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Waste Management 30 (2010) 26222630

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Waste Management
j ou r n a l hom e ag e! """ # e l sev i e r # co m $ l ocat e $ " a
sma n
%acterial comosting o& animal 'eshing generate( &rom tanner) in(ustries
%# *avin(ran+ ,# Se-aran
.
/nvironmental 0echnolog) Division+ Central 1eather *esearch 2nstitute+ 3()ar+ Chennai 600 020+ 2n(ia
a r t i c l e i n & o
3rticle histor)!
*eceive( 23 3ril 2010
3ccete( 14 5ul) 2010
3vailable online 14 3ugust 2010
a b s t r a c t
3nimal 'eshing (3671) is the major roteinaceous soli( "aste generate( (uring the manu&acture o&
leather+ "hich re8uires to be (isose( o& b) environmentall) soun( manner# 0his stu() reorts about
the treatment o& 3671 into an organic comost an( its e&&ects on h)siological arameters o& (i&&erent
cros in a laborator) stu()# 0he 3671 "as h)(rol)se( using Selenomonas ruminantium 9M000123 an(
then the h)(rol)se( 3671 "as mi:e( "ith co" (ung an( lea& litter &or ro(ucing comoste( organic &er;
tili<er (C=7)# 0he C=7 "as characteri<e( &or 9+ electrical con(uctivit) (/C)+ total >jel(hal nitrogen
(0>6)+ an( total organic carbon (0=C)# 0he comosting resulte( in a signi?cant re(uction in 9+ 0=C
an( C!6 ratio an( an increase in 0>6 a&ter @4 (a)s in a comost reactor# Scanning electron microscoe
an( 70; 2* "ere use( to anal)se the h)(rol)sis o& intra structural 3671 matri: an( changes in the
&unctional grous+ resectivel)+ in initial an( ?nal (a) C=7# 0hermogravimetr) (0,) anal)sis "as
carrie( out &or the ra" mi:ture an( C=7 samles to i(enti&) the "eight loss un(er the nitrogen
environment# 0he rela; tive see( germination "as &oun( to be 4@A in tomato (1)coersicon esculentum)+
42A in green gram (Bigna ra(iata)+ C6A in bottle gour( (1agenaria siceraria (Mol#) Stan(l#) an( C@A in
cucumber (Cucumis sativus 1#) using the e:tracts o& C=7# 0he results in(icate that the combination o& both
h)(rol)sis an( bacterial com; osting re(uce( the overall time re8uire( &or comosting an( ro(ucing
a nutrient;enriche( comost
ro(uct#
2010 /lsevier 1t(# 3ll rights reserve(#
1# 2ntro(uction
0he soli( "aste management has become a major environmen;
tal issue in 2n(ia# 0anning in(ustr) is one o& the highl) olluting
an( gro"th;oriente( in(ustries an( it generates aro:imatel)
1+D0+000 tonnes o& o&&alEs in the &orm o& ra" hi(e (an( s-in) trim;
mings+ lime( animal 'eshings+ hi(e slits an( chrome shavings
er annum (uring leather rocessing (,anesh >umar et al#+
2004)# 3nimal 'eshing (3671) is one o& the major soli( "astes
that are generate( (uring retanning oerations o& leather
rocessing# 2t contains the highest rotein content (D060A) an(
collagen (3
DA) content "hich are currentl) being "aste(+ thus creating the
so; li( "aste (isosal roblem in tanneries (*avin(ran et al#+ 200CF
,a; nesh >umar et al#+ 200C)# 3671 is an inevitable b);ro(uct o&
the leather manu&acturing rocess an( causes ollution
(Basu(evan an( *avin(ran+ 200G)# Hnless this is treate( in some
"a) rior to (isosal+ it oses o(our as "ell as lan( ollution#
3671 has been anaerobicall) (igeste( &or the ro(uction o&
methane gas through biomethanation rocess (Iuancic an(
5emec+ 2010)# 3lthough bio; methanation is a goo( rocess &or
energ) ro(uction+ ho"ever+ it has o"n (ra"bac- o& ecological
signi?cance &or its incomlete bio; gas recover)+ relativel) high
"ater consumtion (that is re8uire(
. Correson(ing author# 0el#! J41 @@ 2@@D24@1F &a:! J41 @@ 2@4121D0#
/;mail a((resses! -alamraviKgmail#com + ganesanse-aranKhotmail#com (,# Se;
-aran)#
to (ilute the "astes about 1 m
3
"ater er ton soli( "aste)+ an(
high investment cost &or overall rocess (Mata;3lvare<+ 2002)#
0he 3671 (ischarge( &rom leather in(ustr) has been e:loite(
&or glue manu&acture+ en<)me ro(uction an( animal &ee( ro(uc;
tion (Basu(evan an( *avin(ran+ 200G)# 3mong the (isosal tech;
ni8ues+ the comosting rocess is characteri<e( b) a lo"
environmental imact an( an alternative metho( o& the organic
&raction o& soli( "aste (Bee-en an( 9amelers+ 2002)#
Comosting is recogni<e( as a cost;e&&ective metho( &or soli(
"aste management an( it has been u(ate( to han(le organic
"aste o& (i&&erent origins+ such as se"age slu(ge+ animal manure
an( agro;in(ustrial "aste# Comosting allo"s "astes to be (is;
ose( o& a&ter re(ucing their mass an( volume# 2t rovi(es nutrient
rich gro"th me(ium to lants as manure# During comosting+ car;
bonaceous an( nitrogenous comoun(s are trans&orme( through
successive activities o& (i&&erent microbes into more stable an(
comle: organic matter+ "hich chemicall) an( biologicall) resem;
bles humic substances# 0he e:tent o& these trans&ormations (e;
en(s on the nature o& the organic matter an( the e:erimental
con(itions un(er "hich comosting is ta-ing lace (Dinel et al#+
200@)# Lare et al# (1444) (emonstrate( that onl) small roortions
o& the total carbon an( nitrogen "ere utili<e( b) microbes (uring
comosting an( the comle: molecules are le&t unutili<e(#
0he ol)meric materials such as roteins+ lii(s an( carboh);
(rates are rimaril) h)(rol)se( b) e:tracellular h)(rolases e:;
crete( b) microbes (uring h)(rol)sis rocess (McCart)+ 14C1)#
04D6;0D3M$N ; see &ront matter 2010 /lsevier 1t(# 3ll rights reserve(#
(oi!10#1016$j#"asman#2010#0G#013
%# *avin(ran+ ,# Se-aran $ Waste Management 30 (2010) 26222630
3
9)(rol)sis o& roteinaceous soli( "aste "as consi(ere( b) man)
researchers as a re;treatment ste be&ore anaerobic (igestion#
0he resent "or- involves h)(rol)tic re;treatment o& 3671 "hich
"ill re(uce the comosting erio(+ accelerate stabili<ation an(
&acilitate &ragmentation o& comle: molecules into simler mole;
cules# 9o"ever+ literature on the alication o& h)(rol)se( 3671
on comosting are ver) little or erhas nil# 9ence+ the &ocal theme
