DON'T SHOOT THE DOG

Karen Pryor
To my mother, Sally Ondeck; my stepmother, Ricky Wylie; and Winifred Sturley, my teacher and
friend.
Contents
Foreword
1Reinforcement !etter than Rewards
"n which we learn of the ferocity of Wall Street lawyers; of how toand how not to#uy presents
and $i%e compliments; of a $rumpy $orilla, a $rud$in$ panda, and a truculent teena$er &the author';
of $am#lin$, pencil chewin$, fallin$ in lo%e with heels, and other #ad ha#its; of how to reform a
scoldin$ teacher or a cra##y #oss without their knowin$ what you(%e done; and more.
)Shapin$ *e%elopin$ Super +erformance Without Strain or +ain
,ow to conduct an opera; how to putt; how to handle a #ad report card. +arlor $ames for trainers.
-otes on killer whales, -im .himpsky /en, 0re$ory !ateson, the !rearley School, why cats $et
stuck in trees, and how to train a chicken.
1Stimulus .ontrol .ooperation Without .oercion
Orders, commands, re2uests, si$nals, cues, and words to the wise; what works and what doesn(t.
What discipline isn(t. Who $ets o#eyed and why. ,ow to stop yellin$ at your kids. *ancin$, drill
teams, music, martial arts, and other recreational uses of stimulus control.
34ntrainin$ 4sin$ Reinforcement to 0et Rid of !eha%ior 5ou *on(t Want
6i$ht methods of $ettin$ rid of #eha%ior you don(t want, from messy roommates to #arkin$ do$s to
#ad tennis to harmful addictions, startin$ with 7ethod 1 Shoot the 8nimal, which definitely works,
and endin$ with 7ethod 9 .han$e the 7oti%ation, which is more humane and definitely works too.
:Reinforcement in the Real World
What it all means. Readin$ minds, coachin$ Olympic teams, how happiness can affect corporate
profits, ways to deal with other $o%ernments, and other practical applications of reinforcement
theory.
;.licker Trainin$ 8 -ew Technolo$y
From the dolphin tanks to e%eryone(s #ackyard do$ owners around the world put away the choke
chain and pick up the clicker. <on$=term #enefits accelerated learnin$, precision, relia#ility, #etter
communication, and fun. The 0reat "nternet .anine ,ot *o$ .hallen$e; some truly fetchin$ horses;
a pilot pilot pro$ram; and clickin$ and autism. .han$in$ the world one click at a time.
Resources
8cknowled$ments
8#out the 8uthor
Foreword
This #ook is a#out how to train anyonehuman or animal, youn$ or old, oneself or othersto do
anythin$ that can and should #e done. ,ow to $et the cat off the kitchen ta#le or your $randmother
to stop na$$in$ you. ,ow to affect #eha%ior in your pets, your kids, your #oss, your friends. ,ow to
impro%e your tennis stroke, your $olf $ame, your math skills, your memory. 8ll #y usin$ the
principles of trainin$ with reinforcement.
These principles are laws, like the laws of physics. They underlie all learnin$=teachin$ situations as
surely as the law of $ra%ity underlies the fallin$ of an apple. Whene%er we attempt to chan$e
#eha%ior, in oursel%es or in others, we are usin$ these laws, whether we know it or not.
4sually we are usin$ them inappropriately. We threaten, we ar$ue, we coerce, we depri%e. We
pounce on others when thin$s $o wron$ and pass up the chance to praise them when thin$s $o ri$ht.
We are harsh and impatient with our children, with each other, with oursel%es e%en; and we feel
$uilty o%er that harshness. We know that with #etter methods we could accomplish our ends faster,
and without causin$ distress, #ut we can(t concei%e of those methods. We are >ust not attuned to the
ways in which modern trainers take ad%anta$e of the laws of positi%e reinforcement.
Whate%er the trainin$ task, whether keepin$ a four=year=old 2uiet in pu#lic, house#reakin$ a puppy,
coachin$ a team, or memori?in$ a poem, it will $o faster, and #etter, and #e more fun, if you know
how to use positi%e reinforcement.
The laws of reinforcement are simple; you can put the whole #usiness on a #lack#oard in ten
minutes and learn it in an hour. 8pplyin$ these laws is more of a challen$e; trainin$ #y
reinforcement is like a $ame, one dependent upon 2uick thinkin$.
8nyone can #e a trainer; some people are $ood at it from the %ery start. 5ou do not need special
2ualities of patience, or a forceful personality, or a way with animals or children, or what circus
trainer Frank !uck used to call the power of the human eye. 5ou >ust need to know what you(re
doin$.
There ha%e always #een people with an intuiti%e understandin$ of how to apply the laws of trainin$.
We call them $ifted teachers, #rilliant commandin$ officers, winnin$ coaches, $enius animal
trainers. "(%e o#ser%ed some theater directors and many symphony orchestra conductors who are
wonderfully skilled at usin$ reinforcement. These $ifted trainers don(t need a #ook to #e a#le to take
ad%anta$e of the laws that affect trainin$. For the rest of us, howe%er, those of us muddlin$ alon$
with an uncontrolled pet or at cross=purposes with a child or coworker, a knowled$e of how
reinforcement really works can #e a $odsend.
Reinforcement trainin$ is not a system of reward and punishment#y and lar$e modern trainers
don(t e%en use those words. The concept of reward and punishment carries a $reat frei$ht of
emotional associations and interpretations, such as desire and dread and $uilt and shoulds and ou$ht
to(s. For e@ample, we $i%e rewards to others for thin$s we did oursel%essuch as ice cream to a
child to make up for a scoldin$. We also tend to think we know what a reward should #e ice cream,
for e@ample, or praise. !ut some people don(t like ice cream, and praise from the wron$ person or
for the wron$ reason may hurt. "n some cases praise from a teacher may $uarantee ridicule from
classmates.
We e@pect people to do the ri$ht thin$ without reward. Our teena$e dau$hter should wash the
dishes #ecause that(s her duty to us. We are an$ry if children or employees #reak thin$s, steal,
arri%e late, speak rudely, and so on, #ecause they should know #etter. We punish, often lon$ after
the #eha%ior occurredsendin$ people to prison #ein$ a prime e@amplethus creatin$ an e%ent
that may ha%e no effect on future #eha%ior, and which in fact is merely retri#ution. -e%ertheless we
think of such punishment as education, and people easily refer to it in that way A" tau$ht him a
lesson.A
7odern reinforcement trainin$ is #ased not on these folk #eliefs #ut on #eha%ioral science.
Scientifically speakin$, reinforcement is an e%ent that &a' occurs durin$ or upon completion of a
#eha%ior; and &#' increases the likelihood of that #eha%ior occurrin$ in the future. The key elements
here are two the two e%ents are connected in real timethe #eha%ior en$enders the reinforcement
and then the #eha%ior occurs more fre2uently.
Reinforcers may #e positi%e, somethin$ the learner mi$ht like and want more of, such as a smile or
a pat, or they mi$ht #e ne$ati%e, somethin$ to a%oid, such as a yank on a leash or a frown. What(s
critical is that there is a temporal relationship #etween themthe #eha%ior occurs, then the
reinforcer occurs, and su#se2uently the #eha%ior that #rou$ht the $ood result or a%erted the #ad
occurs more often. "n fact, the definition works in #oth directions, like a feed#ack loop "f the
#eha%ior does not increase, then either the reinforcer was presented too early or too late, or the
payoff you selected was not reinforcin$ to that indi%idual.
"n addition, " #elie%e there(s an important difference #etween reinforcement theory, the science, and
reinforcement training, a specific application of that science. Research shows that followin$ a
#eha%ior with a pleasant conse2uence increases the #eha%ior. That(s true; #ut in practice, to $et the
sensational results we trainers ha%e now come to e@pect, the reinforcer has to occur in the %ery
instant the #eha%ior is takin$ place. !in$oB -owB "n the instant, in real time, you, the learner, need
to know that what you(re doin$ right now has won you a pri?e.
7odern trainers ha%e de%eloped some $reat shortcuts for reinforcin$ instantaneously primarily the
use of a marker si$nal to identify the #eha%ior. This re%ised %ersion of Don't Shoot the Dog! is
a#out the laws of reinforcement, some practical ways to use those laws in the real world, and the
$rassroots mo%ement called, at least at present, clicker trainin$, which is takin$ the technolo$y into
new and une@plored terrain.
" first learned a#out trainin$ with positi%e reinforcement in ,awaii, where in 1C;1 " si$ned on as
head dolphin trainer at an oceanarium, Sea <ife +ark. " had trained do$s and horses #y traditional
methods, #ut dolphins were a different proposition; you cannot use a leash or a #ridle or e%en your
fist on an animal that >ust swims away. +ositi%e reinforcersprimarily a #ucket of fishwere the
only tools we had.
8 psycholo$ist outlined for me the principles of trainin$ #y reinforcement. The art of applyin$
those principles " learned from workin$ with the dolphins. Schooled as a #iolo$ist, and with a
lifelon$ interest in animal #eha%ior, " found myself fascinated, not so much with the dolphins as
with what could #e communicated #etween usfrom me to the animal and from the animal to me
durin$ this kind of trainin$. " applied what "(d learned from dolphin trainin$ to the trainin$ of
other animals. 8nd " #e$an to notice some applications of the system creepin$ into my daily life.
For e@ample, " stopped yellin$ at my kids, #ecause " was noticin$ that yellin$ didn(t work.
Watchin$ for #eha%ior " liked, and reinforcin$ it when it occurred, worked a lot #etter and kept the
peace too.
There is a solid #ody of scientific theory underlyin$ the lessons " learned from dolphin trainin$. We
shall $o considera#ly #eyond theory in this #ook, since as far as " know, the rules for applying these
theories are lar$ely undescri#ed #y science and in my opinion often misapplied #y scientists. !ut
the fundamental laws are well esta#lished and must #e taken into account when trainin$.
The study of this #ody of theory is %ariously known as #eha%ior modification, reinforcement theory,
operant conditionin$, #eha%iorism, #eha%ioral psycholo$y, and #eha%ior analysis the #ranch of
psycholo$y lar$ely credited to ,ar%ard professor !. 6 Skinner.
" know of no other modern #ody of scientific information that has #een so %ilified, misunderstood,
misinterpreted, o%erinterpreted, and misused. The %ery name of Skinner arouses ire in those who
champion Afree willA as a characteristic that separates man from #east. To people schooled in the
humanistic tradition, the manipulation of human #eha%ior #y some sort of conscious techni2ue
seems incorri$i#ly wicked, in spite of the o#%ious fact that we all $o around tryin$ to manipulate
one another(s #eha%ior all the time, #y whate%er means come to hand.
While humanists ha%e #een attackin$ #eha%iorism and Skinner himself with a fer%or that used to #e
reser%ed for reli$ious heresies, #eha%iorism has swelled into a hu$e #ranch of psycholo$y, with
uni%ersity departments, clinical practitioners, professional >ournals, international con$resses,
$raduate studies pro$rams, doctrines, schisms, and masses and masses of literature.
8nd there ha%e #een #enefits. Some disordersautism, for e@ampleseem to respond to shapin$
and reinforcement as to no other treatment. 7any indi%idual therapists ha%e #een e@tremely
successful in sol%in$ the emotional pro#lems of patients #y usin$ #eha%ioral techni2ues. The
effecti%eness, at least in some circumstances, of simply alterin$ #eha%ior rather than del%in$ into its
ori$ins has contri#uted to the rise of family therapy, in which e%ery family mem#er(s #eha%ior is
looked at, not >ust the #eha%ior of the one who seems most o#%iously in distress. This makes
eminent $ood sense.
Teachin$ machines and pro$rammed te@t#ooks deri%ed from Skinnerian theory were early attempts
to shape learnin$ step #y step and to reinforce the student for correct responses. These early
mechanisms were clumsy #ut led directly to .8", .omputer=8ssisted "nstruction, which is $reat fun
#ecause of the amusin$ nature of the reinforcers &fireworks, dancin$ ro#ots' and hi$hly effecti%e
#ecause of the computer(s perfect timin$. Reinforcement pro$rams usin$ tokens or chits that can #e
accumulated and traded for candy, ci$arettes, or pri%ile$es ha%e #een esta#lished in mental
hospitals and other institutions. Self=trainin$ pro$rams for wei$ht control and other ha#it chan$es
a#ound. 6ffecti%e educational systems #ased on principles of shapin$ and reinforcement, such as
+recision Teachin$ and *irect "nstruction, are makin$ inroads in our schools. 8nd #iofeed#ack is
an interestin$ application of reinforcement to trainin$ of physiolo$ical responses.
8cademicians ha%e studied the most minute aspects of conditionin$. One findin$ shows, for
e@ample, that if you make a chart to keep track of your pro$ress in some self=trainin$ pro$ram, you
will #e more likely to maintain new ha#its if you solidly fill in a little s2uare e%ery day on the chart,
rather than >ust puttin$ a check mark in the s2uare.
This a#sorption with detail has %alid psycholo$ical purposes, #ut one does not often find much
$ood training in it. Trainin$ is a loop, a two=way communication in which an e%ent at one end of
the loop chan$es e%ents at the other, e@actly like a cy#ernetic feed#ack system; yet many
psycholo$ists treat their work as somethin$ they do to a su#>ect, not with the su#>ect. To a real
trainer, the idiosyncratic and une@pected responses any su#>ect can $i%e are the most interestin$ and
potentially the most fruitful e%ents in the trainin$ process; yet almost all e@perimental work is
desi$ned to i$nore or minimi?e indi%idualistic responses. *e%isin$ methods for what Skinner
named shaping, the pro$ressi%e chan$in$ of #eha%ior, and carryin$ out those methods, is a creati%e
process. 5et the psycholo$ical literature a#ounds with shapin$ pro$rams that are so unima$inati%e,
not to say ham=handed, that they constitute in my opinion cruel and unusual punishment. Take, for
e@ample, in one recent >ournal, a treatment for #ed=wettin$ that in%ol%ed not only puttin$ AwetnessA
sensors in the child(s #ed #ut ha%in$ the therapist spend the ni$ht with the childB The authors had
the $race to say apolo$etically that it was rather e@pensi%e for the family. ,ow a#out the e@pense to
the child(s psycheD This kind of A#eha%ioralA solution is like tryin$ to kill flies with a sho%el.
Schopenhauer once said that e%ery ori$inal idea is first ridiculed, then %i$orously attacked, and
finally taken for $ranted. 8s far as " can see, reinforcement theory has #een no e@ception. Skinner
was widely ridiculed years a$o for demonstratin$ shapin$ #y de%elopin$ a pair of +in$=+on$=
playin$ pi$eons. The warm, comforta#le, self=cleansin$, entertainment=pro%idin$ cri# he #uilt for
his infant dau$hters was derided as an inhumane A#a#y #o@,A immoral and heretical. Rumors still $o
around that his dau$hters went mad, when in fact #oth of them are successful professional women
and 2uite deli$htful people. Finally, nowadays many educated people treat reinforcement theory as
if it were somethin$ not terri#ly important that they ha%e known and understood all alon$. "n fact
most people don't understand it, or they would not #eha%e so #adly to the people around them.
"n the years since my dolphin=trainin$ e@periences, " ha%e lectured and written a#out the laws of
reinforcement in academic and professional circles as well as for the $eneral pu#lic. "(%e tau$ht this
kind of trainin$ to hi$h school, colle$e, and $raduate students, to housewi%es and ?ookeepers, to
family and friends, and, in weekend seminars, to se%eral thousand do$ owners and trainers. " ha%e
watched and studied all kinds of other trainers, from cow#oys to coaches, and "(%e noticed that the
principles of reinforcement trainin$ are $radually seepin$ into our $eneral awareness. ,ollywood
animal trainers call the use of positi%e reinforcement Aaffection trainin$A and are usin$ these
techni2ues to accomplish #eha%iors impossi#le to o#tain #y force such as many of the #eha%iors of
pi$s and other animals in the mo%ie Babe. 7any Olympic coaches nowadays use positi%e
reinforcement and shapin$, instead of relyin$ on old=fashioned #row#eatin$, and ha%e achie%ed
nota#le impro%ements in performance.
-owhere, howe%er, ha%e " found the rules of reinforcement theory written down so that they could
#e of use in immediate practical situations. So here they are, e@plained in this #ook as " understand
them and as " see them used and misused in real life.
Reinforcement trainin$ does not sol%e all pro#lemsit will not fatten your #ank account, it cannot
sa%e a #ad marria$e, and it will not o%erhaul serious personality disorders. Some situations, such as
a cryin$ #a#y, are not trainin$ pro#lems and re2uire other kinds of solutions. Some #eha%iors, in
animals and people, ha%e $enetic components that may #e difficult or impossi#le to modify #y
trainin$. Some pro#lems are not worth the trainin$ time. !ut with many of life(s challen$es, tasks,
and annoyances, correct use of reinforcement can help.
4sin$ positi%e reinforcers in one situation may show you how to use them in others. 8s a dolphin
researcher whom " worked with sourly put it, A-o#ody should #e allowed to ha%e a #a#y until they
ha%e first #een re2uired to train a chicken,A meanin$ that the e@perience of $ettin$ results with a
chicken, an or$anism that cannot #e trained #y force, should make it clear that you don(t need to use
punishers to $et results with a #a#y. 8nd the e@perience should $i%e you some ideas a#out
reinforcin$ #a#y #eha%ior you want.
" ha%e noticed that most dolphin trainers, who must de%elop the skills of usin$ positi%e reinforcers
in their daily work, ha%e strikin$ly pleasant and a$reea#le children. This #ook will not $uarantee
you a$reea#le children. "n fact, it promises no specific results or skills. What it will $i%e you is the
fundamental principles underlyin$ all trainin$, and some $uidelines on how to apply these
principles creati%ely in %aryin$ situations. "t may ena#le you to clear up annoyances that ha%e #een
#otherin$ you for years, or to make ad%ances in areas where you ha%e #een stymied. "t will
certainly, if you wish, ena#le you to train a chicken.
There seems to #e a natural order to reinforcement trainin$. These chapters come in the se2uence in
which trainin$ e%ents, from simple to comple@, really take place, and this is also the se2uence in
which people seem to learn most easily to #e real trainers. The or$ani?ation of this #ook is
pro$ressi%e in order to de%elop a comprehensi%e understandin$ of trainin$ with positi%e reinforcers.
"ts applications, howe%er, are meant to #e practical. Throu$hout the #ook(s chapters real=life
situations are offered as illustrations. Specific methods should #e treated as su$$estions or
inspirations, rather than as definiti%e instructions.
1Reinforcement !etter t"an Rewards
#"at $s a Positi%e Reinforcer&
8 reinforcer is anythin$ that, occurrin$ in con>unction with an act, tends to increase the pro#a#ility
that the act will occur a$ain.
7emori?e that statement. "t is the secret of $ood trainin$.
There are two kinds of reinforcers positi%e and ne$ati%e. 8 positi%e reinforcer is somethin$ the
su#>ect wants, such as food, pettin$, or praise. 8 ne$ati%e reinforcer is somethin$ the su#>ect wants
to a%oida #low, a frown, an unpleasant sound. &The warnin$ #u??er in a car if you don(t fasten
your seat #elt is a ne$ati%e reinforcer.'
!eha%ior that is already occurrin$, no matter how sporadically, can always #e intensified with
positi%e reinforcement. "f you call a puppy and it comes, and you pet it, the pup(s comin$ when
called will #ecome more and more relia#le e%en without any other trainin$. Suppose you want
someone to telephone youyour offsprin$, your parent, your lo%er. "f he or she doesn(t call, there
isn(t much you can do a#out it. 8 ma>or point in trainin$ with reinforcement is that you can(t
reinforce #eha%ior that is not occurrin$. "f, on the other hand, you are always deli$hted when your
lo%ed ones do call, so that the #eha%ior is positi%ely reinforced, the likelihood is that the incidence
of their callin$ will pro#a#ly increase. &Of course, if you apply ne$ati%e reinforcementAWhy
ha%en(t you called, why do " ha%e to call you, you ne%er call me,A and so on, remarks likely to
annoyyou are settin$ up a situation in which the caller a%oids such annoyance #y not callin$ you;
in fact, you are trainin$ them not to call.'
Simply offerin$ positi%e reinforcement for a #eha%ior is the most rudimentary part of reinforcement
trainin$. "n the scientific literature, you can find psycholo$ists sayin$, A!eha%ioral methods were
used,A or, AThe pro#lem was sol%ed #y a #eha%ioral approach.A 8ll this means, usually, is that they
switched to positi%e reinforcement from whate%er other method they were usin$. "t doesn(t imply
that they used the whole #a$ of tricks descri#ed in this #ook; they may not e%en #e aware of them.
5et switchin$ to positi%e reinforcement is often all that is necessary. "t is #y far the most effecti%e
way to help the #ed=wetter, for e@ample pri%ate praise and a hu$ for dry sheets in the mornin$,
when they do occur.
+ositi%e reinforcement can e%en work on yourself. 8t a Shakespeare study $roup " once #elon$ed to
" met a Wall Street lawyer in his late forties who was an a%id s2uash player. The man had o%erheard
me chattin$ a#out trainin$, and on his way out the door afterward he remarked that he thou$ht he
would try positi%e reinforcement on his s2uash $ame. "nstead of cursin$ his errors, as was his ha#it,
he would try praisin$ his $ood shots.
Two weeks later " ran into him a$ain. A,ow(s the s2uash $ameDA " asked. 8 look of wonder and >oy
crossed his face, an e@pression not fre2uently seen on Wall Street lawyers.
