e f a c e o f t h e j o i n t . Th i s
. - .
i mproves t h e a nc hor a ge of t h e mai n t e n s i l e s t e e l wher e i t e n t e r s t h e j o i n t .
The i n c r e a s e d i n t e r n a l l ever - ar m wi t h i n t h e j o i n t , i n t u r n , r educes t h e
i n t e r n a l t e n s i l e f o r c e . [ l aunchi ng woul d a l l o w t h e u s e o f h i g h e r st eel
- - -
Pe r c e nt a ge s , b u t Ni l s s o n &- La s b e r g (1976) make no s p e c i f i c recommendat i ons on
a l l owa bl e st eel p e r c e n t a g e s f o r haunched r i g h t a ngl e d c o r n e r s . C
For l a r g e j o i n t s wi t h up t o 0.5% s t e e l , - Pa r k & Pa u l a y (1975)
recommended t h e u s e o f d i a g o n a l b a r s a c r o s s t h e c o r n e r e q u a l i n a r e a t o 50%
of t h e main r e i n f o r c e me n t .
Above 0.54 of s t e e l , t h e y pr opos ed t h a t r a d i a l hoops ( Fi gur e 32( e ) )
be pr ovi ded, t h e a r e a of one r a d i a l hoop be i ng g i v e n by :
where D = h- i n t h e c r i t i c a l member,
b. d,
n = no. o f ' l e e s .
A,1 =
area of s t eel l i mi t i n g t h e magni t ude o f t h e moment t h a t can
b e a p p l i e d t o t h e j o i n t ,
fyj =
y i e l d stress of r a d i a l hoops .
--
-.
-
It s h o u l d b e emphas i s ed t h a t pr obl ems of c o n s t r u c t i o n may a r i s e
becaus e of st eel c o n g e s t i o n a t s u c h c o r n e r s , and i t i s u s u a l l y a b e t t e r
-- .. - - -
s o l u t i o n t o t h i c k e n t h e c o n c r e t e s e c t i o n s i nvol ved.
Where t h e bacl t f i l . l cd f a c e s o f a r e t a i n i n g wa l l meet a t an a c u t e
a n g l e i n p l a n , t hen s i mi l a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t o t l ~ o s e . above s houl d be g i v e n to
t h e d e t a i l i n g of t he r e i n f o r c i n g s t e e l . Ad d i t i o n a l h o r i z o n t a l r c i nf or c i r i g
s t e e l w i l l be r e qui r e d i n t i l e c u c s i d c f a c e of t h e wal l .
Ve r t i c a l j o i n t s a r e r e q u i r e d i n r e t a i n i n g w a l l s t o rninirnise t h e
e f f e c t s of t e mpe r a t ur e changes and s h r i n k a g e , and be c a us e of c o n s t r u c t i o n
s t a g e s . I n r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e wa l l s , v e r t i c a l .construe t i o n j o i n t s w i t h
V- not ches a t t h e f a c e s houl d be pr ovi ded a t s e c t i o n s p r e f e r a b l y not ove r lorn
a p a r t , t o g e t h e r wi t h r ei nf or cement t hr ough t h e j o i n t s . Expansi on j o i n t s
wi t h gr ooved s h e a r keys s houl d be pr ovi ded n o t more t h a n 3 0 m a p a r t , t h e
r e i n f o r c e me n t n o t bei ng c a r r i e d t hr ough s u c h j o i n t s . I n g r a v i t y c o n c r e t e
wa l l s , si mi l ar expans i on j o i n t s s h o t ~ l d b e p r o v i d e d , p r e f e r a b l y not more
t h a n lorn a p a r t . Where t h e wa t e r t a b l e i s h i g h , wa t e r s t o p s s houl d be
pr ovi de d a t a l l c o n s t r u c t i o n and expans i on j o i n t s .
Where t h e r e are l a r g e t e mp e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n s , e xpa ns i on j o i n t s may
r e q u i r e r e s i l i e n t j o i n t i n g ma t e r i a l t o a l l o w movement .
-
S e c t i o n s where t h e r e i s a s u b s t a n t i a l c ha nge i n wa l l s t i f f n e s s or
w a l l t y p e ( e - g . c o u n t e r f o r t t o c a n t i l e v e r ) , o r wher e t h e n a t u r e of t h e
f o u n d a t i o n changes ( e. g. from f i l l t o r o c k ) , r e q u i r e c a r e f u l d e t a i l i n g . A t
s uch l o c a t i o n s , i t i s us ua l i y p o s s i b l e t o work o u t t h e d i r ~ c t i o n o f movemcr
t h a t may o c c u r and t o pr ovi de adequat e c l e a r a n c e t o accommodat e t h e movements.
It i s u s u a l l y b e s t t o pr ovi de a s t r u c t u r a l s e p a r a c i o n , ' r a t h e r t h a n t o a t t e mp t
t o r e i n f o r c e t h e j u n c t i o n t o t a k e t h e bendi ng r nocent s and s h e a r s i nvol ve d.
The s t a n d a r d of r oughnes s and cl ean- up on h o r i z o n t a l c o n s t r u c t i o n
j o i n t s s h o u l d be c l e a r l y s p e c i f i e d and c o n t r o l l e d . Keys i n s u c h j o i n t s s houl d
-
be a v o i d e d , and wa t e r s t o p s s houl d be pr ovi de d in j o i n t s be l ow t h e wa t e r t a b l e ,
The c o n s t r q c t i o n j o i n t a t t h e b a s e o f a c a n t i l e v e r s t e m s houl d
al ways b e d e t a i l e d a s bei ng a t l e a s t 1OOm.m a bove t h e h e e l s l a b , ' t o e n a b l e t h e
. . >
c o n c r e t e formwork t o be hel d' dur i ng c o n s t r u c t i o n .
1i t he stem of a wal l , t he p o s i t i o n of all c ons t r uc t i on j o i n t s shoul d
be c a r e f u l l y consi der ed from t he poi nt of view o f appear ance a s wel l a s
s t r u c t u r a l performance ( s e e Sect i on 1 1 . 1 2 ) .
t l . l f CONTRO t OF CRACK7NG
TO pr event unaccept abl e c r a c ki ng of r e t a i n i n g s t r u c t u r e s t he f ol l owi ng
s t e p s s houl d be t aken, i n a ddi t i on t o normal good q u a l i t y c onc r e t e p r a c t i c e :
( a) Provide shr i nkage and t emper at ur e r ei nf or cement . This s t e e l
should be i n accor dance wi t h Chapt er 4 of t h e PWD Ci v i l
Engi neeri ng ~ a n u a i t o ensur e t h a t t he cr ack wi dt hs gi ven i n
. --
t hat chapt er a r e not exceeded: Note t h a t t h e r e i s a
r e l a t i ons hi p between t he r e i n f o r c i n g b a r s i z e , s t e e l per cent age
and cr ack wi dt h i nvol ved. I n no c a s e shoul d t he s t e e l
per cent age used be l e s s 0.3% of t h e gr ps s concr et e a r e a of t h e
wal l bot h h o r i z o n t a l l y and v e r t i c a l l y .
I n t h e stem of t he
wal l exposed t o t he a i r two t h i r d s of t h i s s t e e l shoul d be
f ace.
( b) Speci f y t h a t t he c onc r e t e p l a c i n g and t emper at ur e is t o be
- .
kept a s low a s practical, e s p e c i a l l y i n t he summer per i od. .
( c) Speci f y s uc c e s s i ve bay, not a l t e r n a t e bay, c ons t r uc t i on.
( dl Speci f y e a r l y c u r i n g f o r t he pur pose of cobl i ng, s o a s t o
minimise the h e a t r i s e .
