A C Machine

Dhanvantari College of Engineering, Nashik
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D- III Electrical
SEM I
A.C. Machine
Chapter 1
Three phase induction motor
Concept of Slip Rings and Brush Assembly
Whenever there is a need of connecting the rotating member of the machine to the
stationary external circuit, then slip rings and brush assembly is used.
Consider a three phase rotating star connected winding as shown in the Fig.
5.5. It is required to connect external three stationary star connected resistances to this
windings. The winding must keep on rotating and external resistance must remain
stationary and still there should be contact between the two. This is possible by slip
rings and brushes.

Construction
Basically, the induction motor consists of two main parts, namely
1. The part i.e. three phase windings, which is stationary called stator.
2. The part which rotates and is connected to the mechanical load through shaft
called rotor.
The conversion of electrical power to mechanical power takes place in a rotor.
Hence rotor develops a driving torque and rotates.

Stator
The stator has a laminated type of construction made up of stampings which are 0.4 to 0.5
mm thick. The stampings are slotted on its periphery to carry the stator winding. The
stampings are insulated from each other. Such a construction essentially keeps the iron
losses to a minimum value. The number of stampings are stamped together to build the
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stator core. The built up core is then fitted in a casted or
fabricated steel frame. The choice of material for the stampings
is generally silicon steel, which minimizes the hysteresis loss.
The slots on the periphery of the stator core carries a three
phase winding, connected either in star on delta. This three
phase winding is called stator winding. It is wound for
definite number of poles. This winding when excited by a three
phase supply produces a rotating magnetic
field as discussed earlier. The choice of number of poles
depends on the speed of the rotating magnetic field required. The radial ducts are
provided for the cooling purpose. In some cases, all the six terminals of three stator
winding are brought out which gives flexibility to the user to connect them either in star
or delta. The Fig. 5.6 shows a stator lamination.

Working Principle
Induction motor works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
When a three phase supply is given to the three phase stator winding, a rotating
magnetic field of constant magnitude is produced as discussed earlier. The speed of this
rotating magnetic field is synchronous speed, N
s
r.p.m.
= speed of rotating magnetic field
where f = supply frequency
P = number of poles for which stator winding is wound.
This rotating field produces an effect of rotating poles around a rotor. Let direction of
rotation of this rotating magnetic field is clockwise as shown in the Fig. 5.9 (a).

Now at this instant rotor is stationary and stator flux R.M.F. is rotating. So its obvious
that there exists a relative motion between the R.M.F. and rotor conductors. Now the R.M.F.
gets cut by rotor conductors as R.M.F. sweeps over rotor conductors. Whenever conductor
cuts the flux, e.m.f. gets induced in it. So e.m.f. gets induced in the rotor conductors caller
rotor induced e.m.f. This is electro-magnetic induction. As rotor forms closed circuit, induced
e.m.f. circulates current through rotor called rotor current as shown in the Fig. 5.9(b). Let
direction of this current is going into the paper denoted by a cross as shown in the Fig. 5.9(b).
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Any current carrying conductor produces its own flux. So rotor produces its flux
called rotor flux. For assumed direction of rotor current, the direction of rotor flux is
clockwise as known in the Fig. 5.9(c). This direction can be easily determined using right
hand thumb rule. Now there are two fluxes, one R.M.F. and other rotor flux. Both the fluxes
interact with each as shown in the Fig. 5.9 (d). On left of rotor conductor, two fluxes are in
same direction hence add up to get high flux area. On right side, two fluxes cancel each other
to produce low flux area. As flux lines act as stretched rubber band, high flux density area
exerts a push on rotor conductor towards low flux density area. So rotor conductor
experiences a force from left to right in this case, as shown in the Fig. 5.9 (d), due to
interaction of the two fluxes.
As all the rotor conductors experience a
force, the overall rotor experiences a torque and
starts rotating. So interaction of the two fluxes is
very essential for a motoring action. As seen from
the Fig. 5.9(d), the direction of force experienced is
same as that of rotating magnetic field. Hence rotor
starts rotating in the same direction as that of
rotating magnetic field.

Alternatively this can be explained as: According to Lenzs law the direction of
induced current in the rotor is so as to oppose the cause producing it. The cause of rotor
current is the induced e.m.f. which is induced because of relative motion present between the
rotating magnetic field and the rotor conductors. Hence to oppose the relative motion i.e. to
reduce the relative speed, the rotor experiences a torque in the same direction as that of
R.M.F. and tries to catch up the speed of rotating magnetic field.

So, N
s
= Speed of rotating magnetic field in r.p.m.
N = Speed of rotor i.e. motor in r.p.m.
N
s
N = Relative speed between the two, rotating magnetic field and the rotor
conductors.

Thus rotor always rotates in same direction as that of R.M.F.

Slip of induction Motor
We have seen that rotor rotates in the same direction as that of R.M.F. but in steady
state attains a speed less than the synchronous speed. The difference between the two
speeds i.e. synchronous speed of R.M.F. (N
s
) and rotor speed (N) is called slip speed.
This slip speed is generally expressed as the percentage of the synchronous speed.
So slip of the induction motor is defined as the difference between the synchronous
speed (N
s
) and actual speed of rotor i.e. motor (N) expressed as a fraction of the
synchronous speed (N
s
). This is also called absolute slip or fractional slip and is denoted
as s.
Thus (absolute slip)

S =
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The percentage slip is expressed as,

(percentage slip)

In terms of slip, the actual speed of motor (N) can be expressed as,
N = N
s
(1 - s) (from the expression of slip)
At start, motor is at rest and hence its speed N is zero.
Effect on Rotor Frequency
In case of induction motor, the speed of rotating magnetic field is,

N

where f = frequency of supply in Hz
At start when N =0, s = 1 and stationary rotor has maximum relative motion with
respect to R.M.F. Hence maximum e.m.f. gets induced in the rotor at start. The frequency
of this induced e.m.f. at start is same as that of supply frequency.
As motor actually rotates with speed N, the relative speed of rotor with respect R.M.F.
decreases and becomes equal to slip speed of N
s
N. The induced e.m.f. in rotor depends
on rate of cutting flux i.e. relative speed N
s
N. Hence in running condition magnitude of
induced e.m.f. decreases so as its frequency. The rotor is wound for same number of
poles as that of stator i.e. P.
Effect on Magnitude of Rotor Induced E.M.F.
We have seen that when rotor is standstill, s = 1, relative speed is maximum and
maximum e.m.f. gets induced in the rotor. Let this e.m.f. be,
E
2
= Rotor induced e.m.f. per phase on standstill condition
As rotor gains speed, the relative speed between rotor and rotating magnetic field
decreases and hence induced e.m.f. in rotor also decreases as it is proportional to the
relative speed N
s
N. Let this e.m.f. be,
E
2r
= Rotor induced e.m.f. per phase in running condition
Now E
2
N
s
while E
2r
N
s
N
Dividing the two proportionality equations,
but slip s
s

% s = 100
E
2r
= s E
2

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Effect on Rotor Resistance and Reactance
The rotor winding has its own resistance and the inductance. In a case of squirrel cage
rotor, the rotor resistance is very very small and generally neglected but slip ring rotor has
its own resistance which can be controlled by adding external resistance through slip
rings. In general let,
R
2
= Rotor resistance per phase on standstill
X
2
= Rotor reactance per phase on standstill

Now at standstill,
f
x
= f hence if L
2
is the inductance of rotor per phase,
X
2
= 2f L 2 f L /ph
while R
2
= Rotor resistance in /ph

Now in running condition,
f
r
= sf hence,
X
2r
= 2f L 2 f L s. (2f L )

where X
2r
= Rotor reactance in running condition

Thus resistance as independent of frequency remain same at standstill and in running
condition. While the rotor reactance decreases by slip times the rotor reactance at
standstill.
Hence we can write rotor impedance per phase as:
Z
2
= Rotor impedance on standstill (N = 0) condition
= R
2
+ j X
2
/ph
Z
2
= R X /ph magnitude

while Z
2r
= Rotor impedance in running condition
= R
2
+ j X
2r
= R
2
+ j (s X
2
) /ph

Z
2r
= R s X /ph magnitude

Torque Equation
The torque produced in the induction motor depends on the following factors:
1. The part of rotating magnetic field which reacts with rotor and is responsible to
produce induced e.m.f. in rotor.
2. The magnitude of rotor current in running condition.
3. The power factor of the rotor circuit in running condition.

