Methods of Research

Lecture Compilation
Chapter 1: OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH
Research is inevitable, the things that we enjoy at present are an outcome of an inquisitive
minds. Those intellectual heroes may have invested a considerable length of time, efort, money
and various resources in order to invent, discover of fnd out new knowledge and things for the
beneft of humanity.
n the diagnosis of various diseases, new technologies, new medicines are being
developed and discovered to treat some killer diseases like cancer, tuberculosis and more.
!hildren on the other hand are now enjoying the new taste of medicines like strawberry,
cherry, orange that delights them.
There are new trends in the feld of medicine such as cosmetic surgery, artifcial human
insemination, laser surgery and more. "#r.Ronnie $ouing%
n the feld of &griculture'
n the early days, a minimum sack of rice were being harvested because of the manual
machineries and manual system of irrigation. Research made all things possible in the feld of
agriculture from a new technology being developed in irrigation, planting and harvesting. & new
breed of crops, a new trends in animal raising, cross breeding, a new feeds being developed to
speed up the growth of poultry and hogs, artifcial insemination and more.
n the feld of $usiness
& new concept were develop a product to suit the consumer(s preferences and needs.
)*amples are a new scent of a laundry soap from calamansi to +oral, diferent +avours of instant
juices.
Researchers have already developed a device that allows you to see through eight,inch,
thick concrete walls, but now, scientists have devised another way to reveal objects that are
hidden from view' a camera that can see around corners.
-ave you heard about a virtual supermarket shopping.
n the feld of nformation Technology
n the earlier times, communication takes a very long and slow process on how to relay of
messages to someone. /owadays, communicating with our family and friends across continents
would only take a few seconds, we can even see them while communicating without the e*pense
of a long distance call.
This convenience shows the advanced technology prevalent in our global community.
!easeless innovations such as cellphones, laptops, notebooks, tablets, wi,f, plastic money are
now a part of our everyday lives.
Introduction to Research
Meaning of Research
, Research is a quest for an answer to a question. 0nowing the answer to a question
requires a scientifc method and not merely asking from various persons or merely
observing several situations that may out,rightly provide hapha1ard answers to posed
questions.
, Research or re,search 2to research again3, to take another more careful look, to fnd out
more."4elti1 et al., 5678%
, Research is an activity which is meant to acquire better knowledge by 2 relearning what
we already know though systematic observation and e*perimentation.
, Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of natural
phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses about a presumed relations among such
phenomena.
, Research is systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations
that may lead to the development of generali1ations, principles or theories resulting in
prediction and possibly ultimate control of events. "$est 9 0hann, :;6%
Common Eements of Research'
5. To attain or establish facts about the phenomenon being investigated
<. 4ystematic
=. >bjective
?. !omprehensive investigation
@. &ccurate gathering of data, recording and critical analysis of data and interpretation of
facts
Characteristic of Research
5. Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.
<. Research emphasi1es the development of generali1ation, principles or theories that will be
helpful in predicting future occurrence.
=. Research is based upon observable e*perience or empirical evidence.
?. Research demands accurate observation and description.
@. Research involves gathering new date from primary or frsthand sources using e*isting
data for a new purpose.
8. !areful designed procedures that apply rigorous analysis.
7. Research requires e*pertise.
;. Research tries to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the
procedures employed, the date collected
6. Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems
5A. Research is characteri1ed by patience and unhurried activity.
55. Research is carefully recorded and reported.
5<.Research sometimes requires courage
! Ma"or #$pes of Research
5. $asic Research B is the type which is conducted for the sake of knowing. &lso known as
2theoretical research3
>bjective of $asic Research'
#esign to add to our understanding and store knowledge, but without any particular
practical goals.
To test or arrive at a theory with ultimate goal of establishing general principles
<. &pplied Research B is done when the purpose is to obtain knowledge for practical application
also known as 2practical research3.
&pplied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than
to acquire knowledge for knowledgeCs sake. >ne might say that the goal of the applied
scientist is to improve the human condition .
