Indices & the Law of Indices

Introduction
Indices are a useful way of more simply expressing large numbers. They also present us with many useful
properties for manipulating them using what are called the Law of Indices.
What are Indices?
The expression 2
5
is defined as follows:

We call "2" the base and "5" the index.
Law of Indices
To manipulate expressions, we can consider using the Law of Indices. These laws only apply to expressions with
the same base, for example, 3
4
and 3
2
can be manipulated using the Law of Indices, but we cannot use the Law of
Indices to manipulate the expressions 3
5
and 5
7
as their base differs (their bases are 3 and 5, respectively).
Six rules of the Law of Indices
Rule 1:
Any number, except 0, whose index is 0 is always equal to 1, regardless of the value of the base.
An Example:
Simplify 2
0
:

Rule 2:

An Example:
Simplify 2
-2
:

Rule 3:
To multiply expressions with the same base, copy the base and add the indices.
An Example:
Simplify : (note: 5 = 5
1
)

Rule 4:
To divide expressions with the same base, copy the base and subtract the indices.
An Example:
Simplify :

Rule 5:
To raise an expression to the nth index, copy the base and multiply the indices.
An Example:
Simplify (y
2
)
6
:

Rule 6:

An Example:
Simplify 125
2/3
:

You have now learnt the important rules of the Law of Indices and are ready to try out some examples!
Go to the next page for the first of many questions and fully worked out solutions for you to practice.

fluxion, in mathematics, the original term for derivative, introduced by Isaac Newton in 1665. Newton referred to
a varying (flowing) quantity as a fluent and to its instantaneous rate of change as a fluxion. Newton stated that the
fundamental problems of the infinitesimal calculus were: (1) given a fluent (that would now be called a function),
to find its fluxion (now called a derivative); and, (2) given a fluxion (a function), to find a corresponding fluent (an
indefinite integral). Thus, if y = x
3
, the fluxion of the quantityy equals 3x
2
times the fluxion of x; in modern
notation, dy/dt = 3x
2
(dx/dt). Newtons terminology and notations of fluxions were eventually discarded in favour
of the derivatives and differentials that were developed by G.W. Leibniz. See also calculus.
The fluent calculus is a formalism for expressing dynamical domains in first-order logic. It is a variant of
the situation calculus; the main difference is that situations are considered representations of states. A binary
function symbol is used to concatenate the terms that represent facts that hold in a situation. For example, that
the box is on the table in the situation is represented by the formula .
The frame problem is solved by asserting that the situation after the execution of an action is identical to the one
before but for the conditions changed by the action. For example, the action of moving the box from the table to
the floor is formalized as:

This formula states that the state after the move is added the term and removed the
term . Axioms specifying that is commutative and non-idempotent are necessary for
such axioms to work.
The event calculus is a logical language for representing and reasoning about actions and their effects first
presented by Robert Kowalski and Marek Sergot in 1986. It was extended by Murray Shanahan and Rob Miller
in the 1990s. The basic components of the event calculus, as with other similar languages for reasoning about
actions and change are fluents and actions. In the event calculus, one can specify the value of fluents at some
given time points, the actions that took place at given time points, and their effects.
Simpson's rule


Simpson's rule can be derived by approximating the integrand f (x) (in blue) by the quadratic interpolant P(x) (in
red).
For Simpson's voting rule, see Minimax Condorcet.
For Simpson's rules used in Ship Stability, see Simpson's rules.
In numerical analysis, Simpson's rule is a method for numerical integration, the numerical approximation
of definite integrals. Specifically, it is the following approximation:

Simpson's rule also corresponds to the three-point Newton-Cotes quadrature rule.
The method is credited to the mathematician Thomas Simpson (17101761) of Leicestershire,
England. Kepler used similar formulas over 100 years prior. In German, the method is sometimes
called Keplersche Fassregel for this reason.
Simpson's rule is a staple of scientific data analysis and engineering.



Trapezoidal rule
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the quadrature rule for approximating integrals. For the implicit trapezoidal rule for solving
initial value problems, see Trapezoidal rule (differential equations). For the explicit trapezoidal rule for solving initial
value problems, see Heun's method.