o& the stu() "as base( on (1) h)(rol)sis o& 3671 using isolate(
roteol)tic secies o& Selenomonas ruminantium 9M000123 in
anaerobic (igestorF (2) stu(ies on the bacterial comosting o&
h)(rol)se( 3671 "ith co" (ung an( lea& litter#
2# Materials an( metho(s
2#1# Microorganism an( ta:onomic stu()
0he anaerobic roteol)tic strains "ere isolate( &rom an anaero;
bic (igester "hich ha( been using the treatment o& tanner) soli(
"astes in Chennai+ 2n(ia# 3mongst si: strains isolate(+ one o& the
strains sho"ing high h)(rol)tic activit) &or 3671 "as selecte(
an( i(enti?e( as OOS# ruminantium 9M000123P in accor(ance "ith
the metho(s (escribe( in %erge)Es Manual o& S)stematic %acteriolog)
(Sneath+ 14C@) an( on the basis o& 16S ribosomal D63 se8uence#
0he isolate "ere anaerobic+ gram negative an( non;sore &orming
ro( shae( bacteria# 0he strain belongs to the genera o& Selenomo;
nas un(er the &amil) o& %acteroi(aceae# 2t "as caable o& h)(rol);
sing esculin an( gelatin# 0he stoc- culture "as maintaine( in
anaerobic egg broth (9i me(ia) me(ium at 3G C#
2#2# *a" material
0he lime( animal 'eshing (3671) "as collecte( &rom a local
commercial tanner)+ Chennai+ 2n(ia# 0he 3671 "as treate( "ith
ammonium chlori(e (1#2DA+ "$") &or 3@ h to remove the a(;
sorbe( calcium salts# 0he (elime( 'eshing "as susen(e( in "ater
&or 1 h at neutral 9 (,anesh >umar et al#+ 200C)# 0he 3671
arti; cles o& (imension 1 cm "ere obtaine(+ using choer
machine# 0he chemical characteristics o& (elime( 3671 "ere
(etermine( on a (r) "eight basis an( the stan(ar( (eviations
are base( on trili; cate anal)ses# 0he characteristics o& 3671 are
given in 0able 1#
2#3# 9)(rol)sis o& 3671
0he h)(rol)sis rocess "as carrie( out in soli( state h)(rol)sis
(SS9) reactor+ D0 l caacit) an( "ith "or-ing volume o& 3D l con;
taining C -g o& choe( 3671# 0he otimi<e( minimal me(ium
comosition use( &or the h)(rol)sis rocess "as resente( in 0a;
ble 2 (*avin(ran an( Se-aran+ 2004)# 0he same me(ium comosi;
tion "as use( &or the rearation o& inoculum# 0he h)(rol)sis
rocess "as carrie( out at an otimi<e( 9 6 un(er anaerobic con;
(ition in the SS9 reactor# 0he reactor "as urge( "ith nitrogen gas
to eliminate air &rom the reactor# 0he SS9 reactor "as hermeticall)
seale( an( ba&'e imeller "as use( &or the urose o& stirring# 0he
temerature (3G C) "as maintaine(+ using a thermostat# 0he iso;
late( bacterium o& S# ruminantium 9M000123 inoculum "as re;
are( in DA ("$v) in sterili<e( minimal me(ium# 0he SS9 reactor
"as loa(e( "ith 3671 at 60A ("$v) an( it "as see(e( "ith
isolate( inoculum# 0he anaerobic SS9 reactor "as allo"e( &or G
(a)s at
3G C to comlete h)(rol)sis o& 3671# 0he h)(rol)se( 3671 col;
lecte( &rom SS9 reactor "as use( as initial mi:ture &or comosting
rocess#
2#@# Co" (ung (CD) an( lea& litters
7resh CD "as rocure( &rom a co"she(# 0he CD consiste( o& a
mi:ture o& &aeces an( urine "ithout an) be((ing materials# 0he
main characteristics o& CD are given in 0able 1# 0he artiall)
(ecomose( (rie( lea& litter "as collecte( &rom the gar(en area
o& the Central 1eather *esearch 2nstitute+ Chennai+ 2n(ia# 0he litter
"as shre((e( in the si<e range 2D mm be&ore use# 0he main char;
acteristics o& lea& litter are given in 0able 1# 3ll e:eriments "ere
con(ucte( in trilicate#
2#D# /:erimental (esign
0he s8uare shae( comost bioreactor o& si<e
(0#D 0#D 0#D m+ length "i(th height) "ith three relica;
tions "ere use(# 0he h)(rol)se( 3671+ co" (ung an( (rie(
crushe( lea& litter "ere mi:e( as er ratio as sho"n in 0able 3
an( charge( into the comost reactor# 0he initial comost
mi:tures "ere maintaine( at moisture content D0A+ "ith the aim
o& main; taining aerobic con(itions (uring the rocess# 0he
mi:tures "ere turne( t"ice a "ee- to maintain a(e8uate aeration
an( to revent o(ours (9aroun et al#+ 200G)# 0he temerature
ro?le "as moni; tore( at the centre o& the comost reactor using
an electronic tem; erature in(icator# 3 sub;samle (100 g) "as
collecte( on the (a) o& 0+ G+ 1@+ 21+ 2C+ 3D+ @2 an( @4 (a) &or the
anal)sis o& 9+ total >jel(hal nitrogen (0>6)+ total organic carbon
(0=C)+ total hosho; rus (0L)+ total otassium (0>) an( microbial
activities# 2nitial ra" mi:ture an( the ?nal (a) comost samle
"ere subjecte( to scan;
0able 1
Chemical characteristics (mean Q SD) o& initial mi:tures use( in e:eriment (n R 3)#
Larameters Delime( 3671 9)(rol)se( 3671 Co" (ung 1ea& litter
9
0>6
0=C
0L 0>
G#31 Q 0#3
102 Q D#1
a
3C0 Q 20
a
2#6 Q 0#1
a
2#D Q 0#1
a
6#6 Q 0#2
@200 Q 16C
c
D220 Q 312
c
106D Q 63#4
c
1@6@ Q CG#C
c
C#1 Q 0#@
6#D Q 0#3
a
@23 Q 2D#3C
a
D#4 Q 0#3
a
6#3 Q 0#@
a
G#@ Q 0#@
4 Q 0#D
a
D01 Q @0#C
a
36@ Q 24#1
b
3D0 Q 2C
b
C!6 ratio 0otal
soli(s 3sh
contents
7e (mg -g
1
)
Mn (mg -g
1
)
Cr (mg -g
1
) In
(mg -g
1
) Cu
(mg -g
1
)
3#G2
2D#C Q 1#D
(
1D#2 Q 0#4
(
30 Q 2#@
b
1C Q 0#4
b
%D1
%D1
%D1
1#2@
3#2 Q 0#14
(
1@#4 Q 0#C
(
6#@ Q 0#3
c
@#0 Q 0#32
c
%D1
%D1
%D1
6D#04C
@D Q 2#G
(
@@#@ Q 3#D
(
2D0 Q 20
11@ Q 4#1
b
C Q 0#@C
b
102 Q 6#2
b
2C#D Q 1#G
b
DD#66
6D
@0#@D Q 3#1
(
C0 Q D#6
b
106 Q 6#3
b
@ Q 0#32
b
2D Q 1#@
b
G#D Q 0#6
b
%D1 %elo" (etection limitF 6D not (etermine(#
a
g -g
1
#
b
mg -g
1
#
c
mg$l#
(
A#
0able 2
=timi<e( minimal me(ium comosition &or Selenomo;
nas ruminantium 9M000123#
2ngre(ients Ler liter
Me(ium comosition
6aCl 1#0 g
69
@
Cl 0#D g
>
2
9L=
@
0#34 g
>9
2
L=
@
0#D g
0race element solution 2 ml
0race element comosition (g$l)
MgS=
@
0#@4
7eS=
@
0#0DD
CoCl
2
0#02C
MnCl
2
0#014
CaCl
2
0#1@G
69
@
Mo
G
=
2@
0#123
0able 3
Contents o& (i&&erent "astes in the initial ra" mi:ture#
Comonents Suantit) (-g)
Delime($h)(rol)se( 3671 C
Co" (ung 6
1ea& litter 6
ning electron microscoe (S/M) anal)sis+ 7ourier;trans&orm in&ra;
re( (70;2*) anal)sis an( thermogravimetr) (0,) anal)sis#
2#6# Lh)sico;chemical anal)sis
