131, T4, Ch7 Axial Skeleton - 14

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Axial Skeleton
Chapter 7
IB 131
Instructor: Tom Carlson
Department of Integrative Biology
University of California, Berkeley
1
The Skeleton
Consists of:
bones
joints
cartilage
ligaments
Composed of 206 named bones
grouped into two divisions
axial skeleton: 80 bones
appendicular skeleton: 126 bones
2
The Axial
Skeleton
(in green)
Formed from
80 named
bones
Consists of
skull, vertebral
column, and
bony thorax
Figure 7.1a
Skull
Thoracic cage
(ribs and
sternum)
(a) Anterior view
Facial bones
Cranium
Sacrum
Vertebral
column
Clavicle
Scapula
Sternum
Rib
Humerus
Vertebra
Radius
Ulna
Carpals
Phalanges
Metacarpals
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges 3
The
Axial
Skeleton
(in green)

Figure 7.1b
(b) Posterior view
Cranium
Clavicle
Bones of
pectoral
girdle
Bones of
pelvic girdle
Upper
limb
Scapula
Rib
Humerus
Vertebra
Radius
Ulna
Carpals
Phalanges
Metacarpals
Femur
Lower
limb
Tibia
Fibula
4
Figure 7.6a
The Skull
Formed by cranial and facial bones
Parietal bone
Squamous part
of frontal bone
Nasal bone
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
Temporal bone
Ethmoid bone
Lacrimal bone
Zygomatic bone
Maxilla
Mandible
Infraorbital foramen
Mental
foramen
(a) Anterior view of skull
Mental
protuberance
Frontal bone
Glabella
Frontonasal suture
Supraorbital foramen
(notch)
Supraorbital margin
Superior orbital fissure
Inferior orbital fissure
Middle nasal concha
Inferior nasal concha
Vomer
Optic canal
Perpendicular plate
Ethmoid
bone
5
Skull
Bodys most complex bony structure
Skull: formed by cranial and facial bones
8 Cranial bones: ethmoid, frontal, occipital,
sphenoid, parietal (2), temporal (2)
14 Facial bones: mandible, vomer, inferior
nasal conchae (2), lacrimal (2), maxilla (2),
nasal (2), palantine (2), zygomatic (2)
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The cranial & facial bones
Bones of cranium (cranial vault)
Lambdoid
suture
Facial
bones
Squamous
suture
(a) Cranial and facial divisions of the skull
Coronal
suture
Figure 7.2a
7
Skull
Facial bones
Form framework of face
Form cavities for sense organs of sight, taste,
and smell
Provide opening for passage of air and food
Hold teeth
Anchor facial muscles
The cranium (cranial bones)
Encloses and protects brain
Provides attachment for head and neck
muscles
8
Anterior cranial
fossa
Middle cranial
fossa
Posterior cranial
fossa
(b) Superior view of the cranial fossae
Frontal lobe
of cerebrum
Temporal lobe
of cerebrum
Cerebellum
Posterior
Middle
Anterior
Cranial
fossae
(c) Lateral view of cranial fossae showing the contained
brain regions
Cranial Fossae
Internally, prominent bony ridges divide skull into
distinct fossae
Anterior cranial fossa: frontal lobe of cerebrum
Middle cranial fossa: temporal lobe of cerebrum
Posterior cranial fossa: cerebellum
Figure 7.2b, c
9
Small Cavities of Skull
Middle and inner ear cavitiesin
lateral aspect of cranial base
Nasal cavitylies in and posterior to
the nose
Orbitshouse the eyeballs
Air-filled sinusesoccur in several
bones around the nasal cavity
10
Skull contains approximately
85 named openings
Foramina, canals, and fissures
Provide openings for important structures
Spinal cord
Blood vessels serving the brain
Cranial nerves
11
Lateral aspect of skull
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Cranial Bones
Formed from eight bones
Paired bones include
Temporal bones
Parietal bones
Unpaired bones include
Frontal bone
Occipital bone
Sphenoid bone
Ethmoid bone
13
Figure 7.6a
The Skull
Formed by cranial and facial bones
Parietal bone
Squamous part
of frontal bone
Nasal bone
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
Temporal bone
Ethmoid bone
Lacrimal bone
Zygomatic bone
Maxilla
Mandible
Mental
foramen
Mental
protuberance
Frontal bone
Glabella
Frontonasal suture
(notch)
Supraorbital margin
Middle nasal concha
Vomer
Optic canal
Perpendicular plate
Ethmoid
bone
14
Cranial cavity floor
15
16
The Cranium
Bones of cranium (cranial vault)
Lambdoid
suture
Facial
bones
Squamous
suture
