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A
)
I
LIMIT
= 1A, 5.0V
I
LIMIT
= 0.5A, 5.0V
I
LIMIT
= 0.5A, 3.3V
I
LIMIT
= 1A, 3.3V
1.8
0
0.01 1 10 0.1 100
START-UP VOLTAGE
vs. LOAD CURRENT
0.2
0.4
M
A
X
1
6
7
4
to
c
0
8
LOAD CURRENT (mA)
S
T
A
R
T
-
U
P
V
O
L
T
A
G
E
(
V
)
0.8
0.6
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
WITHOUT DIODE
WITH 1N5817
- 1.0
- 0.6
- 0.8
- 0.2
- 0.4
0.2
0
0.4
0.8
0.6
1.0
1 2.0 2.5 3.0 1.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
SHUTDOWN CURRENT
vs. SUPPLY VOLTAGE
M
A
X
1
6
7
to
c
0
9
SUPPLY VOLTAGE (V)
S
H
U
T
D
O
W
N
C
U
R
R
E
N
T
(
A
)
0
0.4
0.2
0.8
0.6
1.2
1.0
1.4
0 1.0 1.5 0.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
SHUTDOWN THRESHOLD
vs. SUPPLY VOLTAGE
M
A
X
1
6
7
4
T
O
C
1
0
SUPPLY VOLTAGE (V)
S
H
U
T
D
O
W
N
T
H
R
E
S
H
O
L
D
(
V
)
0
200
100
500
300
400
800
700
600
900
1.0 2.0 1.5 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
MAXIMUM OUTPUT CURRENT
vs. INPUT VOLTAGE (V
OUT
= 5V)
M
A
X
1
6
7
4
to
c
1
1
INPUT VOLTAGE (V)
M
A
X
I
M
U
M
O
U
T
P
U
T
C
U
R
R
E
N
T
(
m
A
)
1A CURRENT LIMIT
0.5A CURRENT LIMIT
0
200
100
400
300
600
500
800
700
1.0 1.4 1.6 1.2 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
MAXIMUM OUTPUT CURRENT
vs. INPUT VOLTAGE (V
OUT
= 3. 3V)
M
A
X
1
6
7
4
to
c
1
2
INPUT VOLTAGE (V)
M
A
X
I
M
U
M
O
U
T
P
U
T
C
U
R
R
E
N
T
(
m
A
)
0.5A CURRENT LIMIT
1A CURRENT LIMIT
Typic al Operating Charac teristic s (c ontinued)
(L = 22H , C
IN
= 47F, C
O U T
= 47F 0.1F, C
R EF
= 0.1F, T
A
= + 25C , unless otherw ise noted.)
1s/ di v
HEAVY-LOAD SWITCHING WAVEFORMS
MAX1674 TOC13
V
LX
5V/ di v
I
LX
0.5A/ di v
V
OUT
AC COUPLED
100mV/ di v V
IN
= 2.4V
V
OUT
= 5.0V
0
0.4
0.2
0.8
0.6
1.0
1.2
2.0 3.0 3.5 2.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
LX CURRENT LIMIT
vs. OUTPUT VOLTAGE
M
A
X
1
6
7
4
to
c
1
4
OUTPUT VOLTAGE (V)
I
L
I
M
(
A
)
MAX1674, MAX1676 (CLSEL = OUT)
MAX1675, MAX1676 (CLSEL = GND)
0
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.25
0.20
0.35
0.30
0.45
0.40
- 60 - 20 - 40 0 20 40 60 80 100
SWITCH RESISTANCE vs. TEMPERATURE
M
A
X
1
6
7
4
to
c
1
3
.5
TEMPERATURE (C)
R
E
S
I
S
T
A
N
C
E
(
)
P- CHANNEL
N- CHANNEL
10s/ di v
LINE-TRANSIENT RESPONSE
MAX1674 TOC15
V
IN
2V TO 3V
1V/ di v
V
OUT
AC COUPLED
100mV/ di v
I
LOAD
100mA
5s/ di v
LOAD-TRANSIENT RESPONSE
MAX1674 TOC16
I
OUT
200mA/ di v
V
OUT
50mV/ di v
AC
COUPLED
V
IN
= 2.4V
V
OUT
= 3.3V
500s/ di v
EXITING SHUTDOWN
MAX1674 TOC17
V
SHDN
2V/ di v
V
OUT
2V/ di v
M
A
X
1
6
7
4
/
M
A
X
1
6
7
5
/
M
A
X
1
6
7
6
High-Effic ienc y, Low-Supply-Current,
Compac t, Step-Up DC-DC Converters
6 _______________________________________________________________________________________
Typic al Operating Charac teristic s (c ontinued)
(L = 22H , C
IN
= 47F, C
O U T
= 47F 0.1F, C
R EF
= 0.1F, T
A
= + 25C , unless otherw ise noted.)
