The Romans used letters for numbers.

I 1
V5
X10
L50
C100
D500
M1000
To add two letters, write the smaller one after the larger one. For example,
VI 5 1 6. To subtract two letters, write the smaller one before the larger
one. For example, XL 50 10 40.
Task 1
Turn these Roman numbers into ordinary numbers.
a) XVII b) XIV c) XLV
d) LXX e) XCII f) DCIX
Task 2
Write these ordinary numbers as Roman numerals.
a) 21 b) 24 c) 39
d) 212 e) 319 f) 47
Task 3
Film makers often use Roman numerals in their credits. Star Wars was
originally released in MDCCCCLXXVII. The Lion King was released in
MDCCCCXCIV. Write these two years as ordinary numbers.
Powers, roots and reciprocals
CHAPTER 4
In this chapter you will learn how to:
work with simple powers and roots using mental methods
use a calculator to compute harder powers and roots
work with fractional and negative powers, and reciprocals
use the laws of indices to simplify numerical expressions
write large and small numbers using standard form
calculate using standard form.
You will also be challenged to:
investigate astronomical numbers.
Starter: Roman numerals
56
04_Chapter04_056-072.qxd 12/1/11 3:11 PM Page 56
4.1 Basic powers and roots
57
4.1 Basic powers and roots
When a number is multiplied by itself, the result is called the square of the
original number. For example, 5 squared is 5 5 25.
Reversing this process gives the square root. The square root of 25 is 5.
This can be written using the symbol as 25 5.
In a sense, 25 has two different square roots, because 5 times 5 also makes
25, so you could say that 5 is another square root of 25. To distinguish
between these two cases, we say that 5 is the positive square root of 25 and
5 is the negative square root of 25.
When a number is multiplied by itself and then by itself again, the result is
called the cube of the original number. For example, 5 cubed is
5 5 5 125.
Reversing this process gives the cube root. The cube root of 125 is 5.
This can be written using the
3
symbol as
3
125 5.
(There is no negative cube root for 125.)
You are expected to know the squares and cubes of some basic whole numbers,
and to recognise the corresponding square roots and cube roots. Here are the
squares you should learn.
2
2
4 7
2
49 12
2
144
3
2
9 8
2
64 13
2
169
4
2
16 9
2
81 14
2
196
5
2
25 10
2
100 15
2
225
6
2
36 11
2
121
You should also learn these cubes:
2
3
8 4
3
64 10
3
1000
3
3
27 5
3
125
The squares, cubes, square roots and cube roots of other numbers will normally
be found using a calculator. Make sure that you know how to use the keys for
this on your calculator; most calculators use similar keys but their locations on
the keypad vary between different models.
EXAMPLE
Without using a calculator, obtain the values of:
a) 13
2
b) 5
3
c) 121 d)
3
27
SOLUTION
a) 13
2
169
b) 5
3
125
c) 121 11
d)
3
27 3
Make sure that you have learnt the basic squares
and cubes so you can spot these answers by eye.
04_Chapter04_056-072.qxd 12/1/11 3:11 PM Page 57
EXAMPLE
Fred is answering an algebra problem. He has worked out that x
2
81. Give
two possible values of x that would complete Freds answer.
SOLUTION
x
2
81
So x 81 or 81
9 or 9
EXAMPLE
Use your calculator to work out the values of:
a) 9.4
2
b) 2.5
3
c) 109 d)
3
44.8
Round your answer to a sensible level of accuracy where appropriate.
SOLUTION
a) 9.4
2
88.36
b) 2.5
3
15.625
c) 109 10.440 306 51
10.44 (4 s.f.)
d)
3
44.8 3.551 616 007
3.552 (4 s.f.)
EXERCISE 4.1
Find the values of the following, without using a calculator.
1 5
2
2 2
3
3 7
2
4 3
3
5 9
2
6 4
3
7 12
2
8 10
3
9 144 10 225 11
3
64 12 36
13 196 14
3
125 15 81 16
3
1000
Use your calculator to work out the values of the following expressions. Round
your answers to 3 significant figures where appropriate.
17 19
2
18 1.8
2
19 14.6
2
20 9
3
21 16.3
3
22 1.2
3
23 13 24 300
25
3
24 26
3
50 27 2.5 28
3
6.8
Chapter 4: Powers, roots and reciprocals
58