Mathematically the relationship can be expressed as,
T f I
2r
cos f
2r
(1)
X
2r
= s X
2

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where f = flux responsible to produce induced e.m.f.
I
2r
= rotor running current
f
2r
= running p.f. of rotor
The flux f produced by stator is proportional to E
1
i.e. stator voltage.
f E
1
(2)

While E
1
and E
2
are related to each other through ratio of stator turns to rotor turns i.e.
k.

k (3)

Using (3) in (2) we can write,
E
2
f (4)

Thus in equation (1), f can be replaced by E
2
.
While I
2r
=

(5)
and cos f
2r
=

(6)
Using (4), (5), (6) in equation (1),
T E
2
.

.

T =

(7)
where k = constant of proportionality
The constant k is proved to be 3/2 n
s
for the three phase induction motor.
k =

(8)

Starting Torque
Staring torque is nothing but the torque produced by an induction motor at start, At
start, N = 0 and slip s = 1, So putting s = 1 in the torque equation we can write expression
for the starting torque T
st
as,
T

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(10)
Key Point: From the equation (10), it is clear that by changing R
2
the starting torque T
st
can
be controlled.
The change in R
2
at start is possible in case of slip ring induction motor only. This is the
principle used in case of slip induction motor to control the starting torque T
st
.

Condition for Maximum Torque
From the torque equation, it is clear that torque depends on slip at which motor is
running. The supply voltage to the motor is usually rated and constant and there exists a fixed
ration between E
1
and E
2
. Hence E
2
is also constant. Similarly R
2
, X
2
and n
s
are constants for
the induction motor.
Hence while finding the condition for maximum torque4, remember that the only
parameter which controls the torque is slip s.
Mathematically for the maximum torque we can write,

0
where T

While carrying out differentiation remember that E
2
, R
2
, X
2
and k are constants. The
only variable is slip s. As load on motor changes, its speed changes and hence slip changes.
This slip decides the torque produced corresponding to the load demand.
T

writing (s X
2
)
2
= s
2
X
2
2

As both numerator and denominator contains s terms, differentiate T with respect to s
using the rule of differentiation for u/v.

0
k s E
2
2
R
2
[2s X
2
2
] (R
2
2
+ s
2
X
2
2
) (k E
2
2
R
2
) = 0
2 s
2
k X
2
2
E
2
2
R
2
R
2
2
k E
2
2
R
2
k s
2
X
2
2
E
2
2
R
2
= 0
k s
2
X
2
2
E
2
2
R
2
R
2
2
kX
2
2
R
2
= 0
s
2
X
2
2
R
2
2
= 0 Taking k E
2
2
R
2
common.
s
2
=

T
st
=

.

s Neglecting negative slip
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This is the slip at which the torque is maximum and is denoted as s
m
.
s
It is the ratio of standstill per phase values of resistance and reactance of rotor, when
the torque produced by the induction motor is at its maximum.
Magnitude of Maximum Torque
This can be obtained by substituting s in the torque equation. It is denoted by T
m
.

T
m
=

T
m
=

T

N m.
From the expression of T
m
, it can be observed that
1. It is inversely proportional to the rotor reactance.
2. It is directly proportional to the square of the ratio induced e.m.f. at stand still.
3. The most interesting observation is, the maximum torque is not dependent on the
rotor resistance R
2
. But the slip at which it occurs i.e. speed at which it occurs
depends on the value of rotor resistance R
2
.

Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor
We have already seen that the induction motor can be treated as generalized
transformer. Transformer work on the principle of electromagnetic induction. The
induction motor also works on the same principle. The energy transfer from stator to rotor
of the induction motor takes place entirely with the help of a flux mutually linking the
two. Thus stator acts as a primary while the rotor acts as a rotating secondary when
induction motor is treated as a transformer.
If E
1
= Induced voltage in stator per phase
E
2
= Rotor induced e.m.f. per phase on standstill

K

then K =
Thus if V
1
is the supply voltage per phase to stator, it produces the flux which links
with both stator and rotor. Due to self induction, E
1
is the induced e.m.f. in stator per
phase while E
2
is the induced e.m.f. in rotor due to mutual induction, at standstill. In
running condition the induced e.m.f. in rotor becomes E
2r
which is sE
2
.
Now E
2r
= Rotor induced e.m.f. in running condition per phase
R
2
= Rotor resistance per phase
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X
2r
= Rotor reactance per phase in running condition
R
1
= stator resistance per phase
X
1
= stator reactance per phase
So induction motor can be represented as a transformer as shown in the Fig. 5.22.

The equivalent circuit of induction motor thus can be represented as shown in the Fig.
5.23.

The stator and rotor sides are shown separated by an air gap.
I
2r
= Rotor current in running condition
=
It is important to note that as load on the motor changes, the motor speed changes.
Thus slip changes. As slip changes the reactance X
2r
changes. Hence X
2r
= sX
2
is shown
variable.
Representation of rotor impedance:
It is known that, I
2r
=
So it can be assumed that equivalent rotor circuit in the running condition has fixed
reactance X
2
, fixed voltage E
2
but a variable resistance R
2
/s, as indicated in the above
equation.
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Now

Starting and Speed Control of Induction Motor
Types of Starters
1. Stator resistance starter
2. Auto transformer starter
3. Star Delta starter
4. Rotor resistance starter

1. Stator Resistance Starter
In order to apply the reduced voltage to the stator of the induction motor, three
resistances are added in series with each phase of the stator winding. Initially the
resistances are kept maximum in the circuit. Due to this large voltage gets dropped
across the resistances. Hence a reduced voltage gets applied to the stator which
reduces the high starting current. The schematic diagram showing stator
resistances is shown in the Fig. 7.1.

When the motor starts running, the resistances are gradually cut-off from the stator
circuit. When the resistances are entirely removed from the stator circuit i.e. rheostats in
RUN position then rated voltage gets applied to the stator. Motor runs with normal speed.
The starter is simple in construction and cheap. It can be used for both star and
delta connected stator. But there are large power losses due to resistances. Also the starting
torque of the motor reduces due to reduced voltage applied to the stator.
Relation between T
st
and T
F.L.

We know, P
2
= T
Where T is torque produced and P
2
is the rotor input at N
s
.
T P
2

But P
2
= where P
C
=Total copper loss
=
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T
But rotor current I
2r
and stator current are related to each other through transformer
action.
T where I
1
= Stator current
At start, s = 1, T = T
st
and I
1
= I
st

T
st
I
st
2
(1)
When stator resistance starter is used, the factor by which stator voltage reduces is say
x < 1. The starting current is proportional to this factor x. So if I
sc
is the normal current drawn
under full rated voltage condition at start then,
I
st
= x I
sc

T
st
(x I
sc
)
2

But T
F.L.
where s
f
= Full load slip
Taking ratio of (3) and (4),
s
f

Key Point: As x < 1, it can be seen that the starting torque reduces by the fraction x
2
due to
the stator resistance starter.
Autotransformer Starter
A three phase star connected autotransformer can be used to reduce the voltage
applied to the stator. Such a starter is called an autotransformer starter. The schematic
diagram of autotransformer starter is shown in the Fig. 7.2.