A8t first " felt like a damned fool,A he told me, Asayin$ (Way to $o, +ete, atta#oy( for e%ery $ood
shot. ,ell, when " was practicin$ alone, " e%en patted myself on the #ack. 8nd then my $ame started
to $et #etter. "(m four run$s hi$her on the clu# ladder than "(%e e%er #een. "(m whippin$ people "
could hardly take a point from #efore. 8nd "(m ha%in$ more fun. Since "(m not yellin$ at myself all
the time, " don(t finish a $ame feelin$ an$ry and disappointed. "f " made a #ad shot, ne%er mind,
$ood ones will come alon$. 8nd " find " really en>oy it when the other $uy makes a mistake, $ets
mad, throws his rac2uet" know it won(t help his $ame, and " >ust smile ... A
What a fiendish opponent. 8nd >ust from switchin$ to positi%e reinforcement.
Reinforcers are relati%e, not a#solute. Rain is a positi%e reinforcer to ducks, a ne$ati%e reinforcer to
cats, and a matter of indifference, at least in mild weather, to cows. Food is not a positi%e reinforcer
if you(re full. Smiles and praise may #e useless as reinforcers if the su#>ect is tryin$ to $et you mad.
"n order to #e reinforcin$, the item chosen must #e somethin$ the su#>ect wants.
"t is useful to ha%e a %ariety of reinforcers for any trainin$ situation. 8t the Sea World oceanariums,
killer whales are $i%en many reinforcers, includin$ fish &their food', strokin$ and scratchin$ on
different parts of the #ody, social attention, toys, and so on. Whole shows are run in which the
animals ne%er know which #eha%ior will #e reinforced ne@t or what the reinforcer will #e; the
AsurprisesA are so interestin$ for the animals that the shows can #e run almost entirely without the
standard fish reinforcers; the animals $et their food at the end of the day. The necessity of switchin$
constantly from one reinforcer to another is challen$in$ and interestin$ for the trainers, too.
+ositi%e reinforcement is $ood for human relationships. "t is the #asis of the art of $i%in$ presents
$uessin$ at somethin$ that will #e definitely reinforcin$ &$uessin$ right is reinforcin$ for the $i%er,
too'. "n our culture, present $i%in$ is often left to women. " e%en know of one family in which the
mother #uys all the .hristmas presents to and from e%eryone. "t causes amusement on .hristmas
mornin$, #rothers and sisters sayin$, A<et(s see, this is from 8nne to !illy,A when e%eryone knows
8nne had nothin$ to do with it. !ut it does not sharpen the children(s skills at selectin$ ways to
reinforce other people.
"n our culture a man who has #ecome o#ser%ant a#out positi%e reinforcement has a $reat ad%anta$e
o%er other men. 8s a mother, " made sure that my sons learned how to $i%e presents. Once, for
e@ample, when they were 2uite youn$, se%en and fi%e, " took them to a rather fancy store and had
them select two dresses, one each, for their e%en youn$er sister. They en>oyed lollin$ a#out in the
plush chairs, appro%in$ or disappro%in$ of each dress as she modeled it. Their little sister en>oyed it
too; and she had the ultimate %eto power. 8nd so, thanks to this and similar e@ercises, they all
learned how to take a real interest in what other people want; how to en>oy findin$ effecti%e
positi%e reinforcers for the people you lo%e.
Ne'ati%e Reinforcement
8 reinforcer is somethin$ that increases a #eha%ior; #ut it doesn(t ha%e to #e somethin$ the learner
wants. 8%oidin$ somethin$ you dislike can #e reinforcin$, too. <a#oratory research shows that
#eha%ior can #e increased #y a%ersi%e stimuli if a chan$e in #eha%ior will make the a%ersi%e
stimulus $o away. Such stimuli are called ne$ati%e reinforcers thin$s a person or animal will work
to a%oid.
-e$ati%e reinforcers may consist of the mildest of a%ersi%e stimulia derisi%e $lance from a friend
when you make a poor >oke, or a sli$ht draft from an air conditioner that causes you to $et up and
mo%e to another chair. ,owe%er, e%en %ery e@treme a%ersi%es, from pu#lic humiliation to electric
shock, may function as ne$ati%e reinforcers as well as #ein$ punishin$ e@periences. We may
e@perience #ein$ yelled at as hi$hly puniti%e, #ut we also 2uickly learn to come in to work the #ack
way when the #oss who has often yelled at us is standin$ in the front door.
-e$ati%e reinforcers are a%ersi%es that can #e halted or a%oided #y chan$in$ #eha%ior. 8s soon as
the new #eha%ior starts, the a%ersi%e stimulus stops, and thus the new #eha%ior is stren$thened.
Suppose that while sittin$ in my aunt(s li%in$ room, " happen to put my feet on the coffee ta#le as "
would at home. 7y aunt raises a disappro%in$ eye#row. " put my feet on the floor a$ain. ,er face
rela@es. " feel relie%ed.
Reinforcement !etter t"an Rewards
The raised eye#row was an a%ersi%e stimulus actin$ as a ne$ati%e reinforcer. !ecause " was a#le to
halt the a%ersi%e stimulus, the new #eha%iorkeepin$ my feet on the flooris more likely to occur
a$ain, at least at my aunt(s house, #ut possi#ly in other houses, too.
Trainin$ can #e done almost entirely with ne$ati%e reinforcers, and much traditional animal trainin$
is done e@actly that way The horse learns to turn left when the left rein is pulled, #ecause the
annoyin$ pressure in its mouth ceases when the turn is made. The lion #acks onto a pedestal and
stays there, to a%oid the intrusi%e whip or chair held near its face.
-e$ati%e reinforcement, howe%er, is not the same as punishment. So what is the differenceD "n the
first edition of this #ook " wrote that punishment is an a%ersi%e stimulus that occurs after the
#eha%ior it was meant to modify, and therefore it can ha%e no effect on the #eha%ior. A8 #oy #ein$
spanked for a #ad report card may or may not $et #etter report cards in the future, #ut he surely can(t
chan$e the one he has >ust #rou$ht home.A "ndeed, when we punish with intent, we fre2uently do it
far too late, #ut that is not the actual difference #etween punishment and ne$ati%e reinforcement.
7odern #eha%ior analysts identify punishment as any e%ent that stops #eha%ior. 8 #a#y starts to put
a hairpin into the electric socket. ,is mother $ra#s him andEor slaps his hand away from the socket
this life=threatenin$ #eha%ior has to #e interrupted now. The #eha%ior stops. <ots of other thin$s
may startthe #a#y cries, the mother feels #ad, and so on#ut the hairpin=in=electric=outlet
#eha%ior ceases, at least for that moment. That(s what punishment does.
!. F. Skinner was more precise. ,e defined punishment as what happens when a #eha%ior results in
the loss of somethin$ desira#lethe pleasure of in%esti$atin$ if this o#>ect can fit into that hole, a
popular pastime with #a#iesor when the #eha%ior results in the deli%ery of somethin$
undesira#le. ,owe%er, in #oth cases, while the on$oin$ #eha%ior stops, there is no predicta#le
outcome in the future. We know that reinforcers stren$then #eha%ior in the future, #ut a punisher
will not result in predictable chan$es.
For e@ample, will $ra##in$ the #a#y or smackin$ his hand, e%en if his mother(s timin$ is perfect,
$uarantee that the #a#y won(t try stickin$ thin$s into outlets a$ainD " dou#t it. 8sk any parent. What
really happens is that we pick up small o#>ects, we put co%ers o%er the wall outlets, or we mo%e
furniture in front of them, and e%entually the #a#y out$rows this particular ur$e.
The #eha%ior analysts look at it this way. Reinforcement and punishment are each a process,
defined #y results. -e$ati%e reinforcers can #e used effecti%ely to train #eha%ior, and e%en thou$h
a%ersi%e stimuli are in%ol%ed, the process can #e relati%ely #eni$n. ,ere &with thanks to llama
e@pert Fim <o$an' is a nice use of the ne$ati%e reinforcer with a semidomestic animal, the llama,
kept in the 4nited States as pets and elsewhere as pack animals and for their wool.
<lamas are timid and shy, like horses. 4nless handled a lot when youn$, they can #e hard to
approach. So, while operant conditionin$ with a food reinforcer works splendidly with llamas, if a
llama is too skittish to come close enou$h to a person to take the food, here(s what modern llama
trainers do. They use a clicker as a si$nal to tell the llama that what it is doin$ has earned a
reinforcer, #ut the primary or real reinforcer is the remo%al of a ne$ati%e reinforcer, an a%ersi%e.
"n effect, you say to the llama, AWill you stand still if " approach within thirty feetD 5esD 0ood. "(ll
click my clicker and turn and $o farther away.
A-ow will you stand still if " approach within twenty=fi%e feetD 5esD 0ood. "(ll click and $o away.A
4sin$ the click to mark the #eha%ior of standin$ still, with the scary person turnin$ and $oin$ away
a$ain as the reinforcer, one can sometimes $et within touchin$ distance in fi%e or ten minutes. The
llama, as it were, is in control. 8s lon$ as it stands still, it can make you $o awayB So it stands still,
e%en when the person is ri$ht ne@t to it.
When one has touched the llama se%eral times and then retreated, the ice is #roken. This person is
no lon$er as scary. -ow it(s time for the feed #ucket. The communication loop #ecomes A7ay "
touch you while you stand stillD 5esD .lick and here(s some delicious food.A 8nd the llama is on its
way to earnin$ positi%e reinforcers, includin$ food and scratchin$ and pettin$, with its splendid new
#eha%ior of standin$ still instead of headin$ for the ne@t county.
This use of retreat, or easin$ #ack when the desired #eha%ior occurs, is an important aspect of most
of the so=called Ahorse whispererA techni2ues. "n most of these methods the trainer works with a
loose horse in a confined area and proceeds in a relati%ely short time to transform a horse in fli$ht
to a horse calmly acceptin$ a human. The horse, once perhaps completely wild, #ecomes so calm,
e%en acceptin$ a saddle and rider, that the total effect is ma$ical.
Trainers who use these techni2ues often ha%e superstitious e@planations for what is happenin$; and
while many ha%e formed the ha#it of makin$ some sound or motion that functions as the marker
si$nal or the conditioned reinforcer, few are consciously aware of doin$ so. -e%ertheless, it is not
ma$ic at work; it is the laws of operant conditionin$.
While ne$ati%e reinforcement is a useful process, it(s important to remem#er that each instance of
ne$ati%e reinforcement also contains a punisher. When you pull on the left rein, until the moment
that the horse turns, you are punishin$ $oin$ strai$ht ahead. O%eruse of ne$ati%e reinforcers and
other a%ersi%es can lead to what 7urray Sidman, +h.*., calls Afallout,A the undesira#le side effects
of punishment &see .hapter 3'.
Timin' of Reinforcers
8s already stated, a reinforcer must occur in con>unction with the act it is meant to modify. The
timin$ of the arri%al of the reinforcer is information. "t tells the learner exactly what it is you like.
When one is tryin$ to learn, the informational content of a reinforcer #ecomes e%en more important
than the reinforcer itself. "n coachin$ athletes or trainin$ dancers, it is the instructor(s shouted
A5esBA or A0oodB,A markin$ a mo%ement as it occurs, that truly $i%es the needed informationnot
the de#riefin$ later in the dressin$ room.
<a$$ardly reinforcement is the #e$innin$ trainers #i$$est pro#lem. The do$ sits, #ut #y the time the
owner says A0ood do$,A the do$ is standin$ a$ain. What #eha%ior did A0ood do$A reinforceD
Standin$ up. Whene%er you find yourself ha%in$ difficulties in a trainin$ situation, the first 2uestion
to ask yourself is whether you are reinforcin$ too late. "f you are workin$ with a person or an
animal and are cau$ht up in the thick of the action, it sometimes helps to ha%e someone else watch
for late reinforcers.
We are always reinforcin$ one another too late. A0ee, honey, you looked $reat last ni$htA is 2uite
different from the same comment said at the moment. The delayed reinforcer may e%en ha%e
deleterious effect &AWhat(s the matter, don(t " look $reat nowDA'. We ha%e a touchin$ trust in the
powers of words to co%er our lapses in timin$.
Reinforcin$ too early is also ineffecti%e. 8t the !ron@ /oo the keepers were ha%in$ trou#le with a
$orilla. They needed to $et it into its outdoor pen in order to clean the indoor ca$e, #ut it had taken
to sittin$ in the doorway, where with its enormous stren$th it could pre%ent the slidin$ door from
#ein$ closed. When the keepers put food outside, or wa%ed #ananas enticin$ly, the $orilla either
i$nored them or snatched the food and ran #ack to its door #efore it could #e shut. 8 trainer on the
?oo staff was asked to look at the pro#lem. ,e pointed out that #anana wa%in$ and the tossin$ in of
food were attempts to reinforce #eha%ior that hadn(t occurred yet. The name for this is bribery. The
solution was to i$nore the $orilla when it sat in the door, #ut to reinforce it with food whene%er it
did happen to $o out #y itself. +ro#lem sol%ed.
Sometimes, " think, we reinforce children too soon under the misimpression that we are
encoura$in$ them &A8tta $irl, that(s the way, you almost $ot it ri$htA'. What we may #e doin$ is
reinforcin$ tryin$. There is a difference #etween tryin$ to do somethin$ and doin$ it. Wails of A"
can(tA may sometimes #e a fact, #ut they may also #e symptoms of #ein$ reinforced too often
merely for tryin$. "n $eneral, $i%in$ $ifts, promises, compliments, or whate%er for #eha%ior that
hasn(t occurred yet does not reinforce that #eha%ior in the sli$htest. What it does reinforce is
whate%er was occurrin$ at the time solicitin$ reinforcement, most likely.
Timin$ is e2ually important when trainin$ with ne$ati%e reinforcers. The horse learns to turn left
when the left rein is pulled, #ut only if the pullin$ stops when it does turn. The cessation is the
reinforcer. 5ou $et on a horse, kick it in the sides, and it mo%es forward; you should then stop
kickin$ &unless you want it to mo%e faster'. !e$innin$ riders often thump away constantly, as if the
kickin$ were some kind of $asoline necessary to keep the horse mo%in$. The kickin$ does not stop,
so it contains no information for the horse. Thus are de%eloped the iron=sided horses in ridin$
academies that mo%e at a snail(s pace no matter how often they are kicked.
The same applies to people $ettin$ na$$ed and scolded #y parents, #osses, or teachers. "f the
ne$ati%e reinforcer doesn(t cease the instant the desired result is achie%ed, it is neither reinforcin$
nor information. "t #ecomes, #oth literally and in terms of information theory, Anoise.A
Watchin$ foot#all and #ase#all on TG, " am often struck #y the #eautifully timed reinforcers that
the players recei%e a$ain and a$ain. 8s a touchdown is made, as the runner crosses home plate, the
roar of the crowd si$nals unalloyed appro%al; and the instant a score is made or a $ame is won, >ust
watch the fren?ied e@chan$e of mutual reinforcers amon$ the players. "t is 2uite different for actors,
especially mo%ie actors. 6%en on sta$e the applause comes after the >o# is done. For mo%ie actors,
e@cept for occasional response from a director or camera operator or $rip, there is no timely
reinforcement; fan letters and $ood re%iews, arri%in$ weeks or months later, are pallid compared
with all of 5ankee Stadium $oin$ #erserk at the moment of success. -o wonder some stars often
e@hi#it a seemin$ly neurotic cra%in$ for adulation and thrills; the work can #e peculiarly
unsatisfyin$ #ecause the reinforcers, howe%er splendid, are always Alate.A
Si(e of Reinforcer
!e$innin$ trainers who use food reinforcement with animals are often confused as to how #i$ each
reinforcer should #e. The answer is as small as you can $et away with. The smaller the reinforcer,
the more 2uickly the animal eats it. -ot only does this cut down on waitin$ time, it also allows for
more reinforcers per session, #efore the animal #ecomes satiated. "n 1CHC " was hired as a
consultant #y the -ational /oolo$ical +ark in Washin$ton, *..., to teach positi%e reinforcement
techni2ues to a $roup of ?oo employees. One of the keepers in my trainin$ class complained that
her trainin$ of the panda had #een proceedin$ too slowly. " thou$ht this odd #ecause intuiti%ely "
felt that pandas#i$, $reedy, acti%e animalsshould #e easy to train with a reinforcer of food. "
watched a session and found that while the keeper was $radually succeedin$ in shapin$ a #ody
mo%ement, she was $i%in$ the panda a whole carrot for each reinforcement. The panda took its own
sweet time eatin$ each carrot, so that in fifteen minutes of %alua#le keeper time it had earned only
three reinforcers &and was incidentally $ettin$ tired of carrots'. 8 sin$le slice of carrot per
reinforcement would ha%e #een #etter.
"n $eneral, a reinforcer that constitutes one small mouthful for that animal is enou$h to keep it
interesteda $rain or two of corn for a chicken, a 2uarter=inch cu#e of meat for a cat, half an apple
for an elephant. With an especially preferred food you can $o e%en smallera teaspoon of $rain for
a horse, for e@ample. Ieepers at the -ational /oo ha%e trained their polar #ears to do many useful
thin$s, such as mo%in$ to another ca$e on command, with raisins.
8 trainer(s rule of thum# is that if you are $oin$ to ha%e only one trainin$ session a day, you can
count on the animal workin$ well for a#out a 2uarter of its rations; you then $i%e it the rest for free.
"f you can $et in three or four sessions a day, you can di%ide the normal amount of food into a#out
ei$hty reinforcers and $i%e twenty or thirty in each session. 6i$hty reinforcers seems to #e a#out the
ma@imum for any su#>ect(s interest durin$ any one day. &+erhaps that(s why slide trays usually hold
ei$hty slides; " know " always $roan if a lecturer asks the pro>ectionist for the second tray of slides.'
The difficulty of the task also has some effect on the si?e of the reinforcer. 8t Sea <ife +ark we
found it necessary to $i%e each of our whales a lar$e mackerel for their Olympic=effort, twenty=two=
foot strai$ht=up >ump. They simply refused to do it for the usual reinforcer of two small smelt. For
people, sometimes if not always, harder >o#s $et #i$$er rewards. 8nd how we hate it when they
don(t, if we are the ones doin$ the hard >o#.
)ac*+ots
One e@tremely useful techni2ue with food or any other reinforcement, for animals or people, is the
>ackpot. The >ackpot is a reward that is much #i$$er, may#e ten times #i$$er, than the normal
reinforcer, and one that comes as a surprise to the su#>ect. 8t an ad a$ency where " once worked we
had the usual office party at .hristmas, as well as informal cele#rations to si$nali?e the completion
of a #i$ >o# or the si$nin$ of a new client. !ut the president was also in the ha#it of throwin$ one or
two totally une@pected parties a year. Suddenly in midafternoon he would stride throu$h all the
offices, yellin$ for e%eryone to stop workin$. The switch#oard was closed down, and in came a
procession of caterers, musicians, #artenders, champa$ne, smoked salmon, the works >ust for us
and for no special reason. "t was an une@pected >ackpot for fifty people. "t contri#uted %astly, "
thou$ht, to the company(s hi$h morale.
8 >ackpot may #e used to mark a sudden #reakthrou$h. "n the case of one horse trainer " know,
when a youn$ horse e@ecutes a difficult maneu%er for the first time, the man leaps from its #ack,
snatches off saddle and #ridle, and turns the horse loose in the rin$a >ackpot of complete freedom,
which often seems to make the new #eha%ior stick.
+arado@ically, a sin$le >ackpot may also #e effecti%e in impro%in$ the response of a recalcitrant,
fearful, or resistant su#>ect that is offerin$ no desira#le #eha%ior at all. 8t Sea <ife +ark we were
doin$ some 4.S. -a%y=funded research that in%ol%ed reinforcin$ a dolphin for new responses,
instead of old, pre%iously trained #eha%iors. Our su#>ect was a docile animal named ,ou that rarely
offered new responses. When she failed to $et reinforced for what she did offer, she #ecame
inacti%e, and finally in one session she went twenty minutes offerin$ no responses at all. The trainer
finally tossed her two fish Afor nothin$.A Gisi#ly startled #y this lar$esse, ,ou #ecame acti%e a$ain
and soon made a mo%ement that could #e reinforced, leadin$ to real pro$ress in the ne@t few
sessions.
" had the same e@perience as that dolphin myself once. When " was fifteen, my $reatest pleasure in
life was ridin$ lessons. The sta#les where " rode sold tickets, ten lessons on a ticket. From my
allowance " could afford one ticket a month. " was li%in$ with my father, +hilip Wylie, and my
stepmother, Ricky, at the time; and althou$h they were %ery $ood to me, " had entered one of those
adolescent periods in which one practices #ein$ as truculent and disa$reea#le as possi#le for days
on end. One e%enin$ the Wylies, #ein$ lo%in$ and in$enious parents, told me that they were pretty
tired of my #eha%ior, and that what they had decided to do was reward me.
They then presented me with a #rand=new, e@tra, free ridin$ ticket. One of them had taken the
trou#le of $oin$ to the sta#les to #uy it. WowB 8n undeser%ed >ackpot. 8s " recall, " shaped up on
the spot, and Ricky Wylie confirmed that memory as " was writin$ this #ook many years later.
Why the unearned >ackpot should ha%e had such a#rupt and lon$=reachin$ effects, " do not fully
understand +erhaps someone will do a +h.*. dissertation on the matter someday and e@plain it to
us. " do know that the e@tra ridin$ ticket instantly relie%ed in me some stron$ feelin$s of oppression
and resentment, and " suspect that(s e@actly how that dolphin felt, too.