Dor e*ample, applied researchers may investigate ways to'
improve agricultural crop production
treat or cure a specifc disease
improve the energy eEciency of homes, oEces, or modes of transportation
Methodoog$ of Research
5. Fualitative Research "information%
, Fualitative research is a type of scientifc research. n general terms, scientifc research
consists of an investigation that'
G seeks answers to a question
G systematically uses a predefned set of procedures to answer the question
G collects evidence
G produces fndings that were not determined in advance
G produces fndings that are applicable beyond the immediate boundaries of the
study
Fualitative research is especially efective in obtaining culturally specifc information
about the values, opinions, behaviour, and social conte*ts of particular populations
Hhat are some qualitative research methods.
a. Participant observation is appropriate for collecting data on naturally occurring behaviours
in their usual conte*ts.
b. In-depth interviews are optimal for collecting data on individuals( personal histories,
perspectives, and e*periences, particularly when sensitive topics are being e*plored.
c. Focus groups are efective in eliciting data on the cultural norms of a group and in
generating broad overviews of issues of concern to the cultural groups or subgroups
represented.
<. Fuantitative Research " numbers%
, s conducted to fnd answers to questions about relationship among measurable variables
with a purpose of e*plaining, controlling and predicting phenomena.
, n quantitative research your aim is to determine the relationship between one thing "an
independent variable% and another "a dependent or outcome variable% in a population.
Fuantitative research designs are either descriptive "subjects usually measured once% or
e*perimental "subjects measured before and after a treatment%. & descriptive study
establishes only associations between variables. &n e*periment establishes causality.

, Fuantitative research is all about quantifying relationships between variables. Iariables
are things like weight, performance, time, and treatment. Jou measure variables on a
sample of subjects, which can be tissues, cells, animals, or humans. Jou e*press the
relationship between variable using efect statistics, such as correlations, relative
frequencies, or diferences between means.
!omparison on Fuantitative and Fualitative Research
Fuantitative Fualitative
Keneral Dramework ,4eek to confrm hypotheses
about
phenomena
,nstruments use more rigid style
of eliciting and categori1ing
responses to questions
,Lse highly structured methods
such as questionnaires, surveys,
and structured observation
,4eek to e*plore phenomena
,nstruments use more +e*ible,
iterative style of eliciting and
categori1ing responses to
questions
, Lse semi,structured methods
such
as in,depth interviews, focus
groups, and participant
observation
&nalytical >bjectives
,To quantify variation
,To predict causal relationships
,To describe characteristics of a
Mopulation
,To describe variation
,To describe and e*plain
relationships
,To describe individual e*periences
,To describe group norms
Fuestion format !losed ended >pen ended
#ata Dormat /umerical "obtained by
assigning
numerical values to responses%
large sample
Te*tual "obtained from
audiotapes,
videotapes, and feld notes%
small sample
standardi1ed instruments observations, interviews
Report of fndings /umbers, statistics, aggregated
data
Hords, narratives, individual
quotes, personal voice
Research Report and %a$out
Title Mage
)ndorsement Mage
&pproval 4heet
&cknowledgement
&bstract
Table of !ontents
Nist of Tables
Nist of Digures, llustrations, Mlates
Nist of &ppendices
!hapter ' T-) MR>$N)O &/# T4 $&!0KR>L/#
ntroduction
4tatement of the Mroblem
&ssumption
-ypothesis
4ignifcance of the 4tudy
Theoretical P !onceptual Dramework
4cope and Nimitation
#efnition of Terms
!hapter ' R)I)H >D R)N&T)# 4TL#)4 &/# NT)R&TLR)
Related Niterature
Related 4tudies
!hapter ' R)4)&R!- O)T->#>N>KJ
Research #esign
Nocale and Mopulation of the 4tudy
#escription of the Respondents
4tatistical Treatment Lsed
nstrumentation and Try,out Mhase
!hapter I ' MR)4)/T&T>/, &/&NJ44 &/# /T)RMR)T&T>/ >D #&T&
!hapter I ' 4LOO&RJ, !>/!NL4>/4 &/# R)!>OO)/#&T>/4
4ummary of fndings
!onclusions
Recommendations
$$N>KR&M-J
&MM)/#!)4
!LRR!LNLO IT&) "$ouing , R%
Research #ite & 'no(ing the )ro*em
$efore we proceed to your Research title, a researcher must be able to identify the
problem frst. Research problem refers to the research title. The title is a very important part of
all thesis documents, as it introduces readers to the nature. Many professors recommend that
students create their theses titles only after they have completed writing their theses so that
they can be sure that the title accurately refects the content of the theses document. >ther
professors recommend that students begin the entire thesis with the thesis title and use the title
as a method of directing the content.