It consists of a suitable change over switch.
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When the switch is in the start position, the stator winding is supplied with reduced
voltage. This can be controlled by tappings provided with autotransformer.
The reduction in applied voltage by the fractional percentage tappings x, used for an
autotransformer is shown in the Fig. 7.3.

When motor gathers 80% of the normal speed, the change over switch is thrown into run
position.
Due to this, rated voltage gets applied to stator winding. The motor starts rotating with
normal speed. Changing of switch is done automatically by using relays. The power loss is
much less in this type of starting. It can be used for both star and delta connected motors. But
it is expensive than stator resistance starter.
Relation between T
st
and T
F.L.

Let x be the fractional percentage tappings used for an autotransformer to apply reduced
voltage to the stator.
So if, I
sc
= Starting motor current at rated voltage
and I
st
= Starting motor current with starter
then I
st
= x I
sc
motor side (1)

But there exists a fixed ratio between starting current drawn from supply I
st
(supply)
and starting motor current I
st
(motor) due to autotransformer, as shown in the Fig. 7.4.

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Star Delta Starter
This is the cheapest starter of all and hence used very commonly for the induction motors.
It uses triple pole double throw (TPDT) switch. The switch connects the stator winding in
star at start. Hence per phase voltage gets reduced by the factor 1/3. Due to this reduced
voltage, the starting current is limited.
When the switch is thrown on other side, the winding gets connected in delta, across
the supply. So it gets normal rated voltage the windings are connected in delta when
motor gathers sufficient speed.
The arrangement of star-delta starter is shown in the Fig. 7.5.

The operation of the switch can be automatic by using relays which ensures that
motor will not start with the switch in Run position. The cheapest of all and maintenance free
operation are the two important advantages of this starter. While its limitations are, it is
suitable for normal delta connected motors and the factor by which voltage changes is 1/ 3
which can not be changed.
Rotor Resistance Starter
To limit the rotor current which consequently reduces the current drawn by the motor
from the supply, the resistance can be inserted in the rotor circuit at start. This addition of
the resistance in rotor is in the form of 3 phase star connected rheostat. The arrangement
is shown in the Fig. 7.6.

The
Page | 14

external resistance is inserted in each phase of the rotor winding through slip ring and brush
assembly. Initially maximum resistance is in the circuit. As motor gathers speed, the
resistance is gradually cut off. The operation may be manual or automatic.
We have seen that the starting torque is proportional to the rotor resistance. Hence
important advantage of this method is not only the starting current is limited but starting
torque of the motor also gets improved.
Direct On Line Starter (D.O.L.)
In case of small capacity motor having rating less than 5 h.p., the starting current is
not very high and such motors can withstand such starting current without any starter.
Thus there is no need to reduce applied voltage, to control the starting current. Such
motors use a type of starter which is used to connect stator directly to the supply lines
without any reduction in voltage. Hence the starter is known as direct on line starter.
Though this starter does not reduce the applied voltage, it is used because is protects
the motor from various severe abnormal conditions like over loading, low voltage, single
phasing etc.
The Fig. 7.8 shows the arrangement of various components in direct on line starter.

The NO contact is normally open and NC is normally closed. At start, NO is pushed
for fraction of second due to which coil gets energised and attracts the contactor. So stator
directly gets supply. The additional contact provided, ensures that as only as supply is ON,
the coil gets supply and keeps contractor in ON position. When NC is pressed, the coil circuit
gets opened due to which coil gets de-energised and motor gets switched OFF from the
supply.
Under over load condition, current drawn by the motor increases due to which there is
an excessive heat produced, which increases temperature beyond limit. Thermal relays get
opened due to high temperature, protecting the motor from overload conditions.

Page | 15

Supply Frequency Control or V/f Control
The synchronous speed is given by,

The by controlling the supply frequency smoothly, the synchronous speed can be
controlled over a wide range. This gives smooth control of an induction motor.
But the expression for the air gap flux is given by,

This is according to the e.m.f. equation of a transformer where,
K
1
= Stator winding constant
T
ph1
= Stator turns per phase
V = Supply voltage
f = Supply frequency
It can be seen from this expression that if the supply frequency f is changed, the value
of air gap flux also gets affected. This may result into saturation of stator and rotor cores.
Such a saturation leads to the sharp increase in the (magnetisation) no load current of the
motor. Hence it is necessary to maintain air gap flux constant when supply frequency f is
changed.
To achieve this, can be seen from the above expression that along with f, V also must
be changed so as to keep (V/f) ratio constant. This ensures constant air gap flux giving speed
control without affecting the performance of the motor. Hence this method is called V/f
control.
Hence in this method, the supply to the induction motor required is variable voltage
variable frequency supply and can be achieved by an electronic scheme using converter and
inverter circuitry. The scheme is shown in the Fig. 7.9.

Supply Voltage Control
We know that, T
Now E
2
, the rotor induced e.m.f. at standstill depends on the supply voltage V.

E
2
V
Also for low slip region, which is operating region of the induction motor, (sX
2
)
2
<< R
2

Page | 16

and hence can be neglected.
T for constant R
2

Now if supply voltage is reduced below rated value, as per above equation torque
produced also it is necessary to develop same torque hence value of slip increases so that
torque produced remains same. Slip increases means motor reacts by running at lower speed,
to decrease in supply voltage. So motor produces the required load torque at a lower speed.
The speed torque characteristics for the motor using supply voltage control are shown in the
Fig. 7.11

Consequent Poles Method
In this method, connections of the stator winding are changed with the help of simple
switching. Due to this, the number of stator poles get changed in the ratio 2 : 1. Hence
either of the two synchronous speed can be selected.
Consider the pole formation due to single phase of a three phase winding, as shown in
the Fig. 7.12. There are three tapping points to the stator winding. The supply is given to
two of them and third is kept open.
It can be seen that current in all the parts of stator coil is flowing in one direction
only. Due to this, 8 poles get formed as shown in the Fig. 7.12. So synchronous speed
possible with this arrangement with 50 Hz frequency is N
s
= 750 r.p.m.

Page | 17

If now the two terminals to which supply was given earlier are joined together and
supply is given between this common point and the open third terminal, the poles are
formed as shown in the Fig. 7.13.

It can be seen that the direction of current through two coils is different than
the direction of current through remaining two. Thus upward direction is forming say
S pole and downward say N. It can be observed that in this case only 4 poles are
formed. So the synchronous speed possible is 1500 r.p.m. for 50 Hz frequency.
Thus series/parallel arrangements of coils can produce the poles in the ratio 2 :
1. But the speed change is in step and smooth speed control is not possible. Similarly
the method can be used only for the squirrel cage type motors as squirrel cage rotor
adjusts itself to same number of poles as stator which is not the case in slip ring
induction motor.

Chapter 2
Three Phase Alternator
The machines generating a.c. e.m.f. are called alternators or synchronous generators.
Construction
As mentioned earlier, most of the alternators prefer rotating field type of construction. In
case of alternators the winding terminology is slightly different than in case of d.c.
generators. In alternators the stationary winding is called Stator while the rotating
winding is called Rotor.

Stator
The stator is a stationary armature. This consists of a core and the slots to hold the
armature winding similar to the armature of a d.c. generator. The stator core uses a
laminated construction. It is built up of special steel stampings insulated from each other
with varnish or paper. The laminated construction is basically to keep down eddy current
losses. Generally choice of material is steel to keep down hysteresis losses. The entire
core is fabricated in a frame make of steel plates. The core has slots on its periphery for
housing the armature conductors. Frame does not carry any flux and serves as the support
Page | 18

to the core. Ventilation is maintained with the help of holes cast in the frame. The section
of an alternator stator is shown in the Fig. 1.2.

