(Check with leaqrning obj)

Solubility Table
S I
Na -
K -
NH
4
-
NO
3
-
Cl Ag/Pb(II)
I Ag/Pb(II)
SO
4
Ba/Cl/Pb(II)
Na/K/NH
4
/Ba O/OH
Na/K/NH
4
CO
3
Chemical Formulas
Phosporic Acid H
3
PO
4
Ethanoic Acid Ch
3
CO
2
H
State Symbols (Ionic Eqn)
s Metals & C,Si,I
2
& Insoluble ionic
compounds
l Water & Mercury
g H
2
,N
2
,CO
2

aq Soluble ionic compounds
Ionic Compounds are always (aq)
Leave (s),(l),(g) compounds as it is
If qn did not specify state of a soluble compound, then take it as (aq) state
Atom
Proton p 1 +1
Neutron n 1 0
Electron e
-
1/1836 -1
Chemical Symbol
a
Y
b
form
Isotopes
Same Different
Number of protons Number of neutrons
Number of electrons as they are
electrically neutral
Physical properties
Chemical properties as chemical reactions
involve only valence electrons and not
protons or neutrons

Relative Atomic Mass
Average mass of one atom of an element compared with 1/12 of the mass of one atom
of carbon-12
A
r
=Mass of one atom of the element / 1/12 x mass of one atom of carbon-12


Behavior of p,n, and e
-
in electric field

Flemings Left Hand Rule for Magnetic field
Thumb = Force
Index = Magnetic Field
Middle = Current










Direction of current =
Movement of +ve
charges
Electrons flow in the opposite direction as the current
X = going in
. = going out
Quantum Mechanics Model & spdf notation
Electrons in an atom occupy energy levels in principal quantum shells, subshells and
orbitals.
Principal quantum shell = energy state of an atom given by principal quantum
number, n (n=1,2,3,4)
Formula = 2n
2

n 1 2 3 4
Max no of e
-
2 8 18 32
Each principal quantum shell is subdivided into one or more subshells.
n Sub-Shells
1 1s
2 2s,2p
3 3s,3p,3d
4 4s,4p,4d,4d
Each subshell consists of one or more orbitals. Orbitals can hold either 1 or 2
electrons.
Same number of electrons = isoelectronic
s orbitals are spherical while p orbitals are dumbbell shaped.
Subshell No of orbitals Type of orbitals
s 1 s orbital
p 3 p orbital
d 5 d orbital
f 7 f orbital
spdf notation =
a represents boxes
Flourine 9 electrons
a a aaa a aaa
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
1s
1
2s
1
2p
3
3s
1
3p
3

3 Principles
Aufbau Principle = Electrons are added to the orbitals in increasing energy level, from
low to high to have maximum stability.
Pauli Exclusion Principle = An orbital can only hold max 2 electrons.
Hunds Rule of Multiplicity = When filling a subshell, each orbital must be filled up
singly first before they are occupied in pairs.
Shape of orbitals
s orbital is spherical, non-directional
p orbital is dumb-bell shape, directional. There are 3 p-orbitals of the same size,
same shape and same energy in each p-subshell and they are perpendicular to one
another
Ionic Bonding
Ionic bond is the electrostatic forces of attraction between cations and anions in a
compound that holds them together.
Ionic compounds have giant ionic structures.
The ions are held in fixed positions in an orderly arrangement by strong electrostatic
forces of attraction.
This type of bonding is non-directional as ions arrange themselves to form a crystal
structure that maximizes attractions and minimizes repulsions.
The strong electrostatic forces of attraction are strong between the oppositiely-
charged ions, giving rise to high lattice energies. A large amount of energy is required
to overcome the strong forces, therefore the high melting and boiling points.
e.g In NaCl, the sodium ions and chloride ions are arranged in a giant ionic lattice
structure, where millions of sodium and chloride ions are held together in place
strongly by electrostatic forces of attraction throughout the entire lattice.
Covalent Bonding
A covalent bond is formed when a pair of valence electrons is shared between non-
metal atoms.
The covalent bond is the electrostatic forces of attraction between the positive nuclei
of each bonding atom for the shared pair of negatively charged electrons.
Dot-and-cross:

Structural Formula:
O--C--O
2 types of covalent bonds: sigma and pi
Sigma and Pi Bond
A sigma bond is formed when atomic orbitals overlap head-on.
All single bonds in molecules are sigma bonds.
3 types:
s-s orbital overlap:
e.g Hydrogen 1s
1