Pin Desc ription
PIN
NAME FUNCTION
MAX1674
MAX1675
MAX1676
1 1 FB
D ual-M ode Feedback Input. C onnect to G N D for + 5.0V output.
C onnect to O U T for + 3.3V output. U se a resistor netw ork to set the
output voltage from + 2.0V to + 5.5V.
2 2 LB I Low -B attery C om parator Input. Internally set to trip at + 1.30V.
3 3 LBO
O pen-D rain Low -B attery C om parator O utput. O utput is low w hen
V
LB I
is < 1.3V. LBO is high im pedance during shutdow n.
4 C LSEL
C urrent-Lim it Select Input. C LSEL = O U T sets the current lim it to 1A .
C LSEL = G N D sets the current lim it to 0.5A .
4 5 R EF 1.3V R eference Voltage. B ypass w ith a 0.1F capacitor.
5 6 SHDN Shutdow n Input. H igh = operating, low = shutdow n.
7 B A TT
B attery Input and D am ping Sw itch C onnection. If dam ping sw itch is
unused, leave B A TT unconnected.
6 8 G N D G round
7 9 LX N -C hannel and P-C hannel Pow er M O SFET D rain
8 10 O U T Pow er O utput. O U T provides bootstrap pow er to the IC .
D ual-M ode is a tradem ark of M axim Integrated Products.
Detailed Desc ription
The M A X1674/M A X1675/M A X1676 com pact, step-up
D C -D C converters start up w ith voltages as low as 0.9V
and op erate w ith an inp ut voltag e d ow n to 0.7V .
C onsum ing only 16A of q uiescent current, these
d evices offer a b uilt-in synchronous rectifier that
reduces cost by elim inating the need for an external
diode and im proves overall efficiency by m inim izing
losses in the circuit (see Synchronous R ectification sec-
tion for details). The internal M O SFET resistance is typi-
cally 0.3, w hich m inim izes losses. The current lim it of
the M A X1674 and M A X1675 are 1A and 0.5A , respec-
tively. The M A X1675s low er current lim it allow s the use
of a p hysically sm aller ind uctor in sp ace-sensitive
applications. The M A X1676 features a circuit that elim i-
nates noise due to inductor ringing. In addition, the
M A X1676 offers a selectable current lim it (0.5A or 1A )
for design flexibility.
PFM Control Sc heme
A unique m inim um -off-tim e, current-lim ited, pulse-fre-
quency-m odulation (PFM ) control schem e is a key fea-
ture of the M A X1674/M A X1675/M A X1676. This schem e
com bines the high output pow er and efficiency of a
pulse-w idth-m odulation (PW M ) device w ith the ultra-low
quiescent current of a traditional PFM (Figure 1). There
is no oscillator; a constant-peak-current lim it in the
sw itch allow s the inductor current to vary betw een this
peak lim it and som e lesser value. A t light loads, the
sw itching frequency is governed by a pair of one-shots
that set a typical m inim um off-tim e (1s) and a typical
m axim um on-tim e (4s). The sw itching freq uency
depends upon the load and the input voltage, and can
range up to 500kH z. The peak current of the internal N -
channel M O S FE T p ow er sw itch is fixed at 1A
(M A X 1674), at 0.5A (M A X 1675), or is selectab le
(M A X1676). U nlike conventional pulse-skipping D C -D C
converters (w here ripple am plitude varies w ith input
voltage), ripple in these devices does not exceed the
product of the sw itch current lim it and the filter-capaci-
tor equivalent series resistance (ESR ).