(a) Cranial and facial divisions of the skull
Coronal
suture
Figure 7.2a
17
Parietal Bones & associated Sutures
Parietal bones form superior and lateral parts
of skull
Coronal sutureruns in the coronal plane
and is located where parietal bones meet
frontal bone
Squamous sutureoccurs where each
parietal bone meets a temporal bone
inferiorly
Sagittal sutureoccurs where right and left
parietal bones meet superiorly
Lambdoid sutureoccurs where parietal
bones meet the occipital bone posteriorly
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Lambdoid
suture
Occipital bone
Superior nuchal line
External occipital
protuberance
Sutural bone
Inferior nuchal line
Occipital
condyle
External occipital crest
Occipitomastoid
suture
Parietal bone
Sagittal suture
The Skull Posterior View
Figure 7.5
19
Sutural Bones
Small bones that occur within sutures
Irregular in shape, size, and location
Not all people have sutural bones
20
Frontal Bone
Forms the forehead and roofs of orbits
Supraorbital marginsuperior margin
of orbits
Glabellasmooth part of frontal bone
between superciliary (eyebrow) arches
Frontal sinuses within frontal bone
Contributes to anterior cranial fossa
21
Figure 7.6a
Cranial & Facial Bones of Skull
Parietal bone
Squamous part
of frontal bone
Nasal bone
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
Temporal bone
Ethmoid bone
Lacrimal bone
Zygomatic bone
Maxilla
Mandible
Mental
foramen
Mental
protuberance
Frontal bone
Glabella
Frontonasal suture
(notch)
Supraorbital margin
Middle nasal concha
Vomer
Optic canal
Perpendicular plate
Ethmoid
bone
22
Cranial and Facial Bones of Skull
23
Occipital Bone
Forms the posterior portion of the
cranium and cranial base
Articulates with the temporal bones and
parietal bones
Forms the posterior cranial fossa
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Maxilla
(palatine process)
Hard
palate
Zygomatic bone
Incisive fossa
Median palatine suture
Intermaxillary suture
Maxilla
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
Foramen ovale
Pterygoid process
Foramen lacerum
Carotid canal
External acoustic meatus
Stylomastoid
foramen
Jugular foramen
Foramen magnum
Occipital condyle
Temporal bone
(zygomatic process)
Mandibular fossa
Vomer
Styloid process
External occipital
protuberance
(a) Inferior view of the skull (mandible removed)
Mastoid process
Temporal bone
(petrous part)
Basilar part of
the occipital bone
Occipital bone
Palatine bone
(horizontal plate)
Foramen spinosum
Inferior Aspect of the Skull
Figure 7.7a
25
Inferior Aspect of Skull
26
Lambdoid
suture
Occipital bone
External occipital
protuberance
Sutural bone
Occipital
condyle
Occipitomastoid
suture
Parietal bone
Sagittal suture
The Skull Posterior View
Figure 7.5
27
Occipital Bone structures
Superior and inferior nuchal lines
Occipital condyles
Hypoglossal canal through which CN XII
runs
Foramen magnum located at its base
28
29
Temporal Bones
Lie inferior to parietal bones
Contributes to the middle and
posterior cranial fossae
Form the inferolateral portion of the
skull
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(b) Photograph of right side of skull
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
Coronal suture
Parietal bone
Squamous suture
Zygomatic process
Temporal bone
Lambdoid suture
Occipital bone
External occipital
protuberance
Occipitomastoid
suture
External acoustic
meatus
Mastoid process
Styloid
process
Mandibular ramus
Mandibular angle
Mental foramen
Frontal bone
Ethmoid bone
Lacrimal bone
Nasal bone
Lacrimal fossa
Zygomatic
bone
Maxilla
Mandible
Coronoid
process
Alveolar
margins
Mandibular
condyle
Mandibular
notch
Lateral Aspect of the Skull
Figure 7.4b
31
32
Regions of Temporal Bones
Squamous region flat area of bone which
contains bar-like zygomatic process; zygomatic
process projects anteriorly to meet zygomatic
bone of face and contributions of these two
bones to make up the zygomatic arch
Tympanic region surrounds the external
acoustical meatus (= external ear canal)
Styloid process extends down from inferior
temporal bone and is muscle attachment site
Mastoid region
Petrous region