You will meet this idea again later in the book,
when you are working with quadratic equations.
a) and b) are calculated using the x
2
and x
3
keys
on a calculator. No rounding is needed.
c) and d) are calculated using the and
3
keys on a
calculator. The calculator generates a full screen of decimals.
A good exam habit is to show your full calculator result
as well as the rounded answer.
04_Chapter04_056-072.qxd 12/1/11 3:11 PM Page 58
4.2 Higher powers and roots
59
29 Find x if x
2
72. Give your answers to 3 s.f.
30 Find y if y
3
38. Give your answer to 4 s.f.
4.2 Higher powers and roots
Although squares and cubes occur frequently in mathematics, other (higher)
whole number powers and roots may also be used. The notation x
n
represents
n factors of x multiplied together so, for example, 6
4
means
6 6 6 6 1296.
Similarly, higher roots may be obtained too, using this idea in reverse.
The 5th root of 32 is 2, because 2 2 2 2 2 32.
Roots are denoted using fractional powers, so you would write this as 32 2.
The notation x represents the nth root of x.
As with basic powers, you will solve simple problems by sight, but may use
a calculator for harder ones. Make sure that you know how to use your
calculators power and root keys.
EXAMPLE
Without using a calculator, obtain the values of:
a) 7
3
b) 2
8
c) 81 d) 125
SOLUTION
a) 7
3
7 7 7
49 7
343
b) 2
8
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
4 4 4 4
16 16
256
c) Since 3 3 3 3 81,
81 3
d) Since 5 5 5 125
125 5
EXAMPLE
Use your calculator to obtain the values of:
a) 14
4
b) 1.5
6
c) 1045 d) 125
Round your answers to 3 significant figures where appropriate.
1
6
1
4
1
3
1
4
1
3
1
4
1
n
1
5
04_Chapter04_056-072.qxd 12/1/11 3:11 PM Page 59
Chapter 4: Powers, roots and reciprocals
60
SOLUTION
a) 14
4
38 416
b) 1.5
6
11.390 625
11.4 (3 s.f.)
c) 1045 5.685 636 266
5.69 (3 s.f.)
d) 125 2.236 067 977
2.24 (3 s.f.)
EXERCISE 4.2
Without using a calculator, find the exact values of:
1 3
4
2 100
3
3 216 4 10
4
5 9
3
6 2
5
7 32 8 2
10
9 1000 10 400 11 12
3
12 16
Use your calculator to find the value of each expression. Round your answers as indicated.
13 12
5
(3 s.f.) 14 9.8
4
(4 s.f.) 15 1.3
7
(3 d.p.) 16 0.95
4
(4 d.p.)
17 6 (4 s.f.) 18 12 (3 s.f.) 19 6.3 (3 d.p.) 20 41.6 (3 s.f.)
4.3 Fractional (rational) indices
Some expressions contain fractional indices, for example 8 . These require two
processes to be applied together you need to raise to a power, and also apply a
root.
The top of the fraction tells you what power to apply squaring in this case.
The bottom of the fraction tells you what root to apply cube root in this case.
EXAMPLE
Find the value of 8 , without using a calculator.
SOLUTION
Method 1
8 8 squared and then cube rooted
64 cube rooted
4
2
3
2
3
2
3
1
3
1
5
1
4
1
3
1
4
1
2
1
3
1
5
1
3
1
6
1
4
Remember to show the full calculator values as
well as your final rounded answer.
04_Chapter04_056-072.qxd 12/1/11 3:11 PM Page 60
4.4 Negative powers and reciprocals
61
Method 2
8 8 cube rooted and then squared
2 squared
4
Notice that the order of the two processes did not affect the final result. Method
2 is probably more efficient, because the intermediate numbers you are working
with are smaller.
EXERCISE 4.3
Without using a calculator, write the following expressions as simply as possible.
1 4 2 27 3 25 4 9
5 36 6 64 7 64 8 100
9 81 10 125 11 16 12 16
4.4 Negative powers and reciprocals
So far you have used positive powers: for example 10
3
tells you to multiply by
10, then by 10 again, and then by 10 again, so 10
3
1000.
Negative powers are also used for numerical expression. For example,
10
3
tells you to divide by 10, then by 10 again, and then by 10 again, so
10
3
1/1000.
Here is a general rule for negative powers:
(This rule may be used as long as x is not zero; if x is zero then
x
1
n
is not
defined.)
EXAMPLE
Work out the values of:
a) 2
3
b) 10
4
c) 6
2
SOLUTION
a) 2
3