Sync hronous Rec tific ation
The internal synchronous rectifier elim inates the need
for an external Schottky diode, thus reducing cost and
board space. D uring the cycle off-tim e, the P-channel
M O SFET turns on and shunts the M O SFET body diode.
M
A
X
1
6
7
4
/
M
A
X
1
6
7
5
/
M
A
X
1
6
7
6
High-Effic ienc y, Low-Supply-Current,
Compac t, Step-Up DC-DC Converters
_______________________________________________________________________________________ 7
MAX1674
MAX1675
MAX1676
ONE- SHOT
TRIG Q
F/ F
R
S Q
ONE- SHOT
TRIG Q
CURRENT- LIMIT
AMPLIFIER
ERROR
AMPLIFIER
LOW- BATTERY
COMPARATOR
REFERENCE
REF
FB
V
IN
47F
47F
R1
200
R5
R6
DAMPING
SWITCH
22H
BATT
(MAX1676)
GND
LX
OUT
0.1F
0.1F
V
OUT
R4
LBI
LBO
R2
100k
R3
V
IN
V
OUT
CLSEL
(MAX1676)
SHDN
MINIMUM
OFF- TIME
ONE- SHOT
ZERO
CROSSING
AMPLIFIER
EN
MAXIMUM
ON- TIME
ONE- SHOT
P
N
Figure 1. Sim plified Functional D iagram
M
A
X
1
6
7
4
/
M
A
X
1
6
7
5
/
M
A
X
1
6
7
6
A s a result, the synchronous rectifier sig nificantly
im proves efficiency w ithout the addition of an external
com ponent. C onversion efficiency can be as high as
94% , as show n in the Typical O perating C haracteristics.
For low -voltage inputs from single cells (A lkaline, N iC d,
or N iM H ), use an external Schottky diode such as the
1N 5817 to ensure start-up.
Voltage Referenc e
The voltag e at R E F is nom inally + 1.30V . R E F can
source up to 100A to external circuits. The reference
m aintains excellent load regulation (see Typical O per-
ating C haracteristics). A bypass capacitor of 0.1F is
required for proper operation.
Shutdown
The d evice enters shutd ow n w hen V
SHDN
is low .
D uring shutdow n, the body diode of the P-channel
M O SFET allow s current flow from the battery to the out-
put. V
O U T
falls to approxim ately V
IN
- 0.6V and LX
rem ains high im pedance. The capacitance and load at
O U T d eterm ine the rate at w hich V
O U T
d ecays.
Shutdow n can be pulled as high as 6V, regardless of
the voltage at O U T.
Current Limit Selec t Pin (MAX1676)
The M A X1676 allow s a selectable inductor current lim it
of either 0.5A or 1A . This allow s flexibility in designing
for higher current applications or for sm aller, com pact
designs. C onnect C LSEL to O U T for 1A or to G N D for
0.5A . C LSEL draw s 1.4A w hen connected to O U T.
BATT/Damping Switc h (MAX1676)
The M A X1676 is designed w ith an internal dam ping
sw itch to m inim ize ringing at LX. The dam ping sw itch
connects an external resistor (R 1) across the inductor
w hen the ind uctors energ y is d ep leted (Fig ure 2).
N orm ally, w hen the energy in the inductor is insufficient
to supply current to the output, the capacitance and
inductance at LX form a resonant circuit that causes
ringing. The ringing continues until the energy is dissi-
pated through the series resistance of the inductor. The
dam ping sw itch supplies a path to quickly dissipate this
energy, m inim izing the ringing at LX. D am ping LX ring-
ing does not reduce V
O U T
ripple, but does reduce EM I.
R 1 = 200 w orks w ell for m ost applications w hile reduc-
ing efficiency by only 1% . Larger R 1 values provide less
dam ping, but have less im pact on efficiency. G enerally,
low er values of R 1 are needed to fully dam p LX w hen
the V
O U T
/V
IN
ratio is high (Figures 2, 3, and 4).
High-Effic ienc y, Low-Supply-Current,
Compac t, Step-Up DC-DC Converters
8 _______________________________________________________________________________________
MAX1676
DAMPING
SWITCH
BATT
R1
200
LX
OUT
22H
V
IN
0.1F 47F
V
OUT
Figure 2. Sim plified D iagram of Inductor D am ping Sw itch
2s/ di v
V
LX
1V/ di v
Figure 3. LX R inging W ithout D am ping Sw itch
2s/ di v
V
LX
1V/ di v
Figure 4. LX W aveform w ith D am ping Sw itch (w ith 200
external resistor)
Selec ting the Output Voltage
V
O U T
can be set to 3.3V or 5.5V by connecting the FB
pin to G N D (5V) or O U T (3.3V) (Figures 5 and 6).