& good title should have the following properties'
5% The title needs to be very specifc in nature
<% n spite of being specifc it should also have the e*pressive power to show the entire scale
of the research study in those few words.
=% t should tell the total nature of the subject.
?% t needs to be very defnite and clear.
@% The title needs to be attractive and interesting enough to catch the attention of the readers.
$efore we state the problem, let us learn frst the standards in writing a title.
5. The title must be concise. t contains only the words enough to hint the content of the
research. >mit phrases and words like'
& 4tudy of
The mplications of
& !omparative 4tudy of
&n &ssessment of
&n &nalysis of
nquiry
nvestigation

These are overused words and phrases or can be stated in the body of the study.
<. The title must be stated in declarative form, not interrogative form.
=. f the title e*ceeds beyond one line, it must be stated like I,form. Nikewise, no title
4hall be written in e*cess of three lines regardless the number of words. "$ouing%
)*ample'
!omment' "too broad%
5. Oodify the problem and the title. t should be 4O&RT
<. !hoose a key issues of concern in a restaurant service business.
=. Net say you want to focus on a 2Fuick 4ervice Restaurant3
&naly1e the given topic' 2#iscrete /egative )motions and !ustomer #issatisfaction
Responses
&mong the Fuick 4ervice Restaurant &long 0atipunan Fue1on
!ity3
4ubject matter ' !ustomer dissatisfaction
Nocale of the study ' 0atipunan, Fue1on !ity
Mopulation involved' !ustomers
/ote' 4ometimes, we need to analy1e the words carefully , other unnecessary words are need to
be
omitted, and can be placed on the scope and limitation of the study or avoid associating
the place with negative situation or image%
Constructing a Statement of the )ro*em
The simplest way to approach problem statements is to start by looking at where
they ft into your document. Mroblem statements make up the core of the introduction to
your document. Jour introduction should set the stage for your readers and give them a
clear idea of your argument. &n efective document will motivate readers by articulating a
problem that the document can help resolve. Jou can only be sure that your readers
understand the problem the same way as you if you e*press not only the problem or the
situation, but also the consequences that make the problem worth solving.
& good problem statement should answer these questions'
5. Hhat is the problem. "how, what, when, where, who, which, why.%
<. Hho has the problem or who is the clientPcustomer. This should e*plain who needs the
solution and who will decide the problem has been solved.
=. Hhat form can the resolution be. Hhat is the scope and limitations "in time, money,
resources, technologies% that can be used to solve the problem.
?. Nimit the problem B The problem may be very broad, try to focus on scope and boundaries
research should be 4O&RT B" 4pecifc, Oeasurable, &ttainable, Realistic 9 Time $ound%
These steps may help you in the construction of the statement of the problems'
Restaurant
5. Oake a clear and analytical introduction which usually encompasses the main
problem the title, stated in the e*panded form.
<. The frst question inquires the information linked to the introduction.
=. !reate subsidiary questions clearly, logically and subsequently derived from the
problem.
?. )nsure that you construct a question that elicits the presentation of the new
knowledge or situation to a problem.
@. Mose a hypothetical that shall be tested, if necessary
8. !heck if your questions are suEcient, about =,8 statements, and are able to elicit
information that provide substantial answer to make the main problem "$auing%
)*ample 4tatement of the Mroblem'
The researchers aims to know the #iscrete !ustomer #issatisfaction Responses &mong
the Fuick 4ervice Restaurant &long 0atipunan Fue1on !ity.
4pecifcally, the study aimed to answer the following questions'
5. Hhat are the characteristics of a quick service restaurant.
<. Hhat are the negative emotions and customer dissatisfaction in a quick service
restaurant.