33
The Temporal Bone
Figure 7.8
Mastoid
region
External acoustic
meatus
Mastoid process
Styloid process
Tympanic
region
Mandibular
fossa
Zygomatic
process
Squamous
region
34
35
The Temporal Bone
Mastoid region/mastoid process
Site for neck muscle attachment
Contains air sinuses
Petrous region
Projects medially, contributes to cranial base
Appears as a boney wedge between
occipetal bone posteriorly and sphenoid
bone anteriorly
Houses cavities of middle and internal ear
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Maxilla
(palatine process)
Hard
palate
Zygomatic bone
Incisive fossa
Maxilla
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
Foramen ovale
Pterygoid process
Foramen lacerum
Carotid canal
Stylomastoid
foramen
Jugular foramen
Foramen magnum
Occipital condyle
Temporal bone
(zygomatic process)
Mandibular fossa
Vomer
Styloid process
External occipital
protuberance
Mastoid process
Temporal bone
(petrous part)
Basilar part of
the occipital bone
Occipital bone
Palatine bone
(horizontal plate)
Foramen spinosum
Figure 7.7a
37
Foramina of Temporal Bone
Carotid canal
Jugular foramen (at boundary with
occipital bone)
Foramen lacerum (at boundary with
sphenoid bone and occipital bone)
Internal & external acoustic meatus
38
39
40
Inferior Aspect of Skull
41
The Sphenoid Bone
Spans the width of the cranial floor
Resembles a butterfly or bat
Has a body
Has three pairs of processes
Contains five important openings
Is the keystone of the cranium and forms
a central wedge that articulates with
multiple other cranial bones
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43
The Sphenoid Bone
Body
The superior part of the body bears a
saddle-shaped prominence called a
sella turcica
The seat of this saddle contains the
hypophyseal fossa, which holds the
pituitary gland (= hypophysis)
44
The Sphenoid Bone Processes
Greater wings
Lesser wings
Pterygoid processes
45
Greater
wing
Body of sphenoid
Superior
orbital
fissure
Lesser
wing
Pterygoid
process
(b) Posterior view
Sphenoid Bone posterior view
Figure 7.10b
46
(a) Superior view, as in Figure 7.9
Optic
canal
Greater
wing
Sella
turcica
Lesser wing
Foramen rotundum
Foramen ovale
Foramen spinosum
Body of sphenoid
Sphenoid Bone superior view
Figure 7.10a
47
Sphenoid Bone Openings
Superior orbital fissure: long slit between
greater and lesser wings
Optic canal: lies just anterior to sella tursica
Foramen rotundum: in medial part of greater
wing
Foramen ovale: posteriolateral to foramen
rotundum
Foramen spinosum: posteriolateral to foramen
ovale (at boundary with temporal bone)
Foramen lacerum (at boundary with temporal
bone and occipital bone)
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49
50
Figure 7.6a
Parietal bone
Squamous part
of frontal bone
Nasal bone
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
Temporal bone
Ethmoid bone
Lacrimal bone
Zygomatic bone
Maxilla
Mandible
Mental
foramen
Mental
protuberance
Frontal bone
Glabella
Frontonasal suture
(notch)
Supraorbital margin
Middle nasal concha
Vomer
Optic canal
Perpendicular plate
Ethmoid
bone
51
The Ethmoid Bone
Lies between nasal and
sphenoid bones
Forms most of the medial bony
region between the nasal cavity
and orbits
52
Midsagittal section through skull
53
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Figure 7.6a
Parietal bone
Squamous part
of frontal bone
Nasal bone
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
Temporal bone
Ethmoid bone
Lacrimal bone
Zygomatic bone
Maxilla
Mandible
Mental
foramen
Mental
protuberance
Frontal bone
Glabella
Frontonasal suture
(notch)
Supraorbital margin
Middle nasal concha
Vomer
Optic canal
Perpendicular plate
Ethmoid
bone
55
Midsagittal section through skull
56
Orbital
plate
Ethmoidal
air cells
Perpendicular
plate
Middle
nasal concha
Cribriform
plate
Olfactory
foramina
Crista galli
Left
lateral
mass
Figure 7.12
The Ethmoid Bone,
anterior view
57
The Ethmoid Bone
Cribriform platesuperior surface of the
ethmoid bone
Contain olfactory foramina
Crista galliattachment for falx cerebri,
the large vertical sheet of connective
tissue which lies in between cerebral
hemispheres
Perpendicular plateforms superior
part of nasal septum
Lateral massescontain air cells
58
Partitions of dura mater in the cranial cavity and
the dural venous sinuses
Figure 13.27a
Falx cerebri
Superior
sagittal sinus
Straight
sinus
Crista galli of the
ethmoid bone
Pituitary gland
Falx cerebelli
(a) Midsagittal view
Tentorium
cerebelli
59
The Ethmoid Bone
Superior and middle nasal conchae
Extend medially from lateral masses
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Left lateral wall of nasal cavity
61
Bones of Nasal Cavity
62
Parietal bone
Squamous part
of frontal bone
Nasal bone
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
Temporal bone
Ethmoid bone
Lacrimal bone
Zygomatic bone
Maxilla
Mandible
Mental
foramen
Mental
protuberance
Frontal bone
Glabella
Frontonasal suture
(notch)
Supraorbital margin
Middle nasal concha
Vomer
Optic canal
Perpendicular plate
Ethmoid
bone
Skull Bones
Figure 7.6a
63
The Facial Bones
Form framework of the face
Form cavities for the sense organs of
sight, taste, and smell
Provide openings for the passage of air
and food
Hold the teeth in place
Anchor muscles of the face
64
Facial Bones
Unpaired bones
Mandible
Vomer
Paired bones
Maxillae
Zygomatic
Nasal
Lacrimal
Inferior nasal conchae
Palatine