Rotor
There are two types of rotors used in alternators
1) Salient pole type 2) Smooth cylindrical type.

Salient Pole Type
This is also called projected pole type as all the poles are projected out from the surface
of the rotor.
The poles are built up of thick steel laminations. The poles
are bolted to the rotor as shown in the Fig. 1.3. The pole face
has been given a specific shape. The field winding is
provided on the pole shoe. These rotors have large diameters
and small axial lengths. The limiting factor for the size of
the rotor is the centrifugal force acting on the rotating
member of the machine. As mechanical strength of salient
pole type is less, this is preferred for low speed alternators
ranging from 125 r.p.m. to 500 r.p.m. The prime movers
used to drive such rotor are generally water turbines and I.C. engines.

Working Principle
The alternators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction. When there is a
relative motion between the conductors and the flux, e.m.f. gets induced in the
conductors. The d.c. generators also work on the same principle. The only difference in
practical alternator and a d. c. generator is that in an alternator the conductors are
stationary and field is rotating. But for understanding purpose we can always consider
relative motion of conductors with respect to the flux produced by the field winding.
Consider a relative motion of a single conductor under the magnetic field produced by
two stationary poles. The magnetic axis of the two poles produced by field is vertical,
shown dotted in the Fig. 1.6.

Page | 19

Let conductor starts rotating from position 1. At this instant, the entire velocity component is
parallel to the flux lines. Hence there is no cutting of flux lines by the conductor. So at this
instant is zero and hence induced e.m.f. in the conductor is also zero.
Mechanical and Electrical Angle

We have seen that for 2 pole alternator, one mechanical revolution corresponds to one
electrical cycle of an induced e.m.f. Now consider 4 pole alternator i.e. the field winding is
designed to produced 4 poles. Due to 4 poles, the magnetic axis exists diagonally shown
dotted in the Fig. 1.8.

Now in position 1 of the conductor, the velocity component is parallel to the flux lines
while in position 2, there is gathering of flux lines and entire velocity component is
perpendicular to the flux lines. So at position 1, the induced e.m.f. in the conductor is zero
while at position 2, it is maximum. Similarly as conductor rotates, the induced e.m.f. will be
maximum at position 4, 6 and 8 and will be minimum at positions 3, 5 and 7. So during one
Page | 20

complete revolution of the conductor, induced e.m.f. will experience four times maxima,
twice in either direction and four times zero. This is because of the distribution of flux lines
due to existence of four poles.
So if we plot the nature of the induced e.m.f; for one revolution of the conductor, we
get the two electrical cycles of the induced e.m.f., as shown in the Fig. 1.9.

Key Point: Thus the degrees electrical of the induced e.m.f. i.e. number of cycles of the
induced e.m.f. depends on the number of poles of an alternator.
So for a four pole alternator we can write,
360
o
mechanical = 720
o
electrical
From this we can establish the general relation between degrees mechanical and degrees
electrical as,
360
o
mechanical = 360
o
electrical
where P = Number of poles

i.e.

Frequency of Induced E.M.F.
Let P = Number of poles
N = Speed of the rotor in r.p.m.
and f = Frequency of the induced e.m.f.

From the discussion, we can write,
One mechanical revolution of rotor = cycles of e.m.f. electrically

Thus there are P/2 cycles per revolution.
As speed is N r.p.m., in one second, rotor will complete revolutions.
But cycles/sec. = frequency = f
1
o
mechanical = electrical.
Page | 21

Frequency f = (No. of cycles per revolution) (No. of revolutions per second)

f =
f = Hz (cycles per sec).
Synchronous Speed (N
s
)
From the above expression, it is clear that for fixed number of poles, alternator has to be
rotated at a particular speed to keep the frequency of the generated e.m.f. constant at the
required value. Such a speed is called synchronous speed of the alternator denoted as N
s
.

So

where f = Required frequency
In our nation, the frequency of an alternating e.m.f. is standard equal to 50 Hz. To get
50 Hz frequency, for different number of poles, alternator must be driven at different speeds
called synchronous speeds. Following table gives the values of the synchronous speeds for
the alternators having different number of poles.
Number of poles P 2 4 8 12 24
Synchronous speed N
s
in r.p.m. 3000 1500 750 500 250
Table 1.1
Winding Terminology
1) Conductor: The part of the wire, which is under the influence of the magnetic field
and responsible for the induced e.m.f. is called active length of the conductor. The
conductors are placed in the armature slots.
2) Turn: A conductor in one slot, when connected to a conductor in another slot forms a
turns. So two conductors constitute a turn. This is shown in Fig. 1.10(a).

3) Coil: As there are number of turns, for simplicity the number of turns are grouped
together to form a coil. Such a coil is called multi turn coil. A coil may consist of
single turn called single turn coil. The Fig. 1.10 (b) shows a multi turn coil.
N
s
=
Page | 22

4) Coil Side: Coil consists of many turns. Part of the coil in each slot is called coil side
of a coil as shown in the Fig. 1.10(b).
5) Pole Pitch: It is centre to centre distance between the two adjacent poles. We have
been that for one rotation of the conductors, 2 poles are responsible for 360
o
electrical
of e.m.f., 4 poles are responsible for 720
o
electrical of e.m.f. and so on. So 1 pole is
responsible for 180
o
electrical of induced e.m.f.

E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator
Let f = Flux per pole, in Wb
P = Number of poles
N
s
= Synchronous speed in r.p.m.
f = Frequency of induced e.m.f. in Hz
Z = Total number of conductors
Z
ph
= Conductors per phase connected in series
Z
ph
= as number of phases = 3.

Consider a single conductor placed in a slot.
The average value of e.m.f. induced in a conductor

f

For one revolution of a conductor.
e
avg
per conductor =

Total flux in one revolution is f P.
Time taken for one revolution is

seconds.
e
avg
per conductor =
f

f

(1)
But f =

2f
Substituting in (1),
e
avg
per conductor = 2f f volts
assume full pitch winding for simplicity i.e. this conductor is connected to a
conductor which is 180
o
electrical apart. So these two e.m.f.s will try to set up a current in the
same direction i.e. the two e.m.f. are helping each other and hence resultant e.m.f. per turn
will be twice the e.m.f. induced in a conductor.
e.m.f. per turn = 2 (e.m.f. per conductor)
= 2 (2f f) = 4 ff volts.
Page | 23

Let T
ph
be the total number of turns per phase connected in series. Assuming
concentrated winding, we can say that all are placed in single slot per pole per phase. So
induced e.m.f. in all turns will be in phase as placed in single slot. Hence net e.m.f. per phase
will be algebraic sum of the e.m.f.s per turn.
Average E
ph
= T
ph
(Average e.m.f. per turn)
Average E
ph
= T
ph
4 f
But in a.c. circuits R.M.S. value of an alternating quantity is used for the analysis. The
form factor is 1.11 of sinusoidal e.m.f.
K
f
= for sinusoidal
R.M.S. value of E
ph
= K
f
Average value
E
ph
= 1.11 4 f T
ph

Pitch Factor or Coil Span Factor (K
c
)
In practice short pitch coils are preferred. So coil is form by connecting one coil side to
another which is less than one pole pitch away. So actual coil span is less than 180
o
. The
coil is generally shorted by one or two slots.