0he (etails o& various metho(s use( &or h)sico;chemical anal;
)sis are given in 0able @# 0he 9 o& the samle in (istille( "ater at
the ratio o& 1!10 ("$v) "as (etermine(+ using a S)stronics 9 me;
ter (l s)stronocis 364) ?tte( "ith a glass electro(e# /lectrical con;
(uctivit) "as (etermine(+ using a con(uctivit) meter (93C9;
con(uctivit)$0DSmeter)# 0otal otassium "as (etermine( b) 'ame
hotometer (/lico+ C1 22D+ 2n(ia)# 9eav) metals o& total 7e+ Cr+ In+
Mn an( Cu "ere (etermine( b) means o& atomic absortion sec;
trohotometer (33S) (Ler-in;/lmer 1amb(a 2 sectrohotometer)
a&ter (igesting the samle "ith concentrate( 96=
3
!concentrate(
9Cl=
@
+ @!1+ v$v) (,arg an( >aushi-+ 200D)#
0he 7ourier;trans&orm in&rare( (70;2*) sectra o& 3671+ initial
ra" mi:tures an( comoste( organic &ertili<er (C=7) "ere ob;
taine( in the &re8uenc) range @000@00 cm
1
on a Ler-in;/lmer
70;2* sectrometer e8uie( "ith the sectrum so&t"are# 0his
"as use( &or investigating the change in the sur&ace &unctional
grous o& the comoste( manure# 0he samles (1 mg) "ere mi:e(
"ith 100 mg >%r o& sectroscoic gra(e an( ma(e in the &orm o&
ellets at a ressure o& 1 MLa# 0he ellets "ere about 10 mm in
(iameter an( 1 mm in thic-ness# 0he sectra "ere then subjecte(
to base line correction an( the ban(s "ere stu(ie( to 8uanti&) the
changes in the chemical structure o& C=7#
0hermogravimetric anal)sis "as er&orme(+ using 0hermo;
gravimetric anal)ser (SD0 (B20#6 %uil( 31) aaratus registering
0,# 0he samles (D0 mg) "ere anal)se( "ithout an) re;treat;
ment+ e:cet &or manual grin(ing in agate mortar an( sieve( to
0#2 mm# 0, "as carrie( out in the temerature range &rom 30 C
u to 1200 C un(er nitrogen atmoshere at heating rate o&
10 C$min# 0he manometric ressure "as maintaine( at 101 -La#
7or scanning electron microsco) (S/M) anal)sis+ the initial an(
C=7 "ere (rie( an( lace( in an ion coating instrument# 0he sam;
les "ere coate( "ith gol( ions &or about 1020 min+ the coate(
stubs "ere lace( in S/M mo(ule+ 5/=1 5M;D600 electron micro;
scoe an( micrograhs "ere recor(e( at 1D -B at levels o&
magni?cation#
2#G# Microbiological characteristics o& comost
During the comosting+ the samle "as anal)se( &or bacterial
countsF total bacteria mesohilic bacteria+ %acillus s#+ Salmonella
an( Shigella an( 7ecal coli&orm bacteria "ere (etermine(+ using the
serial (ilution techni8ue# 3 10 g o& C=7 samle "as a((e( to 40 ml
sterile( bu&&ere( etone solution un(er asetic techni8ue an(
(10
1
+ 10
2
+ # # # + 10
G
) (ilutions "ere ma(e using sterile 0#CA 6aCl
solutions# 3 0#1 ml ali8uot samle "as late( on Deo:)cholate cit;
rate agar &or Salmonella s#+ Shigella s#+ 6utrient agar &or total
mesohilic bacteria+ 0r)tic so) agar &or %acillus s# an( m7C agar
&or &ecal coli&orm count# 3ll comost samles "ere assa)e( b) (ilu;
tion "ith at least &our relicates o& each susension#
2#C# Lh)toto:icit) test &or C=7
0he see( germination bioassa) o& (i&&erent cro secies "as
use( to assess the to:icit) an( maturit) o& the C=7# 2n see( germi;
nation bioassa) e:eriment+ t"o ieces o& Whatman ?lter aer
"ere lace( insi(e a 1D 100;mm sterili<e( etri(ish# 0he ?lter
aer "as "ette( "ith the e:tracts o& C=7+ reare( "ith (ouble
(istille( "ater ("ater to soli( ratio o& 10!1) (3raujo an( Monteiro+
200D)# 0he see( germination bioassa) "as evaluate( accor(ing to
0am an( 0i8uia (144@)# 0"ent);?ve see(s o& each cro secies o&
tomato (1)coersicon esculentum)+ green gram (Bigna ra(iata)+ bot;
tle gour( (1agenaria siceraria (Mol#) Stan(l#) an( cucumber (Cucum;
is sativus 1#) "ere incubate( &or D (a)s in the (ar- con(ition#
*elative see( germination+ relative root elongation an( germina;
tion in(e: "ere (etermine( as sho"n in 0able D#
3# *esults an( (iscussion
0he objective o& the resent investigation "as to h)(rol)sis the
3671 in SS9 reactor un(er anaerobic con(ition using isolate(
0able @
Barious metho(s use( &or h)sico;chemical anal)sis#
S# 6o# Larameters 0echni8ue use( *e&erences
1 9+ electrical con(uctivit)+ ash content+ total soli(s 3merican Lublic 9ealth 3ssociation (3L93) (1440)
2 %ul- (ensit)+ orosit)+ article (ensit) 2nbar et al# (1443)
3 Cation;e:change caacit) 3mmonium acetate metho( Mc>eague (14C1)
@ 0otal organic carbon *ai( titration metho( Wal-e) an( %lac- (143@)
D 0otal >jel(hal nitrogen >jel(hal metho( %remner (1446)
6 0otal hoshorus Sectrohotometric metho( ,arg an( >aushi- (200D)
G 0otal otassium 7lame hotometric metho( ,arg an( >aushi- (200D)
C 9eav) metals 3tomic absortion sectrosco) (33S) ,arg an( >aushi- (200D)
4 70;2* 7ourier;trans&orm in&rare( (70;2*) sectrosco) *avin(ran et al# (200C)
10 S/M Scanning electron microsco) *avin(ran et al# (200C)
11 0,3 0hermogravimetric anal)sis Lietro an( Laola (200@)
0able D
7ormulae &or see( germination bioassa) 8uanti?cation#
See( germination bioassa)
6umber o& see(s germinate( in the C=7 e:tract
T U V
6umber o& see(s germinate( in the control
100
le soluble molecules (,anesh >umar et al#+ 200C)# 0he chemical
characteristics o& h)(rol)se( 3671 are illustrate( in 0able 1# 3&ter
the h)(rol)sis o& (elime( 3671+ the 9 has come (o"n &rom G#31
to 6#6 an( C!6 ratio change( &rom 3#2 to 1#2@# 0hese changes ma)
Mean root elongation in the C=7 e:tract
T U V
Mean root elongation in the control
100
be (ue to h)(rol)sis o& comle: molecules b) anaerobic bacteria
,ermination in(e: V
TA *elative see( germinationU T A *elative root elongatio n U
strain S# ruminantium an( then the h)(rol)se( 3671 "as mi:e(
"ith co" (ung an( lea& litter &or ro(ucing comoste( organic &er;
tili<er (C=7)# %oth the h)(rol)sis an( the bacterial comosting re;
(uce( the overall time re8uire( &or mature( comosting an(
ro(uce( a nutrient;enriche( comost ro(uct# 0he maturit) o&
C=7 "as con?rme( "ith (i&&erent h)sico;chemical arameters