=. -ow are these negative emotions and dissatisfaction contributes to the image of these
quick service restaurants.
?. s there a signifcant relationship between a discreet negative emotions and customer
dissatisfaction to the overall performance of a Fuick 4ervice Restaurant.
+escriptions of the )arts of Research
#ite )age
t includes the title of the research which shall stated brie+y. t may of at least one line but
not e*ceed three lines written in full uppercase making a I form. >ther information in the
title page include the name of the university, the degree to which the researcher is a
candidate, the name of the researcher and the month and year when the paper will be
presented. The font si1e of the title page shall not be smaller than 5< not bigger than 5?
using Time /ew Roman, &rial, $ookman 4tyle, or as prescribed by the institution.
Chapter I
Introduction
#hesis introduction is the frst part of a thesis paper. #hesis introduction allows the
readers to get the general idea of what your thesis is about. #hesis introduction acquaints the
readers with the thesis paper topic, e*plaining the basic points of the thesis research and
pointing the direction of your research.
#hesis introduction has to contain the following information'
The thesis paper topicQ
The reasons which pushed a student to write his or her thesis paper e*actly on this topicQ
The thesis topic preface, or the background information on the thesis paper topicQ
The goals you are going to achieveQ
The tasks to complete in order to attain the goals, or the direction of the thesis research
developmentQ
Remember that your thesis introduction has to contain all the information presented above. $ut
it is not enough just to know the components of the thesis introduction if you want to succeed in
thesis paper writing. Jou also have to know several secrets of the thesis introduction writing. He
will tell you these secrets, so that you could prepare a brilliant thesis introduction.
Jou should write your thesis introduction after composing the entire thesis paper. t will
allow you to analy1e the whole work, and discover the best way to introduce your thesis to
the readers.
Jou should not use any terms in your thesis introduction, since it can baRe the readers.
Jou should present the terms related to the topic of your thesis paper only in the main
body of the thesis paper.
Try to use simple language within your thesis introduction.
Remember that one of the main tasks of the thesis introduction is to attract the readers(
attention to your thesis paper.
H$potheses of the Stud$
Jou must state your hypothesis in a way that you can easily measure, and of course, your
hypothesis should be constructed in a way to help you answer your original question.
The hypothesis must be worded so that it can be tested in your e*periment. #o this by
e*pressing the hypothesis using your independent variable "the variable you change
during your e*periment% and your dependent variable "the variable you observe,changes
in the dependent variable depend on changes in the independent variable%. n fact, many
hypotheses are stated e*actly like this' Sf a particular independent variable is changed,
then there is also a change in a certain dependent variable.S
Signi,cance of the Stud$
Hho will beneft from your study. -ow will they beneft.
This should state why the problem investigated is important and what signifcance the
result have.
4tatement on relevance felt needs,
Motential contribution of the research to new knowledge
Molicy implications and other possible uses for its results
Scope and %imitation
This tells the coverage and boundaries of the study. t tells the attributes and characteristics
that are included or e*cluded. 4cope and Nimitation may be applicable to place, time,
people, value or other factors. "$ouing%
The SscopeS section is where you list what you are doing. The SboundsS section is where you
set the boundaries and you list some thing e*plicitly that you are not doing because they
are outside the bounds of the project.
Theoretical P !onceptual Dramework
& conceptua frame(or- is the researcher(s idea on how the research problem will have to be
e*plored. This is founded on the theoretical framework, which lies on a much broader scale of
resolution. The theoretical framework dwells on time tested theories that embody the fndings of
numerous investigations on how phenomena occur.
The theoretica frame(or- provides a general representation of relationships between things
in a given phenomenon. Theoretical framework cites the salient outcomes of the previous studies
presents the theories formulated by other writers, these will be used as bases in proving or
disapproving the applicability of such theories on present time.
The conceptual framework, on the other hand, embodies the specifc direction by which the
research will have to be undertaken. 4tatistically speaking, the conceptual framework describes
the relationship between speci,c .aria*es identifed in the study. t also outlines the input,
process and output of the whole investigation. The conceptual framework is also called the
research paradigm/
Research Maradigm
Maradigm is a chart, diagram or illustration of the e*istence of the problem. t provides solutions
and the outcomes of the processes or intervention done.