Distribution Factor (K
d
)
Similar to full pitch coils, concentrated winding is also rare in practice. Attempt is made
to use all the slots available under a pole for the winding which makes the nature of the
induced e.m.f. more sinusoidal. Such a winding is called distributed winding.

Consider 18 slots, 2 pole alternator. So slots per pole i.e. n = 9.
m = Slots per pole per phase = 3

Let E = induced e.m.f. per coil and there are 3 coils per phase.
In concentrated type all the coil sides will be placed in one slot under a pole. So induced
e.m.f. in all the coils will achieve maximum and minima at the same time i.e. all of them
E
ph
= 4.44 f T
ph
volts
Page | 24

will be in phase. Hence resultant e.m.f. after connecting coils in series will be algebraic
sum of all the e.m.f.s as all are in phase.

As against this, in distributed type, coil side will be distributed, one each in the 3 slots
per phase available under a pole as shown in the Fig. 1.21 (a).

Though the magnitude of e.m.f. in each coil
will be same as E, as each slot contributes phase
difference of
o
i.e. 20
o
in this case, there will exist a
phase difference of
o
with respect to each other as
shown in the Fig. 1.21 (b). Hence resultant e.m.f. will
be phasor sum of all of them as shown in the Fig. 1.22.
So due to distributed winding resultant e.m.f.
decreases.
Key Point: The factor by which there is a reduction in the e.m.f. due to distribution of coils
is called distribution factor denoted as K
d
.

Method for Calculating Regulation of Alternator

Parameters of Armature Winding
There are three important parameters of an armature winding of an alternator. These are,
1. Armature resistance R
a

2. Armature leakage reactance X
L

3. Reactance corresponding to armature reaction
Let us discuss these three parameters in detail which will help us to draw an
equivalent circuit of an alternator. The equivalent circuit and the concept of
synchronous impedance plays an important role in determining the regulation of an
alternator.

Page | 25

Armature Resistance
Every armature winding has its own resistance. The effective resistance of an armature
winding per phase is denoted as R
aph
/ph or R
a
/ph.
Generally the armature resistance is measured
by applying the known d.c. voltage and measuring the
d.c. current through it. The ration of applied voltage and
measured current is the armature resistance. But due to
the skin effect, the effective resistance under a.c.
conditions is more than the d.c. resistance. Generally
the effective armature resistance under a.c. conditions is
taken 1.25 to 1.75 times the d.c. resistance.
While measuring the armature resistance, it is necessary
to consider how the armature winding is connected whether in star or delta. Consider a star
connected armature winding as shown in the Fig. 2.1.
When the voltage is applied across any two terminals of an armature winding then the
equivalent resistance is the series combination of the two resistances of two different
phase windings.

R
RY
= Resistance between R Y terminals
= R
a
+ R
a
= 2 R
a

where R
a
= Armature resistance per phase

R
a
=
Thus in star connected alternator, the armature
resistance per phase is half of the resistance observed
across any two line terminals.
Consider the delta connected alternator as shown in the
Fig. 2.2.
When voltage is applied across any two terminals,
then one phase winding appears in parallel with series
combination of other two.
Hence the equivalent resistance across the terminals is parallel combination of the
resistances R
a
and 2R
a
.
R
RY
= R
a
|| 2 R
a
= R
a

Page | 26

Armature Leakage Reactance
When armature carries a current, it produces its own
flux. Some part of this flux completes its path through the air
around the conductors itself. Such a flux is called leakage flux.
This is shown in the Fig. 2.3.
Key Point: This leakage flux makes the armature
winding inductive in nature. So winding possesses a leakage
reactance, in addition to the resistance.
So if L is the leakage inductance of the armature winding per phase, then leakage
reactance per phase is given by X
L
= 2 f L . The value of leakage reactance is much
higher than the armature resistance. Similar to the d.c. machines, the value of armature
resistance is very very small.
Armature Reaction
When the load is connected to the alternator, the
armature winding of the alternator carries a current.
Every current carrying conductor produces its own flux
so armature of the alternator also produce its own flux,
when carrying a current. So there are two fluxes present
in the air gap, one due to armature current while second
is produced by the field winding called main flux. The
flux produced by the armature is called armature flux.
Key Point: So effect of the armature flux on the main flux affecting its value and the
distribution is called armature reaction.
The effect of the armature flux not only depends on the magnitude of the current flowing
through the armature winding but also depends on the nature of the power factor of the
load connected to the alternator,
Let us study the effect of nature of the load power factor on the armature reaction.
Unity Power Factor Load
Consider a purely resistive load connected to the alternator, having unity power
factor. As induced e.m.f. E
ph
drives a current of I
aph
and load power factor is unity, E
ph

and I
aph
are in phase with each other.
1 If f
f
is the main flux produced by the field winding responsible for producing E
ph
the
E
ph
lags f
f
90
o
.
Now current through armature I
a
, produces the armature flux say f
a
. So flux f
a
and I
a

are always in the same direction.
This relationship between f
f
, f
a
, E
ph
and L
aph
can be shown in the phasor diagram.
Refer to the Fig. 2.4.

Page | 27

It can be seen from the phase or diagram that there exists a phase difference of 90
o

between the armature flux and the main flux. The waveforms for the two fluxes are also
shown in the Fig. 2.4. From the waveforms it can be seen that the two fluxes oppose each
other on the left half of each pole while assist each other on the right half of each pole. Hence
average flux in the air gap remains constant but its distribution gets distorted.
Zero Leading Power Factor Load
Consider a purely capacitive load connected to the alternator having zero leading
power factor. This means that armature current I
aph
driven by E
ph
, leads E
ph
by 90
o
, which
is the power factor angle f.
Induced e.m.f. E
ph
lags f
f
by 90
o
while I
aph
and f
a
are always in the same direction.
The phasor diagram and the waveforms are shown in the Fig. 2.6.

It can be seen from the phasor diagram and waveforms shown in the Fig. 2.6, the
armature flux and the main field flux are in the same direction i.e. they are helping each
other. This results into the addition in main flux.
Key Point: Such an effect of armature reaction due to which armature flux assists
field flux is called magnetising effect of the armature reaction.
As this effect adds the flux to the main flux, greater e.m.f. gets induced in the
armature. Hence there is increase in the terminal voltage for leading power factor loads.

Page | 28

Synchronous Motors
Rotating Magnetic Field (R.M.F.)
The rotating magnetic field can be defined as the field or flux having constant
amplitude but whose axis rotates in a plane at a certain speed. e.g. permanent magnet
rotating in a space produces a rotating magnetic field. Similarly if an arrangement is made
to rotate the poles, with constant excitation supplied, the resulting field is rotating
magnetic field. So a field produced in an air gap of a rotating field type alternator is of
rotating type. But this is all about production of R.M.F. by physically rotating poles or
magnet. In practice such a rotating magnetic field can be produced by exciting a set of
stationary coils or windings with the help of polyphase a.c. supply. The resultant flux
produced in such a case has constant magnitude and its axis rotates in space without
physically rotating the windings. Let us study how it happens.

Production of Rotating Magnetic Field
Consider a three phase windings displaced in space by 120
o
supplied by a three phase a.c.
supply. The three phase currents are also displaced from each other by 120
o
. The flux
produced by each phase current is also sinusoidal in nature and all three fluxes are
separated from each other by 120
o
. If the phase sequence of the windings is 1 -2-3, then
the mathematical equation for the instantaneous values of the fluxes f
1
, f
2
and f
3
can be
given as,
f
1
= f
m
sin ( t) = f
m
sin
f
2
= f
m
sin ( t 120
o
) = f
m
sin ( -120
o
) (1)
f
3
= f
m
sin ( t 240
o
) = f
m
sin ( - 240
o
) (2)

As windings are identical and supply is balanced the amplitude of each flux is same
i.e. f
m
. The waveforms of three fluxes are shown in the Fig. 4.1(a) while the assumed
positive directions of these fluxes in space are shown in the Fig. 4.1 (b). Assumed
positive, direction means whenever the instantaneous values of flux is positive, in vector
diagram it must be represented along its assumed positive direction. And if flux has
negative instantaneous value then must be represented in opposite direction to the
assumed positive direction, in the vector diagram.