Conditioned Reinforcers
"t often happens, especially when trainin$ with food reinforcers, that there is a#solutely no way you
can $et the reinforcer to the su#>ect durin$ the instant it is performin$ the #eha%ior you wish to
encoura$e. "f " am trainin$ a dolphin to >ump, " cannot possi#ly $et a fish to it while it is in midair.
"f each >ump is followed #y a thrown fish with an una%oida#le delay, e%entually the animal will
make the connection #etween >umpin$ and eatin$ and will >ump more often. ,owe%er, it has no
way of knowin$ which aspect of the >ump " liked. Was it the hei$htD The archD +erhaps the
splashin$ reentryD Thus it would take many repetitions to identify to the animal the e@act sort of
>ump " had in mind. To $et around this pro#lem, we use conditioned reinforcers.
8 conditioned reinforcer is some initially meanin$less si$nala sound, a li$ht, a motionthat is
deli#erately presented #efore or durin$ the deli%ery of a reinforcer. *olphin trainers ha%e come to
rely on the police whistle as a conditioned reinforcer; it is easily heard, e%en underwater, and it
lea%es one(s hands free for si$nalin$ and fish throwin$. With other animals " fre2uently use a
cricket, the dime=store party toy that $oes click-click when you press it, or a particular praise word,
selected and reser%ed for the purpose of actin$ as a conditioned reinforcer A0ood do$,A A0ood
pony.A Schoolteachers often arri%e at some such rituali?ed and carefully rationed word of
commendationAThat(s fineA or AGery $oodAfor which the children an@iously work and wait.
.onditioned reinforcers a#ound in our li%es. We like to hear the phone rin$ or see a full mail#o@,
e%en if half our calls are no fun or most of our mail is >unk mail, #ecause we ha%e had numerous
occasions to learn to relate the rin$in$ or the en%elopes to $ood thin$s. We like .hristmas music
and hate the smell of dentists( offices. We keep thin$s around uspictures, dishes, trophiesnot
#ecause they are #eautiful or useful #ut #ecause they remind us of times when we were happy or of
people we lo%e. They are conditioned reinforcers.
+ractical animal trainin$ that uses positi%e reinforcement should almost always #e$in with the
esta#lishment of a conditioned reinforcer. !efore the start of any real trainin$ of #eha%ior, while the
su#>ect is doin$ nothin$ in particular, you teach it to understand the si$nificance of the conditioned
reinforcer #y pairin$ it with food, pettin$, or other real reinforcers. 5ou can tell, incidentally, at
least with animals, when the su#>ect has come to reco$ni?e your si$nal for A0oodBA "t %isi#ly
startles on percei%in$ the conditioned reinforcer and #e$ins seekin$ the real reinforcer. With the
esta#lishment of a conditioned reinforcer, you ha%e a real way of communicatin$ e@actly what you
like in the animal(s #eha%ior. So you do not need to #e *r. *olittle to talk to the animals; you can
AsayA an ama?in$ amount with such trained reinforcement.
.onditioned reinforcers #ecome immensely powerful. " ha%e seen marine mammals work lon$ past
the point of satiety for conditioned reinforcers, and horses and do$s work for an hour or more with
few primary reinforcers. +eople, of course, work endlessly for money, which is after all only a
conditioned reinforcer, a token for the thin$s it can #uye%en, or perhaps especially, people who
ha%e already earned more money than they can actually spend, who ha%e accordin$ly #ecome
addicted to the conditioned reinforcer.
One can make a conditioned reinforcer more powerful #y pairin$ it with se%eral primary
reinforcers. The su#>ect at that moment may not want food, say, #ut if the same reinforcin$ sound
or word has also #een associated deli#erately with water, or some other needs or pleasures, it retains
its usefulness and then some. 7y cats hear A0ood $irlBA when their supper dish is put down, when
they are petted, when they are let in and out, and when they do little tricks and $et treats for them.
.onse2uently, " can use A0ood $irlBA to reinforce $ettin$ off the kitchen ta#le, without ha%in$ to
follow up with an actual reinforcer. +ro#a#ly the reason money is so reinforcin$ for us is that it can
#e paired with practically e%erythin$. "t is an e@tremely $enerali?ed conditioned reinforcer.
Once you ha%e esta#lished a conditioned reinforcer, you must #e careful not to throw it around
meanin$lessly or you will dilute its force. The children who rode my Welsh ponies for me 2uickly
learned to use A0ood ponyBA only when they wanted to reinforce #eha%ior. "f they >ust wanted to
e@press affection, they could chat to the pony any way they liked, e@cept in those words. One day a
child who had >ust >oined the $roup was seen pettin$ a pony(s face while sayin$ A5ou(re a $ood
pony.A Three of the others rounded on her instantly AWhat are you tellin$ him that forD ,e hasn(t
done anythin$BA Similarly one can and should la%ish children &and spouses, parents, lo%ers, and
friends' with lo%e and attention, unrelated to any particular #eha%ior; #ut one should reser%e praise,
specifically, as a conditioned reinforcer related to somethin$ real. There are plenty of such real
e%ents deser%in$ praise, a reinforcer that is a#undantly e@chan$ed in happy families. False or
meanin$less praise, howe%er, is soon resented, e%en #y tiny children, and loses any power to
reinforce.
C,ic*-
7arine mammal trainers use conditioned reinforcers, usually the sound of a whistle, to train whales,
dolphins, seals, and polar #ears. The concept was first #rou$ht to marine mammal parks and to 4.S.
-a%y dolphin trainers in the 1C;Js #y Ieller !reland, a $raduate student of !. F. Skinner. !reland
called the whistle a A#rid$in$ stimulus,A #ecause, in addition to informin$ the dolphin that it had
>ust earned a fish, the whistle #rid$ed the period of time #etween the leap in midtankthe #eha%ior
that was #ein$ reinforcedand swimmin$ o%er to the side to collect one(s pay.
The #eha%ior analytic literature acknowled$ed these two aspects of the conditioned reinforcer. !ut
there were more %alues to #e unco%ered. "n the 1CCJs more and more animal trainers started usin$
operant conditionin$, shapin$, positi%e reinforcement, and conditioned reinforcers, and so did the
$eneral pu#lic, with do$ owners leadin$ the way &see .hapter ;'. !ecause the do$ owners used a
plastic #o@ed metal clicker as a conditioned reinforcer, they #e$an callin$ what they were doin$
clicker training and themsel%es, clicker trainers.
The click, as it is used #y clicker trainers, has se%eral unresearched functions #esides #ein$ a
conditioned reinforcer and #ein$ a #rid$in$ stimulus #etween earnin$ the food and $ettin$ the food.
First and foremost it constitutes what O$den <indsley +h.*., has called an event marker. "t
identifies for the trainee e@actly what #eha%ior is #ein$ reinforced. !ut it does more than that. "t
puts control in the hands, paws, fins, whate%er, of the learner. 8fter a while the su#>ect no lon$er
>ust repeats the #eha%ior; the su#>ect e@hi#its intention. A,eyB " made you clickB Watch me, "(m
$oin$ to do it a$ainBA .licker trainers speak of that shift as the moment when Athe li$ht #ul# $oes
on.A This moment is e@tremely reinforcin$ for trainer and trainee alike.
6llen Reese, +h.*., pointed out to me that the conditioned reinforcer, as it is used #y clicker
trainers, is also a termination si$nal. "t means AFo#(s done.A 8s 0ary Wilkes says, AThe click ends
the #eha%ior.A That(s reinforcin$ in itself. "t is, howe%er, sometimes a shock to traditional trainers "t
doesn(t seem natural, somehow, that the way to train a do$ to hold on to a dum##ell fore%er is to
click it for holdin$ the dum##ell, whereupon it is permitted to drop the dum##ell instantly and eat
slices of hot do$.
The philosopher 0re$ory !ateson, who worked at Sea <ife +ark for some years, maintained that
operant conditionin$ was >ust a system for communicatin$ with an alien species. "ndeed, it can #e.
8nother ma>or %alue of the marker si$nal is that it can #e used to communicate specific
information. +olice officer Ste%e White told me of sendin$ his 0erman shepherd patrol do$ to
search for a thrown o#>ect that had landed on top of a si@=foot=tall clump of #ushes. The do$
searched the $round fruitlessly for a lon$ time. Then, when it happened to raise its head, Ste%e
clicked. The do$ instantly sniffed the air at head hei$ht, alerted to a whiff of the tar$et, and #e$an
searchin$ around the area while scentin$ further upward, e%en standin$ on its hind le$s to do so.
Thus with no further help from Ste%e, the do$ located the o#>ect, crashed on top of the #ushes, and
$ot it.
T"e .Kee+ Goin''' Si'na,
8nother aspect of Ste%e(s communication with his do$ was that Ste%e used the click as a reinforcer
that was not a termination si$nal; instead it was a Akeep $oin$A si$nal. The click reinforced the
upward sniffin$ and kept the search #eha%ior $oin$, since the lost o#>ect had not yet #een found. "n
this #ook(s first edition " wrote of #ein$ a#le to use the conditioned reinforcer se%eral times with no
actual reinforcer until the end. " said this #ecause we sometimes did it with dolphins at Sea <ife
+ark, durin$ lon$=duration #eha%iors or #eha%ior chains. What " failed to reali?e at the time was that
we in fact used two &at least two' conditioned reinforcers or marker si$nals one, the whistle,
meanin$ all of the a#o%eAThat(s ri$ht, food(s comin$, $o $et the food o%er there, >o#(s doneA
and a second, a muted whistle meanin$ AThat(s ri$ht, #ut the >o#(s not o%er yet.A
7any of the no%ice clicker trainers " worked with in the 1CCJs were what author 7or$an Spector
calls Acrosso%erA trainers &that is, well skilled in correction=#ased trainin$, and tryin$ to chan$e o%er
to shapin$ and positi%e reinforcement'. " found that they were all too willin$ to $i%e clicks #ut no
treats, to the point where the si$nificance of the click was e@tin$uished. "t was necessary to stress
AOne click, one treatA as a $eneral rule, in order to teach people to shape #eha%ior efficiently.
,owe%er, there are many situations in real life where some interim reinforcin$ stimulus can #e %ery
useful, as with Ste%e White(s patrol do$. One answer is to use a different reinforcin$ stimulus to tell
the trainee, AThat(s ri$ht, and keep $oin$.A "nterestin$ly, a Akeep $oin$A si$nal does not ha%e to #e
linked directly with a primary reinforcer. Fust start insertin$ it somewhere #efore the terminatin$
click, and the learner will soon reco$ni?e it as a si$nal leadin$ toward an e%entual reinforcer.
Then you can $et fancy and use it as an informati%e marker si$nal within a chain, without actually
stoppin$ the chain. For e@ample, in do$ a$ility competition, do$s are sent one #y one o%er an
o#stacle course, a$ainst the clock. The owner has to tell the do$ which o#stacle to take ne@t, all at a
dead run. "(%e seen a do$ clear one o#stacle and then #e %isi#ly confused, as if he didn(t hear the cue
clearly. "s it the tunnel, or the >umpD The head swi%eled #ack and forth, and the owner yelled A5esBA
as the do$ looked toward the >ump. The do$ %eered instantly and took the correct o#stacle.
8s with a terminatin$ click, it doesn(t matter what kind of stimulus was used a clicker, a whistle, a
shout, or a wa%e. What counts is the fact that the stimulus was not >ust hopeful encoura$ement or
cheerleadin$, which may distract the animal or accidentally reinforce the wron$ #eha%ior, #ut a
well=esta#lished and precisely used conditioned reinforcer.
Conditioned /%ersi%e Si'na,s
8 timely conditioned positi%e reinforcer tells the recipient, AWhat you are doin$ now is $ood and
will $ain you somethin$, so do it some more.A 5ou can also esta#lish a conditioned a%ersi%e, or
punisher, which communicates, AWhat you are doin$ now is not $ood, and somethin$ #ad will
happen unless you stop.A
.onditioned a%ersi%e stimuli are more effecti%e than threats. Some su#>ectscats come to mind
are unresponsi%e to shouts and scoldin$. ,owe%er, a friend of mine 2uite accidentally cured her cat
of clawin$ the couch #y esta#lishin$ A-oBA as a conditioned a%ersi%e stimulus. One day in the
kitchen she happened to drop a lar$e #rass tray, which fell ri$ht ne@t to the cat. She cried A-oBA as
the tray fell, >ust #efore it landed with a loud clatter. The cat, dreadfully startled, >umped into the air
with all its fur on end.
The ne@t time the cat clawed the couch, the owner e@claimed A-oBA and the cat, lookin$ horrified,
desisted immediately. Two more repetitions were enou$h to end the #eha%ior permanently.
Reprimands are a necessary part of e@istence. 4sin$ positi%e reinforcement as your main teachin$
tool does not mean you cannot use A-oBA when you need to, for e@ample when the #a#y pokes at
the wall outlet. ,owe%er, some trainers use this real=life circumstance to >ustify their own $eneral
and a#undant use of AcorrectionA in instruction. "n doin$ so they make two mistakes. First, they
%iew correction as if it were e2ui%alent in %alue to positi%e reinforcement, without takin$ into
account the other effects it has on the learner &see A+unishment,A .hapter 3'; and second, they use
those reprimands and punishers without esta#lishin$ a warnin$ si$nal, or conditioned a%ersi%e
stimulus.
The trick to makin$ A-oBA effecti%e is to esta#lish it as a conditioned ne$ati%e reinforcer. For
e@ample, anyone who feels it necessary to use a choke chain on a do$ should always say AnoA as the
do$ does the wron$ thin$, and then pause #efore yankin$ on the chain, $i%in$ the do$ a chance to
a%oid the a%ersi%e #y chan$in$ its #eha%ior. To >ust yank on the chain without a warnin$ turns the
yank into a simple punishment, with no predicta#le effect on future #eha%ior and a potential
cumulati%e effect on the do$(s willin$ness to work at all. 8 third popular error, continuin$ to yank
while the do$ is #ack in position, simply punishes #oth #eha%iors.
Failin$ to use a conditioned ne$ati%e reinforcer increases the num#er of actual a%ersi%es that take
place in correction=#ased trainin$. "t also slows up the learnin$. .on%entional do$ and horse trainers
sometimes take far lon$er than reinforcement trainersmonths and e%en years lon$erto esta#lish
relia#le #eha%iors, not >ust #ecause they rely on punishment, which stops #eha%ior rather than
startin$ it, #ut also #ecause they employ a%ersi%es without usin$ a conditioned ne$ati%e reinforcer,
necessitatin$ hundreds of repetitions #efore the animal sorts out what it is supposed to #e doin$.
8 special case of the conditioned a%ersi%e si$nal has recently #ecome popular amon$ do$ trainers
the no=reward marker, often the word AWron$,A spoken in a neutral tone. The idea is that when the
do$ is tryin$ %arious #eha%iors to see what you mi$ht want, you can help him #y tellin$ him what
won't work, #y de%elopin$ a si$nal that si$nifies AThat will not #e reinforced.A
!. 6 Skinner(s definition of punishmenttakin$ away somethin$ desira#lemeans that the
AWron$A si$nal is, una%oida#ly, a conditioned punisher, since it means that reinforcers are not
a%aila#le. *oes it also pro%ide information and there#y #ecome reinforcin$D "n the do$ trainin$
community, " am seein$ special cases where the AWron$A si$nal is useful. "f your do$ has a si?a#le
repertoire of fully shaped #eha%iors and cuesif, in short, it is a hi$hly sophisticated traineeyou
can esta#lish the AWron$A word as a cue for %aria#le #eha%ior, meanin$ ASa%e your stren$th, that(s
a #lind alley, try somethin$ else.A
This only works if the learner has already #een reinforced often for %aria#le #eha%ior and for
acti%ely searchin$ for new ways to make you click. Where people run into trou#le with this tricky
stimulus is when they use it with an ine@perienced do$ that doesn(t understand what is wanted. "n
this case people tend to use the si$nal as if it were a choke collar Tell the do$ to sit, it doesn(t sit,
#amAWron$.A "f the si$nal has indeed #een esta#lished as meanin$ no reinforcer is a%aila#le, then
Anot sittin$A is punished. !ut that doesn(t mean that sittin$ is now $oin$ to happen. "n fact, the
results are apt to #e the same as with any other punisherhi$hly unpredicta#le. The do$ may 2uit
respondin$ alto$ether and slink away, or $i%e up and start lookin$ for its own reinforcers, resultin$
in unsuita#le #eha%ior such as #arkin$, pullin$ on the leash, sniffin$ the $round, scratchin$, and in
$eneral takin$ its attention elsewhere.
Sc"ed0,es of Reinforcement
There is a popular misconception that if you start trainin$ a #eha%ior #y positi%e reinforcement, you
will ha%e to keep on usin$ positi%e reinforcers for the rest of the su#>ect(s natural life; if not, the
#eha%ior will disappear. This is untrue; constant reinforcement is needed >ust in the learning sta$es.
5ou mi$ht praise a toddler repeatedly for usin$ the toilet, #ut once the #eha%ior has #een learned,
the matter takes care of itself. We $i%e, or we should $i%e, the #e$inner a lot of reinforcers
teachin$ a kid to ride a #icycle may in%ol%e a constant stream of AThat(s ri$ht, steady now, you $ot
it, goodBA ,owe%er, you(d look pretty silly &and the child would think you were cra?y' if you went
on praisin$ once the #eha%ior had #een ac2uired.
"n order to maintain an already=learned #eha%ior with some de$ree of relia#ility, it is not only not
necessary to reinforce it e%ery time; it is %ital that you do not reinforce it on a re$ular #asis #ut
instead switch to usin$ reinforcement only occasionally, and on a random or unpredicta#le #asis.
This is what psycholo$ists call a %aria#le schedule of reinforcement. 8 %aria#le schedule is far
more effecti%e in maintainin$ #eha%ior than a constant, predicta#le schedule of reinforcement. One
psycholo$ist e@plained it to me this way "f you ha%e a new car, one that has always started easily,
and you $et in one day and turn the key and it doesn(t start, you may try a few more times, #ut soon
you are $oin$ to decide somethin$ is wron$ and $o call the $ara$e. 5our key=turnin$ #eha%ior, in
the a#sence of the e@pected immediate reinforcement, 2uickly e@tin$uishes, or dies out. "f, on the
other hand, you ha%e an old clunker that almost ne%er starts on the first try and often takes fore%er
to $et $oin$, you may try and try to start it for half an hour; your key=turnin$ #eha%ior is on a lon$,
%aria#le schedule and is there#y stron$ly maintained.
"f " were to $i%e a dolphin a fish e%ery time it >umped, %ery 2uickly the >ump would #ecome as
minimal and perfunctory as the animal could $et away with. "f " then stopped $i%in$ fish, the
dolphin would 2uickly stop >umpin$. ,owe%er, once the animal had learned to >ump for fish, if "
were to reinforce now the first >ump, then the third, and so on at random, the #eha%ior would #e
much more stron$ly maintained; the unrewarded animal would actually >ump more and more often,
hopin$ to hit the lucky num#er, as it were, and the >umps mi$ht e%en increase in %i$or. This in turn
would allow me to selecti%ely reinforce the more %i$orous >umps, thus usin$ my %aria#le schedule
to shape impro%ed performance. !ut e%en some professional animal trainers fail to make $ood use
of %aria#le schedules of positi%e reinforcement; it seems to #e a peculiarly difficult concept for
many people to accept intellectually. We reco$ni?e that we don(t need to $o on punishin$
mis#eha%ior if the mis#eha%ior stops, #ut we don(t see that it(s not necessary or e%en desira#le to
reward correct #eha%ior continuously. We are less sure of oursel%es when aimin$ for disciplined
response throu$h positi%e reinforcement.
The power of the %aria#le schedule is at the root of all $am#lin$. "f e%ery time you put a nickel into
a slot machine a dime were to come out, you would soon lose interest. 5es, you would #e makin$
money, #ut what a #orin$ way to do it. +eople like to play slot machines precisely #ecause there(s
no predictin$ whether nothin$ will come out, or a little money, or a lot of money, or which time the
reinforcer will come &it mi$ht #e the %ery first time'. Why some people $et addicted to $am#lin$
and others can take it or lea%e it is another matter, #ut for those who do $et hooked, it(s the %aria#le
schedule of reinforcement that does the hookin$.
The lon$er the %aria#le schedule, the more powerfully it maintains #eha%ior. <on$ schedules work
a$ainst you, howe%er, if you are tryin$ to eliminate a #eha%ior. 4nreinforced, any #eha%ior will
tend to die down #y itself; #ut if it is reinforced from time to time, howe%er sporadicallyone
ci$arette, one drink, one $i%in$ in to the na$$er or whiner, the #eha%ior, instead of #ein$
e@tin$uished, may actually #e stron$ly maintained #y a lon$, %aria#le schedule. That is how the e@=
smoker who sneaks an occasional ci$arette can $o #ack to #ein$ a hea%y smoker in a day.
We ha%e all seen people who ine@plica#ly stick with spouses or lo%ers who mistreat them.
.ustomarily we think of this as happenin$ to a womanshe falls for someone who is harsh,
inconsiderate, selfish, e%en cruel, and yet she lo%es him#ut it happens to men, too. 6%eryone
knows such people, who, if di%orced or otherwise #ereft of the nasty one, $o ri$ht out and find
someone else >ust like him or her.