#efnition of Terms
This part simplifes the key words used in the study. t serves as the glossary of the research
paper. Terms may be defned conceptually or operationally. !onceptual defnition includes those
lifted from the dictionary or written resources. >perational defnition refers to the defnition
constructed by the researcher as applied to the present study. "$ouing%
Chapter II
REVIEW OF RE%A#E+ S#0+IES A1+ %I#ERA#0R)
Related Niterature
& review of related literature is an integral part of theses or dissertations. t may also be a
required part of proposals. The main purpose of a re.ie( of reated iterature is to
analy1e scientifc works by other researchers that you used for investigation critically.

-ow to Hrite the ntroduction of a Review of Related Niterature

n order to make the ntroduction elaborately, take the following steps'
5. dentify the general topic of the sources under discussion. Thus, you will provide the
conte*t of your review of related literatureQ
<. #iscuss what was already presented about the topic of your paper' con+icts in a theory,
conclusions, gaps in research and scholarship, etc.
=. )*plain why the literature used is worth reviewing.
-ow to Hrite the $ody of a Review of Related Niterature

Hhen writing the $ody, do the following'
Kroup the sources according to their common dominators "approaches, objectives or
any specifc chronologies%Q
Kive the e*amples of how to sort out these groups. Lse quotations, evidences, data,
etc. They will make your review of related literature more valid.
-ow to Hrite the !onclusion of a Review of Related Niterature

To make the !onclusion, do the following'
4ummari1e the contributions of the literature sources made to the area of study you
investigate. Oaintain the central focus in the ntroductionQ
Kive a kind of insight into the relationship between the topic of your review and a larger
study area "e.g. a discipline, a scientifc endeavour, etc.%
!itation
t is a way of strengthening or concreti1ing one(s idea by citing the similar or relevant ideas or
fndings of other researchers and authorities. #ocumentation was done through footnoting or
parenthetical reference citation. Oodern writers is now using parenthetical reference style. The
style is called 2&merican Msychological &ssociation style3 or &M& style
)*amples of &M& style of citation
Horks by single author
According to Flippo (1984) proper job performance is achieved
only if employees are trained because they will improve their sills.
from theory on bounded rationality (!imon" 194#)
Flippo (1984) stated the relationship or training and performance"
thus$
%After personnel have been obtained" they must be to some degree
developed& 'evelopment has to do with the increase of sill through
training" that is necessary for proper job performance&(
Wor-s *$ mutipe authors
Hhen a work has two authors, always cite both names every time the reference occurs in the te*t. n
parenthetical material join the names with an ampersand "9%.
as has been shown ()eiter * +aslach" 1998)
n the narrative te*t, join the names with the word Sand.S
as )eiter and +aslach (1998) demonstrated
Hhen a work has three, four, or fve authors, cite all authors the frst time the reference occurs.
,ahneman" ,netsch" and -haler (1991) found
n all subsequent citations per paragraph, include only the surname of the frst author followed by Set al.S
"Natin for Sand othersS% and the year of publication.
,ahneman et al& (1991) found
Hriting the related literature
n a report, the original information stated by the researcher are printed double space , while
the borrowed information are encoded in single space if copied word for word from the source.
Maraphrased information is stated also in double space "$ouing%
Chapter III
Research +esign
refers to as a scheme or plan of action for meeting the objectives of the study.
, )ach research design has its own applicability factors to consider'
nature of problem
objectives of the study
attributes ad geographical dispersion of the subjects
nvestigator(s capability
&vailability of resources and time element
Types of Research #esign
5.-istorical Research #esign B is the systematic and objective location, evaluation and
synthesis of evidence in order to establish the facts and draw conclusions about past
events.
)*ample : A Tale of Two crises: The Belgian and Irish Dioxin Contamination
Incidents by Donald Casey
<.#escriptive Research #esign , aims to fnd out what prevail in the present conditions or
relationships, held opinions and beliefs, process and efects and developing trends
Types of #escriptive Research'
a. !ase 4tudy , B is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon
within its real,life conte*t, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon
and conte*t are not clearly evident.