Let f
1
, f
2
, and f
3
be the instantaneous values of the fluxes. The resultant flux f
T
at
any instant is given by phasor combination of f
1
, f
2
, and f
3
at that instant. Let us find out f
T

Page | 29

at four different instants 1, 2, 3 and 4 as shown in the Fig. 4.1 (a) i.e. respectively at = 0
o
,
60
o
, 120
o
and 180
o
.
Case i) = 0
o

Substituting in equations (1), (2) and (3) we get,
f
1
= f
m
sin 0
o
= 0
f
2
= f
m
sin ( 120
o
) = - 0.866 f
m

f
3
= f
m
sin ( 240
o
) = + 0.866f
m

And =

Show positive values in assumed positive directions and negative in opposite
directions to assumed positive directions.
Hence vector diagram looks like as shown in Fig. 4.2 (a).
BD is perpendicular drawn from B on .

OD = DA =
In OBD, BOD = 30
o

cos 30 =

T
= 2 0.866
m
cos 30

T
= 1.5
m

So magnitude of resultant flux is 1.5 times the maximum value of an individual flux.
Case ii) = 60
o

Substituting in equations (1), (2) and (3) we get,
f
1
= f
m
sin (60
o
) = + 0.866 f
m

f
2
= f
m
sin ( 60
o
) = - 0.866 f
m

f
3
= f
m
sin ( 180
o
) = 0
Page | 30

Principle of Working
Synchronous motor works on the principle of the magnetic locking. When two
unlike poles are brought near each other, if the magnets are strong, there exists a
tremendous force of attraction between those two poles. In such condition the two
magnets are said to be magnetically locked.
If now one of the two magnets is rotated, the other also rotates in the same
directions, with the same speed due to the force of attraction i.e. due to magnetic locking
condition. The principle is shown schematically in the Fig. 4.5.

So to have the magnetic locking condition, there must exist two unlike poles and
magnetic axes of two must be brought very close to each other. Let us see the application of
this principle in case of synchronous motor.
Consider a three phase synchronous motor, whose stator is wound for 2 poles. The
two magnetic fields are produced in the synchronous motor by exciting both the windings,
stator and rotor with three phase a.c. supply and d.c. supply respectively. When three phase
winding is excited by a three phase a.c. supply then the flux produced by the three phase
winding is always of rotating type, which is already discussed in the section 4.2. Such a
magnetic flux rotates in space at a speed called synchronous speed. This magnetic field is
called rotating magnetic field. The rotating magnetic field creates the effect similar to the
physical rotation of magnets in space with a synchronous speed. So stator of the synchronous
motor produces one magnet which is as good as rotating in space with the synchronous speed.
The synchronous speed of a stator rotating magnetic field depends on the supply frequency
and the number of poles for which stator winding is wound. If the frequency of the a.c.
supply is f Hz and stator is wound for P number of poles, then the speed of the rotating
magnetic field is synchronous given by,
N
s
= r.p.m.
In this case, as stator is wound for say 2 poles, with 50 Hz supply, the speed of the
rotating magnetic field will be 3000 r.p.m. This effect is similar to the physical rotation of
two poles with a speed of N
s
r.p.m. For simplicity of understanding let us assume that the
stator poles are N
1
and S
1
which are rotating at a speed of N
s
. The direction of rotation of
rotating magnetic field is say clockwise.
When the field winding on rotor is excited by a d.c. supply, it also produces two
poles, assuming rotor construction to be two pole, salient type. Let these poles be N
2
and S
2
.
Page | 31

Now one magnet is rotating at N
s
having poles N
1
and S
1
while at start rotor is
stationary i.e. second magnet is stationary having poles N
2
and S
2
. If somehow the unlike
poles N
1
and S
2
or S
1
and N
2
are brought near each other, the magnetic locking may get
established between stator and rotor poles. As stator poles are rotating, due to magnetic
locking rotor will also rotate in the same direction as that of stator poles i.e. in the direction of
rotating magnetic field, with the same speed i.e. N
s
. Hence synchronous motor rotates at one
and only one speed i.e. synchronous speed. But this all depends on existence of magnetic
locking between stator and rotor poles. Practically it is not possible for stator poles to pull the
rotor poles from their stationary position into magnetic locking condition. Hence synchronous
motors are not self starting. Let us see the reason behind this in detail.
Why Synchronous Motor is Not Self Starting?
Consider the rotating magnetic field as equivalent to physical rotation of two stator
poles N
1
and S
1
.
Consider an instant when two poles are at such a position where stator magnetic axis
is vertical, along A-B as shown in the Fig. 4.6 (a).
At this instant, rotor poles are arbitrarily positioned as shown in the Fig. 4.6.

At this instant, rotor is stationary and unlike poles will try to attract each other. Due to
this rotor will be subjected to an instantaneous torque in anticlockwise direction as shown in
the Fig. 4.6 (a).
V-Curves and Inverted V-Curves
From the above discussion about variable excitation operation of motor, it is clear that
if excitation is varied from very low (under excitation) to very high (over excitation)
value, then current I
a
decreases, becomes minimum at unity p.f. and then again increases.
But initial lagging current becomes unity and then becomes leading in nature. This can be
shown as in the Fig. 4.17.
Excitation can be increased by increasing the field current passing through the field
winding of synchronous motor. If graph of armature current drawn by the motor

Page | 32

Fig. 4.17
(I
a
) against field current (I
f
) is plotted, then its shape looks like an English alphabet V.
If such graphs are obtained at various load conditions we get family of curves, all looking
like V. Such curves are called V-curves of synchronous motor. These are shown in the Fig.
4.18 (a).
As against this, if the power factor (cos f) is potted against field current (I
f
), then the
shape of the graph looks like an inverted V. Such curves obtained by plotting p.f. against I
f
, at
various load conditions are called Inverted V-curves of synchronous motor. These curves are
shown in the Fig. 4.18 (b).

Experimental Setup to Obtain V-Curves
Fig. 4.19 shows an experimental setup to obtain V-curves and Inverted V-curves of
synchronous motor.
Stator is connected to three phase supply through wattmeters and ammeter. The two
wattmeter method is used to measure input power of motor. The ammeter is reading line
current which is same as armature (stator) current. Voltmeter is reading line voltage.
Comparison of Synchronous and Induction Motor

No. Synchronous motor Induction motor
1. Construction is complicated
Construction is simpler, particularly in
case of cage rotor.
2. Not self starting. Self starting.
Page | 33

3.
Separate d.c. source is required for
rotor excitation.
Rotor gets excited by the induced e.m.f.
So separate source is not necessary.
4.
The speed is always synchronous
irrespective of load.
The speed is always less than
synchronous but never synchronous.
5. Speed control is not possible. Speed control possible though difficult.
6.
As load increases, load angle
increases, keeping speed constant as
synchronous.
As load increases, the speed keeps on
decreasing.
7.
By changing excitation, the motor p.f.
can be changed from lagging and
leading.
It always operates at lagging p.f. and p.f.
control is not possible.
8.
It can be used as synchronous
condenser for p.f. improvement.
It can not be used as a synchronous
condenser.
9.
Motor is sensitive to sudden load
changes and hunting results.
Phenomenon of hunting absent.
10.
Motor is costly and requires frequent
maintenance.
Motor is cheap specially cage motors are
maintenance free.