( e l Speci f y good q u a l i t y concr er e a nd, where a ppr opr i a t e , l i m i t
t he cement c ont e nt .
( f ) Addi t i onal a g a i n s t c r a c k i n g can be given by p a i n t i n !
t he e a r t h f a c e of a wa l l wi t h, f o r i n s t a n c e , two c o a t s of
as bes t os f i l l e d bi t umi nous o r - a s p h a l t i c p a i n t . -
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APPENDIX A
SYMBOL
Y
g
gcs gq* gy
H , HI , e t c .
ar ea of dr ai nage mat er i al
e f f e c t i v e a r e a of base
ar ea of cr os s - s ect i on of r ei nf or ci ng s t e e l
base wi dt h of wal l
e f f e c t i v e bas e wi dt h
di s t ance from c r e s t of s l ope t o foundat i on
cohesi on of s o i l i n terms of t o t a l s t r e s s
adhesi on a t base
cohesi on of s o i l i n terms of e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s
e f f e c t i v e dept h of wal l s t e m
dept h of f oundat i on
e c c e nt r i c i t y of l oad on b a s e . i n t he di r ect i ons
of l engt h and br eadt h r es pect i vel y
f a c t or of s a f e t y
moment arm of v e r t i c a l component of e a r t h
pr es s ur e f or c e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h of rei nforcement
accel er at i on duc t o gr avi t y
foundat i on ground s l ope f a c t o r s
hei ght of pl ane on which e a r t h pr es s ur e i s
cal cul at ed (from under si de of base- o r bottom
of key t o ground s ur f ace)
t a nge nt i a l component of f oundat i on 1,oading
di s t ance of r e s u l t a n t f or ce. f r om w a l l t oe
c r i t i c a l dept h of f i l l where compaction
pr es s ur es equal . a c t i v e . pr es s ur e. . -
hydraulic gr a di e nt
wavi ness of r ock - j o i n t
bear i ng c a pa c i t y i n c l i n a t i o n f a c t o r s
. -
c o e f f i c i e n t of e a r t h pr es s ur e a t r e s t
I
P, Pmax, Pt
c o e f f i c i e n t of a c t i v e e a r t h p r e s s u r e
c o e f f i c i e n t of pa s s i ve e a r t h p r e s s u r e
c o e f f i c i e n t of subgr ade r e a c t i o n
c o e f f i c i e n t of pe r me a bi l i t y
l e ngt h of base . . . . ~ - .. .
e f f e c t i v e l engt h of ba s e
l e ngt h of wa l l he e l -
c l e a r span. bet ween c o u n t e r f o r t s
l e ngt h of wa l l t o e
bendi ng moments f o r r e i nf or c e me nt d e s i g n
sum of moments c a us i ng o v e r t u r n i n g
sum of moments r e s i s t i n g o v e r t u r n i n g
s t a b i l i t y f a c t o r r e l a t i n g t o e x c a v a t i o n bas e E a i l u r ~
be a r i ng c a p a c i t y f a c t o r s
moment arm of r e s u l t a n t wa t e r f or c e - on back of wal l
e qui va l e nt l i n e l oad due t o r o l l e r
a c t i v e e a r t h p r e s s u r e f o r c e
' at r e s t ' e a r t h pr e s s ur e f o r c e
h o r i z o n t a l component of a c t i v e e a r t h p r e s s u r e f o r c e
normal component of e a r t h p r e s s u r e f o r c e
pa s s i ve e a r t h p r e s s u r e f o r c e
t a n g e n t i a l component o f e a r t h p r e s s u r e f o r c e
l a t e r a l e a r t h p r e s s u r e d u e - t o l i n P o r p o i n t s u r c h a r
( p e r u n i t l e ngt h of wa l l )
-
v e r t i c a l component of e a r t h p r e s s u r e f o r c e
wa t e r f o r c e due t o wa t e r i n t e n s i o n c r a c k
p r e s s u r e for s t r u c t u r a l de s i gn
t o t a l l oad
line l oad
Q~ poi nt l oad
- - - - a i nt e ns i t y i f l o i d - o n base o r sur char ge l oad
qa11 al l owabl e be a r i ng capaci t y
9 d
flow r a t e t hrough dr ai n
quit
ul t i mat e bear i ng capaci t y
R s R,, Rps RW r e s ul t a nt f o r c e s
6 s hear s t r e ngt h of s o i l
t o t a l s hear i ng r e s i s t a nc e a t under s i de of bas e
SC, s q t s foundat i on shape c or r e c t i on f a c t or s
t hi ckness of wa l l stem .
t c , t q y t foundat i on t i l t f a c t or s
U Y u p u2 r e s ul t a nt f or c e due t o wat er pr e s s ur e s
U l ~ y U~~
hor i zont al and v e r t i c a l components of r e s u l t a n t wat er f or c e
pore wat er pr e s s ur e
normal cornponen t of f oundat i on bear i ng pr e s s ur e
V shear f or ce f o r rei nforcement desi gn
w, wb weight of b a c k f i l l
Wt
weight of wa l l
X r e s ul t a nt hor i z ont a l r e a c t i on
Y
l a t e r a l def or mat i on of r e t a i ni ng w a l l
Yo
v e r t i c a l dept h of ' t ensi on crack i n c ohe s i ve s o i l
Z dept h below f i n a l f i l l l e ve l
zc
dept h below f i n a l f i l l l e ve l of maximum r e s i dua l compaciibn. -
pt es s ur e
a , angl e of i n c l i n a t i o n of f oundat i on ba s e
6
a ngl e of i n c l i n a t i o n of t he back of t h e ; et ai ni ng vall
. .
Y bul k u n i t wei ght of s o i l .
Y'
e f f e c t i v e u n i t wei ght of submerged s o i l
u n i t wei ght of wa t e r
s a t ur a t e d u n i t wei ght of s o i l
settlement of wall
angle of wall friction
angle of base friction
location angles for failure plane
angular rotation of foundation base
total and effective normal stress
angle of shearing resistance in terms of. total and
effective stress
angle of ground slope
shear stress
DENSE SAND
PRINCETON TESTS
DENSE SAND
0.06 0.OL 0.02 0 0 -0 au.
Y
WALL ROTAT ION -)I WALL ROTATION ~ ; i
H
PASSIVE CASE ACTIVE CASE
f after Canadian Ceotechnicai Society, 1978 1
EFFECT OF WALL MOVEMENT' ON.
whir PRESSURE .
I I ' f i x
: . . ACTIVE STATE
STATE
WALL FREE TO TRANSLATE OR ROTATE ABOUT ITS BASE
NO DISPLACEMENT
RESTRAINED RIGID WALL
EXPANSI ON
BOTTOM OF WALL
DI SPLACED OUTWARD
MORE THAN TOP
OF WALL
TOP QF WALL RESTRAINED
EXPANSION
STRUTTED FLEXIBLE WALL
ANGLE OF SHEARING RESISTANCE, 8, DEGREES (Caguot b ~ e r i s e l , 1948)
1
NOTES
1 . The l a t e r a l e a r t h p r e s s u r e i s o b t a i n e d by s e l e c t i n g a number o f t r i a l f a i l u r e
p l a n e s and d e t e r mi n i n g c o r r e s p o n d i n g v al ues o f PA ( or Pp)
by dr abt i n9 a
f o r c e pol y gon- see ( a ) . For t he a c t i v e pr es s ur e case, t h e maxinlum va icle of
7 4
i s r e q u i r e d and f o r t h e p a s s i v e case, t h e mi ni mum Pp i s r e q u i r e d .