The function f(x) (in blue) is approximated by a linear function (in red).
In numerical analysis, the trapezoidal rule (also known as the trapezoid rule or trapezium rule) is a technique for
approximating the definite integral

The trapezoidal rule works by approximating the region under the graph of the function as
a trapezoid and calculating its area. It follows that


Lebesgue integration
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


The integral of a positive function can be interpreted as the area under a curve.
In mathematics, the integral of a non-negative function can be regarded in the simplest case as the area between
the graph of that function and the x-axis. Lebesgue integration is a mathematical construction that extends the
integral to a larger class of functions; it also extends the domains on which these functions can be defined. It had
long been understood that for non-negative functions with a smooth enough graph (such as continuous functions
on closed bounded intervals) the area under the curve could be defined as the integral and computed using
techniques of approximation of the region bypolygons. However, as the need to consider more irregular functions
arose (for example, as a result of the limiting processes of mathematical analysisand the mathematical theory of
probability) it became clear that more careful approximation techniques would be needed to define a suitable
integral. Also, we might wish to integrate on spaces more general than the real line; the Lebesgue integral provides
the right abstractions needed to do this important job.
The Lebesgue integral plays an important role in the branch of mathematics called real analysis and in many other
fields in the mathematical sciences, and is named after Henri Lebesgue (18751941) who introduced the integral in
(Lebesgue 1904). It is also a pivotal portion of the axiomatic theory of probability.
The term "Lebesgue integration" may refer either to the general theory of integration of a function with respect to
a general measure, as introduced by Lebesgue, or to the specific case of integration of a function defined on a sub-
domain of the real line with respect to Lebesgue measure.


The integral of a function f between limits a and b can be interpreted as the area under the graph of f. This is easy
to understand for familiar functions such as polynomials, but what does it mean for more exotic functions? In
general, what is the class of functions for which "area under the curve" makes sense? The answer to this question
has great theoretical and practical importance.
As part of a general movement toward rigour in mathematics in the nineteenth century, attempts were made to
put the integral calculus on a firm foundation. The Riemann integral, proposed byBernhard Riemann (18261866),
is a broadly successful attempt to provide such a foundation. Riemann's definition starts with the construction of a
sequence of easily calculated areas which converge to the integral of a given function. This definition is successful
in the sense that it gives the expected answer for many already-solved problems, and gives useful results for many
other problems.
However, Riemann integration does not interact well with taking limits of sequences of functions, making such
limiting processes difficult to analyze. This is of prime importance, for instance, in the study of Fourier
series, Fourier transforms and other topics. The Lebesgue integral is better able to describe how and when it is
possible to take limits under the integral sign (via the powerfulmonotone convergence theorem and dominated
convergence theorem). The Lebesgue definition considers a different class of easily calculated areas than the
Riemann definition, which is the main reason the Lebesgue integral is better behaved. The Lebesgue definition also
makes it possible to calculate integrals for a broader class of functions. For example, the Dirichlet function, which is
0 where its argument is irrational and 1 otherwise, has a Lebesgue integral, but it does not have a Riemann
integral.
Lebesgue's approach to integration was summarized in a letter to Paul Montel. He writes:
I have to pay a certain sum, which I have collected in my pocket. I take the bills and coins out of my pocket and
give them to the creditor in the order I find them until I have reached the total sum. This is the Riemann integral.
But I can proceed differently. After I have taken all the money out of my pocket I order the bills and coins
according to identical values and then I pay the several heaps one after the other to the creditor. This is my
integral.
Source: (Siegmund-Schultze 2008)
The insight is that one should be able to rearrange the values of a function freely while preserving the value of the
integral. This process of rearrangement can convert a very pathological function into one which is "nice" from the
point of view of integration, and thus allows for such pathological functions to be integrated.
Intuitive interpretation[edit]


Riemann-Darboux's integration (in blue) and Lebesgue integration (in red).
To get some intuition about the different approaches to integration, let us imagine that it is desired to find a
mountain's volume (above sea level).
The Riemann-Darboux approach
Divide the base of the mountain into a grid of 1 meter squares. Measure the altitude of the mountain at
the center of each square. The volume on a single grid square is approximately 1 m
2
(that square's
altitude), so the total volume is 1 m
2
times the sum of the altitudes.
The Lebesgue approach
Draw a contour map of the mountain, where adjacent contours are 1 meter of altitude apart. The volume
of earth contained in a single contour is approximately 1 m (that contour's area), so the total volume is
the sum of these areas times 1 m.
Folland
[1]
summarizes the difference between the Riemann and Lebesgue approaches thus: "to compute
the Riemann integral of f, one partitions the domain [a, b] into subintervals", while in the Lebesgue
integral, "one is in effect partitioning the range of f ".
Towards a formal definition[edit]
To define the Lebesgue integral formally requires the notion of a measure which, roughly, associates to
each set A of real numbers a nonnegative number (A) representing the "size" of A. This notion of "size"
should agree with the usual length of an interval or disjoint union of intervals. Suppose that f : R R
+
is a
non-negative real-valued function. Using the "partitioning the range off " philosophy, the integral
of f should be the sum over t of the area of the thin horizontal strip between y = t and y = t + dt. This area
is just