Single Phase Induction Motors
Double Revolving Field Theory
According to this theory, any alternating quantity can be resolved into two rotating
components which rotate in opposite directions and each having magnitude as half of the
maximum magnitude of the alternating quantity.
In case of single phase induction motors, the stator winding produces an alternating
magnetic field having maximum magnitude of f
1m
.
According to double revolving field theory, consider the two components of the stator
flux, each having magnitude half of maximum magnitude of stator flux i.e. (f
1m
/2). Both
these components are rotating in opposite directions at the synchronous speed N
s
which is
dependent on frequency and stator poles.
Let f
f
is forward component rotating in anticlockwise direction which f
b
. At start both
the components are shown opposite to each other in the Fig. 8.3 (a). Thus the resultant f
R
= 0.
This is nothing but the instantaneous value of stator flux at start. After 90
o
, as shown in the
same direction. Hence the resultant f
R
is the algebraic sum of the magnitudes of the two
components. So f
R
= (f
1m
/2) + (f
1m
/2) = f
1m
. This is nothing but the instantaneous value of
the stator flux at = 90
o
as shown in the Fig. 8.3 (c).

Page | 34

Thus continuous rotation of the two components gives the original alternating stator flux.
Both the components are rotating and hence get cut by the rotor conductors. Due to
cutting of flux, e.m.f. gets induced in rotor which circulates rotor current. The rotor current
produces rotor flux. This flux interacts with forward component f
f
to produce a torque in one
particular direction say anticlockwise direction. While rotor flux interacts with backward
component f
b
to produce a torque in the clockwise direction. So if anticlockwise torque is
positive then clockwise torque is negative.
At start these two torques are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. Each
torque tries to rotate the rotor in its own direction.
Types of Single Phase Induction Motors
In practice some arrangement is provided in the single phase induction motors so that the
stator flux produced becomes rotating type rather than the alternating type, which rotates in
one particular direction only. So torque produced due to such rotating magnetic field is
unidirectional as there is no oppositely directed torque present. Hence under the influence of
rotating magnetic field in one direction, the induction motor becomes self starting. It rotates
in same direction as that of rotating magnetic field. Thus depending upon the methods of
producing rotating stator magnetic flux, the single phase induction motors are classified as,
1. Split phase induction motor
2. Capacitor start induction motor
3. Capacitor start capacitor run induction motor
4. Shaded pole induction motor.

Split Phase Induction Motor
This type of motor has single phase stator winding called main winding. In addition
to this, stator carries one more winding called auxiliary winding or starting winding.
The auxiliary winding carries a series resistance such that its impedance is highly
resistive in nature. The main winding is inductive in nature.
Let I
m
= Current through main winding
and I
st
= Current through auxiliary winding

As main winding is inductive, current I
m
lags voltages V by a large angle f
m
while I
st

is almost in phase in V as auxiliary winding is highly resistive. Thus there exists a phase
difference of between the two currents and hence between the two fluxes produced by
the two currents. This is shown in the Fig. 8.8 (c). The resultant of these two fluxes is a
Page | 35

rotating magnetic field. Due to this, the starting torque, which acts only in one direction is
produced.

The auxiliary winding has a centrifugal switch in series with it. When motor gathers a
speed upto 75 to 80% of the synchronous speed, centrifugal switch gets opened mechanically
and in running condition auxiliary winding remains out of the circuit. So motor runs only on
stator winding. So auxiliary winding is designed for short time use while the main winding is
designed for continuous use. As the current I
m
and I
st
are splitted from each other by angle
at start, the motor is commonly called split phase motor.

The torque-speed characteristics of split phase motors is shown in Fig. 8.9.
The starting torque T
st
is proportional to the split angle . But split phase motors
give poor starting torque which is 125 to 150% of the full load torque.
The direction of rotation of this motor can be reversed by reversing the terminals of
either main winding or auxiliary winding. This changes the direction of rotating magnetic
field which in turn changes the direction of rotation of the motor.
Applications
These motors have low starting current and moderate starting torque. These are used
for easily started loads like fans, blowers, grinders, centrifugal pumps, washing machines,
oil burners, office equipments etc. These are available in the range of 1/20 to kW.

Capacitor Start Induction Motors
The construction of this type of motor is similar to the resistance split phase type. The
difference is that in series with the auxiliary winding the capacitor is connected. The
Page | 36

capacitive circuit draws a leading current, this feature used in this type to increase the
split phase angle between the two current I
m
and I
st
.
Depending upon whether capacitor remains in the circuit permanently or is
disconnected from the circuit using centrifugal switch, these motors are classified as,
1. Capacitor star motors and 2. Capacitor start capacitor run motors
The construction of capacitor start motor is shown in the Fig. 8.10 (a). The current I
m

lags the voltage by angle f
m
while due to capacitor the current I
st
leads the voltage by
angle f
st
. Hence there exists a large phase difference between the two currents which
is almost 90
o
, which is an ideal case. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig.
8.10(b).

The starting torque is proportional to and hence such motors produce very
high starting torque.
When speed approaches to 75 to 80% of the synchronous speed, the starting
winding gets disconnected due to operation of the centrifugal switch. The capacitor
remains in the circuit only at start hence it is called capacitor start motors.
Key Point: In case of capacitor start capacitor run motor, there is no
centrifugal switch and capacitor remain permanently in the circuit. This improves the
power factor.

The phasor diagram remains same as shown in the Fig. 8.10 (b). The performance not
only at start but in running condition also depends on the capacitor C hence its value is to be
designed so as to compromise between best starting and best running condition. Hence the
starting torque available in such type of motor is about 50 to 100% of full load torque. The
torque-slip characteristics is shown in the Fig. 8.12
Page | 37

The direction of rotation, in both the types can be changed by interchanging the
connections of main winding or auxiliary winding. The capacitor permanently in the circuit
improves the power factor. These motors are more costly than split phase type motors.
The capacitor value can be selected as per the requirement of starting torque, the
starting torque can be as high as 350 to 400% of full load torque. The torque-speed
characteristics is as shown in the Fig. 8.12.

Applications
These motors have high starting torque and hence are used for hard starting loads. These
are used for compressors, conveyors, grinders, fans, blowers, refrigerators, air
conditioners etc. These are most commonly used motors. The capacitor start capacitor run
motors are used in ceiling fans, blowers and air-circulators. These motors are available
upto 6 kW.

Shaded Pole Induction Motors
This type of motor consists of a squirrel cage rotor and stator consisting of salient
poles i.e. projected poles. The poles are shaded i.e. each pole carries a copper band on one
of its unequally divided part called shading band. Fig. 8.13 (a) shows 4 pole shaded pole
construction while Fig. 8.13 (b) shows a single pole consisting of copper shading band.

Key Point: When single phase a.c. supply is given to the stator winding, due to shading
provided to the poles, a rotating magnetic field is generated.
The production of rotating magnetic field can be explained as below:
Page | 38

The current carried by the stator winding is alternating and produces alternating flux. The
waveform of the flux is shown in the Fig. 8.14 (a). The distribution of this flux in the pole
area is generally influenced by the role of copper shading band. Consider the three instants
say t
1
, t
2
and t
3
during first half cycle of the flux as shown, in the Fig. 8.14 (a).
At instant t = t
1
, rate of rise of current and hence the flux is very high. Due to the
transformer action, large e.m.f. gets induced in the copper shading band. This circulates
current through shading band as it is short circuited, producing its own flux. According to
lenzs law, the direction of this current is so as to oppose the cause i.e. rise in current. Hence
shading ring flux is opposing to the main flux. Hence there is crowding of flux in non shaded
part while weakening of flux in shaded part. Overall magnetic axis shifts in non shaded part
as shown in the Fig. 8.14 (b).