li-e 0>6+ 0=C+ 0L+ 0> (&or nutrient enrichment) an( microbial
arameters li-e total mesohilic bacteria count an( &ecal coli&orm+
etc# (&or athogenic organism removal) an( instrumental anal)sis
li-e 70;2*+ 0,3 an( S/M (&or structural stu(ies)# 7inall)+ (i&&erent
cros see( germination stu(ies "ere use( to i(enti&) the
h)toto:; icit) o& C=7#
3#1# Lh)logenetic anal)sis o& the isolate( bacteria
0he isolate( bacteria "ere i(enti?e( as OOS# ruminantiumP on the
basis o& morhological+ h)siological characteristics an( 16S rD63
se8uences# 0he nucleoti(e se8uence reorte( here has been as;
signe( an accession number 9M000123 &rom 6C%2 ,ene %an-
(atabase# 0he %13S0 result sho"e( 4@A similarities to those o&
the nearest strain 3ci(aminococcaceae bacterium D57;B*01 (,en;
%an- accession 6o# /HG2CGC0)# 0he %13S0 results sho"ing high;
similarities to those o& a grou consisting o& several OOS# ruminanti;
umP strains are resente( in 7ig# 1#
3#2# 9)(rol)sis rocess o& 3671
0he isolate( anaerobic bacteria S# ruminantium 9M000123 "as
able to h)(rol)se the 3671 comle: molecules in G (a)s# 2n the
en( o& h)(rol)sis rocess+ the h)(rol)se( 3671 "as collecte(
&rom SS9 reactor# Hn(er anaerobic con(itions+ h)(rol)tic en<)mes
h)(rol)se their resective ol)mers into simler molecules+
rimar) mono; meric units+ "hich are then consume( b)
microbes (McCart)+
14C1)# Microbes have the abilit) to trans&orm these 3671 into sim;
h)(rol)sis rocess# 0he heav) metals resent in the 3671 "ere
anal)se( be&ore an( a&ter the h)(rol)sis an( it sho"e( that the
heav) metals li-e Cr+ Cu an( In "ere absent in either stage# 0he
ossible e:lanation is that the 3671 is a non;tanne( "aste+ unli-e
other tanne( "astes that are li-el) to be ollute( "ith heav) met;
als (uring tanner) rocess#
3#3# Changes in h)sico;chemical characteristics o& the &ee( mi:tures
0he comosting rocess a&ter @4 (a)s signi?cantl) mo(i?e( the
h)sical an( chemical roerties o& the &ee( mi:tures# 0he bul-
(ensit)+ article (ensit) an( orosit) o& C=7 "ere 0#2C g$cm
3
+
1#43D g$cm
3
an( CD#D+ resectivel)# 0his is in close agreement "ith
the values reorte( b) ,arcia;,ome< et al# (2001) &or mature com;
ost material# Chen et al# (200@) also observe( that on co;comost;
ing the se"age slu(ge an( ig manure the bul- (ensit) "as 0#D@
g$ cm
3
at the stage o& maturing# 0he orosit) o& CD#DA &or C=7
ob; serve( in the resent investigation ma) be regar(e( as the
i(eal value &or lant gro"th (De %oo(t an( Ber(onc-+ 14G2)#
Salinit)+ measure( in terms o& electrical con(uctivit)+ o&
C=7 "as
1#64 ms cm
1
# 0his can be attribute( to non;saline in manure an(
can be recommen(e( &or cro lant gro"th eseciall) tomato# 0his
is in close agreement "ith value reorte( b) Simone 1ev) an( 0a);
lor (2003) &or min- &arm comost (1#43 ms cm
1
)#
Cation e:change caacit) o& C0#G me8uiv#$100 g "as recor(e(
on the ?nal (a) o& comost samles# Shelton (1444) reorte( that
the comost ha( onl) 63 cmol -g
1
(or) me8uiv# 100 g
1
o& cation
e:change caacit) at the en( o& the comosting rocess# 0his in;
crease in cation e:change caacit) o& C=7 suggests the high nutri;
tive value an( man) uses &or imroving soil 8ualit) an(
ro(uctivit) &or the cros such as tomatoes+ birch+ male+ an(
blue; grass;&escue so(#
0he 9 o& the C=7 "as (ecrease( &rom G#C4 to 6#4C (0able 6)#
0he 9 "as slightl) increase( in the initial stages o& comosting+
"hich ma) be (ue to ro(uction o& ammonia (uring the
h)(rol)sis o& the rotein b) the bacteria resent in the
comosting# %ertol(i et al# (14C3) suggeste( that the otimum 9
range &or comosting is bet"een D#D an( C#0# 0he (ecrease in 9
ma) be correlate( "ith
Mitsuokella jalaludinii strain M9
Mitsuokella sp. TM-10 gene
Bacterium RA2108
Selenomonas sp. !
Acidaminococcaceae "acterium
#$%&'R01
Selenomonas ruminantium strain ()
Selenomonas ruminantium *M00012+
Selenomonas ruminantium isolate M12
Selenomonas ruminantium strain, S-0
Selenomonas ruminantium strain, S-0
Selenomonas ruminantium strain .ong.1
*elative see( germination A
*elative root elongation A
100A
7ig# 1# Lh)logram obtaine( base( on the h)logenetic anal)sis o& 16S rD63 se8uence o& Selenomonas ruminantium 9M000123#
0able 6
Changes in h)sico;chemical characteristics (A) (mean Q SD) (uring comosting o& h)(rol)se( 3671+ lea& litter an( co" manure (n R 3)#
Da)s 9 0>6 (A) 0=C (A) 0otal hoshorus (A) 0otal otassium (A)
0 G#C4 Q 0#@G3 0#CD Q 0#0D4 DD#6 Q 3#C42 0#26C Q 0#01C 0#4C Q 0#0DG
G G#41 Q 0#@40 0#C@ Q 0#0D3 D0#D Q 3#D3 0#2G2 Q 0#016 0#4C Q 0#06G
1@ G#43 Q 0#D@G 0#4D Q 0#066 @6#1 Q 2#44 0#2GG Q 0#016 0#4G Q 0#066
21 G#4@ Q 0#@@1 0#44 Q 0#064 @3#1 Q 2#4G 0#2C1 Q 0#016 0#4D Q 0#06D
2C G#D4 Q 0#D23 1#32 Q 0#0C@ @0#1 Q 2#G6 0#2C@ Q 0#014 0#4@ Q 0#06@
3D G#3C Q 0#D01 1#62 Q 0#10 32#1 Q 2#21 0#240 Q 0#020 0#C4 Q 0#061
@2 G#1C Q 0#D0 1#C0 Q 0#12 30 Q 1#C 0#24D Q 0#01G 0#CD Q 0#0D4
@4 6#4C Q 0#@CC 1#44 Q 0#134 2G#4 Q 1#42 0#244 Q 0#01G 0#C3 Q 0#0@C
the increase( ro(uction o& organic aci(s+ an( this aci(it) ma) be
reali<e( "ith the re(uction o& ammonium an( the increase(
nitri; ?cation b) microorganisms (Meunchang et al#+ 200@)#
0he temerature ro?le o& 3671 comosting as a conse8uence
o& bio(egra(ation o& organic comoun(s in comost mi:ture is
sho"n in 7ig# 2# 0he temerature o& comosting rocess "as at
31 C in the initial hase# During this hase the temerature
reache( @D C a&ter 1@ (a)s# 0he temerature "as increase( to
the highest (D4 C) on 2Cth (a)# 0he highest temerature contin;
ue( &or 23 (a)s in the comost mi:ture# 3ccor(ing to Siva>umar
et al# (200G)+ the temerature above DD C (uring comosting &a;
vors the elimination o& arasites+ athogens an( ma:imal sanita;
tion# 2n the cooling an( ?nal hase o& the comosting rocess+
the temerature "as (ecrease( to 30 C "hich ma) be consi(ere(
as an in(ication o& e:haustion o& (ecomosable organic matter in