65
Mandible
The lower jawbone is the largest and
strongest facial bone
Composed of two main parts
Horizontal body
Two upright rami

66
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Coronoid
process
Mandibular foramen
Mental
foramen
Mandibular
angle
Ramus
of
mandible
Mandibular
condyle
Mandibular notch
Mandibular fossa
of temporal bone
Body of mandible
Alveolar
margin
(a) Mandible, right lateral view
Temporomandibular
joint
Mandible
Figure 7.13a
67
Mandible
Mandibular condyle
Temporomandibular joint: interface of mandibular
condyle with mandibular fossa of temporal bone
Mandibular notch
Coronoid process
Ramus of mandible
Mandibular angle
Body of mandible
Alveolar margin
Mental foramen
Mandibular foramen

68
69
Maxillary Bones
Figure 7.13b
Frontal process
Articulates with
frontal bone
Anterior nasal
spine
Infraorbital
foramen
Alveolar
margin
(b) Maxilla, right lateral view
Orbital surface
Zygomatic
process
(cut)
70
Maxillary Bones
Articulate with all other facial bones except
the mandible
Are the keystone bones of the face
Contain maxillary sinuseslargest
paranasal sinuses
Forms part of the inferior orbital fissure
Alveolar margin
Inferiomedial surface of orbit
71
Parietal bone
Squamous part
of frontal bone
Nasal bone
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
Temporal bone
Ethmoid bone
Lacrimal bone
Zygomatic bone
Maxilla
Mandible
Mental
foramen
Mental
protuberance
Frontal bone
Glabella
Frontonasal suture
(notch)
Supraorbital margin
Middle nasal concha
Vomer
Optic canal
Perpendicular plate
Ethmoid
bone
Skull Bones, anterior view
Figure 7.6a
72
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Maxilla
(palatine process)
Hard
palate
Zygomatic bone
Incisive fossa
Maxilla
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
Foramen ovale
Pterygoid process
Foramen lacerum
Carotid canal
Stylomastoid
foramen
Jugular foramen
Foramen magnum
Occipital condyle
Temporal bone
(zygomatic process)
Mandibular fossa
Vomer
Styloid process
External occipital
protuberance
Mastoid process
Temporal bone
(petrous part)
Basilar part of
the occipital bone
Occipital bone
Palatine bone
(horizontal plate)
Foramen spinosum
Skull Bones, inferior view
Figure 7.7a
73
Skull bones, lateral view
74
Paired Bones of the Face
Maxilla bone
Zygomatic bones: form lateral wall of
orbits
Lacrimal bones: located in the medial
orbital walls
Nasal bones: form bridge of nose
Inferior nasal conchae: thin, curved
bones that project medially and form the
lateral walls of the nasal cavity
Palatine bones: complete the posterior
part of the hard palate
75
Nasal Cavity
Figure 7.14a
Frontal sinus
Superior
nasal concha
Middle
nasal concha
Ethmoid
bone
Nasal bone
Maxillary bone
(palatine process)
Palatine bone
(perpendicular
plate)
Palatine bone
(horizontal plate)
Pterygoid
process
(a) Bones forming the left lateral wall of the nasal cavity
(nasal septum removed)
Sphenoid
sinus
Sphenoid
bone
Superior, middle, and
inferior meatus
Anterior nasal spine
76
Maxilla
(palatine process)
Hard
palate
Zygomatic bone
Incisive fossa
Maxilla
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
Foramen ovale
Pterygoid process
Foramen lacerum
Carotid canal
Stylomastoid
foramen
Jugular foramen
Foramen magnum
Occipital condyle
Temporal bone
(zygomatic process)
Mandibular fossa
Vomer
Styloid process
External occipital
protuberance
Mastoid process
Temporal bone
(petrous part)
Basilar part of
the occipital bone
Occipital bone
Palatine bone
(horizontal plate)
Foramen spinosum
Skull Bones, inferior view
Figure 7.7a
77
Other Bones of the Face
Vomer: forms the inferior part of the
nasal septum and is an unpaired bone
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Parietal bone
Squamous part
of frontal bone
Nasal bone
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
Temporal bone
Ethmoid bone
Lacrimal bone
Zygomatic bone
Maxilla
Mandible
Mental
foramen
Mental
protuberance
Frontal bone
Glabella
Frontonasal suture
(notch)
Supraorbital margin
Middle nasal concha
Vomer
Optic canal
Perpendicular plate
Ethmoid
bone
Figure 7.6a
79
Special Parts of the Skull
Orbits
Nasal cavity
Paranasal sinuses