These
~ r n i t i n g v al ues a r e o b t a i n e d b y i n t e r p o l a t i n g bet ween t h e v a l u e s
f o r t h e
wedges s e l e c t e d - see ( b) .
-
2. L a t e r a l . e a r t h p r e s s u r e may be c a l c u l a t e d on any s u r f a c e
o r p l a n e t hr ough t he
s o i I .
3 .
See Fi gur es 1 1 and 12 f o' r t h e p o i n t o f a p p l i c a t i o n of PA.
4 . The t r i a l wedge met hod may a l s o be used f o r a l e v e l or c o n s t a n t l y s l o p i n g
gr ound s ur f ac e, i n wh i c h case i t s houl d y i e l d t h e same r e s u l t a s t h a t g i v e n
b y Rank i ne' s o r Covi omb' s e q u a t i o n s ( whi c hev er i s a p p i i c a b l e ) .
T RI AL WE DGE METHOD - COHESI ONLESS SOIL'
SURFACE ON WHICH-PRESSURE - -
IS CALCULATED \
TENSION ZONE
-
LEVEL
L
. -
FORCE POLYGON FOR TYPICAL WEDGE COMBINATION OF
ACTI VE PRESSURE
-T
The above
Cou l omb ' s
example shows ank kine'
c ondi t i ons . ( Adhesi on
FORCE POLYGONS .TO OBTAIN
MAX. PA
s condi
on t he
t i ons b u t the,
back o f t he wa
same ' pr i nci pl e
1 1 i s i gnor ed) .
2.
For d i r e c t i o n PA see Fi gur e 10 anki kine's condi t i . ons) o r f i g u r e 6 ( ~ o u l o mb ' s
-
c o n d i t i o n s ) .
3.
See Fi gur es 1 1 and 12 f o r p o i n t of appl i c at i on.
4. See Fi gur e 12 f o r r e s u l t a n t pr essur e di agram.
5 . The t r i a l wedge method may be used f o r a l e v e l o r c ons t ant l y s l opi ng gr ound
s ur f ac e.
TRI AL WEDGE METHOD - COHES~ VE SOI L FI GURE 7
PROCEDURE
I . ' Draw t r i a l wedge I i n l a y e r (I) (as shown) and o b r a i n PA, ,,, by v a r y i n g [ t i c
f a i l u r e p l a n e and dr awi ng t h e f o r c e p o l y g o n ( a ) .
2 -
Draw t r i a l wedge 11 (as shown) by c hoos i ng f a i l u r e p l a n e AB i n l a y e r ( 2 ) .
3 .
Fi n d X max by v a r y i n g t h e i n c l i n a t i o n o f p l a n e BC f r o m 8 and d r a wi n g ! he
f o r c e pol y gon ( b) .
I . Us i ng X m a x dr aw f o r c e pol y gon ( c ) and f i n d PA2.
,
5 , Repeat s t eps 2. t o 5 . u s i n g o t h e r t r i a l f ai - hr e p l a n e s A B ' , e t c . u n t i l PA2 lllar
i s det er mi ned.
NOTE , ..
Where l a y e r 2 i s r o c k - l i k e ma t e r i a l , s uc h t h a t no e a r t h p r e s s u r e s a r e e x e r t e d
i gai ns t t h e w a l l , due account s h o u l d however be t a k e n o f wa t e r p r e s s u r e s and j o i n t
o n t r o l l e d f a i l u r e modes.
T R I A L W E D G E ME T H O D - L A Y E R E D SOI L
A H D P O R E W A T E R P R E S S U R E ( A C T I Y E C A S E 1
-
MOJES WITH
MOVES WITH
NOTE
VIRTUAL BACK
( a ) RANKI E
6 =IJ
SLOPING VIRTUAL BACK
( 1 ) I f 1 ine AB does not intersect the wal!, Rankine's
conditions apply.
If line AB does intersect the wall, Coulomb's
conditions apply. ,
I
sin w
( 2 ) 6 = +(YO - 6') - f ( ~ - W) where ;in&=--
s i n 0'
PROCEDURE
Draw a line from the point 'where
the ground surface intersects the
back of the wa l l (B) to a point o n
the ground surface located at a
distance equal to 2H' from B.
The pressure on A-A' may be
assumed to act para1 lel 'with this I ine.
APPRt l Kl MBTf : METHOD FOR DETERMIHATIOH OF Dl RECT l OH
BF R A N KI N E ACTI VE EARTH PRESSURE
F I GURE 10
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SURCHARGE
T RI AL WEDGES PRESSURE ON A- 6
Use when t t ~ c gr ound sur f ace i s v e r y i r r e g u l a r o r when a non-uni f orm sur char ge
i s c ar r i ed.
-
PROCEDURE
1 . Subdi vi de t he l i ne A-6 i nt o about 4 equal p a r t s hl (bel ow the depth yo of
t ensi on c r a c k ),
2. ' Compute t he act i ve e a r t h pr es s ur es P I , P2, P3, 'etc.. , as i f cach of r l w
poi nt s 1 , 2 , 3 , et c. , we r e t he base of t he wal l . The [ r i a l hedge method i s
used f o r each comput at i on.
3. Del er mi ne t he p r e s s u r e di s t r i but i on by wor ki ng down f r om poi nt 4 . A
l i near v a r i a t i o n of p r e s s u r e may be assumed bet ween the poi nt s wher e
pr es s ur e h a s been cal cul at ed.
4. Det er mi ne t he el evat i on of t he cent r oi d of t he pr essur e di.agram, 7. Tt i i s.
is t he appr oxi mat e el evat i on of t he poi nt of appl i cat i on of the r esul t ant
ear t h p r e s s u r e , PA.
NOTE : Wat er f or ces must b e consi der ed separ at el y.
POI NT OF APPLI CATI ON OF RESULTANT FORCE
AND PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
FI GURE 12
1 . Det er mi ne t he d i r e c t i o n s o f sur f ace o f s l i d i n g B A ' 3nd t he p l a n e p o r t i o n A I M o f
t he sur f ace o f r upt ur e f rom t he f o l l o wi n g f or mul ae :
6 , = f(90a + 0 ) - ! ( E + UJ) where, w = mean gr ound s l ope
0 , = $(SO" + 0 ) $(E + ld) and s i n = s i nw/ s i n 0
12.
Se l e c t a r easonabl e p o s i t i o n f o r A ' and j o i n A ' H wi t h a s t r a i g h t I i ne.
I
3 . Cons t r uc t A'C per pendi cul ar t o A I M a t A ' . Produce a per pendi c ul ar bi s ec t or OP
c u t t i n g A'C a t 0, draw ar c AA' wi t h 0 as c ent r e. -
I
4 .
Det er mi ne U j & U2, r e s u l t a n t o f wat er pr essur e on each p o r t i o n o f wedge.
5. Compute W 1 , W2 & W3 and c ons t r uc t f or ce pol ygons b , c t, d i n o r d e i t o o b t a i n Pp
6. Draw t h e pr essur e l ocus o f Pp i n ( a) f o r v a r i o u s t r i a l p o s i t i o n s of 8 ' .
7. Repeat st eps 2-6 w i t h d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s of A' u n t i l t he mi n . val ue of Pp i s
f ound.
PASSIVE FORCE BY CI RCUL AR ARC METHOD
I A Y F R E D SOI L AND POREWATER PRES S URE
I FI GURE 13
I EARTH PRESSURE
WE TO WEIGHT OF
- - .