the comosting mi:ture (7ourti et al#+ 2010)#
3&ter @4 (a)s o& comosting erio(+ 0=C "as (ecrease( &rom
DD#6A to 2G#4A# 0his means that 0=C "as re(uce( b) @4#C3A an(
7ig# 2# 0emerature ro?le (uring comosting#
7ig# 3# C!6 ratio (uring comosting#
that this loss o& organic carbon as C=
2
"as through microbial res;
iration in bacterial comosting rocess# 0>6 in the comost "as
increase( &rom 0#CDA to 1#44A+ robabl) because o& minerali<ation
o& roteinaceous organic matter (0able 6)# 3ccor(ing to Biel et al#
(14CG)+ losses in organic carbon might be resonsible &or nitrogen
a((ition# During the comosting o& organic matter most li-el) the
microbial utili<ation o& rea(il) (ecomosable comonents "ithin
the organic matter+ such as sugars+ starch+ lii(s+ ectin+ amino
aci(s an( nucleic aci(s occurs (%ar(os an( 1oe<;*eal+ 14CCF Con;
treras;*amos et al#+ 200@)# 9uang et al# (2001) reorte( that the
amount o& total 6 "as increase( a&ter comosting o& ig manure
an( lant leaves mi:ture &or 63 (a)s# Mi:tures "ith high lignocel;
lulose content normall) sho" lo" 6 losses (uring the comosting
rocess# C!6 ratio "as (ecrease( &rom 6D#0@ to 1@#02 in ?nal com;
osting rocess (7ig# 3)# 0his ma) be (ue to &ormation an( loss o&
C=
2
(9aroun et al#+ 200G) also reorte( the C!6 ratio o& 1G in
D0 (a)s o& tanner) slu(ge comoste( manure# 0L content o& the
C=7 "as 0#244A+ "hich is higher than that in initial mi:ture# 0his
ma) be attribute( to minerali<ation o& organic matters# 9uang
et al# (200@) reorte( an increase in total L attribute( to the net
loss o& (r) mass+ "hich generall) concentrate( the hoshorus in
comosting ile# 0> content in the ?nal ro(uct "as slightl) lo"er
than in the initial &ee( mi:ture (0able 1)# 0his might be (ue to
leaching o& 0> b) e:cess "ater that (raine( through the &ee(
mi:tures#
3#@# 9eav) metal concentrations in initial an( ?nal comost
2n this stu()+ all heav) metal contents "ere (ecrease( at the
en( o& @4 (a)s comosting rocess (0able G)# 9eav) metals li-e
Cr+ Cu an( In "ere absent in the (elime( 3671 an( h)(rol)se(
3671# %ut these metals "ere &oun( to be resent in initial ra"
mi:; ture because o& co" (ung an( lea& litter# 2n the ?nal (a) o&
C=7+ heav) metal contents "ere signi?cantl) re(uce(# 0his
re(uction ma) be (ue to the active thermohilic hase (uring
comosting rocess an( subse8uentl) leaching rocess# 9aroun
et al# (200G) also reorte( that the heav) metals "ere (ecrease(
(ue to (ecom; osition o& organic matter in the thermohilic
hase o& comosting rocess# Canarutto et al# (1441) also
suggeste( that the (ecrease in amount o& heav) metal in comost
(een(s on metal loss through leaching# 0he increase o& metal
level is (ue to organic matter (ecomosition+ the release o&
carbon (io:i(e an( "ater an( miner; ali<ation rocesses in the
course o& comosting# 2n the ?nal C=7
0able G
9eav) metal contents (mean Q SD) in initial mi:ture an( ?nal comost (n R 3)#
9eav) metal (mg -g
1
) 2nitial ra" mi:ture 7inal comost
7e 336 Q 23#D2 326 Q 21#14
Mn 366 Q 24#2C 32@ Q 2D#42
Cr 10 Q 0#6 @#4 Q 0#34
In 120 Q G#2 C4 Q 6#31
Cu 34 Q 2#3@ 14 Q 1#D2
0able C
Microbiological anal)sis (uring comosting#
Comosting
erio(
0otal
mesohilic
3erobic
%acillus s#
7ecal
coli&orm
Salmonella s#
an( Shigella s#
((a)s) bacteria (C7H g
1
) (C7H g
1
) (C7H g
1
) (C7H g
1
)
0 G 10
G
4#3 10
6
W10 WD
G @ 10
6
G#1 10
6
W10 WD
1@ 3 10
D
D#@ 10
6
W10 WD
21 2#1 10
@
3#1 10
D
WD 6D
2C 2#D 10
3
6#3 10
3
WD 6D
3D 3#2 10
2
G 10
2
6D 6D
@2 2 10
2
3 10
2
6D 6D
@4 1#D 10
2
1#1 10
2
6D 6D
C7H! colon) &orming unitsF 6D! not (etectable# 3ll e:eriments results as mean o&
si: anal)ses#
heav) metals li-e 7e+ Mn+ Cr+ In an( Cu "ere (etecte( in limit an(
accetable range (,uta an( ,arg+ 200C)# Xa(av an( ,arg (2004)
suggeste( the heav) metals at an accetable an( limit range ma)
be essential &or lant gro"th# 0his suggestion is suorte( b) the
see( germination an( h)toto:icit) stu(ies o& (i&&erent cro see(s
con(ucte( in the resent investigation#
3#D# Microbial activit) (uring comosting
0he anal)sis o& bacterial oulation in the initial mi:ture
(h)(rol)se( 3671$co" (ung$crushe( lea& litter) sho"e( total mes;
ohiles (G 10
G
)+ aerobic %acillus s# (4#3 10
6
)+ &ecal coli&orm
(W10)+ Salmonella s# an( Shigella s# (WD) (0able C)# 0he microbial
oulation signi?cantl) re(uce( on @4th (a) "hich ma) be attrib;
ute( (ue to the e:haustion o& nutrients &rom the mi:tures an( the
increase in temerature (uring comosting rocess (9aroun et al#+
200G)# 0he microbial content "as re(uce( signi?cantl) (uring
2C
th
3Dth (a) an( this re(uction ma) be (ue to temerature re;
maine( at D4 C on 2Cth (a)+ as sho"n in 7ig# 2# 2n these e:eri;
ments+ athogenic microorganisms li-e &ecal coli&orm+ Salmonella
s# an( Shigella s "ere eliminate( in the comost mi:ture a&ter
3D (a)s# 0his result coinci(es "ith Stenti&or( (1446)+ "ho reorte(
that these athogenic microorganisms ha( (rastic re(uction (ur;
ing thermogenic hase (DD C) o& comosting rocess# 0he aerobic
%acillus s# (1#1 10
2
) "ere re(uce( but remaine( throughout
the stu()+ in(icating that the) "ere able to survive in mesohilic
an( thermohilic con(ition (9aroun et al#+ 200G)#
3#6# 70;2* anal)sis
2n 3671 an intense broa( ban( centre( bet"een o& 3300 an(
3D00 cm
1
in(icating a strong h)(rogen ban( o& =9 stretch in
carbo:)lic grou# 3 s)mmetric ban( at 242D cm
1
occurre( (ue
to alihatic C9 grou stretching o& &att) aci(s# 3 strong ban(
res; ent at 1040 an( 1233 cm
1
are (ue to C= stretch o&
ol)saccha; ri(es in 3671 (*eveille et al#+ 2003)# 3mi(e ban(s
(2 an( 22) are also aeare( in the &re8uenc) range 1D@0 an(
1230 cm
1
+ these are originating &rom ami(e grous (7ig# @a)# 0he
above in(icate( stretching &re8uencies are the evi(ence &or the
resence o& rotein+ ol)sacchari(es+ lii(s an( &att) aci(s#