80
Nasal septum
Perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone
Vomer bone
Septal cartilage
81
Vomer
Crista galli
Cribriform
plate
Ethmoid
bone
Frontal sinus
Nasal bone
Septal
cartilage
Alveolar margin
of maxilla
Perpendicular
plate of
ethmoid bone
Sella turcica
Sphenoid sinus
Palatine bone
Palatine process
of maxilla
(b) Nasal cavity with septum in place showing the contributions of the
ethmoid bone, the vomer, and septal cartilage
Hard
palate
Nasal Septum
Figure 7.14b
82
Paranasal Sinuses
Air-filled sinuses are located within
Frontal bone
Ethmoid bone
Sphenoid bone
Maxillary bones
Lined with mucous membrane
83
Paranasal Sinuses
Figure 7.15a, b
Frontal
sinus
Ethmoidal
air cells
(sinus)
Maxillary
sinus
Sphenoid
sinus
(a) Anterior aspect
Frontal
sinus
Ethmoidal
air cells
Maxillary
sinus
Sphenoid
sinus
(b) Medial aspect 84
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Orbit walls
Roof
Lateral wall
Medial wall
Floor
85
Orbit walls formed by parts of
seven bones
Frontal
Sphenoid
Zygomatic
Maxillary
Palatine
Lacrimal
Ethmoid
86
Orbits
87
Orbit
88
Orbit wall openings
Superior orbital fissures
Inferior orbital fissures
Optic canals

89
Parietal bone
Squamous part
of frontal bone
Nasal bone
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
Temporal bone
Ethmoid bone
Lacrimal bone
Zygomatic bone
Maxilla
Mandible
Mental
foramen
Mental
protuberance
Frontal bone
Glabella
Frontonasal suture
(notch)
Supraorbital margin
Middle nasal concha
Vomer
Optic canal
Perpendicular plate
Ethmoid
bone
Figure 7.6a
90
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Figure 7.17
The Hyoid Bone
Associated with skull
but not directly in
contact with any other
bone
Lies inferior to the
mandible in anterior
neck
The only bone with no
direct articulation with
any other bone
Acts as a movable
base for the tongue
Greater horn
Lesser horn
Body
91
The Vertebral Column
Formed from 26 bones in the adult
Transmits weight of trunk to the lower
limbs
Surrounds and protects the spinal cord
Serves as attachment sites for muscles
of the neck and back
92
Five Major Regions of
Vertebral Column
7 cervical vertebrae of the neck region
12 thoracic vertebrae
5 lumbar vertebrae
1 sacrum (5 fused bones = 1 bone)
1 coccyxinferior to sacrum
93
Normal Curvatures of
Vertebral Columns
Cervical and lumbar curvatures:
concave posteriorly
Thoracic and sacral curvatures:
convex posteriority
94
Figure 7.18
Cervical curvature
(concave)
7 vertebrae, C1 C7
Thoracic
curvature
(convex)
12 vertebrae,
T1 T12
Lumbar
curvature
(concave)
5 vertebrae, L1 L5
Sacral
curvature
(convex) 5 fused
vertebrae sacrum
Coccyx
4 fused vertebrae Anterior view Right lateral view
C1
T 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
L 1
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
5
6
7
Spinous
process
Transverse
processes
Intervertebral
discs
Intervertebral
foramen
95
Ligaments which Stabilize
Anterior longitudinal ligaments: wide and
attach strongly to both boney vertebrae and
intervertebral discs and prevents hyperextension
of back
Posterior longitudinal ligaments: narrow,
relatively weak, and attaches only to intervertebral
discs and prevents hyperflexion of back
Ligamentum flavum: contains elastic connective
tissue and connects lamina of adjacent vertebrae
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Posterior longitudinal
ligament
Anterior longitudinal
ligament
Body of a vertebra
Intervertebral disc
(b) Anterior view of part of the spinal column
Ligaments of the Spine
Supraspinous ligament
Intervertebral
disc
Anterior
longitudinal
ligament
Intervertebral foramen
ligament
Anulus fibrosus
Nucleus pulposus
Sectioned body
of vertebra
Transverse process
Sectioned
spinous process
Ligamentum flavum
Interspinous
ligament
Inferior articular process
(a) Median section of three vertebrae, illustrating the composition
of the discs and the ligaments
Figure 7.19a, b
97
Intervertebral Discs:
cushion-like pads between vertebrae