: BACKFILL
u h o ~ ~ ~ . = l ~ k ~ r n ? , - ,
CRITICAL DEPTHS AH0 EARTH PRESSURE VALUES
I
K 3. 3 t VIBRATORY ROLLER . I 0 5 2 1
19.0
% 1.L i VIBRATORY ROLLER I . 0 . 3 5 I 12. 5
LOO kg VIBRATORY PLATE 16. 0
COMPACTOR
1 2 0 kg VIBRATORY PLATE 0 . 3 2 11.5
COHPACTQR
NOTE. DIAGRAM DRAWN FOR 10.2 1 SMOOTH WHEEL ROLLER
ON FILL, @r 3;. = 1 8 k N I m3
X EFFECTIVE WEIGHT OF VIBRATORY ROLLERS ASSUMED TO BE
TWICE TOTAL STATIC WEIGHT.
I i ) COMPACTION AGAINST UNYIELDING WALLS ( BROMS, 1971 1.
RESULTANT PRESSURl
DISTRIBUTlON
HORIZONTAL EARTH PRESSURE
I \
HORIZONTAL WlH PRESSURE
COMPACTED LAYERS
HOmZOHTAL EARTH PRESSURE
(bj SHOWS IHFLUEHCE OF SUCCESSIYEU
COHPACTIHG LAYERS OF SOIL BEGlNHlHG
AT BASE OF WALL.
Q*
hrn - MAXIMUM VALUE OF HORIZONTAC STRESS SUSTAINED
AFTER COMPACTION.
*
--
WHERE p t ECNIYALENT LINE LOAD CUE TI
ROLLER. FOR V18RATORI ROLLE
CALCULATE p USING AN
EQUIVALENT WEIGHT EQUAL T(
h, = DEADWEIGHT OF ROLLER PLUS
Ka . CENTRIFUGAL FORCE INDUCED
BY ROLLER VIBRATING
MECHANISM.
k] SHOWS PROPOSED DESIGN PRESSURE
DIAGRAM-
( ii )
COMPACTION PRESSURES - DESIGN DATA (INGOLD, I979 I -.
'1 FIGURE 14
For m s O.L
H
Q$--I = 0. 20n
QL (0.16t nZ I L
Po = 0. 5 5 tlL
For m > 0.4
PRESSURES FROM- LINE LOAD Q,
( MOOIFIEO BOUSSINESQ
RESULTANT
Ps = KaQL
RESULTANT FORCE FROM LINE LOAD QL
( APPROX. METHOD FOR LOW RETAINING WALL 1
- -. UNE LOAD r TERZAGHI t PECK 1967 1
LATERAL LOADS ON WALL DUE TO
Fcr m 0.11
For m > 0. C
SECTION
A -A
'RESSURE FROM POINT LOAO Qp
POINT LOAD r t w m ~ o msmsa 1
POINT AND LINE L OAD SURCHARGES
F I GU R E 15
I
I
I
I
- virtual back of wall
un i f o r m
SUI- chat - qe
LOADING I
CRITICAL FOR BEARING PRESSURES
WALL REINFORCEMENT
AND
uni f o r m
surcharge ..
I
LOADING 2
CRITICAL FOR STABIL tTY
SURCHARGE LOAD CASES
! F I GUR E - 16
Water pressure
distribution on
mtential failure
plane due t o
steady seepage.
(a1 NORMAL STEADY STATE SEEPAGE CONOiTlON
Infiltration
(VERTICAL DRAIN 1
. . - - --
Note increase in
water pressure on .
potential failure
plane due t o
surface infiltration.
(bJ SURFACE INFILTRATION (VERTICAL DAAIN 1
Note water pressure
is zero on potentiat
failure piane.
/
( FLOW NETS ASSUME HOMOGENEOUS. ISOTROPtC 9 1 L ]
Kot e : For ease of c o n s t r u c t i on. ~ ~ h e r e
-
f i l t e r l ay er s a r e const r uct ed a t a
st eep i n c l i n e , f i l tcr mat er i al may
be pl aced i n hessi an bags.
c ons t r uc t i on
d r a i a j q c ~ t a t e r i a l
cng i t u d i naI pcrous pi PC
\ l at er pr essur e shoul d be cons itfcrVed
i n desi gn ( Sect i on 5 . 3 )
e r
, r i a l
nage
r i a l
[b} CANTILEVER 1 COUNTERFORT
used when .(a). is not possible
b l i n d i n g layerJ
CANTILEVER I COUNTERFORT
Water pr essur e shoul d be c ons i der ed
i n desi gn ( Sec t i on 5 - 3 1
\
- det a i 1 as (a)
fc) GRAVITY TYPE
f i 1 t e r l a y e r des i gne
accor dance w i t h
----
----
dr ai nage ma t e r i a l
pl ac ed i n h e s s i a n
I
b l i n d i n g l a y e r
(d) GRAVITY TYPE
used when (c) is not possible
BASE
( a ) TYPICAL FLOW NE f' FOR SEEPAGE INTO INCLINED FILTER
Q f
INCLINATION OF FILTER C SEE ABOVE 1
( b)' CHART DEVELOPED FROM FAMILY OF FLOW-NETS
( after Cedergren , t977 I
DESIGN dF INCLINED DRAI NS 1 1 FI GURE 19
GRAIN SIZE ( m m )
COEFFICIENT OF PERI~EAEIL ITY
FOR CLEAtt C W S E - S3?AlfJf D
DRAI Pi& MATERIAL
PERCENT BY WEIGHT WSSING 75 miuon
S E E
( a f t e r N A V F A C 014-7,. 1971)
P ERMEABI LI TY O F DRAI NAGE MATERI ALS
'
F I G U R E 20
I PENETRATION REOUlRED FOR SHEETING
I
- - -
PEHETRATION REQUIRED FOR SHEETIUG
IN SANDS OF INFiHlTE DEPTH IN DENSE SAND OF FlNFlE DEPTH -
d
-
\.
------
-0OSE SANO 6 \
-
\
H" DENSE SAfiO
\
'FACTOR OF SAFETY A t m m n u w t
FACTOR OF SAFETY AGAINST PtPlNti
LOOSE SAND OR PIPING IN MUSE SAND
a) SHEET PENETRATlON IN GRANULAR SOILS
Let kl = k3
.
HI < t i j i her e g e n e r ~ l l y i s more i l ow
t han gi v en i n gr aph ( a ) ( i n f i n; t e! 3 5 9 - ~ e .
I f (11, - bI3) >. B use gr aph ( a) ( i n 1 i ni t e ) .
I f (HI - t i J) < B t her e i s nor e f l cw i hsri
g i v e n i n gr aph ( a ) ( i n f i n i t c ) . I F C; >
-
10KI. f a i l u r e head [ I u i s equal t o Hz .
I f Ill < ti s a f e l y f a c t o r s a r e i nceci cedi at c
3
bet ween those f o r gr aph ( a) ( F i n i t e ) .
I f 11, > }I3 gr aph ( a ) ( F i n i t c ) i s con;er-
v a t i v e .
I f
- d! > 8 use gr aph ( a ) ( f i n i cc)
above.
. . - - -
I f - d) c B pr essur e r e1 i c f r. equi r e d
so t h a t unbal anced- head on f i n e l a y e r --
does not exceed wei ght of Hz.
I f f i n e l ayer i s hi gher t han bot t om o f
ex c av at i on t h e compl et ed ex c av at i on i s -
s af e, but d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n a b l o w i n
nlay oc c ur - pr essur e r e l i e f t hen
r equ i r ed.
b ) PILING - PENETRATION TO PREVENT PIPING i ot t er NAVFAC OH-7, 1971 I
-
V4LL
YPE
-
>-
k
-
>
4
IY
(3
- -
m
i ?