Let

The Lebesgue integral of f is then defined by
[2]


where the integral on the right is an ordinary improper Riemann integral (note that f* is a
non-negative decreasing function, and therefore has a well-defined improper Riemann
integral). For a suitable class of functions (the measurable functions) this defines the
Lebesgue integral.
A general (not necessarily positive) function f is Lebesgue integrable if the area between
the graph of f and the x-axis is finite:

In that case, the integral is, as in the Riemannian case, the difference between the
area above the x-axis and the area below the x-axis:

where


Khinchin integral
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In mathematics, the Khinchin integral (sometimes spelled Khintchine integral), also known as the Denjoy
Khinchin integral, generalized Denjoy integral or wide Denjoy integral, is one of a number of definitions of
the integral of a function. It is a generalization of the Riemann and Lebesgue integrals. It is named after Aleksandr
Khinchin and Arnaud Denjoy, but is not to be confused with the (narrow) Denjoy integral.
Motivation[edit]
If g : I R is a Lebesgue-integrable function on some interval I = [a,b], and if

is its Lebesgue indefinite integral, then the following assertions are true:
[1]

1. f is absolutely continuous (see below)
2. f is differentiable almost everywhere
3. Its derivative coincides almost everywhere with g(x). (In fact, all absolutely continuous functions are
obtained in this manner.
[2]
)
The Lebesgue integral could be defined as follows: g is Lebesgue-integrable on I iff there exists a
function f that is absolutely continuous whose derivative coincides with g almost everywhere.
However, even if f : I R is differentiable everywhere, and g is its derivative, it does not follow that f is (up to
a constant) the Lebesgue indefinite integral of g, simply because g can fail to be Lebesgue-integrable,
i.e., f can fail to be absolutely continuous. An example of this is given
[3]
by the derivative g of the
(differentiable but not absolutely continuous) function f(x)=xsin(1/x) (the function g is not Lebesgue-
integrable around 0).
The Denjoy integral corrects this lack by ensuring that the derivative of any function f that is everywhere
differentiable (or even differentiable everywhere except for at most countably many points) is integrable, and
its integral reconstructs f up to a constant; the Khinchin integral is even more general in that it can integrate
the approximate derivative of an approximately differentiable function (see below for definitions). To do this,
one first finds a condition that is weaker than absolute continuity but is satisfied by any approximately
differentiable function. This is the concept ofgeneralized absolute continuity; generalized absolutely
continuous functions will be exactly those functions which are indefinite Khinchin integrals.
Definition[edit]
Generalized absolutely continuous function[edit]
Let I = [a,b] be an interval and f : I R be a real-valued function on I.
Recall that f is absolutely continuous on a subset E of I if and only if for every positive number there is a
positive number such that whenever a finite collection [x
k
,y
k
] of pairwise disjoint subintervals of I with
endpoints in E satisfies

it also satisfies

Define
[4][5]
the function f to be generalized absolutely continuous on a subset E of I if the restriction
of f to E is continuous (on E) and E can be written as a countable union of subsets E
i
such that f is
absolutely continuous on each E
i
. This is equivalent
[6]
to the statement that every
nonempty perfect subset of E contains a portion
[7]
on which f is absolutely continuous.
Approximate derivative[edit]
Let E be a Lebesgue measurable set of reals. Recall that a real number x (not necessarily in E) is said
to be a point of density of E when