To adjust the output voltage, connect a resistor-divider
from V
O U T
to FB to G N D (Figure 7). C hoose a value
less than 260k for R 6. U se the follow ing equation to
calculate R 5:
R 5 = R 6 [(V
O U T
/ V
R EF
) - 1]
w here V
R EF
= + 1.3V and V
O U T
m ay range from 2V to
5V. The input bias current of FB has a m axim um value
of 50nA w hich allow s large-value resistors (R 6 260k)
to be used.
Low-Battery Detec tion
The M A X1674/M A X1675/M A X1676 contain an on-chip
com parator for low -battery detection. If the voltage at
LB I falls below the internal reference voltage (1.30V),
LBO (an open-drain output) sinks current to G N D . The
low -battery m onitor threshold is set by tw o resistors, R 3
and R 4 (Figures 5, 6, and 7). Since the LB I current is
less than 50nA , large resistor values (R 4 260k) can
b e used to m inim ize load ing of the inp ut sup p ly.
C alculate R 3 using the follow ing equation:
R 3 = R 4 [(V
TR IP
/ V
R EF
) - 1]
for V
TR IP
1.3V. V
TR IP
is the level w here the low -battery
d etector outp ut g oes low , and V
R E F
is the internal
1.30V reference. C onnect a pull-up resistor of 100k or
greater from LBO to O U T w hen driving C M O S circuits.
LBO is an open-drain output, and can be pulled as
high as 6V regardless of the voltage at O U T. W hen LB I
is above the threshold, the LBO output is high im ped-
ance. If the low -battery com parator is not used, ground
M
A
X
1
6
7
4
/
M
A
X
1
6
7
5
/
M
A
X
1
6
7
6
High-Effic ienc y, Low-Supply-Current,
Compac t, Step-Up DC-DC Converters
_______________________________________________________________________________________ 9
MAX1674
MAX1675
MAX1676
BATT
(MAX1676)
V
IN
LBI
REF
GND
R3
R1
200
R4
R2
100k
47F
10V
22H
0.1F
LX
LBO
0.1F 47F
+3.3V
200mA
V
OUT
LOW- BATTERY
OUTPUT
FB
SHDN
OUT
CLSEL
(MAX1676)
Figure 5. Preset O utput Voltage of + 3.3V
MAX1674
MAX1675
MAX1676
BATT
(MAX1676)
V
IN
LBI
REF
GND
R6
R5
R3
R1
200
R4
R2
100k
22H
47F
0.1F
LX
LBO
OUTPUT
2V to 5.5V
FB
SHDN
OUT
CLSEL
(MAX1676)
LOW-
BATTERY
OUTPUT
0.1F 47F
Figure 7. Setting an A djustable O utput
MAX1674
MAX1675
MAX1676
BATT
(MAX1676)
V
IN
LBI
REF
GND
R3
R1
200
R4
R2
100k
22H
47F
0.1F
LX
LBO
0.1F 47F
OUTPUT
5.0V,
150mA
FB
SHDN
OUT
CLSEL
(MAX1676)
LOW-
BATTERY
OUTPUT
Figure 6. Preset O utput Voltage of + 5V
M
A
X
1
6
7
4
/
M
A
X
1
6
7
5
/
M
A
X
1
6
7
6
LB I and LBO. For V
TR IP
less than 1.3V, configure the
com parator as show n in Figure 8. C alculate the value of
the external resistors R 3 and R 4 as follow s:
R 3 = R 4(V
R EF
- V
TR IP
) / (V
O U T
- V
R EF
)
Since the low -battery com parator is noninverting, exter-
nal hysteresis can be added by connecting a resistor
betw een LBO and LB I as show n in Figure 9. W hen LBO
is high, the series com bination of R 2 and R 7 source
current into the LB I sum m ing junction.