)*ample : Rural Women in Rice nter!rise : A Case "tudy by D#D# Torreta
b. Trend 4tudy , predicts on the basis of available data, the direction and future status
of certain phenomenon like population si1e, school, population si1e, school
enrolment, business growth, household e*penditures and residential location.
)*ample' 2Trends in Breastfeeding $re%alence and Duration by &elda
c. 4urvey , detailed and quantifed description of a population of a population B
precise map or precise measurement of potential.
xam!le: 'Customer "atisfaction of ABC Tra%el and Tour by D#C Castro
d. !ontent &nalysisP #ocument &nalysis B to fnd out the type and the quality of
message found in current documents deals with communication, processes.
xam!le : 'Rhetorical $atterns of "!eeches of $res# Benigno A(uino III
e. Deasibility study B scheme use when the objective of the study is to fnd out the
viability of starting a business venture, implementing a development
program,establishing an institution, forming organi1ation, putting up a television
network or constructing a commercial building. !omponents' market, technical,
fnancial and management aspects of the desired undertaking.
E2ampe : 2stablishment of )ood "er%ice Business in Anti!olo City by A#*
"omoray
f. #evelopment study B a scheme to fnd out how and to what e*tent individuals grow
or develop in terms of physical, intellectual, emotional and social dimension.
Types' longitudinal "years to fnish% and cross section "one point in time%
E2ampe : 3#he +e.eopment of Socia A(areness Among Fiipino Chidren4 *$
)1C Research Center
g. Dollow,up study B is conducted with the goal of fnding out what happened to
individuals who completed a program a program, a treatment or a course of study.
E2ampe: O%F0 Student Monitoring )rogram : A Foo( up Stud$
h. )valuation study B to fnd out whether or not a given program is working or an
institution is successful.
xam!le: 'An %aluation of the +ational Tuberculosis $rogram in Western
,isayas by ,#B# Ardales
i. )thnographic study B is a feld method study and uses the techniques of observation
and integration to the group and conservation and interviews with informants.
>bserves beliefs, attitudes, fears and hopes of cultural or ethnic groups, real life
setting.
xam!le: 'Belief sand Customs of )armers in -a!an. +ue%a ci/a
j. Relational study B to fnd out the direction and e*tent of relationship between two
>r more paired variables or two or more sets of data.
xam!le: Relationshi! Between conomic "tatus and Academic $erformance and
Career $reference of "enior 0igh "chool "tudents in the Iloilo City
k. )* Most Dacto 4tudiesP!asual !omparative #esign B is a method wherein the
investigator studies the problem by analy1ing past events or e*isting conditions to
determine the in+uence. To fnd out the e*isting diferences in the status behaviour,
attitude and belief of groups of individuals.
xam!le: '"ome )actors in 1ob "atisfaction Among m!loyees in a )i%e "tar 0otel
In *etro *anila by A#* 2o!e3
l. Replication and 4econdary &nalysis B repetition of a research work but in a diferent
set of participants, setting and time. !hallenging and verifying the conclusions of
previous studies.
xam!le: '"ocial Change in *indanao : A Re%iew of the Research of the Decade
By *#A Costello
=. )*perimental Research #esign , is a research method in which the investigator manipulates
a variable"s% under very controlled conditions and e*amines whether changes occur in a second
variable"s%. ndependent 9 #ependent Iariables
The manipulated variable is called the I1+E)E1+E1# VARIA5%E "presumed Scause.S % The
variable that is e*pected to change as a result of the manipulation of the independent
variable is called the +E)E1+E1# VARIA5%E. "presumed Sefect.S%
?.Dactorial Research #esign , design is often used by scientists wishing to understand the efect
of two or more independent variables upon a single dependent variable.
@. &ction Research #esign , learning by doing3 , a group of people identify a problem, do
something to resolve it, see how successful their eforts were, and if not satisfed, try again.
Hhile this is the essence of the approach, there are other key attributes of action research that
diferentiate it from common problem,solving activities that we all engage in every day.