Nucleus pulposus
Gelatinous inner sphere
Absorbs compressive stresses
Anulus fibrosus
Outer rings formed of ligament
Inner rings formed of fibrocartilage
These rings function to contain the nucleus
pulposus
98
Intervertebral Discs of Spine
Herniated Intervertebral Disc
Figure 7.19c, d
Vertebral spinous process
(posterior aspect of vertebra)
Spinal nerve root
Anulus fibrosus
of disc
Herniated portion
of disc
Nucleus
pulposus
of disc
Spinal cord
(c) Superior view of a herniated intervertebral disc
Transverse
process
(d) MRI of lumbar region of vertebral column in sagittal
section showing normal and herniated discs
Nucleus pulposus
of intact disc
Herniated nucleus
pulposus
99
General Structure of Vertebrae
PLAY Spine (horizontal)
Figure 7.20
Posterior
Anterior
Lamina
Superior
articular
process
and
facet
Transverse
process
Pedicle
Spinous
process
Vertebral
arch
Vertebral
foramen
Body
(centrum)
100
Common Structures of Vertebrae
Body
Vertebral arch
Vertebral foramen
Spinous process
Transverse process
Superior and inferior articular processes
Intervertebral foramena: between every pair
of vertebrae are two apertures (openings)
which allow for the passage of the spinal
nerve root, dorsal root ganglion
101
Vertebral Region Characteristics
Specific regions of the spine perform
specific functions
Types of movement that may occur
between vertebrae
Flexion and extension
Lateral flexion
Rotation in the long axis
102
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ligament
Anterior longitudinal
ligament
Body of a vertebra
Intervertebral disc
(b) Anterior view of part of the spinal column
Ligaments of the Spine
Supraspinous ligament
Intervertebral
disc
Anterior
longitudinal
ligament
Intervertebral foramen
ligament
Anulus fibrosus
Nucleus pulposus
Sectioned body
of vertebra
Transverse process
Sectioned
spinous process
Ligamentum flavum
Interspinous
ligament
Inferior articular process
(a) Median section of three vertebrae, illustrating the composition
of the discs and the ligaments
Figure 7.19a, b
103
Cervical Vertebrae
Seven cervical vertebrae (C
1
C
7
)
are the lightest vertebrae in the
spine
104
Dens of axis
Transverse ligament
of atlas
C
1
(atlas)
C
2
(axis)
C
3

Bifid spinous
process
Transverse processes
C
7
(vertebra
prominens)
(a) Cervical vertebrae
Inferior articular
process
Cervical Vertebrae
Figure 7.22a
105
Cervical Vertebrae
Table 7.2a
106
The Atlas, C
1

C
1
is termed the atlas
Lacks a body and spinous process
Supports the skull
Superior articular facets receive the
occipital condyles
Allows flexion and extension of neck
Nodding the head yes
107
The Atlas C
1
, superior view
Figure 7.21a
Anterior arch
Superior articular
facet
Transverse
foramen
Posterior arch
Posterior tubercle
Anterior tubercle
Posterior
Lateral
masses
(a) Superior view of atlas (C
1
)
C
1

108
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Lambdoid
suture
Occipital bone
External occipital
protuberance
Sutural bone
Occipital
condyle
Occipitomastoid
suture
Parietal bone
Sagittal suture
Occipital condyles at base of skull
Figure 7.5
109
Maxilla
(palatine process)
Hard
palate
Zygomatic bone
Incisive fossa
Maxilla
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
Foramen ovale
Pterygoid process
Foramen lacerum
Carotid canal
Stylomastoid
foramen
Jugular foramen
Foramen magnum
Occipital condyle
Temporal bone
(zygomatic process)
Mandibular fossa
Vomer
Styloid process
External occipital
protuberance
Mastoid process
Temporal bone
(petrous part)
Basilar part of
the occipital bone
Occipital bone
Palatine bone
(horizontal plate)
Foramen spinosum
Figure 7.7a
110
The Atlas C
1
, Inferior View
Figure 7.21b
Facet for dens
Transverse
process
Lateral
masses
Transverse foramen
Posterior
arch
Posterior tubercle
Posterior
Anterior tubercle
Anterior
arch
(b) Inferior view of atlas (C
1
)
Inferior
articular
facet
C
1

111
The Axis, C
2

Has a body and a spinous process
Dens (odontoid process tooth) is a
knoblike structure which projects
superiorly from the body of axis (C
2
)
and is cradled in the anterior arch of
the atlas
112
The Axis, C
2

Dens acts as a pivot for rotation of the atlas
and skull
Dens participates in rotating the head from
side to side
The name axis for the 2
nd
cervical vertebral
body is appropriate since its dens allows the
head to rotate on the necks axis.
113
The Axis
Figure 7.21c
C
2

Posterior
Dens
(c) Superior view of axis (C
2
)
Inferior
articular
process
Body
Superior
articular
facet
Transverse
process
Pedicle
Lamina
Spinous process
114
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Dens of axis
Transverse ligament
of atlas
C
1
(atlas)
C
2
(axis)
C
3