0
-4--
6
-
$
-
>
I-
-
>
Q
(r:
-
(Y
W
>
u
-1
-
t -
Z
Q
0
-
-
V
r a
JJt
> C
L I +
-I
-
-
L
z-2
Q c
2 3
-
-
LOAD DIAGRAM
Rt;Z:E
VERTICAL ! I =*/
STEM
STABILITY. CRITERIA
SLIDING
S + 0 . S P
Fs (sliding) = > 1 - 5
p n + U ~ H
i.e. F.S. on any included ultimate passive > 3.0
Moments about the toe of the base
Homents resisting ovcrturninq fir
$5 (overturning) =
= -
Homcnts causing ovcrtufning n o
Mr = Vta (Fassive Resi srancc
Pp ignored)
No = PA" + U1n t U2e
N.B. I t is illogical to take vertical conlpo-
nenrs of the dist.urbing forces and use
them as restoring rrionlcnts in the
expression for F.S. see section 6 . 3 . 2
Cverturning may be ignored i f R, lies within
middle third (soii), m;ddlc half (rock).
For gravity type walls. overturning must be
checked at selected ho;izontal plane;.the
resulrant must remain within the rriddlc
third.
LOCATION OF RESULTANT
Point where R , intersects base, from t oe.
Ula + P,f - P t ~ + Ulvc - Ul),d - U2e
h =
Wt + Pv + 81" - U2 .
(Passive resistance Pp isnored)
For soil foun.-?ation marcrial, Rw should lie
within middle third o f the base
For a rock foundation, R, should lie within
middle half of the base
BEARING PRESSURE
See section 6.4 for Calcu!ation of f ~ c t o r of
safecy for bearing Fs (bearing)> 3.0
Ut = total weight of the wall
incluPing soif
on toe plus soil above^ heel (for
cantilever walls only)
R, - resultant of W c . PA; U I C U2
SLOPE FA1 CURE I ti SURRCL;I+D I NG SO 1 L
With shear surfaces passing under the \.(all.
the factors of safety st-~utd conply uith
the requirements of Table 5.2 of the
Geotechnical Hanual for Slopes.
WATERFORCES - *
- - . -
- . .
Refrrence should be made'to Chapter 5 fo;- -
cases ocher than those shcwn here.
3
STABI LI TY C R I T E R I A F OR RETAI NI NG WALLS 1 F I G U R E 22
q u ~ t = cNc Sc ic \ gc +
- -
SHAPE FACTORS
8 N
Sc = I + - a
L N c
B
S, = I - 0 . L -
L
INCLINATION FACTORS
TILT FACTORS
WHERE d I S I N RADIANS
GROUND SLOPE FACTORS
q = SURCHARGE EFFECT
= $Dcosw
[ SECTION 6. 4. 3 1
2 + 7
WERE rn, -
PROVIDED THE ~NCLINATION OF LOAD IS IN THE
B DIRECTION OF B
l + T
L
NOTE : Hmox - v tan4'+ A c
NOTES
1. DATA APPLES TO SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
ONLY D 4 B.
2. FOR W > &. A arCK SHOULD ALSO BE MADE
2
FOR OVEAAU SLOPE STABILITY.
3. FOR THE EFFECTS OF NONHOXOGENEWS
SOIL AND SOlL COMPRESSIBILTTY AM) SCALE
EFFECTS REFERENCE SHOULD BE TO VESIC.
L. WHERE THE F W~ T I O N IS KT BACX mat
THE CREST OF THE SLOPE, REFER TO
SECTION 6.6
L OO
3 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 2s 30 35 # LS 50
AHGLE OF SHEARING RESISTAHCE 9' .
[ degrees )
BEARING WACl TY FXTORS
BEARI NG CAPACITY DATA ( VESIC, 1975 ) I FIGURE 23
N.C CLAYS
. . --
& = RANKINE COEFFICIENT OF ACTIVE
EARTH PRESSURE
N3TE WATER AND SURCHARGE LOAOlt;G5
0 c CLAYS
SHOULD BE CONSIDERED
fa after Peck ,.I969
HARDCLAY(N, L) , OGH
SOFT CLAY ( N* L 1
K = COEFFICIENT OF EARTH PRESSURE
N = STANDARD PENETRATION TEST VALUE
I b ) af teg Japan Society of Civil Engineers ,1977
NbC
F, ( base l = -
3 H. q .
c = AVERAGE UNDRAINED SHEAR
STRENGTH OF IHE SOIL FN(3-i BASE
H LEVEL TO A DEPTH Ct= 0 2SH BELOW
THE BASE
Nb= STABILITY FACTOR
L = EXCAVATIW LENGTH
-
-
0, INFINITE STRIP
-
STABILITY FACTOR FOR VARKXIS
a
GEOMETRIES OF CUT
-
L -
I I I I I I I i 1 I
0 i 2 3' L 5
H
-
' 8
(After hnt u et al. 1956 )
F A C T OR 0 F SAFETY WI TH RESPECT TO BASE HEAVE
1 FIGURE 25
t '
NOTES
1 . Cr i b wa l l u n i t s t o be i ~ f i l l c d i -!i l l ~ I rpc.
d r ~ i n i n g ma t e r i a l , we1 1 compaci cd t n
l ay er s . Car e s houl d be t ak en t o ~ v o ~ d
d i s t u r b i n g t he u n i t s .
2. Desi gn c r i t e r i a f o r g r a v i ~y w.11 1 s . 2i : i : ; y
t o c r i b wa l l s . Wal I s e c t i o n rc\ i l . t i r ~ q
o v e r t u r n i n g i s t ak en as a r c c t . ~ r ~ r . l c t l f
di mensi on (ti x b ) .
. -
3 . Low wa 1 I s ( under 1 . Sm hi gh) may I)c' ~tr.ttlc
w i t h a pl umb f ace. Hi gher- wal 1s ~ I I o ~ I ~ ~ I
be b a t t e r e d as shown.
sz24(b 4 . For h i g h wal i s (4m h i g h and over l r h c .
b a t t e r i s i nc r eas ed o r supp l cnl cr l l ar v
c r i b s a r e added a t t h e bac k .
concrete base slab .
1
( a ) TYPICAL SECTION
( diagrammatic 1
ng ct oser
( b 1 TYPICAL FORM OF CRIB WALLING
- --
I
C R I B WALL. DETAI LS
FI GURE - 26
ASSUMPTIONS : Soil properties : 9: c = 0 , r=19. 5kri l m3
0' = LO'
Wll properties : 6-= f 8. Ww-15.5 k ~ l m 3
---
+' = 36 Wall slope : 0 = - IL' ( 1 in L I
CR~SWAU DESIGN CURVES FIGURE 27
TOE MOIAENT EFFECT ON HEEL
WElGHT OF BACKFILL ABOVE HEEL
SELF WEIGHT OF HEEL
LOADING FRGht TOE iAOMENT
ASSUMED KXJNDATION BEARING
PRESSURES
RESULTANT LOADING ON HEEL
( MAY BE FULLY POSKNE )
NOTE : PRESSURE DIAGRAMS NOT TO SCALE
- . --
DESI GN ' LOADI NG ON HEEL SLAB 1 F I GUR E 30
a1 UNSAS!SFACTORY DETAIL b ) UNSATISFACTORY DETAIL
CRITICAL SECTI ON
FOR SHEAR tN TOE
M;iICHEVEc IS THE
c) RECDMbEFJXD DETAl L FOR L; t T
R AOIAL
HOOPS
4 j
ef RECOMMENDED DETAIL FOR
LARGE JCINTS (As1 > 0.5%
NOTES
1 . Rc f e r t o Se c t i o n s 11. 8 C 1 1 . ' ) l o r
d i s c u s s i on, i n c l u d i n a 1 i r ni t . ?t ior>s 4;n
s t e e l p e r c e n t a s e .