8.Marticipatory Research #esign , s an arranged efort by the researcher and the people to
conduct a study the result of which is relevant to actions for transforming or improving people(s
condition.
is a recogni1ed form of e*perimental research that focuses on the efects of the researcherCs
direct actions of practice within a participatory community with the goal of improving the
performance quality of the community or an area of concern.
7.>perations Research #esign , s the application of analytic methods that help decision makers
choose among various options to accomplish specifed goals. t is useful in solving problems that
are related to the conduct and coordination of operations of organi1ations.
4ampling Mrocedure
4ampling refers to taking a representative subsection of the population. !ontacting,
questioning, and obtaining information from a large population, such as the =7A,AAA households
residing in &ntipolo !ity, is e*tremely e*pensive, diEcult, and time consuming. & properly
designed probability sample, however, provides a reliable means of inferring information about a
population without e*amining every member or element.
Two Keneral Types of 4ampling'
&. )ro*a*iit$ samping , is taking a sample from the population. t ensures that there is a
possibility for each person in a sample population to be selected. & probability sample tends to
be more diEcult and costly to conduct. -owever, probability samples are the only type of
samples where the results can be generali1ed from the sample to the population. n
addition, probability samples allow the researcher to calculate the precision of the estimates
obtained from the sample and to specify
the sampling error.
Types of Mrobability 4ampling'
1. Random 4ampling B This is similar to lottery method that provides everyone in the
population the equal chance to be picked as sample.
2. 4ystematic 4ampling B This is used if a high density of a population is at stake. The
researcher may fnd a record of the population, list the name alphabetically at any
desired order, identify the sample si1e, then proceed to a system of selection. 4ay
the population is 5AAA and he preferred sample is <AT, the researcher needs <AA,
so he picks every @
th
name from the list. "$ouing%
3. 4tratifed Random 4ampling , dividing up the population into smaller groups, and
randomly sampling from each group.
)*ample' To get a sample from the !ity of &ntipolo. To obtain more precise
estimates of the population, the researcher may want to stratify the sample by
geographic region or baranggay.
?. !luster 4ampling , is similar to stratifed sampling because the population to be
sampled is subdivided into mutually e*clusive groups. -owever, in cluster sampling
the groups are defned so as to maintain the heterogeneity of the population.
)*ample' Demale members of $aranggay 4an sidro.
$. 1on6)ro*a*iit$ Samping , in contrast, do not allow the studyCs fndings to be generali1ed
from the sample to the population. Hhen discussing the results of a non probability sample, the
researcher must limit hisPher fndings to the persons or elements sampled. This procedure also
does not allow the researcher to calculate sampling statistics that provide information about the
precision of the results. The advantage of non probability sampling is the ease in which it can be
administered. /on probability samples tend to be less complicated and less time consuming
than probability samples. f the researcher has no intention of generali1ing beyond the sample,
one of the non probability sampling methodologies will provide the desired information.
Types of /on,Mrobability 4ampling
1. /etwork sampling B 2referral sampling3 that stems from one or few identifed
samples who after being involved in the study will lead the researcher to other
samples who possess the same attributes. "$ouing%
2. &ccidental 4ampling , & sampling by opportunity in which the researcher takes the
respondents from those he meets une*pectedly.
3. Murposive 4ampling B 2Uudgemental sampling3. & deliberate selection of individuals
by the researcher based on predefned criteria. )*ample, if the researcher wants to
know about childbirth problems, the respondents may be obstetrician, gynecologist.
4. !onvenience 4ampling B 4electing respondents in the easiest way. The respondents
may be the nearest people, friends, relatives, accessible organi1ation, available
person.
5. Fuota 4ampling , a population is frst segmented into mutually e*clusive sub,
groups, just as in stratifed sampling. Then judgment is used to select the subjects
or units from each segment based on a specifed proportion. Dor e*ample, an
interviewer may be told to sample <AA females and =AA males between the age of
?@ and 8A. This means that individuals can put a demand on who they want to
sample "targeting%.
#etermining the 4ample
#etermining sample si1e is a very important issue because samples that are too
large may waste time, resources and money, while samples that are too small may lead to
inaccurate results. There is no general rule regarding the sample si1e. -owever, we can say that
the higher the percentage, the higher the validity. t is natural to say that the bigger the
population, the lesser percentage of the sample is taken.