At instant t = t
2
, rate of rise of current and hence the rate of change of flux is almost
zero as flux almost reaches to its maximum value. So . Hence there is very little
induced e.m.f. in the shading ring. Hence the shading ring flux is also negligible, hardly
affecting the distribution of the main flux. Hence the main flux distribution is uniform and
magnetic axis lies at the centre of the pole face as shown in the Fig. 8.14 (c).
At instant t = t
3
, the current and the flux is decreasing. The rate of decrease is high
which again induces a very large e.m.f. in the shading ring. This circulates current through
the ring which produces its own flux. Now direction of the flux produced by the shaded ring
current is so to oppose the cause which is decrease in flux. So it oppose the decrease in flux
means its direction is same as that of main flux, strengthening it. So there is crowding of flux
in the shaded part as compared to non shaded part. Due to this the magnetic axis shifts to the
middle of the shaded part of the pole. This is shown in the Fig. 8.14 (d)
This sequence keeps on repeating for negative half cycle too. Consequently this
produces an effect of rotating magnetic field, the direction of which is from non shaded part
of the pole to the shaded part of the pole. Due to this, motor produces the starting torque and
starts rotating. The starting torque is low which is abut 40 to 50% of the full load torque for
this type of motor. The torque speed characteristics is shown in the Fig. 8.15.
Page | 39

Due to absence of centrifugal switch the construction is simple and robust but this
type of motor has a lot of limitations as:
1. The starting torque is poor.
2. The power factor is very low.
3. Due to I
2
R, copper losses in the shading ring the efficiency is very low.
4. The speed reversal is very difficult. To achieve the speed reversal, the additional
set of shading rings is required. By opening one set and closing other, direction
can be reversed but the method is complicated and expensive.
5. The size and power rating of these motors is very small. These motors are usually
available in a range of 1/300 to kW.

Applications
These motors are cheap but have very low starting torque, low power factor and low
efficiency. These motors are commonly used for the small fans, toy motors, advertising
displays, film projectors, record players, gramophones, hair dryers, photo copying
machines etc.
Chapter 5
Special Machines
Important Definitions
1. Holding Torque:
It is defined as the maximum static torque that can be applied to the shaft of an
excited motor without causing a continuous rotation.

2. Detent Torque:
It is defined as the maximum static torque that can be applied to the shaft of an
unexcited motor without causing a continuous rotation.

Under this torque the rotor comes back to the normal rest position even if excitation
ceases. Such positions of the rotor are referred as the detent positions.

3. Step Angle:
It is defined as the angular displacement of the rotor in response to each input pulse.

Page | 40

4. Critical Torque:
It is defined as the maximum load torque at which rotor does not move when an
exciting winding is energised. This is also called pullout torque.

5. Limiting Torque:
It is defined for a given pulsing rate or stepping rate measured in pulses per second, as
the maximum load torque at which motor follows the control pulses without missing
any step. This is also called pull in torque.

6. Synchronous Stepping Rate:
It is defined as the maximum rate at which the motor can step without missing steps.
The motor can start, stop or reverse at this rate.

7. Slewing Rate:
It is defined as the maximum rate at which the motor can step unidirectional. The
slewing rate is much higher than the synchronous stepping rate. Motor will not be
able to stop or reverse without missing steps at this rate.

Stepper Motor Characteristics
The Stepper motor characteristics are classified as
1. Static characteristics and
2. Dynamic characteristics
The static are at the stationary position of the motor while the dynamic are under running
conditions of the motor.

Static Characteristics
These characteristics include
1. Torque-displacement characteristics
2. Torque current characteristics

Torque displacement characteristics:
This gives the relationship between electromagnetic torque developed and
displacement angle from steady state position. These characteristics are shown in the
Fig. 9.16.

Page | 41

Torque-current characteristics: The holding torque of the stepper motor increases with
the exciting current. The relationship between the holding torque and the current is called as
torque-current characteristics. These characteristics are shown in the Fig. 9.17.

Single Phase A.C. Series Motor
In a normal d.c. motor if direction of both field and armature current is reversed, the
direction of torque remains unchanged. So when normal d.c. series motor is connected to
an a.c. supply, both field and armature current get reversed and unidirectional torque gets
produced in the motor hence motor can work on a.c. supply.
But performance of such motor is not satisfactory due to the following reasons:
i) There are tremendous eddy current losses in the yoke and field cores, which
causes overheating.
ii) Armature and field winding offer high reactance to a.c. due to which operating
power factor is very low.
iii) The sparking at brushes is a major problem because of high voltage and current
induced in the short circuited armature coils during the commutation period.

Some modifications are required to have the satisfactory performance of d.c. series
motor on a.c. supply, when it is called a.c. series motor. The modifications are:

i) To reduce the eddy current losses, yoke and pole core construction is laminated.
ii) The power factor can be improved by reducing the magnitudes of field and
armature reactances. Field reactance can be decreased by reducing the number

Permanent Magnet A.C. Motors
Permanent magnet A.C. motors are nothing but polyphase synchronous motors
consisting of permanent magnet rotors. Unlike synchronous machines, these machines do
not have the field windings. In these machines slip rings and brushes are not required.

Construction
The constructional features of permanent magnet A.C. motors are as shown in Fig.
9.36. These motors are having cage rotor with rate earth permanent magnets.
Page | 42

When fixed frequency supply is given to
such motors, then it is started as an
induction motor initially and then runs
synchronously. No d.c. excitation is
required for the rotor makes the motor
reliable and robust. These motor are
similar to permanent magnet stepping
motors having non salient stator. These
motors have ratings upto 100 kW with
maximum synchronous torque designed
to about 150 % of full load torque.
The speed and position sensors are mounted on the rotor shaft for controlling the
motor. For shaft positioning number of techniques such as Hall effect devices, high
emitting diodes and phototransistors in combination with pulsed wheel and inductance
pick ups can be employed.

Operation
The operation of permanent magnet a.c. motor is similar to that of permanent magnet
stepping motor. The shaft position sensor gives the information of the rotor position and
accordingly the phase windings are excited sequentially in such a way that the required
speed and torque is produced. The motor speed is decided by the frequency of the supply
which excites the phase windings. The angular position between the rotor magnetic axis
and that of a phase winding produces the necessary torque for operation.
As these motors are capable of measuring rotor speed and position and their phase
windings may be excited with variable frequency and amplitude, these motors are highly
controllable and exhibit wide range of operating characteristing whenever coupled with
appropriate electronics and drive system. Hence in recent times, these motors are widely
used in many applications.
These motors are also referred as brushless motors or brushless d.c. motors as these
motors have the characteristics similar to that d.c. motors and no brushes are required
since the armature current is electronically commutated by shaft position sensor and by
switches like transistors and thyristors connected to armature windings.

Advantages
1. As the slip rings or brushes are absent, there is no sparking.
2. These motor are flexible as they are highly controllable.
3. No d.c. field excitation is required so field losses are reduced.
4. It requires less space as field windings are absent.
5. They have low inertia and friction.
6. These motors are reliable and having long life.

Disadvantages
1. The electronic circuitry driving the motor is complex and complicated.
2. There is possibility of demagnetization due to excessive currents.

Page | 43

Applications
These motors can be used in the applications where constant speed is required such as
synthetic fibre drawing. They are also used in applications like turn table driven in record
players, spindle drives in hard disk drives in computes and also in computer peripheral
equipments.
These motors are also used for tape drive for video recorders. They have applications
in the field of aerospace, gyroscope motor and biomedical instruments like artificial heat
pumps.

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