Applic ations Information
Induc tor Selec tion
A n inductor value of 22H perform s w ell in m ost appli-
cations. The M A X1674/M A X1675/M A X1676 w ill also
w ork w ith inductors in the 10H to 47H range. Sm aller
inductance values typically offer a sm aller physical size
for a given series resistance, allow ing the sm allest
overall circuit dim ensions. H ow ever, due to higher peak
inductor currents, the output voltage ripple (I
PEA K
x
output filter capacitor ESR ) also tends to be higher.
C ircuits using larger inductance values exhibit higher
output current capability and larger physical dim en-
sions for a given series resistance. The inductors incre-
m ental saturation current rating should be greater than
the p eak sw itch-current lim it, w hich is 1A for the
M A X1674, 500m A for the M A X1675, and 1A or 0.5A for
the M A X1676. H ow ever, it is generally acceptable to
bias the inductor into saturation by as m uch as 20% ,
although this w ill slightly reduce efficiency. Table 1 lists
suggested com ponents.
The inductors D C resistance significantly affects effi-
ciency. See Table 2 for a com parison of inductor speci-
fications. C alculate the m axim um output current as
follow s:
w here I
O U T(M A X)
= m axim um output current in am ps
V
B A TT
= input voltage
L = inductor value in H
= efficiency (typically 0.9)
t
O FF
= LX sw itchs off-tim e in s
R
P
= resistance of P-channel M O SFET in
I
LIM
= 0.5A or 1.0A
I
V I
V V
L
t
R
V
O U T M A X
B A TT LIM
O U T B A TT
O FF
P
O U T
( )
+
_
,
/
1 2
High-Effic ienc y, Low-Supply-Current,
Compac t, Step-Up DC-DC Converters
10 ______________________________________________________________________________________
MAX1674
MAX1675
MAX1676
BATT
(MAX1676)
V
IN
LBI
REF
GND
R3
R1
200
R4
22H
47F
0.1F
LX
LBO
V
OUT
FB
R2
100k
SHDN
OUT
CLSEL
(MAX1676)
LOW-
BATTERY
OUTPUT
0.1F 47F
Figure 8. Setting R esistor Values for the Low -B attery Indicator
w hen V
IN
< 1.3V
MAX1674
MAX1675
MAX1676
LBI
GND
V
TRIP
(V
H
, V
L
)
R3
R4
R7
V
H
IS THE UPPER TRIP LEVEL
V
L
IS THE LOWER TRIP LEVEL
WHERE
R2
100k
LBO
OUT V
OUT
0.1F 47F
V = 1.3V
V = 1.3V
H
L
( ) + +
1
]
1
( ) +
+
1
]
1
( . )
( . ) ( )
1
3
7
3
4
1
3
4
1 3 3
1 3 2 7
R
R
R
R
R
R
V V R
V R R
O U T
Figure 9. A dding External H ysteresis to the Low -B attery
Indicator
Capac itor Selec tion
A 47F, 10V surface-m ount tantalum (SM T) output filter
capacitor provides 80m V output ripple w hen stepping
up from 2V to 5V. Sm aller capacitors (dow n to 10F
w ith higher ESR s) are acceptable for light loads or in
ap p lications that can tolerate hig her outp ut rip p le.
Values in the 10F to 100F range are recom m ended.
The equivalent series resistance (ESR ) of both bypass
and filter capacitors affects efficiency and output rip-
ple. O utput voltage ripple is the product of the peak
inductor current and the output capacitor ESR . U se
low -ESR capacitors for best perform ance, or connect
tw o or m ore filter capacitors in parallel. Low -ESR , SM T
tantalum cap acitors are currently availab le from
Sprague (595D series) A VX (TPS series) and other
sources. C eram ic surface-m ount and Sanyo O S-C O N
organic-sem iconductor through-hole capacitors also
exhibit very low ESR , and are especially useful for oper-
ation at cold tem peratures. See Table 3 for a list of sug-
gested com ponent suppliers.