4ome statisticians suggest the 4lovin formula in computing the sample si1e.
n V /
5W/e<
Hhere' n V number of sample
/ V number of population
) V margin of error
The margin of error may be .A5 to .A@. $ut the lower the margin of error, the higher the accuracy
of the result.
&ctivity ' !ompute the sample si1e. Hhere the number of population is 5,<AA and the margin of
error is =T
/ V 5,<AA
) V .A=
n V .
n V 5,<AA
5 W 5,<AA ".A=%<
n V 5,<AA
5 W 5,<AA ".AAA6%
n V 5,<AA
5W 5.A;AA
n V /
5W/e<
nV 5,<AA
<.A;AA
nV @7@.6< or 789
Ialidity and Reliability
Ialidity and Reliability are two important characteristics of both the research process and
research output.
Vaidit$ refers to the degree of appropriateness, correctness, truthfulness and accuracy of the
study. n other words, the procedure shall measure what is intended to measure. "$ouing%
Types of Ialidity
5. Content Vaidit$ , pertains to the degree to which the instrument fully assesses or
measures the construct of interest. Dor e*ample, an educational test with strong content
validity will represent the subjects actually taught to students, rather than asking unrelated
questions.
<. Face Vaidit$ , is a component of content validity and is established when an individual
reviewing the instrument concludes that it measures the characteristic or trait of interest. t
requires a personal judgment, such as asking participants whether they thought that a test
was well constructed and useful.
:/ Criterion Vaidity , assesses whether a test re+ects a certain set of abilities. To measure
the criterion validity of a test, researchers must calibrate it against a known standard or
against itself.
)*ample'
Dor market researchers, criterion validity is crucial, and can make or break a product. >ne
famous e*ample is when !oca,!ola decided to change the +avor of their trademark drink.
#iligently, they researched whether people liked the new +avor, performing taste tests and
giving out questionnaires. Meople loved the new +avor, so !oca,!ola rushed /ew !oke into
production, where it was a titanic +op.
The mistake that !oke made was that they forgot about criterion validity, and omitted one
important question from the survey.
Meople were not asked if they preferred the new +avor to the old, a failure to establish
concurrent validity.
The >ld !oke, known to be popular, was the perfect benchmark, but it was never used. &
simple blind taste test, asking people which +avor they preferred out of the two, would have
saved !oca !ola millions of dollars.
Reliability , The degree of consistency between two measures of the same thing. "Oehrens and
Nehman, 56;7%.
G The measure of how stable, dependable, trustworthy, and consistent a test is in measuring the
same thing each time "Horthen et al., 566=%
)*ample 5 ' f we wish to measure a personCs weight, we would hope that the scale would
register the same measure each time the person stepped on the scale.
)*ample < ' f we wanted to measure the length of a piece of wood, the tape used better yield
the same measure each time. )ven if you had someone else re measure the wood, the result
should be consistent.
)*ample =' &ssume that you gave a student a history test yesterday and then gave the test
again today. Jou found that the student scored very high the frst day and very low the second
day. t could have been that the student had an of day or that the test is simply unreliable.
4tatistical Treatment of #ata
4cientists frequently use statistics to analy1e their results. Hhy do researchers use
statistics. 4tatistics can help understand a phenomenon by confrming or rejecting a hypothesis.
t is vital to how we acquire knowledge to most scientifc theories.
4tatistical treatment of data also involves describing the data. The best way to do this is through
the measures of central tendencies like mean, median and mode. These help the researcher
e*plain in short how the data are concentrated. Range, uncertainty and standard deviation help
to understand the distribution of the data. Therefore two distributions with the same mean can
have wildly diferent standard deviation, which shows how well the data points are concentrated
around the mean.
4tatistical treatment of data is an important aspect of all e*perimentation today and a thorough
understanding is necessary to conduct the right e*periments with the right inferences from the
data obtained.
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!hapter I ' 4LOO&RJ, !>/!NL4>/4 &/# R)!>OO)/#&T>/4
4ummary of fndings
!onclusions
Recommendations
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