Bifid spinous
process
Transverse processes
C
7
(vertebra
prominens)
(a) Cervical vertebrae
Inferior articular
process
Cervical Vertebrae
Figure 7.22a
115
Cervical Vertebrae C
3
C
7
Body: small and wide laterally (side to side)
Spinous process: short and bifid (except C
7
) and
project posteriorally
Vertebral foramen: triangular and large
Transverse processes contain foramina
Superior facets directed superposteriorly
Inferior facets directed inferoanteriorly
Spine region with the greatest range of motion
with the following movement allowed: flexion &
extension, lateral flexion, rotation
116
Cervical, Thoracic, & Lumbar Vertebrae
Superior View
117
Right Lateral View
118
119
Thoracic vertebrae
120
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Thoracic Vertebrae
All articulate with ribs
Body: larger than cervical bodies and heart-
shaped from superior view
Spinous processes are long and point
inferiorly
Vertebral foramen are circular
121
Superior View
122
Right Lateral View
123
Costal Facets of Thoracic Vertebrae
which interface with ribs
Inferior costal facet for head of rib
Superior costal facet for head of rib
Transverse costal facet for tubercle of rib (except
for T
11
T
12
)
Each of these above three facets are present on
both sides of vertebrae, so each vertebrae has a
total of six facets which interface with ribs
Usually, the head of a rib is attached to the bodies
of two vertebrae, the inferior costal facet of the
superior vertebra and the superior costal facet of
the inferior vertebra
124
Right Lateral View
125
Ribs
Figure 7.25a, b
Junction with
costal cartilage
Shaft
Head Neck
Articular facet
on tubercle
Costal angle Costal groove
Facets for articulation
with vertebrae
(a) A typical rib (rib 6, right), posterior view
Transverse costal facet
(for tubercle of rib)
Superior costal facet
(for head of rib)
Body of vertebra
Head of rib
Intervertebral disc
Tubercle of rib
Neck of rib
Shaft
Sternum
Angle
of rib
Cross-
section
of rib Costal groove
(b) Vertebral and sternal articulations of a typical true rib
Costal cartilage
126
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Spinous process
Articular facet
on tubercle of rib
Shaft
Ligaments
Neck of rib
Head of rib
Body of
thoracic
vertebra
Transverse
costal facet
(for tubercle
of rib)
Superior costal facet
(for head of rib)
(c) Superior view of the articulation between a rib and a
thoracic vertebra
Ribs
Figure 7.25c
127
Connections between Thoracic
Vertebral Bodies
Laterally each side of the vertebral body
bears two facets (demifacets), one at the
superior edge and one at the inferior edge
These demifacets interface with vertebral
bodies above and below
Superior articular facets point posteriorly
Inferior articular processes point anteriorly
Allows rotation and limits flexion and
extension
128
Thoracic vertebrae
129
Thoracic Vertebrae
Table 7.2b
130
Superior View
131
Right Lateral View
132
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The Thoracic Cage
Forms the framework of the chest
Components
Thoracic vertebraeposteriorly
Ribslaterally
Sternum and costal cartilageanteriorly
Protects thoracic organs
Supports shoulder girdle and upper limbs
Provides attachment sites for muscles
133
Intercostal
spaces
True
ribs
(17
False
ribs
(812)
Jugular notch
Clavicular notch
Manubrium
Sternal angle
Body
Xiphisternal
joint
Xiphoid
process
L1
Vertebra
Floating ribs (11, 12)
(a) Skeleton of the thoracic cage, anterior view
Sternum
Costal cartilage
Costal margin
The Thoracic Cage
Figure 7.24a
134
The Thoracic Cage
Figure 7.24b
Xiphisternal Xiphisternal
joint
Heart
Sternal angle
Jugular notch
(b) Midsagittal section through the thorax, showing
the relationship of surface anatomical landmarks
of the thorax to the vertebral column
T
2

T
4

T
3

T
9

135
Sternum
Formed from three sections
Manubriumsuperior section
Articulates with medial end of clavicles and
rib 1
Bodybulk of sternum
Sides are notched at articulations for costal
cartilage of ribs 27
Xiphoid processinferior end of sternum
Ossifies around age 40
136
Intercostal
spaces
True
ribs
(17
False
ribs
(812)
Jugular notch
Clavicular notch
Manubrium
Sternal angle
Body
Xiphisternal
joint
Xiphoid
process
L1
Vertebra
Sternum
Costal cartilage
Costal margin
The Thoracic Cage
Figure 7.24a
137
Sternum
Anatomical landmarks
Jugular notch
Central indentation at superior border of
the manubrium
Sternal angle
A horizontal ridge where the manubrium
joins the body of the sternum
Xiphisternal joint
Where sternal body and xiphoid process
fuse
Lies at the level of the 9th thoracic
vertebra
138
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Ribs attach to vertebral
column posteriorly
Rib pairs 1-7 (vertebrosternal ribs) - superior
seven pairs of ribs which attach to sternum by
costal cartilage
Rib pairs 8-10, (vertebrochondral ribs) pairs of
ribs which attach to the sternum indirectly
Ribs pairs 1112 (floating ribs) are not attached
to the sternum
Ribs 8-12 are sometimes called false ribs because
they attach to the sternum indirectly (ribs 8-10) or
not at all (ribs 11-12)
139
Intercostal
spaces
True
ribs
(17
False
ribs
(812)
Jugular notch
Clavicular notch
Manubrium
Sternal angle
Body
Xiphisternal
joint
Xiphoid
process
L1
Vertebra
Sternum
Costal cartilage
Costal margin
The Thoracic Cage
Figure 7.24a
140
Superior
articular
process
Transverse
process
Spinous
process
Intervertebral
disc
Body
Inferior
articular
process
(c) Lumbar vertebrae
Lumbar Vertebrae
Figure 7.22c
141
Lumbar Vertebrae (L
1
L
5
)
Bodies are thick and robust
Transverse processes are thin and tapered and
nearly perpendicular to spinous process
Spinous processes are thick, blunt, and point
posteriorly
Vertebral foramina are triangular
Superior articular facets face posteromedially or
medially
Inferior articular facets face anterolaterally or
laterally
Allows flexion and extensionrotation prevented
142
Superior View
143
Right Lateral View
144
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Sacrum (S
1
S
5
)
Shapes the posterior wall of pelvis
Formed from 5 fused vertebrae
Superior surface articulates with L
5