M
A
X
1
6
7
4
/
M
A
X
1
6
7
5
/
M
A
X
1
6
7
6
High-Effic ienc y, Low-Supply-Current,
Compac t, Step-Up DC-DC Converters
______________________________________________________________________________________ 11
PRODUCTION
METHOD
INDUCTORS CAPACITORS
RECTIFIERS
(OPTIONAL)
Surface M ount
Sum ida C D 43 series
Sum ida C D 54 series
C oilcraft D T1608C
C oilcraft D O 1608C
C oiltronics U ni-PA C
M urata LQ H 4 series
Sprague 593D series
Sprague 595D series
A VX TPS series
ceram ic
M otorola M B R 0530
N ihon EC 15Q S02L
M iniature Through-H ole Sum ida R C H 654-220 Sanyo O S-C O N series
Table 1. Suggested Components
Table 2. Surface-Mount Inductor
Specifications
MANUFACTURER
PART NUMBER
H (max) I
PEAK
(A)
HEIGHT
(mm)
C oilcraft D T1608C -103 10 0.095 0.7 2.92
C oilcraft D O 1608C -153 15 0.200 0.9 2.92
C oilcraft D O 1608C -223 22 0.320 0.7 2.92
C oiltronics U P1B -100 10 0.111 1.9 5.0
Table 3. Component Suppliers
COMPANY PHONE FAX
A VX U SA (803) 946-0690 U SA (803) 626-3123
C oilcraft U SA (847) 639-6400 U SA (847) 639-1469
C oiltronics U SA (561) 241-7876 U SA (561) 241-9339
M urata
U SA (814) 237-1431
(800) 831-9172
U SA (814) 238-0490
N ihon
U SA (805) 867-2555
Japan 81-3-3494-7411
U SA (805) 867-2556
Japan 81-3-3494-7414
M otorola
U SA (303) 675-2140
(800) 521-6274
U SA (303) 675-2150
Sanyo
U SA (619) 661-6835
Japan 81-7-2070-6306
U SA (619) 661-1055
Japan 81-7-2070-1174
Sum ida
U SA (647) 956-0666
Japan 81-3-3607-5111
U SA (647) 956-0702
Japan 81-3-3607-5144
Taiyo Yuden U SA (408) 573-4150 U SA (408) 573-4159
Sprague U SA (603) 224-1961 U SA (603) 224-1430
C oiltronics U P1B -150 15 0.175 1.5 5.0
C oiltronics U P1B -220 22 0.254 1.2 5.0
M urata LQ H 4N 100 10 0.560 0.4 2.6
M urata LQ H 4N 220 22 0.560 0.4 2.6
Sum ida C D 43-8R 2 8.2 0.132 1.26 3.2
Sum ida C D 43-100 10 0.182 1.15 3.2
Sum ida C D 54-100 10 0.100 1.44 4.5
Sum ida C D 54-180 18 0.150 1.23 4.5
Sum ida C D 54-220 22 0.180 1.11 4.5
M
A
X
1
6
7
4
/
M
A
X
1
6
7
5
/
M
A
X
1
6
7
6
High-Effic ienc y, Low-Supply-Current,
Compac t, Step-Up DC-DC Converters
12 ______________________________________________________________________________________
TR A N SISTO R C O U N T:751
Chip Information
Pac kage Information
Optional External Rec tifier
A lthough not required, a Schottky diode (such as the
M B R 0520) connected betw een LX and O U T allow s
low er start-up voltages (Figure 10) and is recom m end-
ed for single-cell operation. N ote that adding this diode
provides no significant efficiency im provem ent.
PC Board Layout and Grounding
C areful printed circuit layout is im portant for m inim izing
ground bounce and noise. K eep the IC s G N D pin and
the ground leads of the input and output filter capaci-
tors less than 0.2in (5m m ) apart. In addition, keep all
connections to the FB and LX pins as short as possi-
ble. In particular, w hen using external feedback resis-
tors, locate them as close to the FB as possible. To
m axim ize output pow er and efficiency and m inim ize
output ripple voltage, use a ground plane and solder
the IC s G N D directly to the ground plane.
MAX1674
MAX1675
MAX1676
BATT
(MAX1676)
V
IN
SINGLE CELL
LBI
REF
GND
R3
R1
200
R4 R2
100k
22H
47F
0.1F
LX
LBO
FB
SHDN
OUT
LOW- BATTERY
OUTPUT
0.1F
MBR0520
47F
CLSEL
(MAX1676)
Figure 10. A dding a Schottky D iode for Single-C ell O peration
1
0
L
U
M
A
X
B
.
E
P
S