2. Fur c l a r i t y , n o t a i l sr r . cI i s ;!,r):rn i r :
t hes e s k et c hes . , AJdi i i o n s i s[ct:I f r l r
t o e moment I 4 3 i s shown d c t l c d . lio
shrinkage, t emper at ur e or b i s t r i I::it i on
s t e e l i s shown.
3 . I f - d e s i r e d , a f i l l e t may . be included. ,
EXAMPLE OF CANTILEVER STEEL
SHEET PILED WALL DESIGN
Example of Cantilever Steel Sheet
Pile Wall Design
Dredge
Line
Cantilever Sheet Piles Wall in Granular soils
Earth Pressures
Cantilever Sheet Piles Wall in Granular soils
Dredge
Line
Earth Pressures
yDKa
Cantilever Sheet Piles Wall in Granular soils
Resultant I Net
pressures
Dredge
' . L y D k p - , $ y(H+D)Ka ' y(H+D)ka y(H+D)kp-yDKa , bp - yDKa
Cross-section TDKP ~(H+D)KP
Simplified
Method
Max. Bendin
Cross-section Net Pressures
Shear c end in^ Deflection
Mom
Surcharge
10 kNlm2
Loose fine sand
Min. unplanned
excavation depth =
y = 17.1 6 kNlm2
0.5~1 or l o% of \ dl =30, 6=00
retained ht.
(BS8002)
Im
1 -sin 4
K~ = ----- = tan (45 - 4 1 2)
= 0.33 Loose sand
Water l +s i n+ = 0.27 Compact sand
pressure
1+si n4 - tan t (45 ++/ 2) = 3.0 Loose sand
Kp=--_---
I-sln 4
= 3.7 Compact sand
Loose fine sand
y= 17.1 6 kNlm2
@=30, 6=00
Compact fine san y = 18.6 kNlm2.
y ,=9.8 kNlm2. y' =10.8 kNlm2.
@=35, 6=00 . 1 C=O
Active
Pressures
1
1
- 5( 69
Compact fine sand
Dist fr.
Top
(m)
Loose fine sand
y= 17.16 kNlm2
passive 1 Active
Pressures Pressures
O=3O0, 6=O0
Dist Active (kNlm2)
".
Vertical pressure Lateral pressure
TOP
-
Active (kNImZ)
Passive (kNlmZ) 1
Vertical pressure
Vertical
1
Lateral pressure
pressure
1
Lateral pressure
1 Surcharge b r
10 kNlm2
Compact fine sand
y ,.,=9.8 kNlm2,
(D=35,6=00
n
T
Loosefinesand
y= 17.16 kNlm2
cD=30,6=00 I
c ~ e t Diag. pressures
C=O
-. -. - . . . . . -. -. -. -. -. . . - . . . -. . . . . . , -. . . .
25.9
.... 0 ;=
-+- -=-
, 37.7 20
Location of
- -.I-..WT ,.,
: zero shear i.e.
-. -. - . . . . . -. -. -. -. -. . . - . . . -. . . . . . , -. . . .
Location of
- -.I-..WT ,.,
i zero shear i.e.
y = 18.6 kNlm2.
,- -. - .+
,/ max. bending
y' 40. 8 kNlm2, L:: moment
C=O A-'212.4 c !.
Active fkNlm2)
Vertical pressure I Lateral pressure
Passive (kNim2)
Vertical Lateral pressure Net
pressure press
0 0 3.3
0 0 25.9
17.16x1=17.2 17.2x3=51.6 -20
17.16x1=17.2 17.2~3.7~63.6 -37.7
18.6x1+17.16x 35.8~3.7432.5 -101.6
1=35.8
Ix17.2+1~18.6 68.2~3.7+9.8~3=2 -212.4
+2x10.8=68.2 81.4
Surcharge - - - - * [ I
10 kNlm2, 1 -
fi 3.3 Net Pressures
, Diag.
I I - \ - - - I
1 13. 3x4=13. 2
I
1 5.56 1 73.4 Thus, D = 2.44m
212.4
Take moment about C 4
By Trial & Error -Assume
2 1 22.6 x 4 x K = 45.2 4.893 1 221.2
I Depth of penetration
Lat. Forces (kN/m)
6 -53.1D x D x % ~26. 55 DZ Dl3
= 1.2 x 3.44 = 4.2m
Total length of SSP = 8.2m
Mom Arm @
C lml
Moment (kNrnlm)
depth of D until Z = 0
Surcharge A [ - 1
10 kNlm2 ////
4n1
-
.......................................
Net Pressures 1
Diag.
0.44m -k--. Y
0.56m Te--
max. bending
moment
I I Lat. Forces (kNirn)
I
Thus, obtain Y,
i.e. Ans. Y = 5.9m
I
Surcharge , - r y i
10 kNlm2 //I/
4r i
- -
.................................
WT
Max Moment
Net Pressures fi "' "
u
moment
Take Mom (max) @ point of kero shear
Repeat previous Table for determining D except to use Y C 5.9 m t o obtain
Max Moment
M max = 182.4 kNim2
Using Allowable Yield Stress = G =180kNlm2
Sect Modulus SSP required ,
= - M =182.4 x 1000 x 100 = 1413 cm31m, Choose LX 12, k 11208 cm3/m
o 180x100
REINFORCED CONCRETE
RETAINING WALL
- THEORY AND DESIGN
Types of Retaining Structures
A. Gravity Retaininq Walls
I. Mass Concrete Retaining Wall
2. Crib Wall
3. Gabions Wall
6
4. Reinforced Fill Retaining Walls
Types of Retaining Structures (conk..)
T-shaped L-shaped
B. Reinforced Concrete Retaininq Walls
I. RC L- or inverted T-shaped
Cantilever Retaining Wall (with or
without key)
2. R.C. Counterfort Retaining Wall
3. R.C. Buttressed Retaining Wall
C. Cantilevered Retaininq Walls
1. Contiguous I Secant Bored pile wall
or Sheet Pile (conc /steel) Retaining
Walls
Types of Retaining Structures (cont ...)
Retaining Wall with Counterforts
Retaining Wall with Buttresses
Common Usage of Retaining Wall - in DID
Fill
Water
Gravity a. Stability by wt of wall
c. can incorporate features on surface
a. need large amt of space
b. support may be required during
construction
a. Reasonably good fdn required
b.Large quantities conc, need curing
time
c. Generallv H < 3 - 4 m
21 Crib Wall I a.Easy to construct & maintain
b.Soil used as structural components, no
I need manufactured materials
I c. Used manufactured elements. better
I quality
3 Gabions wall a.As (a). & (b) in ui b wall
b. Permit construction on weaker fdn
c. Flexible str, tolerate higher differential
settlement than conc wall
4 Reinforced Fill a. As in (a). (b), (c) in crib wall
b. Can cope in tighter curve than conc
wall
c. As in (b), (c), (d ) for gabions wall1
a. selfdrain fill reqd
b. High cost for small quantities
c. Not suitable for ht > 7 m
a. As in (a) & (b) in Crib wall
a. Land take may be more than other
gravity wall requirement
b. Reinforced zone required protection
c. Stringent requirement for fills
d. Patents aspects
e. Cost may be high for small quantities
Advantages and Disadvantages of different Types of Retaining Wall (Cont..)