Sharing of electrons between 1s and 1s orbitals.
s-p orbitals overlap:
e.g. Hydrogen 1s
1
, Fluorine 1s
2
2s
2
2p
5

Sharing of electrons between 1s in hydrogen and 2p in fluorine.
p-p orbitals overlap:
e.g. Chlorine 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
5
Sharing of electrons between 3p and 3p orbitals.
A pi bond is formed when p orbitals overlap collaterally (side-on).
Before a pi bond is formed, a sigma bond must be present.
-Single bond = 1 sigma
-Double bond = 1 sigma, 1 pi
-Triple bond = 1 sigma, 2 pi
A sigma bond is stronger than a pi bond as the extent of overlap in a sigma bond is
greater.

Bond Energy
A covalent bond is strong due to strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the
shared electrons and the bonding nuclei.
Strength of covalent bond can be inferred from bond energy.
Bond energy is the energy required to break 1 mol of a specific covalent bond in a
specific compound in gaseous state.
A weaker covalent bond has a higher reactivity as it is easier to break.
Factors influencing BE:
Bond order (most significant) number of covalent bonds between 2 bonding
atoms
Strength of triple-b > double-b > single-b
Bond energy of triple-b > double-b > single-b
Bond length intermolecular distance between 2 bonding atoms
Shorter bond length due to smaller atoms leads to greater attraction between nuclei
and the shared electrons, resulting in higher bond energy.
Bond polarity some covalent bonds are polar, due to diff in electronegativity
between 2 bonding atoms
^ the difference in electronegativity, ^ polar their bond
More polar covalent bond has higher bond strength and hence higher bond energy.
F>O>N electronegativity
Structural Formulas to Know
O--C--O
H-C---N
O
H H

H
C
H H H

N
H H H

Polarity in a Covalent Bond
Heteronuclear diatomic molecule is a molecule made up of two different atoms.
e.g. H-Cl
The difference in electronegativity between H and Cl results in the H-Cl bond being
polar, and generates a dipole moment.
(Draw Dipole Moment Here)




Homonuclear diatomic molecule is a molecule made up of two identical atoms.
e.g. H-H
No difference in electronegativity between the 2 H atoms, hence H-H bond is non-
polar, hence dipole moment is zero.
In polyatomic atoms, to be non-polar, molecule needs to be symmetrical, resulting in
net cancellation of dipoles.
e.g. CO
2

(Draw)




In e.g. H
2
O, asymmetrical, therefore there will be a net dipole moment.
(Draw)





Ion-Dipole Interaction
Each ion attracts the oppositely charged end of the polar water molecules. Ion-Dipole
interactions results and the ions become hydrated, releasing energy. If the energy
released is enough to break the ionic lattice structure, the ionic compound will
dissolve.
e.g. NaCl
van der Waals forces
Strength of the forces depend on number of electrons in the molecule. ^ electrons, ^
strength.
e.g. HBr has higher no. of electrons than HCl.
Therefore, more energy is needed to overcome the stronger van der Waals forces in
HBr, hence HBr has a higher boiling point.
Hydrogen Bonding
Requires:
A H Atom attached to a highly electronegative atom (N,O,F)
A lone pair of electrons in the electronegative atom
Hydrogen bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction between the partial positive
hydrogen atoms (attached to a small, highly electronegative atom) of one molecule
and the lone pair of electrons on an electronegative atom of another molecule.
(Draw)




HF and H
2
O exhibit hydrogen bonding as intermolecular foces, and hydrogen
bonding is stronger than van der Walls forces. Hence more energy is required to
break the stronger hydrogen bonds during boiling, resulting in a much higher boiling
points.
Structure of Covalent Bonds
Simple Molecular
Consists of small discrete covalent molecules such as hydrogen, ozygen and bromine.
Within the molecule, they are held together by strong covalent bonds.
Between the molecules, weak van der Waals forces hold the molecules together.
Giant Molecular Structure
A large network of atoms is held together by strong covalent bonds in a 3D network
structure.
Whole structure considered as one giant molecule in diamond.
Metallic Bonding
A metallic bond is the electrostatic forces of attraction between positive ions of the
atoms and the sea of mobile electrons.
e.g. Mg (s)
Composed of a giant lattice of positive ions surrounded by a delocalized sea of
mobile electrons, meaning that they do not belong to any metal cation. The cations
are not pushed apart by the repulsion between then but are attracted to the sea of
mobile electrons.