2
1
3

2
1
2 2

1
8

3
4
3
2
4
3
3
4
5
2
2
3
3
2
3
2
5
2
3
2
2
3
3
2
2
3
x
n

x
1
n

04_Chapter04_056-072.qxd 12/1/11 3:11 PM Page 61

Chapter 4: Powers, roots and reciprocals
62
b) 10
4

1
1
0
4

10 10
1
10 10

10
1
000

c) 6
2

6
1
2

6
1
6

3
1
6

The reciprocal of a whole number is 1 divided by that number. For example,

the reciprocal of 2 is

1
2

, and the reciprocal of 4 is

1
4

.
Using power notation, reciprocals are indicated by a power of 1. So 2
1

1
2

,
and 4
1

1
4

.
EXAMPLE
Work out the values of:
a) 8
1
b) 25
1
c) 3
1
SOLUTION
a) 8
1

1
8

(or 0.125)
b) 25
1

2
1
5

(or 0.04)
c) 3
1

1
3

Fractions, too, have reciprocals. To find the reciprocal of a fraction, simply

interchange the top and bottom of the fraction.
To raise a fraction to a negative power, use the equivalent positive power and
then interchange the top and bottom.
EXAMPLE
Work out the values of:
a)

2
3

1
b)

5
7

2
c)

1
2
6
5

1
2

SOLUTION
a)

2
3

3
2

Fractions are usually preferable to decimals in this type

of question, since they are exact; decimals might not be.
Note that

1
3

does not have an exact terminating decimal

form, so this answer is best given as a fraction.
04_Chapter04_056-072.qxd 12/1/11 3:11 PM Page 62
4.5 The laws of indices
63
b)

5
7

7
5

7
5
2
2

4
2
9
5

c)

1
2
6
5

2
1
5
6

2
1
5
6

5
4

EXERCISE 4.4
Work out the values of these, leaving your answers as exact fractions.
1 3
2
2 10
3
3 5
2
4 4
1
5 9
2
6 4
2
7 2
5
8 10
1
9 5
1
10 20
2
Evaluate these expressions, giving your answers as exact fractions.
11

3
5

1
12

4
3

1
13

2
4
5

14

4
5

2
15

2
3

3
16

1
2

1
17

6
9
4

18

5
3

2
19

1
4
0
9
0

20

2
6
7
4

4.5 The laws of indices

Another name for a power is an index, so powers are often called indices.
There are several laws of indices that can help you to simplify index problems.
EXAMPLE
Write 10
3
10
5
as a single power of 10.
2
3
3
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
04_Chapter04_056-072.qxd 12/1/11 3:11 PM Page 63
Chapter 4: Powers, roots and reciprocals
64
SOLUTION
10
3
10 10 10
and 10
5
10 10 10 10 10
so 10
3
10
5
(10 10 10) (10 10 10 10 10)
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
10
8
You could have solved this example much more efficiently just by adding the
indices to give the final result: 10
3
10
5
10
35
10
8
.
EXAMPLE
Write 2
9
2
6
as a single power of 2.
SOLUTION
2
9
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
and 2
6
2 2 2 2 2 2
so 2
9
2
6