Reinforced
Concrete
Retaining Wall
R.C. Cantilever
Retaining Wall
(L- T-shaped)
R.C. Counterfort
or Buttress
Retaining Wall
a. Provides stability by strength &
stiffness of R. C & wt of Retained
fill
b. Suitable for retaining fill,
embankmentetc
a. Construction may required large
excavation with supports
b. reasonable good fdn required
c. need curing time
d. thin wall susceptible to damage by
impact
a.Conventional construction
b. can incorporate features on
surface
I a. Reasonably good fdn required
b. Large quantities conc, need curing
time
c. Generallv H < 7 m
a. Can be construct to higher than a. Formwork may be costly
RC. Ret wall
b. Generafyy H < 12 m
b. As in (a) (b) above
Advantages and Disadvantages of different Types of Retaining Wall (Cont..)
Cantilevered
Retaining
Wall
a. Provides stability by bending
strength & stiffness of cantilever
b. Used where space limited & where
bearing pressure to be kept low
c. Suitable where it can be supported B
be part of adjacent structures
d. Temporary Cutting not required
a. May required substantial penetration into
ground for stability if frock or strong
bearing layer is not found at shallow
depth
b. Cost 8 ground movement are generally
much higher than gravity or RC retaining
wall
c. Design very sensitive to changes to
ground level
d. Impermeable wall may cause a rise in
h e local oroundwater level.
I
Retaining Structures - Design Philosophy
2 set of calculations
- Set of equilibrium calculations for proportions I geometric of
structures to achieve equilibrium under earth pressures and forces
I
- Structural design calculations for Reinforced Concrete sections
propertiieslsize to resist bending momentsfshear forces
1. Assemble general info - topo, surveys etc.
2. Analyze subsoil conditions
Ex. Ground
3. Compute Earth and surcharge pressures
4. Select tentative proportion of wall (for RC wall)
Proposed
5. Analyze structural and foundation stability Retaining wall
6. Design structural elements
7. Select drainage backfill
8. Predict settlement and movement of wall
Topo of site - existing Structures, utilities, groundwater, tidal
water, etc.
Controlling dimensions e.g. top and base elev. of wall, slope ,
alignment of wall , flood levels, drains, roads etc
Wall foundation supports - on earth, piles (need batter piles
for lateral forces)
Determine bearing capacity of foundation soils.
Determine shear strength of soil, c', t+ ' (long vs. short term)
Investigation of lower strata - possible settlement and failure
and piles bearing capacity (if required).
Determination of Soil Properties - Cohesionless Soils
-
Normally free draining, excess pore pressure dissipate rapidly
Thus, effective stress used for both long-term & short-term, C= 0.4 = 4 '
Effect of Wall friction on wall, 6 on
- Active pressure 3 normally ignored
- Passive pressure 3 6 = 213
- Soil Properties
- SPT
- JKRI Mackintosh Probe
- Shear Box Test
SPT Vs + for cohesionless soils
Type of soil Penetration Angle of Internal friction (degree!
Resistance, N Peck (1974) Meyerhof (1956)
Very Loose sand c 4 < 29 < 30
Loose sand 4 - 10 29 - 30 30 - 35
Medium Sand 10 - 30 30 - 36 35 - 40
Dense Sand 30 - 50 36 - 41 40 - 45
V. Dense Sand > 50 > 41 > 45
Determination of Soil Properties - Cohesive Soils
Shear strength change over time due to excess pore pressure dissipation
Considered both long- and short-term
- Short term (undrained) - immediately after construction 3 Total stress values
- Long-term (drained) - effective stress values (i.e. values resemble cohesive
values)
Soil Properties
- Total Stress Values (+ =o, c = c)
Direct shear test 3 Vane Shear (in-situ)
Indirect Shear Test
9 Triaxial UU, CU
9 Unconfined Compression Test - undrained cohesive soil under zero
lateral pressure
- Effective Stress Values
- Triaxial CU with pore pressure meas
Triaxial CD (not common)
- Other soil parameters required
- Moisture contents
Density
= Soil dassifications
(Reference:
Determination of Soil Properties - Cohesive Soils (cont ....)
If no effective stress parameters are available from drained
tests, this tables may be used only for initial studies and would
tend to give conservative values (BSC - Piling Handbook)
Verysoft I > 80 1 c20 1
0 1
15
Description
Soft
1 80 / 20-40 / 0 1 15
Plasticity
Index (%)
Very stiff
1 15 1 >I 50 /
0 1 30
Medium
(firm)
Stiff
Undrained
cohesion, c,
kN/m2
50
30
Drained
Cohesion, c'
(kN/m2)
@ ' (degrees)
50 - 75
100 - 150
0
0
20
25
Determination of Soil Properties - Cohesive Soils (cont ....)
Relationship Between SPT, JKRMackintosh Probe and Unconfined
Compression Strength of Cohesive Soil
1 . .
3. compute Earth anh Surcharge pi-essures
- Earth pressure on retaining structures depend on lateral movement of soils
Active pressure : -
J Minimum pressure when wall moved outward away from soil
A > 0.003 H , Active forces (min)
Very small wall deflection needed to
activation active force ,
*
Passive pressure on Retaining Structures -
J Maximum pressure when wall moved toward the soil
At-rest earth pressure on Retaining Structures
A
t*
.
A > 0.05 H , Passive Forces (min)
J For very rigid I small wall deflection (eg. propped anchored wall)
KO = 1 - sin I$ ' - Jaky's
H
Normally KO 1 0.5
Very large wall deflection needed to
activation passive force
Where K, , = Coefficient of lateral pressure at rest
Rankin's Theory For Coefficient of Lateral Pressures
"
COS p - . J c 0 s Z p - C O S 2 4
Ka = cos p
COS + 4- i
Kp = cos p
c o s p - J z j 7 G 2 4
cos p + 4 - 4
Where
Ka = Coefficient of active pressure
I@ = Coefficient of passive pressure
For Level backfill
D
L$"i: Compute Earth and &rcharge,pressuPes ( ~ 6 ~ ; ~ )
f t
Active and Passive Lateral Pressures
Where
Pa = Active Lateral Pressure (kWm2) on wall
P, = Passive lateral Pressure (kN/mZ) on wall
Ka = Coefficient of active pressure
Kp = Coefficient of passive pressure
Note:
Rankine's underestimate Passive
BS8002 - ignore top
pressure, however, frequently used as
0.5m of soil in passive
it err on the conservative side for
resistance force
stability analysis.
Coulomb's Theory For Coefficient of Lateral Pressures
....................
- a
R - -- - - -- --- -- --
cos2 0
sin($+&) si n(@-@)
" = cod E + / - I cod C O S ~
where @ = angle of internal friction of soil
6 = angle of wall friction
D = angle of t he backfill wi th respect to horizontal
1. Overestimate Passive pressure , thus, limit to F <+'I3 (HK Ret. Wall guidelines)
2. Mobilised angle of wall friction 6, need to be assumed
Surcharge Loads
Permanent or temporary
Uniform distributed eg stacked materials, vehicles etc.
Concentrated Loads
9 Line loads eg loads from strip footing
9 Point Load eg. squarelcircular footing
Area loads eg, large area footing in relation to ht of wall
Seismic Loads
Nominal Uniform Surcharqe Load
BS 8002 (Earth Retaining Structures): min 10 kNlm2
HK Ret Wall guidelines: -
J Buildings with shallow foundation = 10 kNlm2
4 Highway structures HA Loadings = 10 kNlm2
HB structures = 20 kNlm2
4 Footpaths, cycle trackslptay areas1 isolated roads = 5 kNlm2
Line Load Q, on Wall
(modified Boussinesq)
I m H C p
FEZ-
H
I \
'or m 10
Point Load on Wall, Qp
(modified Boussinesq)
For m. 0
Water Pressure Loads
Many walls failed due to water behind wall
Importance to provide adequate drainage behind wall
J
prevent softening & loss of strength of cohesive backfill
J
prevent ingress of water into fissures formed during hot dry spells.