Inferiorly articulates with coccyx
145
Sacrum (S
1
S
5
) Anterior View
Sacral promontory: Where the
anterosuperior margin of the first sacral
vertebrae bulges into pelvic cavity
Human bodys center of gravity is 1 cm
posterior to sacral promontory
Four transverse ridges cross the anterior
surface of the sacrum, marking the lines of
fusion of sacral vertebrae
sacral spinal nerves pass through the
sacral foramina
146
Sacrum
Figure 7.23
Body of
first
sacral
vertebra
Transverse
ridges (sites
of vertebral
fusion)
Coccyx Coccyx
Anterior
sacral
foramina Apex
Posterior
sacral
foramina
Median
sacral
crest
Sacral promontory
Sacral
canal
Sacral
hiatus
Body
Facet of superior
articular process
Lateral
sacral
crest
Auricular
surface
Ala
(a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view
147
Sacrum (S
1
S
5
) Posterior View
Facets of superior articular processes
On the posterior surface in the midline is the bumpy
median sacral crest which represents the fused
spinous processes of the sacral vertebrae
Lateral to the medial sacral crest are the sacral
foramina through which sacral spinal nerves pass
Just lateral to these is the lateral sacral crest
Ala (wing) are in superior lateral part of sacrum
The alae articulate with the hip bones and form the
sacroiliac joints which are sites where the axial
skeleton bone (sacrum) interfaces with an
appendicular skeleton bone (ileum of coxal)
148
The
Axial
Skeleton
(in green)

Figure 7.1b
(b) Posterior view
Cranium
Clavicle
Bones of
pectoral
girdle
Bones of
pelvic girdle
Upper
limb
Scapula
Rib
Humerus
Vertebra
Radius
Ulna
Carpals
Phalanges
Metacarpals
Femur
Lower
limb
Tibia
Fibula
149
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
Figure 8.8a
PLAY Pelvis
Coxal
bone
(os coxae
or hip
bone)
llium
Sacroiliac
joint
Iliac fossa
Pubis
Ischium
Sacrum
Base of sacrum
Sacral
promontory
Pelvic brim
Acetabulum
Pubic crest
Pubic
symphysis
Iliac crest
Coccyx
Pubic arch
Anterior
inferior iliac
spine
Anterior
superior
iliac spine
Pubic
tubercle
(a) Pelvic girdle
150
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Sacrum
Figure 7.23
Body of
first
sacral
vertebra
Transverse
ridges (sites
of vertebral
fusion)
Coccyx Coccyx
Anterior
sacral
foramina Apex
Posterior
sacral
foramina
Median
sacral
crest
Sacral promontory
Sacral
canal
Sacral
hiatus
Body
Facet of superior
articular process
Lateral
sacral
crest
Auricular
surface
Ala
(a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view
151
Coccyx
Is the tailbone
Formed from 35 fused vertebrae
Offers only slight support to pelvic
organs
Long filament of connective tissue (filum
terminale) attaches to coccyx which
helps anchor spinal cord in place
152
Fontanelles
Fontanelles are unossified remnants of
membranes present at birth
Anterior, posterior, mastoid, and sphenoidal
fontanelles
Allows skull to be safely compressed and molded
as infant passes through narrow birth canal
A visible arterial pulse may be seen in the
fontanelles and can look like a fountain
Fontanelles tend to be replaced by bone by the
end of the 1
st
year, however, the anterior
fontanelle may take 1.5 to 2 years to ossify and
close
153
Fontanelles
Figure 7.28a
Occipital
bone
Parietal bone
Anterior
fontanelle
Frontal suture
Frontal bone
Ossification
center
(a) Superior view
Posterior fontanelle
154
Fontanelles
Figure 7.28b
Frontal bone
Sphenoidal
fontanelle
(b) Lateral view
Posterior
fontanelle
Mastoid
fontanelle
Parietal bone
Ossification
center
Occipital bone
Temporal bone
(squamous
portion)

155
Skull and face growth
9 months of age: skull ! adult size
2 years of age: skull " adult size
8-9 years: cranium almost adult size
6-13 years: accelerated growth of jaws,
cheekbones, large permanent teeth,
nose, and paranasal sinuses
156
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The Axial Skeleton
Throughout Life
Water content of the intervertebral discs
decreases with age
By age 55, loss of a few centimeters in
height is common
Thorax becomes more rigid as costal
cartilage gradually ossifies
Bones lose mass with age
157

131, T4, Ch7 Axial Skeleton - 14

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