2 2
1
2

2
3
Once again, there is a more efficient method. You could have just subtracted
the indices to give the final result: 2
9
2
6
2
96
2
3
.
EXAMPLE
Write (5
4
)
2
as a single power of 5.
SOLUTION
5
4
5 5 5 5
so (5
4
)
2
(5 5 5 5) (5 5 5 5)
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
5
8
Again, it would be quicker to multiply the indices to give the final result:
(5
4
)
2
5
4 2
5
8
.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
04_Chapter04_056-072.qxd 12/1/11 3:11 PM Page 64
4.5 The laws of indices
65
The three examples above illustrate three general laws of indices, which may be
expressed symbolically like this:
You should look for opportunities to use these rules whenever you are
simplifying numerical expressions involving indices.
The laws of indices allow you to assign a meaning to a power 0, such as 7
0
. For
example, using the laws of indices, 7
5
7
5
7
55
7
0
, but since 7
5
7
5
1
the value of 7
0
must be 1. More generally, x
0
1, for any value of x (provided x
is not 0). Do not confuse this with x
1
, which is just x.
This is loosely stated in words as anything to the power zero equals 1.
This rule covers all cases except 0
0
, which is not defined to have a value.
To summarise:
EXAMPLE
Use the laws of indices to write these expressions as simply as possible.
a) 8
3
8
4
b) 5
10
5
8
c) (4
3
)
2
d) 8
0
SOLUTION
a) 8
3
8
4
8
34
8
7
b) 5
10
5
8
5
108
5
2
c) (4
3
)
2
4
34
4
6
d) 8
0
1
EXERCISE 4.5
Simplify each of these expressions, giving your answer as a number to a single power.
1 2
3
2
4
2 5
4
5
3
3 8
2
8
7
4 6
5
6
2
5 9
4
9
3
6 3
10
3
9
7 (2
3
)
4
8 (3
2
)
3
9 3
2
3
0
10 2 2 11 3 3 12 6 2
0
3
2
1
2
5
2
3
2
x
1
x
x
0
1 provided x is not 0
0
0
is not defined
x
a
x
b
x
ab
when multiplying, add the indices
x
a
x
b
x
ab
when dividing, subtract the indices
(x
a
)
b
x
ab
when raising to a power, multiply the indices
Although you can do each of these in your head, it is good discipline
to write down the steps of the simplification as shown here.
This helps you to master the laws of indices, and also lets your teacher
follow your reasoning clearly.
04_Chapter04_056-072.qxd 12/1/11 3:11 PM Page 65
Chapter 4: Powers, roots and reciprocals
66
Work out each of these, giving your answer as an ordinary number.
13 2
3
2
2
14 3
6
3
5
15 10
3
10
3
16 4
8
4
6
17 (2
2
)
3
18 3
2
3
3
19 2
3
2 20 7
6
7
4
21 3
12
3
9
22 (3
0
)
4
23 (10
2
)
3
24 (5
2
)
0
4.6 Standard index form
Standard index form, or standard form as it is often called, is a very
convenient way of writing very large or very small quantities. You start with a
number between 1 and 10, and multiply (or divide) by a suitable number of
powers of 10. For example, the number 3 000 000 could be written as 3 10
6
,
meaning that the 3 has to be multiplied by six powers of 10.
EXAMPLE
Write these numbers in standard form.
a) 4 000 000 000 b) 36 000 c) 14 300 000
SOLUTION
a) 4 000 000 000 4 10
9
b) 36 000 3.6 10
4
c) 14 300 000 1.43 10
7
For numbers smaller than 1 you divide by powers of 10, instead of multiplying.
This gives rise to a negative index of 10, instead of a positive one.
EXAMPLE
Write these numbers in standard form.
a) 0.0006 b) 0.000 000 25 c) 0.000 000 000 001 8
SOLUTION
a) 0.0006 6 10
4
b) 0.000 000 205 2.05 10
7
c) 0.000 000 000 001 8 1.8 10
12
Remember that numbers in standard form always have the decimal point after
the first non-zero digit.
Note that 36 10
3
would not be right here,
because 36 does not lie between 1 and 10.
Count the number of hops needed to restore the 2.05
to the original number:
There are 7 altogether.
0.0000002.05
04_Chapter04_056-072.qxd 12/1/11 3:11 PM Page 66
4.7 Calculating with numbers in standard form