8re these people, for deep psycholo$ical reasons, perpetual %ictimsD +ossi#ly. !ut may they not
also #e %ictims of lon$=duration %aria#le schedulesD "f you $et into a relationship with someone
who is fascinatin$, charmin$, se@y, fun, and attenti%e, and then $radually the person #ecomes more
disa$reea#le, e%en a#usi%e, thou$h still showin$ you the $ood side now and then, you will li%e for
those increasin$ly rare moments when you are $ettin$ all those wonderful reinforcers the
fascinatin$, charmin$, se@y, and fun attenti%eness. 8nd parado@ically from a commonsense
%iewpoint, thou$h o#%iously from the trainin$ %iewpoint, the rarer and more unpredicta#le those
moments #ecome, the more powerful will #e their effect as reinforcers, and the lon$er your #asic
#eha%ior will #e maintained. Furthermore, it is easy to see why someone once in this kind of
relationship mi$ht seek it out a$ain. 8 relationship with a normal person who is decent and friendly
most of the time mi$ht seem to lack the kick of that rare, lon$ed=for, and thus dou#ly intense
reinforcer.
<ook at it from the manipulator(s point of %iew " can ha%e herEhim eatin$ out of my hand, and
doin$ whate%er " want, for my comfort and con%enience solely, as lon$ as " $i%e herEhim what
sheEhe wants ... once in a while. That(s one way pimps keep their whores in line. "t(s a powerful fi@,
all ri$ht, #ut once the %ictim appreciates that the intensity of the AcharmA is at least partly due to the
nature of the reinforcement schedule, he or she can usually walk 2uietly away from this kind of
relationship and look for somethin$ else.
E1ce+tions to 2aria3,e Reinforcement
The one circumstance when one should not $o to a %aria#le schedule once the #eha%ior has #een
learned is when the #eha%ior in%ol%es sol%in$ some kind of pu??le or test. "n ad%anced o#edience
trainin$, do$s are asked to select from a $roup of miscellaneous o#>ects the sin$le o#>ect their
owner had handled and scented. "t is necessary to tell the do$ each time that it has selected
correctly, so it will know what to do ne@t time. "n discrimination testsidentifyin$ the hi$her of
two sounds, let us saythe su#>ect must #e reinforced for each correct response so that it continues
to #e informed as to what 2uestion it is #ein$ asked. &8 conditioned reinforcer will do, of course.'
When we play with crossword or >i$saw pu??les, we $et reinforced for correct $uesses #ecause
those are the only ones that Afit.A "n doin$ a >i$saw pu??le, if you could put se%eral pieces in each
hole, you would not $et the positi%e reinforcer for the ri$ht choice, which is necessary feed#ack in
most choice=trial situations.
4on'5D0ration !e"a%iors
"n addition to %aria#le schedules, one can also esta#lish fi@ed schedules of reinforcement, in which
the su#>ect must work for a predetermined len$th of time or accomplish a predetermined num#er of
#eha%iors for each reinforcement. For e@ample, " could arran$e for a dolphin to >ump si@ times in a
row #y reinforcin$ e%ery si@th >ump; soon " would #e $ettin$ a routine series of si@. The trou#le
with fi@ed schedules is that the early responses in the series are ne%er reinforced, so they tend to
dwindle down to some minimal effort. With the >umpin$ dolphin, in due course all the >umps #ut
the last one, the one that is actually reinforced, would $et smaller. This dwindlin$ effect of fi@ed
schedules is pro#a#ly a factor in many human tasksfactory assem#ly lines, for e@ample. "t is
necessary to work for a certain len$th of time in order to $et reinforced, #ut since the reinforcement
is on a fi@ed schedule, re$ardless of 2uality of performance, the su#>ect 2uite naturally is moti%ated
to do the least amount of work possi#le to still stay in the $ame and may perform especially poorly
at the start of the work period. +ayday on Friday is a fi@ed reinforcement leadin$ directly to !lue
7onday. With the dolphins, occasional random reinforcements for the first or second >ump as well
as the si@th will help maintain #eha%ior. With people, %arious kinds of incenti%e #onuses or other
reinforcers &awards, for e@ample' tied directly to 2uality and 2uantity of production, and arri%in$
out of synchrony with the usual reinforcement, can #e effecti%e.
4sin$ either fi@ed or %aria#le schedules, e@tremely lon$ se2uences of #eha%ior can #e trained. 8
#a#y chick can #e induced to peck a #utton a hundred times or more for each $rain of corn. For
humans there are many e@amples of delayed $ratification. One psycholo$ist >okes that the lon$est
schedule of unreinforced #eha%ior in human e@istence is $raduate school.
"n e@tremely lon$ schedules there is sometimes a point of no return. For the #a#y chick that point is
meta#olic; when the chick e@pends more ener$y peckin$ than it can $et #ack from the $rain of corn
it recei%es, the #eha%ior tends to die downthe #enefits of the >o# ha%e fallen so low that it simply
isn(t worth doin$. This of course often happens with people as well.
8nother phenomenon occurs on %ery lon$ schedules slow starts. The chick pecks away at a steady
rate once it $ets started, #ecause each peck #rin$s it nearer to reinforcement, #ut researchers ha%e
noted that a chick tends to Aput offA startin$ for lon$er periods as the schedule of reinforcement $ets
lon$er.
This is sometimes called delayed start of lon$=duration #eha%ior, and it(s a %ery familiar aspect of
human life. On any lon$ task, from doin$ the income ta@es to cleanin$ out the $ara$e, one can think
of endless reasons for not startin$ now. Writin$, e%en sometimes >ust the writin$ of a letter, is a
lon$=duration #eha%ior. Once it $ets started, thin$s usually roll alon$ fairly well, #ut, ohB it(s so hard
to make oneself sit down and #e$in. Fames Thur#er found it so difficult to start an article that he
sometimes fooled his wife &who was understanda#ly an@ious for him to write articles since that was
how the rent $ot paid' #y lyin$ on a couch in his study all mornin$ readin$ a #ook in one hand
while tappin$ the typewriter keys at random with the other. The delayed=start phenomenon
outwei$hed the prospect of e%entual positi%e reinforcement of money; and the sham typin$ at least
sta%ed off the ne$ati%e reinforcer of wifely reproaches.
One way to o%ercome the slow=start phenomenon is to introduce some reinforcer >ust for $ettin$
started, >ust as " sporadically reinforced my dolphins for the first or second >ump in a si@=>ump
series. " ha%e used this techni2ue effecti%ely in self=trainin$. For some years " went to $raduate
school one or two ni$hts a week, a lon$ #usiness in%ol%in$ three hours of class and an hour on the
su#way each way. "t was always a hu$e temptation, as fi%e o(clock rolled around, not to $o. !ut
then " found that if " #roke down the >ourney, the first part of the task, into fi%e stepswalkin$ to
the su#way, catchin$ the train, chan$in$ to the ne@t train, $ettin$ the #us to the uni%ersity, and
finally, clim#in$ the stairs to the classroomand reinforced each of these initial #eha%iors #y
consumin$ a small s2uare of chocolate, which " like #ut normally ne%er eat, at the completion of
each step, " was at least a#le to $et myself out of the house, and in a few weeks was a#le to $et all
the way to class without either the chocolate or the internal stru$$le.
S0+erstitio0s !e"a%ior /ccidenta, Reinforcement
Reinforcement occurs all the time in real life, often #y coincidence. 8 #iolo$ist studyin$ hawks
noticed that if a hawk cau$ht a mouse under a particular #ush, it would check out that #ush e%ery
day for a week or so thereafter; the pro#a#ility that it would fly o%er that particular spot had #een
stron$ly reinforced. Find a twenty=dollar #ill in a trash #asket, and " defy you to walk past that trash
#asket the ne@t day without lookin$ it o%er closely.
8ccidental reinforcement was #eneficial to the hawk; in fact, animal #eha%ior in $eneral mi$ht #e
said to ha%e e%ol%ed so as to ena#le each species to #enefit from whate%er reinforcement occurs.
,owe%er, accidental pairin$s also occur, and these can still ha%e a stron$ effect on #eha%ior. When
the #eha%ior is in fact unrelated to the conse2uence, #ut the su#>ect still e@hi#its the #eha%ior as if it
were re2uired for earnin$ a reinforcer, scientists call it superstitious #eha%ior. 8n e@ample is pencil
chewin$. "f, while takin$ an e@am, you happen to put your pencil in your mouth and >ust then the
ri$ht answer or a $ood idea occurs to you, the reinforcer may affect the #eha%ior; $ood ideas occur
durin$ pencil chewin$, so pencil chewin$ is reinforced. When " was in colle$e, " didn(t own a pencil
that wasn(t co%ered with teeth markson really tou$h e@ams " sometimes #it pencils ri$ht in two. "
e%en felt sure that pencil chewin$ helped me to think; of course it didn(t, it was >ust accidentally
conditioned #eha%ior.
The same $oes for wearin$ a particular $arment or $oin$ throu$h a ritual when you are a#out to
en$a$e in a task. " ha%e seen one #ase#all pitcher who $oes throu$h a nine=step chain of #eha%ior
e%ery time he $ets ready to pitch the #all touch cap, touch #all to $lo%e, push cap forward, wipe
ear, push cap #ack, scuff foot, and so on. "n a ti$ht moment he may $o throu$h all nine steps twice,
ne%er %aryin$ the order. The se2uence $oes #y 2uite fastannouncers ne%er comment on itand
yet it is a %ery ela#orate piece of superstitious #eha%ior.
Superstitious #eha%ior often crops up in trainin$ animals. The animal may #e respondin$ to criteria
you had no intention of esta#lishin$ #ut that were accidentally reinforced often enou$h to #ecome
conditioned. For e@ample, the animal may #eha%e as if it has to #e in a particular place or facin$ or
sittin$ a certain way to earn reinforcement. When you want it to work in a new place or face another
way, suddenly the #eha%ior mysteriously #reaks down, and fi$urin$ out why may take some doin$.
"t is wise, therefore, once a #eha%ior has #een at least partially trained, to introduce %ariations in all
the circumstances that do not matter to you, lest some accidental conditionin$ de%elops that mi$ht
$et in your way later.
8#o%e all, watch out for the de%elopment of accidental patterns of timin$. !oth animals and people
ha%e a %ery clear sense of time inter%als. " was once 2uite con%inced that " had trained two
porpoises to >ump on command &a hand si$nal from me' until a %isitin$ scientist with a stopwatch
informed me that they were >umpin$ e%ery twenty=nine seconds. Sure enou$h, with or without my
command, they >umped e%ery twenty=nine seconds. " had #ecome accidentally conditioned to $i%e
the command with $reat re$ularity, and they had picked up on that instead of on the information "
thou$ht they were usin$.
7any traditional animal trainers are a#solutely riddled with superstitious thinkin$ and #eha%ior. "
ha%e had some tell me that dolphins prefer people to wear white, that you ha%e to hit mules, that
#ears don(t like women, and so on. 8nd people trainers can #e >ust as #ad, #elie%in$ you ha%e to
yell at fifth=$raders, for e@ample, or that punishment is needed to create respect. Such trainers are at
the mercy of tradition; they ha%e to train the same way e%ery time #ecause they can(t separate the
methods that are workin$ from methods that are merely superstitious. This failin$ or confusion
crops up in many professionseducation, en$ineerin$, the military, and perhaps particularly in the
medical profession. "t is appallin$ how many thin$s are done to patients not #ecause they are
curati%e #ut simply #ecause that(s the way its always #een done or that(s what e%eryone does
nowadays. 8nyone who has e%er #een a patient in a hospital can think of half a do?en e@amples of
unnecessary acts that amounted to nothin$ more than superstitious #eha%ior.
"nterestin$ly enou$h, superstitious #eha%ior does not always $o away if you merely point out its
ineffecti%eness; stron$ly conditioned, it may accordin$ly #e stron$ly defended. 8ttack a doctor for
his or her ha#itual use of a nonhelpful or e%en harmful treatment, and you will #e attacked ri$ht
#ackin spades; as "(m sure that pitcher with the nine=step superstitious windup would resist
fiercely anyone orderin$ him to play #all without, say, wearin$ the cap he touches four times in the
se2uence.
One way you can $et rid of superstitious #eha%ior in yourself, howe%er, is to #ecome aware that it
has no relation to reinforcement. 7y son Ted is a #anker whose ho##y is competiti%e fencn$. ,e
fits in practice #outs two or three times a week and often tra%els to tournaments on weekends. One
day, facin$ a stiff competitor, he felt downcast #ecause he had left his fa%orite #lade at home. ,e
lost the match. Then he reali?ed that feelin$ downcast was pro#a#ly far more dama$in$ to his
performance than the #lade he used, and, in fact, that ha%in$ a Afa%oriteA #lade was superstitious
#eha%ior.
Ted set out to eliminate e%ery superstitious #eha%ior he could identify related to fencin$. ,e
disco%ered many in his repertoire, from attachment to certain articles of clothin$ to inner
con%ictions that his $ame mi$ht #e affected #y a #ad ni$ht(s sleep, an ar$ument, or e%en #y runnin$
out of fruit >uice at a tournament. Systematically e@aminin$ each of these circumstances, he
eliminated his dependencies one #y one as he reco$ni?ed them as superstitious #eha%ior.
.onse2uently, he now enters each match rela@ed and confident, e%en if the pre%ious hours ha%e
#een a ni$htmare of missed trains, lost $ear, and #attles with ta@i dri%ers, and e%en if he is fencin$
with a #orrowed #lade in a practice uniform with mismatched socks.
#"at Can 6o0 Do wit" Positi%e Reinforcement&
,ere are some thin$s people " know ha%e done with positi%e reinforcement
Fudy, a desi$ner, took a weekly paintin$ class at ni$ht at a near#y uni%ersity to keep her
hand in; most of the twenty other people in the class were also desi$ners or commercial
artists. The teacher assi$ned weekly homework, which many of the #usy professionals did
not #other to complete. The teacher ha#itually haran$ued the class for ten minutes or more
o%er the poor showin$ of homework assi$nments. Tired of #ein$ scolded, Fudy su$$ested he
reinforce the ones who did #rin$ in assi$nments instead of hecklin$ those who didn(t. ,e did
so, reinforcin$ his pupils with pu#lic praise of each completed assi$nment. !y the third
week, the teacher not only had a happier class, he had raised the num#er of homeworkers
from a#out a third of the class to nearly three=2uarters.
Shannon, a colle$e student, %isited the home of some friends and walked in on a scene. Four
adults were tryin$, unsuccessfully and at some risk to themsel%es, to restrain the household
0erman shepherd so the do$(s infected ear could #e medicated. Shannon, not a do$ lo%er
particularly #ut a student of positi%e reinforcement, $ot some cheese from the refri$erator
and in fi%e minutes trained the do$ to hold still while she medicated his ear sin$le=handed.
8 youn$ woman married a man who turned out to #e %ery #ossy and demandin$. Worse yet,
his father, who li%ed with them, was e2ually $i%en to orderin$ his dau$hter=in=law a#out. "t
was the $irl(s mother who told me this story. On her first %isit she was horrified at what her
dau$hter was $oin$ throu$h. A*on(t worry, 7other,A the dau$hter said, Await and see.A The
dau$hter formed a practice of respondin$ minimally to commands and harsh remarks, while
reinforcin$ with appro%al and affection any tendency #y either man to #e pleasant or
thou$htful. "n a year she had turned them into decent human #ein$s. -ow they $reet her
with smiles when she comes home and leap up#oth of themto help with the $roceries.
8n ur#an ei$hth=$rader liked to take her do$ for walks on weekends in the country, #ut the
do$ often ran off too far and refused to come #ack when called, especially when it was time
to $o home. One weekend the $irl started makin$ a hu$e fuss o%er the do$praise, pattin$,
#a#y talk, hu$s, the workswhene%er, in runnin$ a#out, it came up to her un#idden. When
it was time to $o home, she called and the do$ came $ladly. The hu$e welcome apparently
outwei$hed, as a reinforcer, the do$(s usual prolon$ation of freedom. "t ne%er $a%e trou#le
on country walks a$ain.
8 >unior e@ecuti%e with a monster of a #oss decided which parts of his >o# mi$ht #e
reinforcin$ to the #oss#rin$in$ papers to #e si$ned, for e@ampleand timed as many as
possi#le to coincide with periods when the #oss was not in a ra$e. The #oss eased up and in
due course actually started tellin$ >okes.
Some people de%elop %ery special reinforcers that others will $o out of their way to earn. 8nnette, a
su#ur#an housewife whose children are $rown, mi$ht #e rather isolated were it not for her network
of friends who phone weekly or e%en more often to share their news. These are not necessarily
nei$h#ors or relati%es; many are #usy professional women who li%e far away. " am one. Why do we
all call 8nnetteD "f you ha%e #ad newsyou(%e $ot the flu, or the "RS is $oin$ to audit you, or the
#a#y=sitter mo%ed to .le%eland8nnette $i%es sympathy and ad%ice; #ut so would any friend. "t is
in the area of $ood news that 8nnette offers unusual reinforcers. Tell her the #ank appro%ed your
loan, and she does more than say AThat(s $reatBA She points out e@actly what you did to earn and
deser%e the $ood news. A5ou seeDA 8nnette mi$ht respond. ARemem#er how hard you worked to
$et a $ood credit ratin$D Remem#er all the trou#le you went to with the phone company, and
$ettin$ an air=tra%el cardD -ow it pays off for you; you(re reco$ni?ed as a $ood #usinesswoman. !ut
you had to make the ri$ht mo%es first, and you did. "(m really proud of you.A WowB That(s more
than appro%al, that is reinforcementand for past efforts that at the time may ha%e seemed to #e
merely tri#ulations. 8nnette takes $ood news out of the A$ood luckA cate$ory and turns it into an
opportunity for reinforcement. That certainly reinforces one(s inclination to call 8nnette.
Or'ani(ed Reinforcement
Sales meetin$s, #ooster clu#s, *ale .arne$ie courses, Wei$ht Watchersin fact, most
or$ani?ations that teach self=impro%ement in $roupsrely hea%ily on the effects of reinforcement
#y the $roup upon indi%iduals. 8pplause, medals, awards ceremonies, and other forms of $roup
reco$nition are powerful reinforcers, sometimes 2uite ima$inati%ely used. One "!7 sales mana$er,
wishin$ to reinforce his sales team for a $ood year, hired a foot#all stadium; threw a #i$ party for
the employees, senior e@ecuti%es, and all their families; and had his sales force run throu$h the
players( tunnel onto the field while their names were flashed on the score=#oard, to the cheers of all
assem#led.
" went throu$h Werner 6rhard(s AestA course, a pro$ram with o%ertones of hucksterism #ut that,
from a trainin$ standpoint, " found to #e an in$enious and often #rilliant application of shapin$ and
reinforcement. The pro$ram was called, ri$htly " think, the Trainin$. The leader was called the
Trainer. The shapin$ $oal was impro%ed self=awareness, and the principal reinforcer was not the
Trainer(s responses #ut the non%er#al #eha%ior of the whole $roup.
To de%elop $roup #eha%ior as a reinforcer, the ):J people in the $roup were told to applaud after
e%ery speaker, whether they felt like applaudin$ or not. Thus from the #e$innin$ the shy were
encoura$ed, the #old rewarded, and all contri#utions, whether insi$htful or inane, were
acknowled$ed #y the $roup.
8t first the applause was dutiful and no more. Soon it #ecame $enuinely communicati%enot of
de$rees of en>oyment, as in the theater, #ut of shades of feelin$ and meanin$. For e@ample, there
was in my trainin$ class, as " e@pect there is in e%ery est $roup, an ar$umentati%e man who
fre2uently took issue with what the Trainer said. When this happened for the third or fourth time,
the Trainer started ar$uin$ #ack. -ow, it was apparent to all that from a lo$ical standpoint, the
ar$umentati%e man was perfectly correct. !ut as the ar$ument wore on and on, no one else in the
room cared who was ri$ht. 8ll )3C of us >ust wished he(d shut up and sit down.
The rules of the $ameshapin$ rules, reallydid not permit us to protest or to tell him to shut up.
!ut $radually the massi%e silence of the $roup percolated into his awareness. We watched him
reali?e that no one cared if he was ri$ht. 7ay#e #ein$ ri$ht was not the only $ame in town. Slowly
he sputtered into silence and sat down. The $roup instantly erupted in a hu$e #urst of applause,
e@pressi%e of sympathy and understandin$ as well as of hearty reliefa %ery powerful positi%e
reinforcer of the illumination the ar$uer had >ust recei%ed.
This kind of trainin$ occurrence, in which the important e%ents are #eha%ioral and thus non%er#al,
is often maddenin$ly difficult to e@plain to an outsider. 6rhard, like a /en teacher, often resorts to
aphorisms; in the case of the ar$uer descri#ed a#o%e, the est sayin$ is AWhen you(re ri$ht, that(s
what you $et to #e ri$ht.A That is, not necessarily lo%ed, or anythin$ else nice >ust ri$ht. "f " " were
to 2uote that aphorism at a party when some#ody is #ein$ #om#astic, another est $raduate mi$ht
lau$hand indeed, any $ood modern trainer mi$ht lau$h#ut most hearers mi$ht assume " was
moronic or drunk. 0ood trainin$ insi$hts do not necessarily lend themsel%es to %er#al e@planation.
Reinforcin' 6o0rse,f
One possi#le application of reinforcement trainin$ is reinforcin$ yourself. This is somethin$ we
often ne$lect to do, partly #ecause it doesn(t occur to us, and partly #ecause we tend to demand a lot
more of oursel%es than we would of others. 8s a minister " know puts it, AFew of us ha%e such low
standards that it(s easy to li%e up to them.A 8s a result we often $o for days at a time without letup,
$oin$ from task to task to task unnoticed and unthanked e%en #y oursel%es. Kuite aside from
reinforcin$ oneself for some ha#it chan$e or new skill, a certain amount of reinforcement is
desira#le >ust for sur%i%in$ daily life; depri%ation of reinforcement is one factor, " think, in states of
an@iety and depression.