2n initial mi:tures o& li8ue?e( 3671+ leaves an( co" (ung (0th
(a) (7ig# @b)) also contain a ban( o& =9 stretch strong h)(rogen
bon(ing is seen at 331G cm
1
F lo" intensit) absortion ban( at
16D@ cm
1
is (ue to aromatic CKC stretching vibrations (5or(ao
et al#+ 200G)# 2n initial mi:tures+ alihatic meth)lene grous in &ats
an( lii(s are e:hibite( b) ban(s at 242D an( 2CD0 cm
1
are
&oun( (ue to &ats an( lii(s (9achicha et al#+ 2004)# 3 strong ban(
resent at 1040 cm
1
ma) be attribute( to C= stretch o&
ol)sacchari(es an( Si= stretch in initial mi:tures# 3bsortion at
1@00 cm
1
is C 9 bon( in celluloseF 1100 cm
1
is aromatic
s-eletal an( C=
7ig# @# 70;2* image o& 3671 mi:tures an( comost manure#
stretch in cellulose an( hemicellulose (Lan(e) an( 0heagarajan+
144G)# 0he ban(s that aeare( at 1@60 an( 1@20 cm
1
are the
stretching characteristic vibrations &or lignin# 3mi(e 22
(1D@0 cm
1
) an( 222 (1230 cm
1
) ea-s are also aeare( in initial
mi:tures#
0he ?nal (a) (@4th (a) (7ig# @c)) comosting sho"s a relative
(ecreasing ea- intensit) o& alihatic region at 242D an(
2CD0 cm
1
an( o& ol)sacchari(es at 1040 cm
1
# 0hese results
"ere the evi(ence &or (egra(ation an( con(ensation reactions o&
organic comoun(s resent in comost mi:tures (Lroven<ano
et al#+ 2001)# 0his alihatic meth)lene grous "ere eliminate( (ur;
ing comosting erio( (Smi(t et al#+ 200D)# =n other han(+ (e&or;
mations o& ea-s "ere &oun( at 1100 cm
1
# 3 strong re(uction in
intensit) o& the ban(s o& lignin at 1@00 cm
1
+ cellulose at
1@20 cm
1
an( hemicellulose at 1@60 cm
1
in ?nal C=7# 3mi(e 22
an( 222 ea-s "as (isaearance in 2* sectrum o& C=7# 0his result
"as closel) relate( "ith the observations recor(e( b) %arone an(
3ri-an (200G)# During comosting+ the rotein containing intrinsic
h)(rogen bon(ing structure "as (isrute( an( structures "ere
bro-en u+ at the time those carbon)ls an( ami(es "ere easil)
con; sume(# 3 Shar nitrate ban( at ea- 13C@ cm
1
occurs on
the ?nal (a) o& comosting+ in(icating stable+ rero(ucible an(
"ell com; oste( or maturit) o& manure (*eveille et al#+ 2003)#
0hese results "oul( con?rm the comlete minerali<ation o&
ol)eti(es+ ol); sacchari(es+ alihatic meth)l grous an(
lignin#
3#G# 0hermal characteristics o& C=7
0,3 ro?les &or the initial an( ?nal stages (C=7) are sho"n in
7ig# D# 3 "eight loss reresents the (eh)(ration reaction "as ob;
serve( in the temerature range o& 601D0 C# 0he (ecomosition
rocess occurre( in comost samle in the range o& 200 an(
1200 C# 0he initial samle (0th (a)) sho"e( a "eight loss o&
@6#2A (r) matter+ "hile it "as onl) 22A in the ?nal samle (@4th
(a)) in the temerature range o& 200D60 C# 0he "eight losses
7ig# D# 0hermal gravimetric anal)sis (0,3) o& 3671 mi:tures an( comost manure#
7ig# 6a# S/M image o& initial (a) 3671 mi:tures#
at this temerature attribute( to the combustion o& the carboh);
(rates an( the thermal (egra(ation o& the aromatic structures#
0he total "eight losses "ere recor(e( u to 1200 C+ "ith G2A loss
in the initial samle an( 32A loss in ?nal (a) o& C=7 (@4 (a)s)# 0he
results suort the evi(ence &or the (estruction o& the carboh);
(rates in mature comost manure# 2mmature comost "as charac;
teri<e( b) the high carboh)(rates comonents "hich ten( to
(isaear in the stabili<e( comost (Lietro an( Laola+ 200@)#
Weight losses occurre( at 310 C can be associate( "ith thermal
(egra(ation o& roteins an( also to thermal (egra(ation o& cellu;
lose catal)se( b) the so(ium an( otassium (Das et al#+ 200C)#
3#C# Scanning electron microsco) (S/M) anal)sis
0he scanning electron microsco) e:amination "as use( &or
stu()ing the morholog) events o& the initial 3671 amen(e( mi:;
tures an( ?nal C=7# 0he S/M image o& the initial ra" mi:ture sam;
le (0th (a)) sho"n in 7ig# 6a# 0he S/M image sho"s the
aggregates o& biomass organi<e( onto cellulose ?bres# 0he rotein
matri: is ?rml) bon(e( "ith lignin containing cellulose ?bers# 0he
S/M image o& the comoste( manure (7ig# 6b)+ sho"s that the
ro; tein an( lignin matri: &rom the rogressive (egra(ation b)
mi; crobes# 0his conclu(es that the microbes attac-e( non;
?brillar roteins containing 3671 an( lignin matri:;cellulose
?bres# 0he) "ere searate( an( (enature( (uring comosting#
0he microbial activit) mo(ulate( the e:tra cellular ac-ing o&
non;?brillar ro; tein an( cellulose ?bres in the orosit) o&
substrate# Moreover+ the (egra(ation o& 3671 containing mi:tures
resulte( in the (isag; gregation an( more numerous sur&ace
irregularities in the ?nal (a) comost manure (,anesh >umar et
al#+ 200C)#
3#4# /&&ect o& C=7 on see( germination
0he C=7 ha( no harm&ul e&&ect on the see( germination o&
toma; to+ green gram+ bottle gour( an( cucumber cros# 3mong
the &our cros stu(ie(+ tomato recor(e( the highest (4@A) an(
cucumber "as the lo"est (C@A) relative see( germination (0able
4)# C=7 e:; tracts alication resulte( in a linear increase in root
elongation an( 8ua(ratic increase o& the germination in(e: (,2)
in all &our cros comare( to the control# ,2 values suggest that
the 3671
7
i
g
#

6
b
#

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i
m
a
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e

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&

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n
a
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a
)

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&

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o
m

o
s
t
e
(

m
a
n
u
r
e
#
0able 4
/&&ect o& comost e:tracts (A) on (i&&erent cro b) see( germination bioassa) (n R 3)
(mean Q SD)#
%remner+ 5#M#+ 1446# 6itrogen;total# 2n! Sar-s+ D#1# (/(#)+ Metho(s o& Soils 3nal)sis#
Lart 3# Chemical Metho(s# Soil Science Societ) o& 3merica 2nc#+ 3merican Societ)
o& 3gronom) 2nc#+ Ma(ison+ W2+ # 10CD1122#