Design based on worst credible groundwater conditions during extreme events
eg. flooding, severe rainfall, bursting of water mains, rapid drawdown
P, act on both passive and active side of wall
Groundwater Table assumed > 113 H
y ' = y ,- y , + Lateral pressure below /
..
WT calculated using y '
Water pressure on Wall-
Drainage
Effects of providing
drainage on phreatic line
Backfill for Wall
*
Granular fill , preferably e.g well graded small rockfills, gravels,
sands,
- Cohesive - used only if granular fill not possible leconomic reason
-
Designed for in term of water pressure behind wall
and construction
-
Liquid Limit < 45 % and P.l < 25 %
.
Batter = (1 : 50)
H
If no in-situ info, used Hw = 213 x H
Base frictional angle = 213 x Soil
int'l friction angle (drained condition)
If undrained condition, use .r = C,
.
+
B= (0.4 - 0.67 H)
Tw= (0.085 - 0.15H, min 0.25 - 0.3m )
-
5 Stability of Retaininqlqravity Wall - Mode of Failures
General Principle on Stability of Wall
FOS = Moments or Forces Aidincl Stability
Moment or forces causing instability
5 Stability of Retaininq I qravitv Wall Mode of Failures
3. Base soil Bearing Failure
------..-......-.
5 Stabilitv of Retaining I qravitv Wall -
= 2.0
FOS
Rotation Failure
Sum bf Moments resistina overturning
Sum of Moments causing overturning
J
Passive Wall with deep keys should be avoided due to
construction problem and uncertainty in resisting rotation
5 Stabilitv of Retainincllnravit~ Wall
Sliding Failure
FOS=(Wt+Pv)tan&, - +chB+0. 5Pp -
Ph
Wt = Wt of Wall
Pv ) = Vertical component of earth pressure
force
6, = angle of base friction
C , = adhesion at base of wall
B = Base width
Pp = passive pressure force
P, = horizontal component of earth pressure
forces
FOS Sliding (min) = 1.5 (normal)
= 1.2 (Adverse)
5 Stability of Ret ai ni n~l ~r avi t y Wall
Sliding Failure
S= Resisting lateral force due to base frictionladhesion
= Vertical force x Coefficient of friction at Base
Coefficient of friction at Base (cohesionless soil)
= tan 4 + for rough base (eg conc on soil)
Ref : Foundation Design- WC
Teng
= 0.55 + Coarse grain soils (without silt)
= 0.45 + Coarse grain soils (with silt)
= 0.35 + silt
= 0.60 Sound rock (with rough surface)
Coefficient of friction at Base (cohesive soil)
= Cohesive strength, c (4 = 0)
Base on Piles
= No frictionladhesion on base and all lateral &
vertical loads supported by piles
- -
5 Stability of Retaininnlnravitv Wall
I
Shear Key
Used of Shear Key on base slab)
Increase lateral resistance ( but benefit generally
small unless embedded in rock)
Best located directly under stem or inner half of base
Disavantages -Excavation for keys disturbed soils
esp. in soft & purely granullar soils
5 Stability of Retaininnlsravitv Wall -
Base Soil Bearing Failure
Estimate the ultimate bearing capacity from theoretical
analysis of the foundation
For foundation on saturated clayey soils of low
permeability, short term is more critical, thus used
undrained strength ( i.e. g' =O condition)
Submerged y should be used when foundation under
water table
Base soil Bearing Failure FOS (min) = 2 - 3
Foundation Bearing Capaci ty (shallow Foundati on i.e. D < B)
Refer to Geotechnical Guidelines For DID Works Pg 37 to 44
Qul t =cNcscdci cbcgc +p,Nqsqd,iqbqg, +%yNysy dy i y by gy
Effect of cohesion effect of surcharge effect of y
Brinch Hansen 's General Eqn
y = Density of soil below foundation level
B = Width of foundation C
C =undrained cohesion of soils t--------,
Po = effective overburden pressure of soil at foundation level
B
N, , N, , N y = bearing capacity factors
d, , d,, d, = depth factors
s, , s, , s, = shape factors
i, , i,, iy = Load inclination factors
b, ,b,, b, = base inclination factors g, , g,, gy = ground surface inclination factors
Foundation Bearing Capacity (shallow Foundation i.e. D < B)
Qul t =cNcscdci cbcgc +p,Nqsqdqiqbqgq +XyN,s,d, i, b,g,
Foundation Bearing Capacity (shallow Foundation i.e. D < B)
I Qult=cNcscdcicb,gc +p,Nqsqdqiqbqgq +KyN,s,d, i, b,g,
GROUND SLOPE FACTOW
INCLIP~ATION FACTORS
9' - 9*--
I, - iq --!z% Na fan$
Ng tan@'
e of Design of RC Cantilever Retaining Wall (T- shaped)
- Dimensions of Wall
I I
0.5m or 10% of
retained ht. of soil
ignore in passive
resistance due to
unp(anod
excavation
b) base mat1 =20
j$~n~~ty;bulk) y = 18kNlm3
aturated Densuity = 20kN/m3
ubmerged Density y' = 11 -00 kN/rn3
IF
(base material) (Cb ) = 5 kNlmZ
II?Annl I bearina oressure allowable=150kNlm2 1
1 l4o0 1: ' I MATERIAL PROPERTIES I
fcu =zNlmrn2 ym =1.5 (conc)
fy =sNl mm2 ym =1.15 (steel)
Cover tension steel =50mm I
I""_' . 1 Concrete density =24kNlm3 I
Compute Lateral pressures
1 0.3 x 11 x 1. 4462
Earth
Compute Lateral prdssures
I
Compute Lateral prqssures
Compute Lateral prqssures
0.3 x 11 x 1. 4462 10x l.4=14
Earth Surcharge Water
Compute Lateral Forces
Compute Lateral Forces
--
Compute Lateral Forces
Compute Vertical Force*
Ws=lOx(Z-.35-.4)=12.5
Ka x surcharge=
Compute Vertical Forces
Mq=173.4
Ms=17.2
Compute Vertical Forces LFl rl
Compute Vertical Forces
- m
{External Stabilii t
iOveruning Moment j t I I
I
I Overuning Moment
L
I
- !!~!E!L-- _- 9.8 - - 0 4 7 _-A606 - j.4
3.4484 -L3.72
P p 3.3 0.16 0.528
Sum 45.85 55.876 78.966 68.81
i
Water
9,8 0.117 - 4.606 1 l 6.4484 13.72-
Pp 3.3 0.16 0.528
Sum 45.85 55.876 78.966 68.81 H.
Design for Heel
Surcharge = 10 x 1.25 = 12.5
Soil = W3=18x1.25~2 + 20x(1.4 -0.35)x1.25=71.25
Conc Wt. = 0.35 x 24 x 1.25=20.5
=(I .25 1 ~ ) X I 18.6 =74.1
Design for Toe
Conc Wt. = 0.35 x 24 x 0.4=
3.18
118.6 y
Design for Stem
DEl Al LI RG OF CAUT i l t l ER WALL Rtl Ri ORCEAI ENl . I FI GURE 32
thtes:
Backfill with free draining materials, well compacted layers
Stability analysis as for gravity wall
Battered as shown
List of References
BS8002: Code of Practices : Earth Retaining Structures
BSC Piling Handbook
Retaining Walls by DID Design Office
Geotechnical guidelines for DID Works - Design office JPT
Foundation Design - WC Teng
Steel Sheet Piling Design manual - United States Steel
Hong Kong Geotechnical Guidelines
An Introduction t o Geotechnical Engineering - Robert D.
Holtz & William D. Kovacs 8
Earth Retention Systems handbook -Alan Macnab
Soil Mechanics - GN smith