5ou can reinforce yourself in healthful wayswith an hour off, a walk, a talk with friends, or a
$ood #ook; or in unhealthful wayswith ci$arettes, whiskey, fattenin$ food, dru$s, late ni$hts, and
so on. " like performer Ruth 0ordon(s su$$estion A8n actor has to ha%e compliments. "f " $o lon$
enou$h without $ettin$ a compliment, " compliment myself, and that(s >ust as $ood #ecause at least
then " know it(s sincere.A
7S"a+in' De%e,o+in' S0+er Performance #it"o0t Strain or Pain
#"at $s S"a+in'&
Reinforcin$ #eha%ior that is already occurrin$ so that it occurs more often is all %ery well, #ut how
do trainers $et their su#>ects to do thin$s that would pro#a#ly ne%er occur #y chanceD ,ow do you
$et a do$ to turn #ack flips or a dolphin to >ump throu$h a hoopD
*o$s flippin$, dolphins >umpin$ throu$h hoops, or people throwin$ #asket#alls throu$h hoops, for
that matter, are de%eloped #y shapin$. Shapin$ consists of takin$ a %ery small tendency in the ri$ht
direction and shiftin$ it, one small step at a time, toward an ultimate $oal. The la#oratory >ar$on for
the process is Asuccessi%e appro@imation.A
Shapin$ is possi#le #ecause the #eha%ior of li%in$ thin$s is %aria#le. Whate%er a creature does, it
will do it with more %i$or at some times than at others, in different directions, and so on. -o matter
how ela#orate or difficult the ultimate #eha%ior you wish to shape, you can always, #y esta#lishin$
a series of intermediate $oals, find some #eha%ior presently occurrin$ to use as a first step. For
e@ample, suppose " decided to train a chicken to Adance.A " mi$ht #e$in #y watchin$ the chicken
mo%in$ around as chickens do and reinforcin$ it e%ery time it happened to mo%e to the left. Soon
my first $oal would #e reached the chicken would #e mo%in$ to the left 2uite oftenand, #ein$
%aria#le, sometimes a little and sometimes a lot. -ow " mi$ht selecti%ely reinforce only the stron$er
mo%ements to the leftturnin$ a 2uarter circle, say. When these responses predominated, natural
%aria#ility would a$ain ensure that while some turns were less than a 2uarter circle, some would #e
more like half a circle. " could raise my criteria, set a new $oal, and start selectin$ for half=circle
turns or #etter. With the chicken shaped to make se%eral full turns at hi$h speed per reinforcement, "
mi$ht consider that "(d reached my end $oal, a dancin$ chicken.
We are all 2uite accustomed to shapin$ and #ein$ shaped. "n an informal way much of childrearin$
is a shapin$ process. The trainin$ of any physical skill, from tennis to typin$, consists lar$ely of
shapin$. We are also shapin$ when we try to chan$e our own #eha%iorto 2uit smokin$, say or to
#e less shy, or to handle money #etter.
Our success or failure in shapin$ a #eha%ior, in oursel%es or in others, ultimately depends not upon
our shapin$ e@pertise #ut upon our persistence. ew !ork "imes music critic ,arold Schon#er$
wrote of a 6uropean conductor who was not really a $ood conductor #ut who made fa#ulous music
#y keepin$ his orchestra in rehearsal for each concert for a full year. 7ost of us can ac2uire at least
some proficiency at almost anythin$, if we >ust put enou$h time into it.
!ut that(s #orin$. *on(t we always want to learn new skillsskiin$, piano playin$, whate%eras
fast as possi#leD Of course we do, and that(s where good shapin$ comes in. Further, don(t we prefer
to a%oid or minimi?e repetitionD 5es a$ain. Of course, some physical skills re2uire repetition,
#ecause muscles AlearnA slowly and must #e put throu$h the motions repeatedly #efore the motions
come easily. 6%en so, a well=planned shapin$ pro$ram can minimi?e the re2uired drillin$ and can
make e%ery moment of practice count, thus speedin$ up pro$ress tremendously. 8nd finally, in
sports, music, and other creati%e endea%ors, you may want to de%elop not only relia#le performance
#ut as $ood a performance as you or the one you(re trainin$ can possi#ly $i%e. "n that case, correct
use of the laws $o%ernin$ shapin$ may #e crucial.
8et"ods 2ers0s Princi+,es
There are two aspects to shapin$ the methodsthat is, the #eha%iors that are to #e de%eloped and
the se2uence of steps used to de%elop themand the principles, or rules $o%ernin$ how, when, and
why those #eha%iors are reinforced.
7ost trainers, most #ooks a#out trainin$, and most teachers of trainin$ are concerned almost
entirely with method. A+lace your hands on the $olf clu# as in the drawin$A; A<ine up your rifle
si$hts #efore you aim at the tar$etA; A-e%er lean into the mountainA; A!eat the e$$s with a wire
whisk in a clockwise direction.A This is fine. Such methods usually ha%e #een de%eloped o%er many
years, #y many people, throu$h trial and error, so they do work. "t(s pro#a#ly true that you(ll sit on a
horse more securely if you keep your heels down, or that your $olf #all will $o farther if you shape
a $ood follow=throu$h into your swin$. "f you are interested in learnin$ a particular skill, " would
stron$ly ur$e that you find out as much as possi#le a#out the esta#lished methods of accomplishin$
the #eha%iors( that that skill in%ol%es, throu$h #ooks, teachers, or coaches and throu$h watchin$ or
studyin$ others.
On the other side of shapin$, howe%er, are the principles, the rules that control such matters as when
to press on and when to let up; how to escalate your criteria most efficiently; what to do when you
run into trou#le; a#o%e all, perhaps, when to 2uit. These 2uestions are $enerally left to the intuition
and e@perience of trainers or coaches, or to chance or luck. 5et it is the successful application of
such principles that makes the difference #etween an ade2uate teacher and a $reat one, and #etween
shapin$ that is happy, fast, and successful and shapin$ that is frustratin$, slow, #orin$, and
disa$reea#le. "t(s $ood shapin$, not >ust $ood methods, that makes trainin$ effecti%e.
T"e Ten 4aws of S"a+in'
There are ten rules that $o%ern shapin$, as " see it. Some come strai$ht from the psycholo$y la#s
and ha%e #een demonstrated e@perimentally. Others ha%e not e%en #een the su#>ect of formal study,
so far as " know, #ut can #e reco$ni?ed as inherently %alid #y anyone who has done a lot of shapin$
5ou always know &usually an instant too late' when you(%e #roken one. "(ll list the rules here, then
discuss each one at some len$th
1. Raise criteria in increments small enou$h that the su#>ect always has a realistic chance for
reinforcement.
). Train one aspect of any particular #eha%ior at a time; don(t try to shape for two criteria
simultaneously.
1. *urin$ shapin$, put the current le%el of response onto a %aria#le schedule of reinforcement
#efore addin$ or raisin$ the criteria.
3. When introducin$ a new criterion, or aspect of the #eha%ioral skill, temporarily rela@ the old
ones.
:. Stay ahead of your su#>ect +lan your shapin$ pro$ram completely so that if the su#>ect
makes sudden pro$ress, you are aware of what to reinforce ne@t.
;. *on(t chan$e trainers in midstream; you can ha%e se%eral trainers per trainee, #ut stick to
one shaper per #eha%ior.
H. "f one shapin$ procedure is not elicitin$ pro$ress, find another; there are as many ways to
$et #eha%ior as there are trainers to think them up.
9. *on(t interrupt a trainin$ session $ratuitously; that constitutes a punishment.
C. "f #eha%ior deteriorates, A$o #ack to kinder$artenA; 2uickly re%iew the whole shapin$
process with a series of easily earned reinforcers.
1J.6nd each session on a hi$h note, if possi#le, #ut in any case 2uit while you(re ahead.
Disc0ssion
19 Raise criteria in increments sma,, eno0'" t"at t"e s03:ect a,ways "as a rea,istic c"ance of reinforcement9
"n practice this means that when you increase demands or raise a criterion for reinforcement, you
should do so within the ran$e the su#>ect is already achie%in$. "f your horse clears two=foot >umps,
sometimes with a foot to spare, you could start raisin$ some >umps to two and a half feet. Raisin$
them all to three feet would #e askin$ for trou#le The animal is capa#le of this #ut is not offerin$ it
re$ularly yet. 8nd raisin$ the >umps to three and a half feet would #e courtin$ disaster.
,ow fast you raise the criteria is not a function of the su#>ect(s actual a#ility, now or in the future;
ne%er mind if the horse is a #i$ le$$y creature potentially capa#le of >umpin$ ei$ht feet, or if it
ha#itually hops o%er four=foot pasture fences. ,ow fast you can raise the criteria is a function of
how well you are communicatin$ throu$h your shapin$ procedure what your rules are for $ainin$
reinforcement.
6%ery time you raise a criterion, you are chan$in$ the rules. The su#>ect has to #e $i%en the
opportunity to disco%er that thou$h the rules ha%e chan$ed, reinforcers can easily continue to #e
earned #y an increase in e@ertion &and also, in some cases, that performin$ at the old le%el no lon$er
works'. This can #e learned only #y e@periencin$ reinforcement at the new le%el.
"f you raise the criteria so hi$h that the su#>ect has to e@ert itself far #eyond anythin$ it has
pre%iously done for yo#re$ardless of what it does or doesn(t do on its own timeyou are takin$ a
#i$ risk. The #eha%ior may #reak down. 8 >umper mi$ht learn #ad ha#its, such as #alkin$ or
knockin$ down >umps, ha#its that will #e %ery time=consumin$ to eliminate. The fastest way to
shape #eha%iorsometimes the only wayis to raise the criteria at whate%er inter%al it takes to
make it easy for the su#>ect to impro%e steadily. .onstant pro$ress, e%en if only inch #y inch, will
$et you to your ultimate $oal much faster than tryin$ to force rapid pro$ress at the risk of losin$
$ood performance alto$ether.
" once saw a father make a serious error in this re$ard. !ecause his teena$e son was doin$ %ery
#adly in school, he confiscated the youth(s #elo%ed motorcycle until his $rades impro%ed. The #oy
did work harder, and his $rades did impro%e, from Fs and *s to *s and .s. "nstead of reinforcin$
this pro$ress, howe%er, the father said that the $rades had not impro%ed eno#gh and continued to
withhold #ike pri%ile$es. This escalation of the criteria was too #i$ a >ump; the #oy stopped
workin$ alto$ether. ,e furthermore #ecame %ery mistrustful.
79 Train one as+ect of any +artic0,ar 3e"a%ior at a time; don't try to s"a+e for two criteria sim0,taneo0s,y9
" don(t mean that you can(t #e workin$ on many different #eha%iors o%er the same period of time. Of
course you can. "n any sort of lesson we mi$ht work on form for a while and then on speedin
tennis, on the #ackhand, then the forehand, then on footwork, and so on. "t relie%es monotony.
0ood teachers %ary the work all the time, lea%in$ one task as soon as some pro$ress has #een made
and $oin$ on to another.
While you are workin$ on a $i%en #eha%ior, howe%er, you should work on one criterion at a time,
and only that one. "f " were trainin$ a dolphin to splash and " were to withhold reinforcer one time
#ecause the splash was not #i$ enou$h and the ne@t time #ecause it was in the wron$ direction, the
animal would ha%e no way of decipherin$ what " wanted from it. One reinforcement cannot con%ey
two pieces of information " should shape for si?e of splash until satisfied with that and then shape
for direction of splash, whate%er the si?e, until that, too, is learned; only when #oth criteria are
esta#lished could " re2uire #oth to #e o#eyed.
Rule ) has a lot of practical applications. "f the task can #e #roken down into separate components,
which are then shaped separately, the learnin$ will $o much faster.
Take learnin$ to putt. +uttin$ a $olf #all depends on sendin$ it the ri$ht distancenot short of the
cup and not past it or o%er itand sendin$ it in the ri$ht direction, not to one side of the cup or the
other. "f " were $oin$ to teach myself to putt, " would practice these separately. +erhaps " would put
a piece of tape on the $rass, se%eral feet lon$, and practice hittin$ the #all >ust across the tape first
from two feet, then four, si@, and ten feet, and so on. " mi$ht also make a circle of tape, and practice
aimin$ at it from a fi@ed distance, $radually reducin$ the circle(s si?e, until " could hit a %ery small
tar$et relia#ly. Only when " was satisfied with my skills for #oth distance and direction would "
com#ine them, settin$ up a lar$e tar$et si?e and %aryin$ the distance, then reducin$ the tar$et si?e
and %aryin$ the distance a$ain until " could hit a small tar$et at many distances. " would then add
more criteria, one at a time, such as puttin$ uphill.
This mi$ht make me an e@cellent or e%en a super# putter, dependin$ on my dedication and the
upper limits of my hand=eye coordination. "t would certainly, within my capacity, make me a
relia#le putter. What " am su$$estin$ is that any $olfer could impro%e more in a few weekends
followin$ such a sin$le=task shapin$ pro$ram than in a whole summer of random puttin$ practice,
hopin$ willy=nilly to $et #oth the correct distance and the ri$ht direction on e%ery shot.
Often when we seem to show no pro$ress in a skill, no matter how much we practice, it is #ecause
we are tryin$ to impro%e two or more thin$s at once. +ractice is not shapin$. Repetition, #y itself,
may in$rain mistakes >ust as easily as impro%ements. One needs to think *oes this #eha%ior ha%e
more than one attri#uteD "s there some way to #reak it down and work on different criteria
separatelyD When you address #oth of these 2uestions, many pro#lems sol%e themsel%es.
<9 D0rin' s"a+in'= +0t t"e c0rrent ,e%e, of res+onse onto a %aria3,e sc"ed0,e of reinforcement 3efore addin' or
raisin' t"e criteria
7any people initially o#>ect to the idea of usin$ positi%e reinforcers in trainin$ #ecause they
ima$ine that they will fore%er ha%e to hand out treats to $et $ood #eha%ior. !ut the opposite is true.
Trainin$ with reinforcement actually frees you from the need for constant %i$ilance o%er the
#eha%ior, #ecause of the power of %aria#le schedules.
8 %aria#le schedule of reinforcement simply means that sometimes you reinforce a #eha%ior and
sometimes you don(t. Often when we are teachin$ the #eha%ior, we use a fixed schedule of
reinforcement; that is, we reinforce e%ery ade2uate #eha%ior. !ut when we are >ust maintainin$ a
#eha%ior, we reinforce %ery occasionally, usin$ a sporadic or intermittent schedule. For e@ample,
once a pattern of chore sharin$ has #een esta#lished, your roommate or spouse may stop at the dry
cleaners on the way home without #ein$ reinforced each time; #ut you mi$ht e@press thanks for an
e@tra trip made when you are ill or the weather is #ad.
When we train with a%ersi%es, howe%erand that(s the way most of us #e$anwe are usually
tau$ht that it is %ital to correct e%ery mistake or mis#eha%ior. When errors are not corrected, the
#eha%ior #reaks down. 7any do$s are well #eha%ed on the leash, when they mi$ht $et >erked, #ut
they are hi$hly unrelia#le as soon as they are off leash and out of reach. When out with their
friends, many teena$ers do thin$s that they wouldn(t dream of doin$ in their parents( presence. This
can happen #ecause the su#>ect is fully aware that punishment is una%aila#lewhen the cat(s away,
the mice will play#ut it can also happen as a side effect of trainin$ with a%ersi%es. Since the
messa$e in a punisher is A*on(t do that,A the a#sence of the a%ersi%e sends the messa$e, A"hat is
okay now.A
With positi%e reinforcement, on the other hand, not only is it not necessary to reinforce e%ery
correct response for a lifetime, #ut it is crucial to the learnin$ process to skip an occasional
reinforcer. WhyD
The heart of the shapin$ procedure consists of selecti%ely reinforcin$ some responses rather than
others, so that the response impro%es, little #y little, until it reaches a new $oal. 8ll #eha%ior is
%aria#le; when you skip an e@pected reinforcer, the ne@t #eha%ior is likely to #e somewhat different.
Thus the skipped reinforcer ena#les you to select stron$er or #etter responses. That(s sometimes
called a AdifferentialA or Aselecti%eA schedule of reinforcement; you are choosin$ to reinforce only
some kinds of responses those that meet, say, the re2uirement of #ein$ faster or lon$er, or facin$
left #ut not ri$ht.
!ut to an ine@perienced learner who until now has #een earnin$ reinforcers pretty predicta#ly,
skippin$ reinforcers can #e a shock. 5our puppy sits, you click and treat for the sit, the puppy sits
faster and more and more $leefullyA<ookB "(m sittingB .lick meBA 8nd now suddenly, some sits
don(t workB "f your puppy has not learned to withstand an occasional skipped reinforcer, it may well
2uit in despair or $o #ack to a weaker or slower response. While this step is not mentioned in the
learnin$ te@t#ooks, in practice it is useful, if you are workin$ with a new and ine@perienced learner,
to deli#erately teach your trainee to tolerate small %ariations in the reinforcement schedule, #efore
you #e$in to select for #i$$er or #etter responses. 5our su#>ect has to #e a#le to tolerate an
occasional failure per se, without stoppin$ the #eha%ior alto$ether. Or, technically speakin$, you
need to esta#lish an intermittent schedule of reinforcement #efore startin$ to hold out for impro%ed
performance throu$h a differential schedule of reinforcement.
"n do$ trainin$ seminars in the 1CCJs " la#eled this type of %aria#le schedulea #rief use of
intermittent reinforcementAtwofers,A !roadway slan$ for two theater tickets for the price of one.
<et the do$ do it twicetwo #umps of the tar$et with its nose, sayfor one click or treat. <earnin$
to tolerate an intermittent schedule makes the #eha%iorand other su#se2uent #eha%iorsmore
resistant to e@tinction.
There(s another #enefit to this #rief use of an intermittent schedule durin$ the learnin$ phase. When
your su#>ect is a#le to tolerate the occasional skipped reinforcer, and you let a pre%iously ade2uate
response $o #y without a reinforcer, the learner is likely not only to repeat the #eha%ior #ut to repeat
it with more %i$or A,eyB " did it, didn(t you see meD <ookB "(m doin$ it a$ainBA This intensified
#eha%iorcalled an e@tinction #urstena#les you to mo%e more rapidly toward your $oal
#eha%ior. 8 skilled shaper may e%en omit reinforcers specifically in order to pro%oke a %aried or
more %i$orous response. *o$ #eha%iorist 0ary Wilkes calls this Asurfin$ the e@tinction #ursts.A
Once the su#>ect has learned that a skipped reinforcer does not mean the #eha%ior was wron$ #ut
simply that one mi$ht need to try a$ain, the shapin$ flows from continuous reinforcement &as a new
#eha%ior surfaces' to differential reinforcement &as we select for #etter form, lon$er duration, faster
speed, shorter latencies, and so on' and then #ack to continuous reinforcement &whene%er the
#eha%ior is AperfectA or, in la#oratory terms, Ameets criteriaA'. *eli#erate use of intermittent
reinforcement is no lon$er necessary #ecause the learner already tolerates %aria#le schedules.
4ltimately, when the #eha%ior is satisfactory in all respects, it usually #ecomes part of a repertoire.
One re2uires this #eha%ior as a part of other, more comple@ #eha%iors; $ood form, speed, distance,
and so on are #lended into a wholethe race, the >o#, the day(s acti%itiesand that whole #ecomes
the #eha%ior that is reinforced. With this #eha%ior you are now #ack to an intermittent or
maintenance schedule, >ust the sporadic clicks or AThanksBA that ser%e to keep thin$s runnin$
smoothly. The hi$h rate of positi%e reinforcement, the flood of clicks and treats that you may ha%e
used in the #e$innin$, can now #e sa%ed for learnin$ some other new #eha%ior.
>9 #"en introd0cin' a new criterion or as+ect of t"e 3e"a%iora, s*i,,= tem+orari,y re,a1 t"e o,d ones9
Suppose you(re learnin$ to play s2uash, and you(%e #een workin$ successfully on aimsendin$ the
#all where you want it to $o. -ow you(d like to work on speed, #ut when you hit hard, the #all $oes
e%ery which way. For$et a#out aim for a while and >ust slam the #all. When you ha%e achie%ed
some control o%er the speed of the #all, your aim will come #ack %ery 2uickly.
What is once learned is not for$otten, #ut under the pressure of assimilatin$ new skill le%els, old
well=learned #eha%ior sometimes falls apart temporarily. " once saw a conductor, durin$ the first
dress rehearsal of an opera, ha%in$ a tantrum #ecause the sin$ers in the chorus were makin$ one
musical mistake after another; they seemed %irtually to ha%e for$otten all their hard=learned %ocal
accomplishment. !ut they were, for the first time, wearin$ hea%y costumes, standin$ on ladders,
#ein$ re2uired to mo%e a#out as they san$ 0ettin$ used to new re2uirements temporarily interfered
with pre%iously learned #eha%ior. !y the end of the rehearsal, the musical learnin$ reappeared,
without coachin$. *olphin trainers call this the Anew tank syndrome.A When you mo%e a dolphin to
a new tank, you ha%e to e@pect that it will Afor$etA all it knows until the new stimuli are assimilated.