Canarutto+ S#+ Letru<<elli+ ,#+ 1ubrano+ 1#+ ,ui(i+ ,#%#+ 1441# 9o" comosting a&&ects
0reatment
cro
*elative see(
germination (A)
*elative root
elongation (A)
,ermination
in(e:
heav) metal content# %ioC)cle 32+ @CD0#
Chen+ 0#%#+ 1uo+ W#+ Ihen+ ,#D#+ 200@# Strati?cation o& bul- (ensit) an( its ()namics
in the rocess o& co;comosting# /nvironmental Science 2D (D)+ 1@31@G#
0omato 4@ Q D#D@ 1D6#@@ Q 4#0G 1@G#0D Q 4#CD
,reen gram 42 Q D#CC 132#G4 Q 4#02 122#16 Q G#C1
%ottle gour( C6 Q D#D4 12D Q C#D 10G#D0 Q 6#DD
Cucumber C@ Q D#@6 10G#2@ Q G#1C 40#0C Q D#4@
comost (i( not sho" an) inhibitor) e&&ect on all &our cros# 2n this
stu()+ the germination in(e: (,2) reache( above 100A &or all &our
cros comare( to control# Similar results "ere reorte( b) 3raujo
an( Monteiro (200D) &or so)bean an( "heat see(s# 9o"ever+ the
highest ,2 an( relative root gro"th "as sho"n b) tomato an(
the lo"est &or cucumber# Contreras;*amos et al# (200@) reorte(
the tanner) e&'uent comost manure e:tracts resulte( in the ger;
mination in(e: &or cress (1ei(ium sativum) o& @CA# 2mmature com;
osts generall) intro(uce h)toto:ic comoun(s (0am an( 0i8uia+
144@)# ,ermination in(e: value belo" D0A in(icates that the
maturit) "as not su&?cient in comost manure (Mathur et al#+
1443)# =n other han(+ 0i8uia et al# (1446) suggeste( an( rove(
that germination in(e: "as greater than C0A+ the h)toto:icit)
o& the comost manure (isaeare(#
@# Conclusion
0he bacterial comosting o& 3671+ the major soli( "aste gener;
ate( &rom leather manu&acturing in(ustr)+ ma) be an attractive
an( alternative metho(olog) to the e:isting chemical an( thermal
metho(s &or the (isosal o& soli( "aste# Currentl)+ the &ertili<er
va; lue o& animal an( agricultural "astes has been e:lore( b)
man) researchers but little attention has been given to e:loring
the os; sibilit) o& nutrient recover) &rom the in(ustrial "aste b)
comost; ing# 2n the course o& @4 (a)s o& bacterial comosting+
h)sical+ h)sico;chemical anal)sis+ germination in(e: an(
athogenic re; moval have sho"n that all arameters reache( the
relativel) stable levels+ re'ecting the stabilit) an( maturit) o& the
?nal ro(uct# 0he C!6 ratio (ecline( an( reache( the otimal
range o& stable com; ost# 0he rea(il) bio(egra(able comoun(s
such as amino aci(s+ lii(s an( ol)sacchari(es "ere (ecomose(
an( relace( b) the stable humic substances# 0he ?nal (a)
comost characteri<e( b) S/M an( 70;2* anal)sis con?rme( the
comlete minerali<ation o& the comost an( (eclare( it as
maturit) manure#
3c-no"le(gement
Mr# %# *avin(ran is than-&ul to the Council o& Scienti?c an(
2n(ustrial *esearch (CS2*) an( the Central 1eather *esearch 2nsti;
tute (C1*2)+ 2n(ia+ &or a"ar(ing Senior research &ello"shi an( ro;
vi(ing all the &acilities nee(e( to carr) out this "or-#
*e&erences
3L93+ 3WW3+ WLC7+ 1440# Stan(ar( 3nal)sis &or Water an( Waste"ater# 3merican
Lublic 9ealth 3ssociation+ 3merican Water Wor-s 3ssociation an( Water
Lollution Control 7e(eration+ Washington+ DC+ HS3#
3raujo+ 3#S#7#+ Monteiro+ *#0#*#+ 200D# Llant bioassa)s to assess to:icit) o& te:tile
slu(ge comost# Science 3griculture 62 (3)+ 2C6240#
%ar(os+ *#L#+ 1oe<;*eal+ 5#M#+ 14CC# 0he comosting rocess! suscetible &ee(stoc-s+
temerature+ microbiolog)+ sanitisation an( (ecomosition# 2n! %i(lingmaier+
W#+ 1E9ermite+ L# (/(s#)+ Lrocee(ings Comost Lrocesses in Waste
Management+ Monaster) o& 6eresheim (7*,)# C/C+ %russels+ # 1G4140#
%arone+ 5#*#+ 3ri-an+ =#+ 200G# Comosting an( bio(egra(ation o& thermall)
rocesse( &eather -eratin ol)mer# Lol)mer Degra(ation an( Stabilit) 42+
CD4C6G#
%ertol(i+ M#D#+ Ballini+ ,#+ Lera+ 3#+ 14C3# 0he biolog) o& comosting# Waste
Management an( *esearch 1+ 1DG1G6#
Contreras;*amos+ S#M#+ 3lvare<;%ernal+ D#+ 0rujillo;0aia+ 6#+ Den(ooven+ 1#+ 200@#
Comosting o& tanner) e&'uent "ith co" manure an( "heat stra"# %ioresource
0echnolog) 4@+ 22322C#
Das+ >#C#+ ,arcia;Lere<+ M#+ %ibens+ %#+ Melear+ 6#+ 200C# Slo" )rol)sis o& oultr)
litter an( ine "oo() biomass! imact o& chars an( bio;oils on microbial
gro"th# 5ournal o& /nvironmental Science an( 9ealth Lart 3 @3+ G1@G2@#
De %oo(t+ M#+ Ber(onc-+ =#+ 14G2# 0he h)sical roerties o& the substrates in
horticulture# 3cta 9orticulturae 26+ 3G@@#
Dinel+ 9#+ Marche+ 0#+ Schnit<er+ M#+ Lare+ 0#+ Chamagne+ L#+ 200@# Co;comosting o&
aer mill slu(ge an( har("oo( sa"(ust un(er t"o t)es o& in;vessel
rocesses# 5ournal o& /nvironmental Science an( 9ealth+ Lart b! Lestici(es+
7oo( Contaminants an( 3gricultural Wastes 34 (1)+ 1341D1#
7ourti+ =#+ 5e(i(i+ 6#+ 3b(ennaceur 9assen+ 3#+ 2010# 9umic substances change
(uring the co;comosting rocess o& municial soli( "astes an( se"age
slu(ge# Worl( 5ournal o& Microbiolog) an( %iotechnolog)#
(oi!10#100G$s112G@;010;
0@11; : #
,arcia;,ome<+ 3#+ %ernal+ M#L#+ *oig+ 3#+ 2001# ,ro"th o& ornamental lants in t"o
comosts reare( &rom agro in(ustrial "astes# %ioresource 0echnolog) C3+
C1CG#
,arg+ B#>#+ >aushi-+ L#+ 200D# Bermistabili<ation o& te:tile mill slu(ge si-e( "ith
oultr) (ro ings b) an eigeic earth"orm /isenia &oeti(a# %ioresource
0echnolog) 46+ 106310G1#
,anesh >umar+ 3#+ S"arnalatha+ S#+ Sairam+ %#+ Se-aran+ ,#+ 200C# Lro(uction o&
al-aline rotease b) Lseu(omonas aeruginosa using roteinaceous soli( "aste
generate( &rom leather manu&acturing in(ustries# %ioresource 0echnolog) 44
(6)+ 143414@@#
,anesh >umar+ 3#+ Ben-atesan+ *#+ Lrasa( *ao+ %#+ S"arnalatha+ S#+ Se-aran+ ,#+ 2004#
Htili<ation o& tanner) soli( "aste &or rotease ro(uction b) S)nergistes s# in
soli(;state &ermentation an( artial rotease characteri<ation# /ngineering 1i&e
Sciences 4 (1)+ 66G3#
,uta+ *#+ ,arg+ B#>#+ 200C# Stabili<ation o& rimar) se"age slu(ge (uring
vermicomosting# 5ournal o& 9a<ar(ous Materials 1D3+ 10231030#
9achicha+ S#+ Sellami+ 7#+ Cegarra+ 5#+ 9achicha+ *#+ Drira+ 6#+ Me(hioub+ >#+ 3mmar+ /#+