67
EXERCISE 4.6
Write these numbers in standard index form.
1 350 000 2 40 000 3 352 000 000
4 19 300 000 5 765 6 0.0045
7 0.8 8 0.002 03 9 0.000 000 000 827
10 0.000 33
Write these as ordinary numbers
11 7.4 10
6
12 2.15 10
7
13 1.05 10
5
14 2 10
9
15 8.4 10
3
16 5 10
3
17 2.5 10
6
18 1.004 10
7
19 8.3 10
11
20 5.05 10
4
4.7 Calculating with numbers in standard form
In order to add or subtract two numbers in standard form, you have to make
sure that the digits line up in their correct place values. You can do this either
by converting them into ordinary numbers, or adjusting them so they both have
the same power of 10. This latter method means that your working contains
index numbers that are not standard, but this does not matter provided the
final answer is expressed correctly.
EXAMPLE
Add together 4.2 10
4
and 7.3 10
5
. Write your answer in standard form.
SOLUTION
Method 1
4.2 10
4
42 000 and 7.3 10
5
730 000
so 4.2 10
4
7.3 10
5
42 000 730 000
772 000
7.72 10
5
Method 2
Write both numbers using the lower power (10
4
):
7.3 10
5
73 10
4
Thus 4.2 10
4
7.3 10
5
4.2 10
4
73 10
4
77.2 10
4
7.72 10
5
04_Chapter04_056-072.qxd 12/1/11 3:11 PM Page 67
Chapter 4: Powers, roots and reciprocals
68
Standard form numbers can be used in multiplication or division quite easily.
EXAMPLE
Multiply 3 10
5
and 2.5 10
7
.
SOLUTION
3 10
5
and 2.5 10
7
3 2.5 10
5
10
7
7.5 10
57
7.5 10
12
Sometimes the final answer is not in standard index form, however, and needs a
little adjustment.
EXAMPLE
Work out (4 10
8
) (5 10
2
).
SOLUTION
(4 10
8
) (5 10
2
) (4 5) (10
8
10
2
)
0.8 10
6
8.0 10
1
10
6
8 10
5
The IGCSE examination requires you to know how to multiply and divide
simple standard form numbers, using the methods in the examples above. For
harder problems, a calculator may be appropriate.
A good calculator will allow you to type in the numbers using standard form.
Some older models require the use of an key to do this, but on the latest
models you will find a key that allows a more natural entry notation.
Make sure you know how your calculator works!
EXAMPLE
If a 3.55 10
8
and b 2.065 10
9
use your calculator to work out the
values of each of these expressions. Give your answer in standard form, correct
to 3 significant figures.
a) ab b)
a
b
c) a 2b
SOLUTION
a) ab 3.55 10
8
2.065 10
9
7.330 75 10
17
7.33 10
17
(3 s.f.)
Multiply the two number parts, and
multiply the two power terms.
Divide the two number parts, and divide the
two power terms.
Note the adjustment into standard form here.
10
x
EXP
04_Chapter04_056-072.qxd 12/1/11 3:11 PM Page 68
Review exercise 4
69
b)
a
b
(3.55 10
8
) (2.065 10
9
)
0.171 912 8329
1.72 10
1
(3 s.f.)
c) a 2b 3.55 10
8
2 (2.065 10
9
)
4 485 000 000
Thus a 2b 4 485 0 00 000
66 970.1426
67 000 (3 s.f.)
6.70 10
4
(3 s.f.)
EXERCISE 4.7
Work out the answers to these calculations without using a calculator.
Give your answers in standard form.
1 (4 10
6
) (7 10
8
) 2 (2.4 10
5
) (1.8 10
6
) 3 (7 10
7
) (5 10
5
)
4 (3 10
5
) (8 10
4
) 5 (1.2 10
10
) (5 10
7
) 6 (7 10
6
) (6 10
7
)
7 (4 10
10
) (8 10
7
) 8 (3 10
6
) (4 10
3
)
9 In the year 2004 a total of 2.17 10
8
passengers passed through UK airports. 6.7 10
7
of these
passengers passed through Heathrow Airport. How many of the UK passengers did not pass through
Heathrow? Give your answer as an ordinary number.
Use your calculator to evaluate these expressions.
Give your answers in standard form, correct to 3 significant figures.
10 (2.45 10
7
) (8.22 10
11
) 11 ) 12 184 000 0.0023
13 (1.5 10
7
)
2
14 15 (2.8 10
10
) 0.15
REVIEW EXERCISE 4
1 Write down the values of:
a) 5
3
b) 144 c) 15
2
2 Find the reciprocals of:
a) 10 b)