"t is important to reali?e that #eratin$ yourself or others for mistakes in past=learned #eha%ior under
new circumstances is #ad trainin$. The mistakes will usually clear up #y themsel%es shortly, #ut
reprimands cause upset and sometimes tend to draw attention to the mistakes so they don't $o away.
?9 Stay a"ead of yo0r s03:ect9
+lan your shapin$ pro$ram so=that if your su#>ect makes a sudden leap forward, you will know
what to reinforce ne@t. " once spent two days shapin$ a newly captured dolphin to >ump o%er a #ar a
few inches a#o%e the water surface. When the #eha%ior was well esta#lished, " raised the #ar
another few inches; the animal >umped immediately, and so easily that " shortly raised the #ar a$ain
and #y a #i$$er increment; in fifteen minutes this no%ice animal was >umpin$ ei$ht feet.
8 shapin$ A#reakthrou$hA of this sort can happen at any time. We see the phenomenon in people, of
course, and in many species of intelli$ent animals. " #elie%e it(s an e@ample of insi$ht
The su#>ect suddenly reali?es the point of what it(s #ein$ asked to do &in this case, to >ump much
hi$her' and $oes out and does it. Iiller whales are famous for anticipatin$ shapin$. Their trainers
all ha%e the same >oke 5ou don(t ha%e to train killer whales, you >ust write the #eha%ior on a
#lack#oard and han$ it in the water, and the whales will follow the script.
Where trainers can run into trou#le is if they are not ready for sudden impro%ement. "f you as
trainer are $oin$ from 8 to !, and the su#>ect suddenly does ! perfectly in two reinforcements,
you(d #etter ha%e in mind steps . and *, or you will ha%e nothin$ further to reinforce.
!reakthrou$hs often seem to #e e@tremely e@citin$ for the su#>ect; e%en animals appear to en>oy a
kind of A8haBA e@perience and often rush a#out e%incin$ elation. 8 #reakthrou$h is thus a $olden
opportunity to make a lot of pro$ress in a hurry. To #e unprepared and to hold the su#>ect at a low
le%el of performance >ust #ecause you don(t know what to do ne@t is at #est a waste of time and at
worst may discoura$e or dis$ust your su#>ect so that it #ecomes less willin$ to work in the future.
6@cept under the %ery #est of circumstances, our whole school system seems to #e set up to pre%ent
children from learnin$ at their own rateto penali?e not only the slow learners, who don(t $et the
time to learn, #ut the fast learners, who don(t $et additional reinforcement when 2uick thinkin$
mo%es them ahead. "f you understand in a flash what your math teacher is talkin$ a#out, your
reward may #e to writhe in #oredom for hours, e%en weeks, while e%eryone else learns #y inches.
-o wonder street life looks like more fun for the 2uick ones as well as the slow.
@9 Don't c"an'e= trainers in midstream9
While in the midst of shapin$ a #eha%ior, you risk ma>or slowdowns if you turn the trainin$ o%er to
someone else. -o matter how scrupulous one may #e in discussin$ criteria #efore turnin$ o%er the
>o#, e%eryone(s standards, reaction times, and e@pectations of pro$ress are sli$htly different, and the
net effect for the su#>ect is to lose reinforcers until those differences can #e accommodated. "n a
way it(s another e@ample of Anew tank syndrome.A
Of course one trainee may ha%e many different teacherswe ha%e no trou#le when one trainer
teaches us French, another arithmetic, another foot#all. "t is the indi%idual #eha%ior #ein$ learned
that needs one teacher at a time. *urin$ the shapin$, or half=learned, sta$es, consistency of the
$radually escalatin$ criteria is #est maintained #y keepin$ the shapin$ of a $i%en #eha%ior in one
person(s hands. So if, say, you ha%e two children and one do$, and #oth kids want to teach the do$
tricks, let them; #ut let them each work on separate tricks and spare the poor do$ a lot of confusion.
Those who want to learn will learn under the worst of circumstances. One of the #y now well=
known Aape lan$ua$eA e@periments, in which apes are tau$ht %oca#ularies in 8merican Si$n
<an$ua$e and other codes, took place at .olum#ia 4ni%ersity and in%ol%ed a #a#y chimpan?ee
named -im .himpsky. !ecause of #ud$etary and other pro#lems, the poor creature had more than
one hundred AteachersA of si$nin$ in a three=year period. The students and e@perimenters were
disappointed that -im showed no firm e%idence of real Alan$ua$e.A That is, he apparently ne%er
made sentences. !ut he did learn to reco$ni?e and understand more than three hundred si$ns
nouns, %er#s, and so onwhich, under the circumstances, " think is ama?in$. 8nd so some children
$o from school to school and throu$h the hands of endless processions of su#stitute teachers and
still learn. !ut there are #etter ways.
The one time that you should consider chan$in$ trainers in midshapin$ is, of course, when the
trainin$ is $oin$ nowhere. "f little or no learnin$ is occurrin$, you ha%e nothin$ to lose #y
switchin$.
A9 $f one s"a+in' +roced0re is not e,icitin' +ro'ress= try anot"er9
-o matter what the #eha%ior, there are as many ways to shape it as there are trainers to think them
up. "n teachin$ children to swim, for e@ample, one wants to $et them to #e fearless and comforta#le
a#out $oin$ underwater. 8s a first step in this shapin$ task, one teacher may $et them #lowin$
#u##les in the water; another may ha%e them put their faces in 2uickly and out a$ain; a third may
$et them #o##in$ up and down until they dare to #o# underneath. 8ny $ood teacher, seein$ that a
child is #ored #y or afraid of one method, will switch to another; the same shapin$ methods don(t
work e2ually well on e%ery indi%idual.
Traditional trainers, such as circus trainers, often fail to $rasp this point. Their shapin$ procedures
ha%e #een honed o%er $enerations and passed down throu$h familiesthis is the way you train a
#ear to ride a #icycle, this is the way you train a lion to roar &tweak a few hairs out of its mane, if
you want to know'. These traditional ArecipesA are considered the #est ways, and sometimes they
are, #ut they are also often considered the only ways, which is one reason why circus acts tend to
look so much alike.
The radio and tele%ision star 8rthur 0odfrey, after doin$ a show at Sea <ife +ark, in%ited me to
%isit him and his wife at their farm in Gir$inia to watch the horse trainin$. 0odfrey was an e@cellent
rider and trainer himself and owned a num#er of performin$ horses. We were watchin$ a horse
#ein$ trained to #ow, or kneel on one knee, #y a traditional method in%ol%in$ two men and a lot of
ropes and whips; the horse under this method is repeatedly forced onto one knee until it learns to $o
down %oluntarily.
" said it didn(t ha%e to #e done that way and asserted that " could train a horse to #ow without e%er
touchin$ the animal. &One possi#ility +ut a red spot on the wall; use food and a marker si$nal to
shape the horse to touch its knee to the spot; then lower the spot $radually to the floor so that to
touch it correctly and earn a reinforcer the horse has to kneel.' 0odfrey #ecame so an$ry at this
impertinent su$$estionthe ideaB "f there were another way to train a #ow, he would know a#out it
that we had to walk him around the outside of the #arn two or three times to cool him off.
"t is ama?in$ how tenaciously people will stick to a system that isn(t workin$, or that works #adly,
con%inced somehow that more of the same will $et results. 7urray Sidman, +h.*., a pioneerin$
researcher in #eha%ior analysis, maintains that this is the main reason why it(s important to
understand the principles and not >ust learn recipes. 6%eryone has a Amethod.A The principles
$o%ern what truly works.
B9 Don't interr0+t a trainin' session 'rat0ito0s,y; t"at constit0tes a +0nis"ment9
This doesn(t apply to the casual &thou$h meanin$ful and producti%e' shapin$ one mi$ht do around
the housepraisin$ school=work, welcomin$ homecomers, encoura$in$ children; a reinforcer here
and there, with no formality, will do fine. "n a more formal situation, howe%erin $i%in$ a lesson,
say, or in shapin$ #eha%ior in an animalthe trainer should keep his or her attention on the trainin$
su#>ect or the class until the trainin$ period is o%er. This is more than >ust $ood manners or $ood
self=discipline; it is skilled trainin$. When a su#>ect essays to earn reinforcers, it enters into a
contract, so to speak, with the trainer. "f the trainer starts chattin$ to some #ystander or lea%es to
answer the telephone or is merely daydreamin$, the contract is #roken; reinforcement is una%aila#le
throu$h no fault of the trainee. This does more harm than >ust puttin$ the trainer at risk of missin$ a
$ood opportunity to reinforce. "t may punish some perfectly $ood #eha%ior that was $oin$ on at the
time.
Of course if you want to re#uke a su#>ect, remo%in$ your attention is a $ood way to do it. *olphin
trainers call this a timeout and use it to correct mis#eha%ior. +ickin$ up the fish #ucket and walkin$
away for one minute is one of the few ways one has of sayin$ A-oBA or AWron$BA to a dolphin, and
it is usually %ery effecti%e; one wouldn(t think dolphins could look cha$rined or act contrite, #ut
they can. Remo%al of attention is a powerful tool, so don(t use it carelessly or unfairly.
C9 $f a ,earned 3e"a%ior deteriorates= re%iew t"e s"a+in'9
Sometimes a skill or #eha%ior $ets rusty or seems to #e totally lost. We all know how it feels to try
to speak a lan$ua$e or remem#er a poem or ride a #icycle if we ha%en(t done it in years and years "t
feels most unsettlin$. Sometimes outside circumstances will temporarily eradicate a well=learned
#eha%iorwhen sta$e fri$ht, for instance, makes it impossi#le to $i%e the thorou$hly memori?ed
speech, or a #ad fall se%erely affects your rock=clim#in$ skills. Sometimes su#se2uent learnin$
o%erlies or contradicts the ori$inal learnin$, so that mi@=ups occuryou stri%e for the Spanish word
and come up with the 0erman.
Sometimes the side effects of punishment or other a%ersi%e e%ents interfere with unrelated #eha%ior.
8ttorney and do$ fancier 7or$an Spector descri#es an o#edience trial in which e%ery sin$le do$
that competed shied away from one particular corner of the rin$. What a%ersi%e lurked thereD Only
the do$s knew.
Sometimes an apparently well=trained #eha%ior >ust #reaks down, and you ne%er will identify the
reason. 5our hi$h=scorin$ competition o#edience do$ who has ne%er done such a thin$ #efore in his
life $ets up in the middle of the three=minute <on$ Sit e@ercise and wanders out of the rin$. Who
knows whyD Who cares whyD What is needed is not >ustification #ut an effecti%e fi@.
The 2uickest way to correct this kind of deterioration is not to #utt at it head=on, insistin$ that the
su#>ect $et the whole thin$ #ack #efore you(re satisfied or #efore you reinforce, #ut to recall the
ori$inal shapin$ procedure and $o all the way throu$h it %ery rapidly, reinforcin$ under the new
circumstances &twenty years later, in pu#lic, in the rain, whate%er' and >ust reinforcin$ once or twice
at each le%el. 8t Sea <ife +ark we called this A$oin$ #ack to kinder$arten,A and the techni2ue often
#rou$ht a poor #eha%ior up to par in ten or fifteen minutes.
Of course we are doin$ >ust this whene%er we re%iew for an e@am or refresh our memories #y
$lancin$ at a script #efore $oin$ onsta$e. "t is useful to remem#er that if you can more or less match
the ori$inal shapin$ process, re%iewin$ works e2ually well for physical as for mental skills. 8nd it
works with animals as well as people.
1D9 E0it w"i,e yo0're a"ead9
,ow lon$ should a shapin$ session runD That depends partly on the attention span of the su#>ect.
.ats often seem to $et restless after perhaps a do?en reinforcers, so fi%e minutes mi$ht #e plenty.
*o$s and horses can work lon$er. ,uman lessons of many sorts are traditionally an hour lon$, and
foot#all practice, $raduate seminars, and %arious other endea%ors often $o on all day.
When you stop is not nearly as important as what you stop on. 5ou should always 2uit while you(re
ahead. This is true for whole sessions, #ut it also applies to sta$es within a session, when you stop
workin$ on one #eha%ior and $o on to another. 5ou should mo%e on on a hi$h notethat is, as
soon as some pro$ress has #een achie%ed.
The last #eha%ior that was accomplished is the one that will #e remem#ered #est; you want to #e
sure it was a $ood, reinforcea#le performance. What happens all too often is that we $et three or
four $ood responsesthe do$ retrie%es #eautifully, the di%er does a one=and=a=half for the first
time, the sin$er $ets a difficult passa$e ri$htand we are so e@cited that we want to see it a$ain or
to do it a$ain. So we repeat it, or try to, and pretty soon the su#>ect is tired, the #eha%ior $ets worse,
mistakes crop up, corrections and yellin$ take place, and we >ust #lew a trainin$ session. 8mateur
riders are always doin$ this. " detest watchin$ people practice >umpin$ their horses; so often they $o
past the point when they should ha%e stopped, when the animal was doin$ well and #efore the
#eha%ior #e$an fallin$ apart.
8s a trainer you should force yourself, if necessary, to stop on a $ood response. "t takes $uts
sometimes. !ut you may find that in the ne@t session the retrie%e, the somersault di%e, the solo
o##li$ato is not only as $ood as the last one of the pre%ious session #ut noticea#ly #etter. 8t the
start of the ne@t session, the performance may actually #e$in a step #eyond where it left off, and
then you ha%e >ust that much more to reinforce.
Shapin$ #eha%ior is, of course, the opposite of trainin$ #y drill and repetition. "t can produce not
only steady pro$ress #ut a#solutely error=free trainin$, and this can $o e@tremely fast; " once halter=
#roke a pony yearlin$ in fifteen minutes, from start to finish, and permanently, #y mo%in$ #ack and
forth #etween fi%e shapin$ tasks &forward, stop, left, ri$ht, and #ack' while reinforcin$ pro$ress in
each one. 8ccomplishin$ such speedy trainin$ depends, parado@ically, on your willin$ness to $i%e
up time limits, specific $oal settin$, and speed of pro$ress itself as a $oal. 5ou must instead count
simply on your willin$ness to 2uit while you(re ahead. 8 /en phenomenon.
Sometimes you can(t end each trainin$ session on a hi$h note. +erhaps the students paid for an hour
and they want an hour, thou$h a $ood 2uittin$ time was reached earlier. Or perhaps the session
really isn(t $oin$ well enou$h to pro%ide a hi$h point, #ut fati$ue is soon $oin$ to #e a pro#lem. "n
that case it is wise to end the session with some easy, $uaranteed way to earn a reinforcer so that the
session as a whole is remem#ered as #ein$ reinforcin$. *olphin trainers often end lon$, demandin$
sessions with a #it of easy #all playin$; ridin$ teachers sometimes use $ames such as Simon Says or
ta$. The most inad%isa#le techni2ue is to introduce new tasks or material late in the session so that
it concludes with a series of inade2uate and unreinforced #eha%iors. 7y piano lessons, as a child,
always ended this way; it was %ery discoura$in$ and " still can(t play the piano.
T"e Trainin' Game
6%en if you know and understand the principles of shapin$, you can(t apply them unless you
practice them. Shapin$ is not a %er#al process, it is a non%er#al skilla flow of interacti%e #eha%ior
throu$h time, like dancin$, or makin$ lo%e, or surfin$. 8s such, it can(t really #e learned #y readin$
or thinkin$ or talkin$ a#out it. 5ou ha%e to do it.
One easy and fascinatin$ way to de%elop shapin$ skills is #y playin$ the Trainin$ 0ame. " use the
Trainin$ 0ame in teachin$ the techni2ues of trainin$. 7any trainers play it for sport; it makes an
interestin$ party $ame.
5ou need two people at least the su#>ect and the trainer. Si@ is ideal #ecause then e%ery person can
e@perience #ein$ #oth su#>ect and trainer at least once #efore the $roup $ets tired; #ut lar$er $roups
a classroom or lecture audience, for e@ampleare feasi#le, #ecause o#ser%in$ is almost as much
fun as participatin$.
5ou send the su#>ect out of the room. The rest of the people select a trainer and choose a #eha%ior
to #e shaped for e@ample, to write one(s name on the #lack#oard, >ump up and down, or stand on a
chair. The su#>ect is in%ited #ack in and told to mo%e a#out the room and #e acti%e; the trainer
reinforces, #y #lowin$ on a whistle, mo%ements in the $eneral direction of the desired #eha%ior. "
like to make a rule at least for the first few reinforcements that the AanimalA has to $o #ack to the
doorway after each reinforcer and start anew; it seems to help pre%ent a tendency of some su#>ects
to >ust stand still where%er reinforcement was last recei%ed. 8nd no talkin$. <au$hter, $roans, and
other si$ns of emotion are permitted, #ut instructions and discussion are out until after the #eha%ior
is achie%ed.
Ordinarily the Trainin$ 0ame $oes 2uite fast. ,ere(s an e@ample Si@ of us are playin$ the $ame in
a friend(s li%in$ room. Ruth %olunteers to #e the animal, and it(s 8nne(s turn to #e the trainer. Ruth
$oes out of the room. We all decide that the #eha%ior should #e to turn on the lamp on the end ta#le
#eside the couch.
Ruth is called #ack in and #e$ins wanderin$ around the room. When she heads in the direction of
the lamp, 8nne #lows the whistle. Ruth $oes #ack to AStartA &the doorway', then mo%es
purposefully to the spot where she was reinforced and stops. -o whistle. She wa%es her hands
a#out. -o whistle. She mo%es off the spot, tentati%ely, away from the lamp as it happens. Still
hearin$ no whistle, Ruth #e$ins walkin$ around a$ain. When once a$ain she walks toward the
lamp, 8nne #lows the whistle.
Ruth returns to the door and then returns to the new spot where she >ust heard the whistle, #ut this
time she keeps walkin$ forward. !in$o whistle. Without $oin$ #ack to the door, she walks forward
some more and hears the whistle >ust as she is comin$ up a$ainst the end ta#le. She stops. She
#umps the end ta#le. -o whistle. She wa%es her hands around; no whistle. One hand #rushes the
lampshade, and 8nne whistles. Ruth #e$ins touchin$ the lampshade all o%ermo%in$ it, turnin$ it,
rockin$ it no whistle. Ruth reaches up underneath the lampshade. Whistle. Ruth reaches underneath
the shade a$ain, and, the $esture #ein$ %ery familiar and ha%in$ a purpose, she e@ecutes the purpose
and turns on the lamp. 8nne whistles and the rest of us applaud.
Thin$s don(t always $o that smoothly, e%en with simple, familiar #eha%iors. 8nne, as it turned out,
made a $ood trainin$ decision when she withheld reinforcement as Ruth mo%ed from the spot
where she(d first #een reinforced, #ut in the wron$ direction. "f, howe%er, Ruth had then mo%ed
#ack to the spot and >ust stood there, 8nne mi$ht ha%e #een in trou#le.
,ere(s an e@ample of a round of the Trainin$ 0ame that presented more of a pro#lem. " was
teachin$ trainin$ in a hi$h school class. <eonard was the animal and !eth the trainer. The #eha%ior
was to turn on the ceilin$ li$hts with a wall switch.
<eonard came into the room and #e$an mo%in$ a#out, and !eth 2uickly shaped him to $o to the
wall where the li$ht switch was. ,owe%er, <eonard had started out with his hands in his pockets;
after se%eral reinforcements for mo%in$ a#out with his hands in his pockets, they were stuck there
as if $lued. ,e #umped the wall, he turned and leaned on the wall, he e%en leaned on the li$ht
switch, #ut the switch seemed to #e in%isi#le to him and he ne%er took his hands out of his pockets.
8s " watched, " thou$ht that if <eonard could #e induced to feel the wall with a hand, he would
notice the switch and turn on the li$ht. !ut how to $et those hands out of the pocketsD !eth had
another idea. She Acau$htA with the whistle a #ent=knees mo%ement while <eonard had his #ack to
the wall and soon had shaped him to ru# his #ack up and down on the wall near the switch. The
other students $i$$led as they reali?ed that #y shiftin$ the mo%ement sideways !eth mi$ht $et
<eonard to mo%e the switch with his #ack, thus meetin$ the criterion accidentally, if not
deli#erately. !ut it was a slow #usiness, and we could see that <eonard was $ettin$ frustrated and
an$ry.
A.an " tryDA asked 7aria. !eth $lanced at me for appro%al, " shru$$ed, the class seemed to
ac2uiesce, and 7aria $ot out her own whistle. &8c2uirin$ a whistle was the only course
re2uirement.' 7aria wa%ed <eonard #ack to the AStartA position at the door and then mo%ed a chair
near the li$ht switch, a#out a foot out from the wall, sat down on it herself, and nodded to <eonard
to #e$in. ,e headed #riskly for the wall where he had #een reinforced so often, passin$ 7aria and
apparently i$norin$ her new position. 8s he passed her, she stuck out her foot and tripped him.
<eonard(s hands flew out of his pockets and a$ainst the wall, to #reak his fall; as his hands hit, the
whistle #lew. <eonard fro?e. ,e looked at 7aria. She $a?ed into the middle distance, to a%oid cuin$
him in any way. Tentati%ely he #e$an pattin$ the wall; she reinforced that. ,e patted the wall a$ain,
and this time he looked at what he was doin$; she reinforced that. Then we all saw <eonard focus
a#ruptly on the li$ht switch. -o one #reathed. ,e strai$htened his spine a little, suddenly full of
awareness, and switched on the li$hts. Tumultuous applause.