2004# %iological activit) (uring co;comosting o& slu(ge issue( &rom the =MW
evaoration on(s "ith oultr) manureYh)sico;chemical characteri<ation o&
the rocesse( organic matter# 5ournal o& 9a<ar(ous Materials 162 (1)+ @02@04#
9aroun+ M#+ 2(ris+ 3#+ S)e( =mar+ S#S#*#+ 200G# 3 stu() o& heav) metals an( their &ate
in the comosting o& tanner) slu(ge# Waste Management 2G (11)+ 1D@11DD0#
9uang+ ,#7#+ Wong+ 5#W#C#+ Wu+ S#0#+ 6agar+ %#%#+ 200@# /&&ect o& C$6 on comosting o&
ig manure "ith sa"(ust# Waste Management *esearch 2@+ C0DC13#
9uang+ ,#7#+ Wu+ S#0#+ 1i+ 7#%#+ Wang+ 5#W#+ 2001# 6itrogen trans&ormation (uring ig
manure comosting# 5ournal o& /nvironmental Science+ China 13 (@)+ @01@0D#
2nbar+ X#+ 9a(ar+ X#+ Chen+ X#+ 1443# *ec)cling o& cattle manure! the comosting
rocess an( characteri<ation o& maturit)# 5ournal o& /nvironmental Sualit) 22+
CDGC63#
5or(ao+ C#L#+ 7ialho+ 1#1#+ 6eves+ 5#C#1#+ Cecon+ L#*#+ Men(onca+ /#S#+ 7ontes+ *#1#7#+ 200G#
*e(uction o& heav) metal contents in li8ui( e&'uents b) vermicomosts an(
the use o& the metal;enriche( vermicomosts in lettuce cultivation#
%ioresource 0echnolog) 4C+ 2C002C13#
Mata;3lvare<+ 5#+ 2002# %iomethani<ation o& the =rganic 7raction o& Municial Soli(
Wastes# 2W3+ 1on(on#
Mathur+ S#L#+ ="en+ ,#+ Dinel+ 9#+ Schnit<er+ M#+ 1443# Determination o& comost
maturit)# 2# 1iterature revie"# %iolog)+ 3griculture an( 9orticulture 10+ 6DC6#
McCart)+ L#1#+ 14C1# 2n! 9ughes+ D#/# et al# (/(s#)+ 3naerobic Digestion# /lsevier
%iome(ical Lress+ 3mster(am+ 6e" Xor-+ =:&or(#
Mc>eague+ 5#3#+ 14C1# Manual on Soil Samling an( Metho(s o& 3nal)sis+ secon( e(#
Cana(ian Societ) o& Soil Science+ =tta"a#
Meunchang+ S#+ Lanichsa-atana+ S#+ Weaver+ *#W#+ 200@# Co;comosting o& ?lter
ca-e an( bagasseF b);ro(ucts &rom a sugar mill# %ioresource 0echnolog) 46+
@3G@@2#
Lan(e)+ >#>#+ 0heagarajan+ >#S#+ 144G# 3nal)sis o& "oo( sur&aces an( groun( "oo(
b) (i&&use re'ectance (D*270) an( hotoacoustic (L3S) 7ourier trans&orm
in&rare( sectroscoic techni8ues# 9ol< 3ls *oh;Hn( Wer-sto&& DD+ 3C3340#
Lare+ 0#+ Dinel+ 9#+ Schnit<er+ M#+ 1444# /:tractabilit) o& trace elements (uring co;
comosting o& biosoli(s an( municial soli( "astes# %iolog) an( 7ertilit) o&
Soils 24+ 313G#
Lietro+ M#+ Laola+ C#+ 200@# 0hermal anal)sis &or the evaluation o& the organic matter
evolution (uring municial soli( "aste aerobic comosting rocess#
0hermochimica 3cta @13+ 20421@#
Lroven<ano+ M#*#+ =liveira+ S#C#D#+ Silva+ M#*#S#+ Sensei+ 6#+ 2001# 3ssessment o&
maturit) (egree o& comosts &rom (omestic soli( "astes b) 'uorescence an(
7ourier trans&orm in&rare( sectroscoies# 5ournal o& 3gricultural an( 7oo(
Chemistr) @4 (12)+ DCG@DCG4#
*avin(ran+ %#+ Dinesh+ S#1#+ 5ohn >enne()+ 1#+ Se-aran+ ,#+ 200C# Bermicomosting o&
soli( "aste generate( &rom leather in(ustries using eigeic earth"orm /isenia
&oeti(a# 3lie( %iochemistr) an( %iotechnolog) 1D1 (23)+ @C0@CC#
*avin(ran+ %#+ Se-aran+ ,#+ 2004# =timi<ation o& minimal me(ia &or the isolate(
bacteria to (egra(e tanner) soli( "astes# 2n! S)mosium on 1eather 2n(ustries
,et;together+ Chennai+ # 42#
*eveille+ B#+ Mansu)+ 1#+ 5ar(e+ /#+ ,arnier;Sillam+ /#+ 2003# Characterisation o&
se"age slu(ge (erive( organic matter! lii(s an( humic aci(s# =rganic
,eochemistr) 3@+ 61D62G#
Shelton+ 5#/#+ 1444# Soil 7acts using Municial Soli( Waste Comost# Lublishe( b)
6orth Carolina Cooerative /:tension Service Lublication (D%1)#
Siva>umar+ >#+ Saravana >umar+ B#*#+ 5agatheesan+ L#6#*#+ Bis"anathan+ >#+
Chan(rase-aran+ D#+ 200G# Seasonal variations in comosting rocess o& (ea(
oultr) bir(s# %ioresource 0echnolog) 44 (4)+ 3G0C3G13#
Smi(t+ /#+ /c-har(t+ >#+ 1echne+ L#+ Schulten+ 9#+ 1ein"eber+ L#+ 200D# Characteri<ation
o& (i&&erent (ecomosition stages o& bio "aste using 70;2* sectrosco) an(
)rol)sis;?el( ioni<ation mass sectrometr)# %io(egra(ation 16 (1)+ 6GG4#
Simone 1ev)+ 5#+ 0a)lor+ %#*#+ 2003# /&&ects o& ul mill soli(s an( three comosts on
earl) gro"th o& tomatoes# %ioresource 0echnolog) C4+ 24G30D#
Sneath+ L#9#3#+ 14C@# 2n! >rieg+ 6#*#+ 9olt+ 5#,# (/(s#)+ %erge)Es Manual o& S)stematic
%acteriolog)# Williams an( Wil-ins+ %altimore+ # DG#
Stenti&or(+ /#2#+ 1446# Comosting control! rinciles an( ractice# 2n! De %ertol(i+
M#+ Se8ui+ L#+ 1emmes+ %#+ Lai+ 0# (/(s#)+ 0he Sciences o& Comosting# %lac-ie
3ca(emic Lro&essional+ ,lasgo"+ H>+ # @4D4#
0am+ 6#7#X#+ 0i8uia+ S#M#+ 144@# 3ssessing to:icit) o& sent ig litter using a see(
germination techni8ue# *esources+ Conservation+ an( *ec)cling 11+ 2612G@#
0i8uia+ S#M#+ 0am+ 6#7#X#+ 9o(g-iss+ 2#5#+ 1446# /&&ects o& comosting on h)toto:icit)
o& sent ig;manure sa"(ust litter# /nvironmental Lollution 43+ 2@42D6#
Basu(evan+ 6#+ *avin(ran+ 3#D#+ 200G# %iotechnological rocess &or the treatment o&
'eshing &rom tanner) in(ustries &or methane generation# Current Science 43+
1@421@4@#
Bee-en+ 3#+ 9amelers+ %#+ 2002# Sources o& C(+ Cu+ Lb an( In in bio"aste# Science o&
the 0otal /nvironment 300+ CG4C#
Biel+ M#+ Sa)ag+ D#+ 3n(re+ 1#+ 14CG# =timi<ation o& agricultural+ in(ustrial "aste
management through in;vessel comosting# 2n! (e %ertol(i+ M# (/(#)+ Comost!
Lro(uction+ Sualit) an( Hse# /lsevier 3lie( Science+ /sse:+ # 23023G#
Wal-e)+ 3#+ %lac-+ C#3#+ 143@# /:amination o& Degtjare&& metho(s &or (etermining
soil organic matter an( a roose( mo(i?cation o& the chromic aci( titration
metho(# Soil Science 3G+ 243C#
Xa(av+ 3#+ ,arg+ B#>#+ 2004# 7easibilit) o& nutrient recover) &rom in(ustrial slu(ge b)
vermicomosting technolog)# 5ournal o& 9a<ar(ous Materials 16C (1)+ 26226C#
Iuancic+ ,#D#+ 5emec+ 3#+ 2010# 3naerobic (igestion o& tanner) "aste! semi;
continuous an( anaerobic se8uencing batch reactor rocesses# %ioresource
0echnolog) 101 (1)+ 2633#

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