(where denotes Lebesgue measure). A Lebesgue-measurable function g : E R is said to
have approximate limit
[8]
y at x (a point of density of E) if for every positive number , the
point x is a point of density of . (If furthermore g(x) = y, we can say
that g is approximately continuous at x.
[9]
) Equivalently, g has approximate limit y at x if and only
if there exists a measurable subset F of E such that x is a point of density of F and the (usual)
limit at x of the restriction of f to F is y. Just like the usual limit, the approximate limit is unique if
it exists.
Finally, a Lebesgue-measurable function f : E R is said to have approximate derivative y at x iff

has approximate limit y at x; this implies that f is approximately continuous at x.
A theorem[edit]
Recall that it follows from Lusin's theorem that a Lebesgue-measurable function is
approximately continuous almost everywhere (and conversely).
[10][11]
The key theorem in
constructing the Khinchin integral is this: a function f that is generalized absolutely
continuous (or even of "generalized bounded variation", a weaker notion) has an
approximate derivative almost everywhere.
[12][13][14]
Furthermore, if f is generalized
absolutely continuous and its approximate derivative is nonnegative almost everywhere,
then f is nondecreasing,
[15]
and consequently, if this approximate derivative is zero almost
everywhere, then f is constant.
The Khinchin integral[edit]
Let I = [a,b] be an interval and g : I R be a real-valued function on I. The function g is said
to be Khinchin-integrable on I iff there exists a function f that is generalized absolutely
continuous whose approximate derivative coincides with g almost everywhere;
[16]
in this
case, the function f is determined by g up to a constant, and the Khinchin-integral
of g from a to b is defined asf(b) f(a).
A particular case[edit]
If f : I R is continuous and has an approximate derivative everywhere on I except for at
most countably many points, then f is, in fact, generalized absolutely continuous, so it is
the (indefinite) Khinchin-integral of its approximate derivative.
[17]

This result does not hold if the set of points where f is not assumed to have an approximate
derivative is merely of Lebesgue measure zero, as the Cantor function shows.
HenstockKurzweil integral
In mathematics, the HenstockKurzweil integral (also known as the (narrow) Denjoy
integral (pronounced *d wa+), Luzin integral or Perron integral, not to be confused with the more general wide
Denjoy integral) is one of a number of definitions of the integral of a function. It is a generalization of the Riemann
integral which in some situations is more general than theLebesgue integral.
This integral was first defined by Arnaud Denjoy (1912). Denjoy was interested in a definition that would allow one
to integrate functions like

This function has a singularity at 0, and is not Lebesgue integrable. However, it seems natural to calculate its
integral except over the interval *,+ and then let , 0.
Trying to create a general theory, Denjoy used transfinite induction over the possible types of singularities,
which made the definition quite complicated. Other definitions were given by Nikolai Luzin (using variations
on the notions of absolute continuity), and by Oskar Perron, who was interested in continuous major and
minor functions. It took a while to understand that the Perron and Denjoy integrals are actually identical.
Later, in 1957, the Czech mathematician Jaroslav Kurzweil discovered a new definition of this integral
elegantly similar in nature to Riemann's original definition which he named the gauge integral; the theory was
developed by Ralph Henstock. Due to these two important mathematicians, it is now commonly known as
the HenstockKurzweil integral. The simplicity of Kurzweil's definition made some educators advocate that
this integral should replace the Riemann integral in introductory calculus courses,
[1]
but this idea has not
gained traction.
Definition
Henstock's definition is as follows:
Given a tagged partition P of [a, b], say

and a positive function

which we call a gauge, we say P is -fine if

For a tagged partition P and a function

we define the Riemann sum to be

Given a function

we now define a number I to be the HenstockKurzweil integral of f if for every
> 0 there exists a gauge such that whenever P is -fine, we have

If such an I exists, we say that f is HenstockKurzweil integrable on [a, b].
Cousin's theorem states that for every gauge , such a -fine
partition P does exist, so this condition cannot be satisfied vacuously. The
Riemann integral can be regarded as the special case where we only allow
constant gauges.
Integration Involving Complex Numbers
When dealing with integrals that have complex numbers we treat the imaginary number or as a constant
o CONSIDER: The integral

We let then



Making the substitution yields



Removing the complex denominator by multiplying it by the conjugate gives



We must not forget about the constant - however, the constant will be a complex number as
well thus



Some real-valued integrals can be solved using complex-valued integrals
o Integrals such as and can be solved by their recursive nature
using integration by parts
o Using the integral we can solve these integrals much more easily
o CONSIDER: The rearrangement of the integral and its
value

Firstly, rearranging and applying Euler's Formula gives



Rearranging the value of the integral yields



Since the integral and its value rearranged above, are
equivalent, it means that the real parts are equal to eachother, as well as the imaginary parts


Therefore



And