6%eryone in%ol%ed in the Trainin$ 0ame, participants and spectators alike, learns from almost
e%ery reinforcer. The trainer, first of all, $ets to disco%er what timin$ is all a#out. Suppose the
su#>ect approaches the li$ht switch, #ut >ust as the trainer #lows the whistle, the su#>ect turns away.
Well, thinks the trainer, "(ll catch it ne@t time. !ut now suppose the su#>ect $oes #ack to the startin$
point, then hurries toward the switch and whirls away from it. 0roan. The trainer has shaped that
whirl. 8nd e%eryone, not >ust the trainer, sees how crucial it is to $et the whistle in a little earlier,
while the desired #eha%ior is actually occurrin$.
The su#>ect $ets to disco%er that in this form of learnin$, #rains don(t help. "t doesn(t matter what
you are thinkin$ a#out; if you >ust keep mo%in$ around, collectin$ whistle sounds, your #ody will
find out what to do without AyourA help. This is an a#solutely e@cruciatin$ e@perience for #rilliant,
intellectual people. They tend to free?e when they hear the whistle and to try to analy?e what they
were doin$. That they don(t know, and that it doesn(t matter that they don(t know, is a shocker. 8
collea$ue, Sheri 0ish, and " once trained psycholo$ist Ronald Schusterman to walk around the
room with his hands clenched #ehind his #ack for periods of up to a minutea lon$ time to $o
without a reinforcer, #ut he was dili$entuntil the assem#led room a$reed that we had the #eha%ior
thorou$hly esta#lished, and #urst into applause. &That is the reinforcer for the trainer, incidentally,
and it almost always occurs spontaneously.' Ron, who trains many animals in his research, and who
had rashly opined that he himself Acould not #e trained,A was unaware that his clenched fists #ehind
his #ack were now a shaped #eha%ior, not >ust a su#liminal e@pression of opinion.
What this demonstrates is not some 7achia%ellian nature of reinforcement trainin$ #ut the ha?ards
in our ha#itual error of assumin$ that %er#al communication is all=important, and that learnin$
cannot take place without the use of lan$ua$e or at least some %er#al consciousness. The e@perience
of non%er#al learnin$ is especially useful for people who do a lot of %er#al instructin$ in their
professional li%es teachers, therapists, super%isors. Once you ha%e #een the Aanimal,A you can
sympathi?e, e%en empathi?e, with any su#>ect that is e@hi#itin$ the #eha%ior you are shapin$ #ut
has not yet comprehended what it is supposed to #e doin$, so that it easily makes mistakes. 5ou can
ha%e patience with the animal &or the child or patient' that e@plodes in frustration and ra$e when
what it had confidently thou$ht was the ri$ht thin$ to do turns out to #e no $ood, a contretemps that
can #rin$ human su#>ects close to tears. 8nd once you ha%e performed non%er#al shapin$ with
adult human su#>ects in an e@ercise, you may not #e so 2uick to say in a teachin$, coachin$, or
trainin$ situation in real life that the su#>ect &animal, student, whate%er' Ahates me,A or Ais
deli#erately tryin$ to $et my $oat,A or Ais stupid,A or Amust #e sick today.A "t is patently o#%ious,
durin$ this e@ercise in which e%eryone is participatin$ #y a$reement and with a will, that whate%er
$oes wron$ is a function of the trainin$, not the trainee.
The illumination this $ame pro%ides for professionals is part of the fun &and e%eryone else $ets your
insi$hts at the same timeyou can(t hide, #ut on the other hand you are #athed in amused
sympathy'. 8 charm of the $ame purely as entertainment is that anyone can play it without pre%ious
e@perience. Some people ha%e a wonderful knack for it. "n my e@perience intuiti%e, creati%e,
intensely emotional people make $reat shapers, and calm, o#ser%ant people make $reat animals
>ust the opposite of what you mi$ht e@pect. Finally, one has only to look at a roomful of people
intent on the shapin$ $oin$ on, with e%eryone motionless #ut the su#>ect, and the trainer(s whole
#ody and mind focused on the task, to see that this is an e@perience akin to paintin$ or writin$ "t is
creati%e work. 6@cept on sta$e, creati%ity is rarely shared as a $roup e@perience. The Trainin$
0ame is %alua#le for that aspect alone.
We played some memora#le rounds of the Trainin$ 0ame at Sea <ife +ark, especially one in which
philosopher 0re$ory !ateson, #ein$ the AanimalA for some of my dolphin trainers, pro%ed indeed to
#e impossi#le to train, not #ecause he stood still and thou$ht #ut #ecause he offered such an endless
%ariety of responses that the trainer was swamped. 8nother to me %ery interestin$ round of this
$ame occurred followin$ a luncheon of si@ professional women, mostly unknown to each other and
from widely unrelated fields. 8fter two hours of the $ame, in which a psychotherapist pro%ed to #e
a mar%elous AanimalA and a disco dancer a #rilliant shaper, we left knowin$ each other much #etter
and likin$ each other a $ood deal, too.
"n 1C9J " tau$ht an e@perimental course in trainin$ to a $roup of hi$h school students at the
!rearley School in -ew 5ork .ity. We played the Trainin$ 0ame in class, and a hard core of half a
do?en fiendishly ima$inati%e youn$ women #e$an playin$ the Trainin$ 0ame at home amon$
themsel%es, workin$ in pairs usually, and shapin$ e@otic #eha%iors such as crawlin$ upstairs
#ackward. They had #een tau$htsuccessfully, in my opinionto think analytically at the !rearley
School, and they correctly did their hard thinkin$ #efore and after a shapin$ session and flun$
themsel%es into the shapin$ itself with the normal $usto of si@teen=year=olds. "n no time they were
shapin$ parents, usin$ positi%e reinforcement on teachers, and turnin$ o#no@ious si#lin$s into
amusin$ companions #y selecti%ely reinforcin$ desired #eha%ior. " ne%er saw a $roup, #efore or
since, $rasp #oth the techni2ues and their possi#ilities so rapidly.
S"a+in' S"ortc0ts Tar'etin'= 8imicry= and 8ode,in'
+rofessional trainers use a num#er of techni2ues to make shapin$ $o faster. Three that may #e of
use to you are tar$etin$, mimicry, and modelin$.
"n tar$etin$, which is widely used in the trainin$ of sea lions and other performin$ animals, you
shape the animal to touch its nose to a tar$eta kno# on the end of a pole, say, or often simply the
trainer(s closed fist. Then, #y mo%in$ the tar$et around and $ettin$ the animal merely to $o and
touch it, you can elicit all kinds of other #eha%ior, such as clim#in$ stairs, >umpin$ or rearin$ up,
followin$ the trainer, $ettin$ into and out of a shippin$ crate, and so on. We are essentially usin$
tar$etin$ when we slap our thi$hs to coa@ a do$ to us. The mo%ement seems to attract do$s, and
when they approach, we reinforce the #eha%ior with pettin$. +attin$ the couch to in%ite someone to
sit #eside you is a form of tar$etin$. Fapanese tourist $roups stick to$ether amon$ crowds of much
taller people #y followin$ a fla$ held a#o%e the crowd #y their tour leadersa$ain, tar$etin$. Fla$s
and #anners ha%e traditionally ser%ed the same purpose in #attle. Tar$etin$ has #ecome an
important tool in the new field of reinforcement trainin$, or Aclicker trainin$,A for do$s, horses, and
?oo animals.
7imicry comes naturally to some animals and #irds, as well as to people. 5oun$ creatures of all
sorts learn much of what they need to know #y watchin$ and then copyin$ the #eha%ior of their
elders. While Alearnin$ #y o#ser%ationA is often taken #y psycholo$ists as a si$n of intelli$ence in
animalsprimates #ein$ $ood at it and some other animals poor" think the presence or a#sence
of this skill in a species is a function of its ecolo$ythat is, of its role in naturerather than of
intelli$ence per se. Some #irds are remarka#ly $ood at #eha%ioral mimicry. Titmice in 6n$land
learned to open milk #ottles on doorsteps and drink the cream, a skill that, throu$h mimicry, spread
so rapidly throu$h the titmouse population that milk=#ottle tops had to #e redesi$ned.
7any do$s are not $ood at learnin$ #y o#ser%ation; when they do what other do$s are doin$, it is
usually #ecause they are respondin$ to the same stimuli, not #ecause they are mimickin$. On the
other hand, most cats, which $et lower A"K scoresA than do$s from the animal psycholo$ists, are
wonderful mimickers. The folk e@pression AcopycatA is no accident. "f you teach a trickrin$in$
the door#ell to #e let in, sayto one cat in the household, new or other cats may well learn it with
no trainin$ from you. .ats will e%en copy noncats. One e%enin$ my dau$hter spent an hour
teachin$ her poodle to sit on a child(s rockin$ chair and rock it, usin$ chopped ham as the
reinforcer. One of the cats was watchin$. When the lesson was o%er, the cat, unprompted, $ot on the
chair and rocked it most correctly lookin$ up for its own share of chopped ham, which it most
certainly had earned.
" think this stron$ tendency to mimic e@plains why cats $et stuck in trees. .lim#in$ up comes more
or less automatically "t is, as #iolo$ists say, Ahard=wired.A The claws stick out and the cat runs up
the tree. To $et down, howe%er, the cat has to descend #ackward, so that its down=cur%ed claws can
still operate, and this appears to #e a learned, or Asoft=wired,A skill. " can testify to this #ecause "
ha%e personally &in the middle of the ni$ht, and on top of a ladder' shaped a cat to come down a tree
#ackward. " did so in order to spare myself the mournful yowls of a stuck cat in the future, and
indeed the cat stayed shapedit ne%er $ot stuck a$ain &thou$h it continued to clim# trees'. " think
in nature cats learn how to turn around and descend #ackward from watchin$ their mothers as they
clim# trees to$ether, #ut #ecause we take them from their mothers at such a tender a$esi@ to ei$ht
weeksthis opportunity for copycattin$ is lost.
*olphins ha%e a stron$ tendency to mimic one another, which facilitates trainin$. To $et se%eral
dolphins doin$ the same thin$ you shape the #eha%ior in one, then reinforce the others for any
attempt to copy. "n capti%ity #a#y dolphins often learn the adults( tricks lon$ #efore they themsel%es
are old enou$h for fish rewards, and many oceanariums ha%e had the e@perience &Aunderstudies,A
animals on the sidelines that watch other performin$ animals and pro%e to ha%e learned the show
#eha%iors without e%er #ein$ reinforced for them or e%en doin$ them.' For wild dolphins,
apparently, #ein$ a#le to imitate other dolphins must #e important for sur%i%al.
We can and should use mimicry where%er possi#le in teachin$ physical skills to humansdancin$,
skiin$, tennis, and so on. "t(s usually wise for the person $i%in$ the sample #eha%ior to stand #eside
or turn his or her #ack to the su#>ects, so they can follow the motions with their own #odies without
ha%in$ to do any mental translatin$. The less decipherin$ needed, and the less %er#al description
used, the #etter the mimicry will work. "ncidentally if you want to teach a ri$ht=handed skill
&crochetin$, say' to a left=handed person, you should sit facin$ him or her and ha%e the su#>ect
mimic you, thus e@ecutin$ not the same=sided mo%ements #ut a mirror ima$e.
Of course a ma>or part of the shapin$ of the #eha%ior of our children takes place throu$h mimicry.
What they see us do, they do too, for #etter or worse. "n my post office one mornin$ recently, three
little children were makin$ such a ruckus, it was hard to hear anythin$ else. Their mother, waitin$
in line, yelled at them se%eral times #efore she succeeded in fri$htenin$ them into silence. A,ow do
you $et kids to #e 2uietDA she asked the postmistress. ATry speakin$ softly yourself,A the
postmistress said, 2uite correctly. .olumnist Fudith 7artin &A7iss 7annersA' su$$ests, when
teachin$ $ood manners to children, that durin$ the trainin$ periodAfrom #irth to marria$eA
e%ery#ody else in the house will ha%e to eat tidily, speak ci%illy, and at least fei$n interest in the
doin$s and con%ersation of others.
The third shapin$ shortcut, modelin$, consists of pushin$ the su#>ect manually throu$h the action
we want that su#>ect to learn. 8 $olfer does this when he puts his arms around the no%ice from
#ehind, holds the clu#, and mo%es the clu# and the su#>ect in the desired swin$. Some of those who
teach si$n lan$ua$e to apes employ a lot of modelin$. The trainer holds the youn$ chimpan?ee(s
hands and puts them in the desired positions or mo%ements; e%entually the ape is supposed to $et
the picture and make the mo%ements spontaneously. 7odelin$ was the secret of Ali%in$ statues,A a
circus act %ery popular around the turn of the century in which li%e people and horses were posed to
resem#le famous paintin$s or sculptures. The effect that audiences lo%ed was the motionlessness.
When the li$hts went up, there they all were, -apoleon(s troops at Waterloo or whate%er, cau$ht as
if in midmo%ementnot >ust the men #ut the horses, too, with necks arched, forele$s in midair, as
if turned to stone. "t was done, " am told, #y massa$in$ the horses for hours until they were utterly
rela@ed, and then modelin$ them like clay into the desired poses and reinforcin$ them for stayin$
there.
" am always a little du#ious a#out modelin$ as a trainin$ de%ice, e%en thou$h it is widely used.
4ntil the su#>ect is doin$ the #eha%ior or at least tryin$ to do the #eha%ior without #ein$ held or
pushed or modeled, " am not sure much learnin$ takes place. Often all the su#>ect learns is to let
you put it throu$h the motions The do$, #ein$ tau$ht to retrie%e, learns to let you hold its mouth
shut with the dum##ell in its >aws, #ut when you let $o, it lets $o; the toddler, put firmly into a hi$h
chair, sits 2uietly while you hold him or her #ut is up and mo%in$ the minute you take your hand
away. "t(s the modeler who $ets trainedto hold or $uide for lon$er and lon$er periods.
"t would seem that #y puttin$ a su#>ect throu$h the same motions lon$ enou$h, or often enou$h,
e%entually it would learn how to do the #eha%ior. Sometimes this is true, #ut e%entually can #e a
lon$ time away, and to $o from #ein$ pushed throu$h a mo%ement to doin$ it yourself re2uires
insi$ht A8haB They want me to do this myself.A This is an awful lot to ask of an animal. 8nd e%en
if your su#>ect is an 6instein, repetition in the hope that enli$htenment will strike is an inefficient
use of %alua#le trainin$ time. The way to make modelin$ work is to com#ine it with shapin$. While
you are puttin$ the su#>ect in position, or throu$h the motions, you stay sensiti%e to the smallest
effort on the su#>ect(s part to initiate the proper motion, and that effort is the #eha%ior you reinforce.
The do$(s >aws ti$hten on the dum##ell e%er so sli$htly, the $olfer #e$ins to swin$ smoothly, the
little chimp(s hands mo%e of themsel%es, and you praise that moment. Then you can shape the new
skill while Afadin$A away the modelin$. The com#ination of modelin$ and shapin$ is often an
effecti%e way of trainin$ #eha%ior; #ut it is the com#ination that works and not the modelin$ alone.
S+ecia, S03:ects
5ou can shape #eha%ior in >ust a#out any or$anism. +sycholo$ists ha%e shaped tiny #a#ies to wa%e
their arms to make the li$hts in the room $o off and on. 5ou can shape #irds. 5ou can shape fish. "
shaped a lar$e hermit cra# once to rin$ a dinner #ell #y pullin$ on a strin$ with its claw. &The trick
was to $et the food to the cra# the instant its claw, wa%in$ a#out aimlessly, connected with the
strin$; " used a lon$ pair of dissectin$ forceps to put #its of shrimp ri$ht into the cra#(s mouthparts.'
,ar%ard professor Richard ,errnstein told me he once shaped a scallop to clap its shell for a food
reward. &,e didn(t tell me how he $ot the food to the scallop.' 7arine mammal trainers like to #oast
that they can shape any animal to do anything it is physically and mentally capa#le of doin$, and as
far as " can tell, they can.
One of the effects of shapin$ sessions, especially if they are fruitful e@periences for the su#>ect, is to
increase attention span; actually you are shapin$ duration of participation. ,owe%er, some
or$anisms naturally do not ha%e lon$ attention spans. "mmature or$anismspuppies, foals, #a#ies
should ne%er #e asked for more than three or four repetitions of a $i%en #eha%ior; pressure
#eyond that may discoura$e or fri$hten. This is not to say that immature or$anisms can(t learn.
They are learnin$ all the time, #ut in #rief snatches. 8 fishin$ captain " know tau$ht his four=month=
old $randdau$hter to A0imme fi%eBA and the #a#y(s enthusiastic open=handed slap of his palm, in a
tiny simulacrum of the >a?? musician(s $reetin$, was a ne%er=failin$ hit with spectators. !ut he did it
in only a few almost momentary Atrainin$ sessions.A
"nfancy is not the only #iolo$ical constraint affectin$ shapin$. Some #eha%iors come naturally to
some species and are difficult for others. +i$s, for e@ample, seem to find it hard to carry somethin$
a#out in their >aws #ut easy to learn to sho%e thin$s with their snouts. 7ost #reeds of do$s ha%e
#een de%eloped for #eha%ioral tendencies as well as looks One hardly needs to shape a collie to
herd sheep, since the necessary stalkin$ #eha%ior has #een esta#lished, e%en e@a$$erated, #y
#reedin$; #ut you(d #e $i%in$ yourself a tou$h assi$nment if you decided to shape sheepherdin$ in a
#asset hound. Some skills are more easily learned at particular sta$es of de%elopment; a #a#y
mon$oose may #e tamed and turned into a deli$htful pet up to the a$e of si@ weeks #ut not after
that. ,umans are $enerally thou$ht to ac2uire lan$ua$es more easily as children than as adults,
althou$h lin$uists ha%e recently found that an adult who is willin$ to work at it can pro#a#ly learn a
new lan$ua$e faster than most children and teena$ers. One #eha%ior " think is really %ery difficult
to teach to humans in adulthood is swimmin$. We are amon$ the %ery few species that do not swim
naturally, and while you can teach an adult to float and to make the proper strokes, " ha%e ne%er
seen anyone frolic or #e at ease in deep water unless he or she learned to swim in childhood.
,ow a#out shapin$ yourselfD 8ll kinds of pro$rams e@ist for chan$in$ one(s own #eha%ior
Smoke6nders, Wei$ht Watchers, and so on. 7ost such pro$rams draw hea%ily on shapin$ methods,
usually called #eha%ior modification, and they may or may not #e successful. The difficulty, " think,
is that they re2uire you to reinforce yourself. !ut when you are reinforcin$ yourself, the e%ent is
ne%er a surprisethe su#>ect always knows what the trainer is up to. This makes it awfully easy to
say AThe heck with $ettin$ another star on my chart, "(d rather ha%e a ci$arette.A
Self=shapin$ may work for some people. Other people may #e successful only after $oin$ throu$h
three or four different pro$rams, or se%eral repetitions of a $i%en method. Such people can in fact
successfully chan$e a ha#it or $i%e up an addiction, #ut hardly e%er on the first try. Still others may
#e helped enormously #y some form of hypnosis or self=hypnosis. 8 senior editor at a #i$
pu#lishin$ house told me that he was a#le to kick a ma>or ci$arette ha#it #y learnin$, from a
hypnotist, to rela@ into a li$ht trance throu$h self=hypnosis, and to repeat as a mantra or charm a
phrase such as A" do not want to smokeA whene%er he felt an o%erpowerin$ ur$e. For him, as he put
it, this techni2ue seemed to Adrop a curtainA #etween him and the ci$arette; relief and self=
con$ratulation when the ur$e had passed was the reinforcer. Whether this is actually what happened
or whether other reinforcement contin$encies were also in effect is of course impossi#le to say.
Out of curiosity, while writin$ this #ook, " tried out some formal shapin$ pro$rams, two classroom=
tau$ht and two self=administered, for 2uittin$ smokin$ and for learnin$ meditation, wei$ht control,
and money mana$ement. 8ll were moderately successful #ut not necessarily at first; some took well
o%er a year. The sin$le most useful de%ice in self=reinforcement, " found, was record keepin$,
which all four pro$rams made use of. " needed to record performance in such a way that
improvement could #e seen at a $lance. " used $raphs. Thus my $uilt o%er a lapse could #e assua$ed
#y lookin$ at the $raphs and seein$ that, e%en so, " was doin$ much #etter now than " had #een si@
months pre%iously. +erfection mi$ht still #e a lon$ way off, #ut the Acur%e,A or slopin$ line, of the
$raph was in the ri$ht direction, and this %isi#le proof of impro%ement, while itself a weak and
slow=operatin$ reinforcer, did pro%ide enou$h moti%ation to keep me $oin$ most of the time.
One kind of self=administered shapin$ that works #eautifully is trainin$ #y computer. 8musin$
reinforcements can #e #uilt into the computer pro$ram so that learnin$ proceeds fast and the
shapin$ e@perience is fun. "t has #ecome an e@tremely promisin$ application of the laws of positi%e
reinforcement.
S"a+in' #it"o0t #ords
"n formal trainin$ situations, such as a tennis lesson, the su#>ect knows he or she is #ein$ shaped
and is usually a willin$ party to the procedure. Thus you don(t ha%e to >ust wait for the response and
reinforce it. 5ou can use words to prompt the #eha%ior, and without harm A*o this. 0ood. -ow do
it twice. 0ood.A
"n informal situations in real life, howe%er, you are pro#a#ly #etter off shapin$ without instructions
or %er#al discussion. Suppose you ha%e a messy roommate who lea%es dirty clothes all o%er the
place, and %er#al instructionsscoldin$, pleadin$, whate%erha%en(t worked. .an you shape
neatnessD +ossi#ly.
