The polar water molecules exert an

attraction on the ions in the ionic crystal

lattice and take the ions into solution.
The ions are then said to be hydrated.

Chloride ion
surrounded by water
molecules.
Sodium ion
surrounded by
water molecules.
Note polarity
1
Unequal sharing of pairs gives rise
to polar bonds and polar molecules
The positive pole is situated
between the H atoms & negative
pole on the oxygen side of the
molecule.
When NaCl dissolves the water
molecules surround the Na
+
& Cl

ions & they are said to be
hydrated. Note the orientation of
the molecules
Water dissolving salt
2
Drops of
conc. H
2
SO
4
NH
4
NO
3 NaOH NaCl
Pour 15 ml of water into each of 4 beakers containing
thermometers.
Add the respective substances to the beakers & stir
with the thermometers.
Note the temp. changes. Which are endothermic &
exothermic reactions?
Endothermic & exothermic reactions
3
The following equations indicate the
dissolution process
NaCl(s) Na
+
(aq) + Cl
-
(aq)
KNO
3
(s) K
+
(aq) + NO
3
-
(aq)
Note: Since water does not participate in the
reaction, we do not show it in the dissolution
process.
These are physical changes since no new
substances are formed.
Polar substances dissolve in polar solvents
Solubility & temperature
4
Carbon
rod
Carbon
rod
This diagram shows how to set
up a circuit to test different
solutions to see if they
conduct an electric current.
Those that do are called
electrolytes.
Compare NaCl, CuSO
4
, sugar,
NaNO
3
, benzine etc.
The more ions in an electrolyte, the greater is the solubility of the
solute & the greater the ability to conduct an electric current.
Highly soluble ionic salts form high concentrations of ions, conduct
electricity well & have high conductivity.
NaCl electrolyte in solution
5
Salts that do not dissolve easily in water are said
to be insoluble and thus form precipitates
often having characteristic colours.
Silver halides as well as BaSO
4
& BaCO
3
are
insoluble & this property can be used to identify
these salts form certain solutions.
Group 7 elements are called halogens.
When they react they form negative ions called
halides.
Precipitation reactions
6
Halogens form
F
2

Cl
2

Br
2
I
2
Halides
F
-

Cl
-
Br
-
I
-
I
-
Br
-
Cl
-

7
The halides form insoluble precipitates with
a solution of silver nitrate AgNO
3
.
Halide Colour of precipitate
Cl
-

White (AgCl)
Br
-

Cream (AgBr)
I
-
Light yellow (AgI)
This means that silver halides are insoluble
& form precipitates.
Write down the equations for these reactions.
Test for halides
8
In view of the fact that silver halides are
insoluble and form precipitates, the addition of
silver nitrate to an unknown solution that may
contain a halide ion, is thus a test for the halide
ions if precipitates of particular colours are
formed.
Halide ion + AgNO
3
silver halide + salt
KI + AgNO
3
AgI + KNO
3
yellow ppt.
You have identified an iodide.
9
Add barium chloride to the solution.
If a white ppt. forms it is a sulphate or a
carbonate. (BaSO
4
& BaCO
3
are both
insoluble white ppts)
Add dilute nitric acid (HNO
3
) if the white
precipitate remains you have identified
a sulphate if it disappears CO
3
-2
K
2
SO
4
+ BaCl
2
BaSO
4
+ 2KCl
white ppt
Add HNO
3
no change sulphate identified.
Test for sulfates
10
Add dilute acid if effervescence (fizzing)
takes place maybe a carbonate.
Pass gas through lime water [Ca(OH)
2
] if it
turns milky identified a carbonate since
CO
2
turns lime water milky.
CO
3
-2
(aq) + 2HCl(aq) CO
2
(g) + H
2
O(l) + 2Cl
-1
(aq)
CO
2
(g) + Ca(OH)
2
(aq) CaCO
3
(s) + H
2
O(l)
milky ppt.
The CaCO
3
is an insoluble white ppt. milky colour

Test for a carbonate
11
Here ions are exchanged as new products are
formed. Several types:
Precipitation reaction:
Na
+
Cl
-
+ Ag
+
NO
3
-
Ag
+
Cl
-
(s) + Na
+
NO
3
-
Gas-forming reaction:
Na
2
CO
3
+ HCl NaCl + H
2
O + CO
2
(g)
Acid-base reaction forms salt & water
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H
2
O
Base + acid salt + water

Sodium carbonate + hydrochloric acid
Copper Carbonate and
Sulfuric Acid - YouTube
12
REDOX reaction:
Cu + 4HNO
3
Cu(NO
3
)
2
+ NO
2
+ 2H
2
O
And
2Mg + O
2
2Mg
2+
O
2-
Mg burning in oxygen
Copper + nitric acid
13
Oxidation occurs when substances (often metals)
lose .
Mg + 2H
+
Cl
-
Mg
2+
Cl
-
2
+ H
2

Mg changes to Mg
+2
by losing 2 (oxidation)
Reduction occurs when substances (often non-
metals) gain
2H
+
change to H
2
by gaining 2 (reduction)
Note how the charges change as gained & lost.
Redox reactions
14
Hard water does not lather easily with soap
and usually contains Mg
2+
& Ca
2+
ions &

salts.
These cause the scaling on the elements in
kettles, hot water geysers & irons.
It destroys soap & instead leaves a scum ring
in baths after bathing.
Testing for hard water
15
Acids:
have a sour taste (lemon)
change colour of indicators
react with some metals to form hydrogen
react with carbonates
to form carbon dioxide
conduct electricity
(contain ions)

16
Metal oxides are called bases.
Some bases dissolve in water to form the alkalis
Alkalis contain the OH
-
(hydroxide ion)
Alkalis:
have a bitter taste
feel soapy to touch
colour indicators
conduct electricity (ions available)
Acids bases & salts
17
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 and
indicates the degree of acidity or alkalinity of
a substance.
7 is neutral (water) and acidity increase from
6 to 0, while alkalinity increases from 7 to 14.
pH can be measured with a meter or with an
indicator capable of changing to a number
of different colours indicating the particular
colour for a particular pH.
pH
18
Indicators are organic dyes that have a
certain colour in an acid and a different
colour in a base or alkali.
They are they thus able to detect by
changing colour when an acid has
neutralised a base or vice versa.
19
Indicator Acid colour Base colour
Methyl orange Red/Orange Yellow
Bromolthymol blue Yellow Blue
Litmus Red Blue
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink
Litmus paper
Bromothymol
blue
Methyl orange Litmus in
acid
Phenolphthalein
Indicators 20