1
4

c) 2
3 Work out the values of:
a) 10
2
b) 4
3
c) 8
4 Write each of these using a single power.
a) 6
3
6
2
b) 3
10
3
7
c) (4
3
)
2
2
3
(1.2 10
6
) (4.8 10
4
)

7 10
5
(3.5 10
7
) (4.8 10
9
)

(8.4 10
6
)
First work out just a 2b
then square root it.
04_Chapter04_056-072.qxd 12/1/11 3:11 PM Page 69
Chapter 4: Powers, roots and reciprocals
70
5 Arrange these numbers in order of size, smallest first:
3.2 10
8
, 7.6 10
2
, 1.4 10
9
, 15 300
6 Find the value of (2 2 3 3 5 5) . [Edexcel]
7 Evaluate:
a) 3
2
b) 36 c) 27 d)

1
8
6
1

[Edexcel]
8 Work out:
a) 4
0
b) 4
2
c) 16 [Edexcel]
9 Work out the values of
a) (2
2
)
3
b) (3)
2
c) 2
4
9 [Edexcel]
10 a) Write 84 000 000 in standard form.
b) Work out:

84
4
0

00
10
0
1
0
2
0

Give your answer in standard form. [Edexcel]

You may use your calculator for the remaining questions.
11 a) Work out the value of 5
3
.
b) Work out the value of
i) (4.5
2
0.5
2
)
Write down all the figures on your calculator display.
ii) Write your answer correct to 2 decimal places. [Edexcel]
12 Calculate the value of
Give your answer in standard form correct to 3 significant figures. [Edexcel]
13 420 000 carrot seeds weigh 1 gram
a) Write the number 420 000 in standard form.
b) Calculate the weight, in grams, of one carrot seed.
Give your answer in standard form, correct to 2 significant figures. [Edexcel]
14 A floppy disk (old computer storage device) can hold 1 440 000 bytes of data.
a) Write the number 1 440 000 in standard form.
A hard disk can hold 2.4 10
9
bytes of data.
b) Calculate the number of floppy disks needed to store the 2.4 10
9
bytes of data. [Edexcel]
15 y
2

a
a

b
b

a 3 10
8
b 2 10
7
Find y. Give your answer in standard form correct to 2 significant figures. [Edexcel]
5.98 10
8
4.32 10
9

6.14 10
2
3
2
3
4
2
3
1
2
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Key points
71
Key points
1 Powers tell you how many times a number is to be multiplied by itself.
For example, 2
4
2 2 2 2.
Powers are also called indices.
2 The reverse of raising to a power is taking a root.
So, for example, the fourth root of 16 is 2.
This may be written as
4
16 or 16 .
3 Fractional powers indicate a combination of raising to a power and taking a root.
The power

3
2

, for example, tells you to cube and also square root the number.
4 n
1
indicates the reciprocal of n and takes the value
1
n
.
The reciprocal of
a
b
is
b
a
.
5 Negative powers indicate reciprocals, thus 3
2

3
1
2
.
6 There are three key laws of indices:
x
a
x
b
x
ab
when multiplying, add the indices
x
a
x
b
x
ab
when dividing, subtract the indices
(x
a
)
b
x
ab
when raising to a power, multiply the indices
7 Remember also that:
x
1
x
x
0
1 (provided x is not 0)
0
0
is not defined.
8 Very large or very small numbers may be written in the form a 10
n
,
where n is a whole number and 1 a 10.
This is called standard (index) form.
1
4
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Chapter 4: Powers, roots and reciprocals
72
Internet Challenge 4
Astronomical numbers
Astronomers work with very large numbers, so they often use standard index form, sometimes alternatively
called scientific notation.
Here are some astronomical statements with missing values. The values are given, in jumbled-up order, to
the right. Use the internet to help you decide which answer belongs with which statement.
1 Astronomers have calculated that the mass of the Sun is about 2.998 10
8
kg.
2 The Sun is thought to have formed about years ago. 10
9
3 Each second the Suns mass decreases by about tonnes. 6 10
3
4 The surface temperature of the Sun has been measured to be about 10
11
degrees C.
5 It takes our solar system about years to make one 2 10
30
revolution around the Milky Way galaxy.
6 Light travels through space at a speed of metres per second. 2.25 10
8
7 Visible light has a wavelength of about metres. 4 10
6
8 X-rays can have wavelengths as short as metres. 2.8 10
6
9 The Andromeda galaxy is so remote that light from it takes 5 10
9
years to reach us.
10 It is thought that the Universe contains about individual 5.5 10
7
galaxies.
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