5ou would of course draw up a shapin$ plan, the initial and intermediate steps #y which you would
reach the desired $oal. To $et dirty clothes into the hamper e%ery time, for e@ample, you mi$ht start
with one sock, once, and Atar$etA the #eha%ior #y holdin$ out the open hamper >ust as the sock is
a#out to $o on the floor. The reinforcer can #e %er#al, tactile, or whate%er you think the roommate
would #e likely to respond to or accept. +eople are not dum#; they modify their #eha%ior on >ust a
handful of reinforcers. 6%en if the scatterin$ of dirty clothes is actually an act of su#tle a$$ression
directed a$ainst you &A+ick up my clothes, peonBA', #y usin$ positi%e reinforcement you can shape a
steady and %isi#le pro$ress toward whate%er you consider an ade2uate le%el of tidiness.
There are, howe%er, two traps in this use of shapin$. The first is that it is easier to notice mistakes
than to notice impro%ement, so, %er#al creatures that we are, it is much easier for us to remonstrate
when criteria are not met than to reinforce when they are. 8nd that can undo the pro$ress. The
second trap is that if you are calculatin$ to shape someone(s #eha%ior, it is %ery temptin$ to talk
a#out it. 8nd talkin$ a#out it can ruin it. "f you say, A" am $oin$ to reinforce youAfor puttin$ your
laundry in the hamper, for not smokin$ mari>uana, for spendin$ less, or whate%eryou are #ri#in$
or promisin$, not actually reinforcin$; on learnin$ of your plans, the person may re#el, instantly,
and escalate mis#eha%ior. To $et results, you ha%e to do the shapin$, not talk a#out it.
8nd if you do achie%e success in shapin$ someone else(s #eha%ior, you #etter not #ra$ a#out it later,
either. Some shapers ne%er catch on to this and insist on showin$ off what AtheyA didpatroni?in$
at #est, and a $reat way to make a lifelon$ enemy of the su#>ect. !esides, while you may ha%e
helped someone impro%e a skill or $et rid of a #ad ha#it #y chan$in$ your #eha%ior in order to
reinforce appropriately, who actually did all the hard workD The su#>ect. Wise parents ne%er $o
around talkin$ a#out what a $ood >o# they did raisin$ their kids. For one thin$, we all know the >o#
is ne%er o%er, and for another, the kids deser%e the creditif only for sur%i%in$ all the trainin$
mistakes we made.
!ecause the shapin$ of people can or e%en must #e tacit, it smacks to some people of an e%il sort of
manipulati%eness. " think this is a misunderstandin$. The reason the shapin$ needs to #e non%er#al
is that it is #eha%ior we are workin$ with, not ideas, and not >ust the su#>ects( #eha%ior #ut yours as
well.
,owe%er Since you can shape people(s #eha%ior without their conscious awareness that you are
doin$ so, and since, outside of the formal a$reement to #e shaped, as in a tennis lesson, you almost
ha%e to shape human #eha%ior on the non%er#al le%el, then isn(t it possi#le to shape people to do
horri#le thin$sD
5es, indeed, especially if you are usin$, as ne$ati%e reinforcement, an a%ersi%e stimulus so se%ere
as to cause real fear, e%en terror. +sycholo$ists ha%e disco%ered in the la#oratory a phenomenon
called learned helplessness. "f an animal is tau$ht to a%oid an a%ersi%e stimulus, such as an electric
shock, #y pressin$ a le%er or mo%in$ to another part of the ca$e, and is then placed in a ca$e where
there is a#solutely no way it can a%oid the shock, it will $radually $i%e up tryin$. "t will #ecome
completely mallea#le and passi%e, and may e%en lie there and accept punishment when the way to
freedom is once a$ain open. A!rainwashin$A is possi#ly a related phenomenon in people. "f a
person is su#>ected to se%ere depri%ation and inescapa#le fear or pain, and if the a%ersi%e stimuli are
su#se2uently used as ne$ati%e reinforcersthat is, as contin$encies that the su#>ect can a%oid or
cause to desist #y a chan$e in #eha%iorwell, then ... animals tend to $o to pieces, #ut people are
tou$her, and some will do anythin$ they need to do to a%oid the ne$ati%e reinforcement. <et the
photo$raphs of +atty ,earst, holdin$ a machine $un in a #ank ro##ery, #e e%idence. !ut while her
captors did not need a #ook to tell them how to do that, would we not all #e #etter defended a$ainst
such e%ents if we understood, each of us, how the laws of shapin$ workD
<Stim0,0s Contro, Coo+eration #it"o0t Coercion Stim0,i
Stim0,i
8nythin$ that causes some kind of #eha%ioral response is called a stimulus. Some stimuli can cause
responses without any learnin$ or trainin$ We flinch at a loud noise, #link at a #ri$ht li$ht, and
tend to wander into the kitchen when appeti?in$ smells waft out to us; animals would do the same.
Such sounds, li$hts, and scents are called unconditioned, or primary, stimuli.
Other stimuli are learned #y association with a reinforced #eha%ior. They may #e meanin$less in
themsel%es, #ut they ha%e #ecome reco$ni?a#le si$nals for #eha%ior Traffic li$hts make us stop
and $o, we leap to answer a rin$in$ telephone, on a noisy street we turn at the sound of our own
name, and so on and on. "n any $i%en day we respond to a multitude of learned si$nals. These are
called stimuli, cues, or si$nals.
We learn the cues or si$nals #ecause the #eha%ior we associate with them is one that has a history
of #ein$ reinforced. +ickin$ up a rin$in$ telephone silences the #ell &a ne$ati%e reinforcer' and
#rin$s us a human %oice &a positi%e reinforcer, or so one hopes'. The si$nal or discriminati%e
stimulus sets the sta$e, or $i%es us the $o=ahead, for a #eha%ior that has in the past led to
reinforcement. .on%ersely, the a#sence of the stimulus informs us that no reinforcer will #e
forthcomin$ for that particular #eha%ior. +ick up a telephone that is not rin$in$, and all you $et is a
dial tone.
8n enormous part of most formal trainin$ efforts consists of esta#lishin$ discriminati%e stimuli.
The drill ser$eant with a platoon of recruits and the do$ owner in a trainin$ class are e2ually and
primarily concerned with $ettin$ trainees to o#ey commands, which are actually discriminati%e
stimuli. "t(s not impressi%e that a do$ can sit or a man can halt; what is impressi%e is that it is done
with precision and on command. That is what we call o#ediencenot merely the ac2uisition of
#eha%iors #ut the $uarantee that they will #e e@ecuted when the si$nal is $i%en. +sycholo$ists call
this A#rin$in$ #eha%ior under stimulus control.A "t is hard to train, the trainin$ follows rules, and the
rules are worth e@amination.
What if you don(t care to #oss some do$ around and ne%er in your life plan to train a drill teamD
5ou can still make use of an understandin$ of stimulus control. For e@ample, if your kids dawdle
and don(t come when you call, you ha%e poor stimulus control. "f you super%ise people, and you
sometimes ha%e to $i%e an order or instruction two or three times #efore it $ets done, you ha%e a
stimulus=control pro#lem. *id you e%er hear these words come out of your mouth A"f "(%e told you
once, "(%e told you a thousand times, don(t ... A &slam the door, or lea%e your wet #athin$ suit on the
couch, or whate%er'D When tellin$ once or a thousand times isn(t workin$, the=#eha%ior is not under
stimulus control.
We may think we ha%e stimulus control when actually we don(t. We e@pect a si$nal or command to
#e o#eyed in such cases, and it isn(t. One common human reaction is to escalate the si$nal. The
waiter doesn(t understand your FrenchD Speak louder. 4sually this doesn(t work. The su#>ect has to
reco$ni?e the si$nal; otherwise it doesn(t matter if you yell, or #lare it throu$h a rock=#and
amplification system, you(ll still $et a #lank stare. 8nother human reaction to failure to $et a
response to a conditioned stimulus is to $et mad. This works only if the su#>ect is e@hi#itin$
undesira#le #eha%ior or not $i%in$ a well=learned response to a well=learned cue. Then sometimes
an a%ersi%e, such as a time out or a show of temper, can elicit $ood #eha%ior.
Sometimes the su#>ect responds correctly #ut after a delay or in a dilatory manner. Often a slu$$ish
response to commands is due to the fact that the su#>ect has not #een tau$ht to respond 2uickly.
Without positi%e reinforcement, not only for the correct response to a cue #ut also for prompt
response, the su#>ect has had no chance to learn that there are #enefits in 2uick o#edience to si$nals.
The #eha%ior really isn(t under stimulus control.
Real life a#ounds in #ad mana$ement of stimulus control. Whene%er one person is tryin$ to e@ert
authority, another person is likely to #e $ettin$ into trou#le for Adiso#edienceA; #ut the real pro#lem
is commands that are not understood or si$nals that can(t #e o#eyedpoor communication or
sloppy stimulus control.
Esta3,is"in' a C0e
.on%entional trainers start with the cue, #efore they #e$in trainin$ ASitBA Then they push the do$
into a sit. 8fter many repetitions, the do$ learns to sit, in order to a%oid #ein$ pushed around, and in
due course learns that the word sit is his chance to a%oid #ein$ yanked #y e@hi#itin$ the sit
#eha%ior. .on%entional cues or commands are, in fact, conditioned ne$ati%e reinforcers.
"n operant conditionin$, on the other hand, we shape the #eha%ior first. Why, after all, would you
want to tell the do$ to do somethin$ it can(t possi#ly understand yetD Once the #eha%ior is secure,
we shape the offerin$ of the #eha%ior durin$ or ri$ht after some particular stimulus. For e@ample,
with the clicker and reinforcers, we de%elop the #eha%ior of sittin$2uickly neatly, lon$ and often,
here on the $rass and there on the ru$, meetin$ many criteriauntil the do$ is offerin$ us sits with
$reat confidence, in the hope of earnin$ reinforcers. -ow we introduce the cue as a sort of $reen
li$ht, a chance to earn reinforcers, for that particular #eha%ior. This kind of cue thus #ecomes a
conditioned positi%e reinforcer it is $uaranteed to lead to reinforcement.
There are se%eral ways to introduce the cue. 5ou may produce the cue >ust as the #eha%ior is
startin$, reinforce the completion of the #eha%ior, and then repeat this se2uence, at different times
and in different locations, $radually #ackin$ up the cue in time, until the cue comes #efore the
#eha%ior starts. !y and #y the learner will identify the cue as the opportunity for that particular
#eha%ior to #e reinforced and when you say ASit,A the do$ will sit. 8 second methodand this is
what we used with dolphinsis to alternate #etween cue and no cue. The #eha%ior is happenin$
fre2uently. 5ou say ASitA and click the ne@t sit. Then you let a sit or two $o #y unclicked and
unreinforced. Then you say ASitA a$ain, and reinforce the sit that follows the cue. 5ou are, in the
same trainin$ session, reinforcin$ on=cue sits and e@tin$uishin$ off=cue sits.
Once your learner understands the rules, new cues can #e attached to new #eha%iors practically
instantly this way. ,owe%er, difficulties may arise with A$reenA or ine@perienced animals learnin$
their first cues. The source of difficulty is the process called extinction. 6@tinction refers to
remo%in$ a reinforcer for a #eha%ior that used to pay off. "t is an a%ersi%e e@perience &.hapter 3'
and may en$ender emotions. " ha%e #een soaked from head to foot #y a dolphin irate o%er #ein$
unpaid for a #eha%ior that had pre%iously earned a fish.
L8 third way to add a cue is to shape response to the c#e as if it were #eha%ior in itself. "f this is a
puppy(s first clicker=trained #eha%ior, you may find the puppy runnin$ in front of you and
practically trippin$ you up to show you sits A<ook, "(m doin$ it, seeDA The clicker trainers would
say that the do$ is Athrowin$ sits at you.A This is the perfect time to introduce a cue. The do$ is
ready to learn a cue, and you need to #e a#le to tell the do$ when sittin$ will work, so it doesn(t
%olunteer the #eha%ior ri$ht under your feet when you ha%e your arms full of $roceries.
0et out the clicker and treats, say ASit,A and click the first tiny mo%ement of rump toward $round
not the whole #eha%ior, >ust the start of the mo%ement. Toss the food so the do$ has to $et on its
feet to eat, a$ain say, ASitA and a$ain click the sit #efore it(s complete. 5ou can make the cue %ery
#road add a hand si$nal, #ody 6n$lish, speak %ery clearly. !e sure to cease all those au@iliary cues
the instant you click.
Often, in this fashion, one can $et a %i$orous on=cue sit in >ust a few clicks. 5ou then return to
clickin$ the sit after the cue #ut when the rump is fully on the $round &so the do$ doesn(t start
makin$ a ha#it of half=sits'. The ne@t step is to intersperse some other well=learned #eha%ior
perhaps callin$ the pup o%er to #e patted#etween #outs of $i%in$ and reinforcin$ the new sit cue.
The last step is to shape the #eha%ior of waitin$ for the cuehalf a second, then a second, then
three secondsuntil the do$ is %isi#ly attendin$ to you and not offerin$ #eha%ior until the cue
comes. When that(s done, you can start fadin$ out all those au@iliary cues and >ust usin$ the word.
5ou ha%e de%eloped cue response as an operant #eha%ior, intentionally offered in the hope of
$ainin$ reinforcers.
"n my o#ser%ation this is the fastest way to esta#lish #oth indi%idual cues and the $enerali?ation that
cues are indicators of which #eha%ior to perform. 8 woman #rou$ht a four=month=old #lack
<a#rador puppy, >ust adopted from a kennel, to one of my seminars. On Saturday at the lunch #reak
" helped her shape the puppy(s first clicker=trained #eha%ior, lyin$ down. " feel " am safe in sayin$
that this puppy was clueless, innocent of any trainin$ whatsoe%er. "t took a lon$ time >ust to $et the
puppy to notice that what it was doin$ had some effect on the arri%al of treats.
That afternoon e%eryone practiced shapin$ cue reco$nition. The ne@t day, at the lunch #reak, the
same owner and same puppy came to my side. 0uess what this pup had learned, in twenty=four
hours sit, down, roll o%er, come, a super Ahi$h fi%eA in which the little puppy rolled its wei$ht to
the left and threw its ri$ht paw strai$ht up as far as it could reach into the airand the #e$innin$s
of a retrie%e. 8ll on cue, rapid=fire, correct, and in any order. The puppy, furthermore, was
electrified, a totally different do$, attenti%e, full of fun, muscles all en$a$edready for life.
T"e R0,es of Stim0,0s Contro,
There are four aspects to stimulus control. When a do$, #y whate%er method, has learned to sit
when you say ASit,A the >o# is finished, ri$htD
Wron$. Only half the >o# is finished. The animal must also #e trainedand it is a separate trainin$
tasknot to sit when it has not #een $i%en the command. !rin$in$ #eha%ior under stimulus control
is not accomplished until the #eha%ior is also e@tin$uished in the a#sence of the conditioned
stimulus.
This does not mean, of course, that the do$ must stand up all day unless you say ASit.A The su#>ect
can do what it pleases on its own time. "t is in the trainin$ or workin$ situation, where
discriminati%e stimuli, or cues and si$nals, are $oin$ to #e used, that #oth the A$oA and the Ano=$oA
aspects of a si$nal must #e esta#lished if performance is to #e relia#le.
.omplete, perfect stimulus control is defined #y four conditions, each one of which may ha%e to #e
approached as a separate trainin$ task, a separate item in the shapin$ recipe
1. The #eha%ior always occurs immediately upon presentation of the conditioned stimulus &the
do$ sits when told to'.
). The #eha%ior ne%er occurs in the a#sence of the stimulus &durin$ a trainin$ or work session
the do$ ne%er sits spontaneously'.
1. The #eha%ior ne%er occurs in response to some other stimulus &if you say A<ie down,A the
do$ does not offer the sit instead'.
3. -o other #eha%ior occurs in response to this stimulus &when you say ASit,A the do$ does not
respond #y lyin$ down or #y leapin$ up and lickin$ your face'.
Only when all four conditions are met does the do$ really, fully, and finally understand the
command ASitBA -ow you ha%e real stimulus control.
Where, in real life, do we use or need such complete stimulus controlD "n music, for one e@ample.
Orchestra conductors often make %ery comple@ use of stimulus control, and, in turn, a conductor in
rehearsal may come upon e%ery possi#le kind of response error. ,e may, for e@ample, si$nal for a
responseAForte,A more %olume, sayand not $et it, perhaps #ecause he has not yet clearly
esta#lished the meanin$ of the si$nal. Or he may a%oid si$nalin$ for more %olume and $et too much
sound anyway. The #rass section of classical orchestras is famous for this; Richard Strauss, in a
satiric list of rules for youn$ conductors, said, A-e%er look encoura$in$ly at the #rass players.A The
conductor may si$nal for another #eha%iorA+resto,A perhapsand instead of $ettin$ faster music,
the conductor $ets more %olume. Tenor soloists seem to do this a lot. Finally, the conductor may
ask for more %olume and instead $et a lot of mistakes. 8mateur choruses do this. 6ach kind of error
in response to the cue must #e corrected, #y trainin$, #efore the conductor will #e satisfied that he
or she has ade2uate stimulus control.
Stimulus control is also %ital in the military. The trainin$ of rookies in close=order drill, a la#orious
and time=consumin$ #usiness, may seem #oth difficult and meanin$less to the recruits, #ut it has an
important function. -ot only does it esta#lish prompt response to marchin$ commands, which
ena#les the leaders to mo%e lar$e $roups of men a#out efficiently, #ut it also trains the skill of
respondin$ to learned stimuli in $eneral o#edience to commands, which is after all not >ust a state
of mind #ut a learned a#ility, constitutin$ a crucial and often lifesa%in$ skill to a soldier. 6%er since
armies were in%ented, close=order drill has #een a way of trainin$ this skill.
#"at Kind of Si'na,&
8 discriminati%e stimulusa learned si$nalcan #e anythin$, a#solutely anythin$, that the su#>ect
is capa#le of percei%in$. Fla$s, li$hts, words, touch, %i#ration, poppin$ champa$ne corksit
simply doesn(t matter what kind of si$nal you use. 8s lon$ as the su#>ect can sense it, the si$nal can
#e used to cause learned #eha%ior to occur.
*olphins are usually trained with %isual hand si$nals, #ut " know of a #lind dolphin that learned to
offer many #eha%iors in response to #ein$ touched in %arious ways. Sheepdo$s are usually trained
with hand si$nals and %oice commands. "n -ew /ealand, howe%er, where the countryside is wide
and the do$ may #e far off, the si$nals are often piercin$ whistles, which carry farther than %oice
commands. When a shepherd in -ew /ealand sells such a do$, the #uyer may li%e many miles
away; with no way to write down whistles, the old owner teaches the new owner the commands
o%er the telephone or $i%es him a tape cassette.
Fish will learn to respond to sounds or li$htswe all know how fish in an a2uarium rush to the top
when you tap the $lass or turn on the li$ht. 8nd human #ein$s can learn to respond to practically
anythin$.
"t is useful, in a workin$ situation, to teach all su#>ects the same cues and si$nals, so that other
people can cue the same #eha%iors. Thus animal trainers tend to #e 2uite traditional a#out the
stimuli they use. 8ll o%er the world horses $o forward when you kick their ri#s and halt when you
pull on the reins. The camels at the !ron@ /oo lie down when they(re told A.ouche,A pronounced
A.oosh,A e%en thou$h no one around them, includin$ their trainer, speaks -orth 8frican French;
e%ery#ody >ust knows that(s how you(re supposed to tell a camel to lie down. That -ew 5ork
camels could >ust as well learn to lie down on hearin$ A.ool it, #a#yA doesn(t matter.
Traditional trainers often fail to reali?e that their si$nals are mere con%entions. Once at a #oardin$
sta#les " was workin$ with a youn$ horse on a lead line, teachin$ it AWalkBA as a command. The
trainer at the sta#les looked on with dis$ust and finally said, A5ou can(t do it that wayhorses don(t
understand (Walk(; you ha%e to say (Tch, tch(BA Takin$ the rope from my hand he said, ATch, tch,A
and popped the colt on the rump with the loose rope end, which naturally made the horse start
forward. ASeeDA he said, point pro%ed.
" saw. From then on, where%er " #oarded my ponies, " trained them to respond not only to my
commands, #ut to whate%er set of $iddyaps, $ees, haws, and whoas were used #y the trainer in
char$e. "t sa%ed trou#le, and it made them think " was 2uite a promisin$ amateur trainer. 8t least "
didn(t ha%e my si$nals crossedB
"t was not only possi#le #ut easy to train the ponies to two sets of commands. While you don(t want
more than one #eha%ior occurrin$ on a sin$le stimulus, it(s perfectly feasi#le to ha%e se%eral learned
si$nals for one #eha%ior. For e@ample, in a crowded room a speaker can ask for 2uiet #y shoutin$
AKuietA or #y standin$ up and raisin$ one hand in a $esture meanin$ A,ush.A Or, if the occupants of
the room are noisy, #an$in$ a spoon on a water $lass will work. We(re all conditioned to $i%e this
one #eha%ior in response to any of at least three stimuli.
6sta#lishin$ a second cue for a learned #eha%ior is called transferrin$ the stimulus control. To make
a transfer, you present the new stimulusa %oice command, perhapsfirst, and then the old one
a hand si$nal, sayand reinforce the response; then you $radually make the old stimulus less and
less o#%ious while callin$ attention to the new one #y makin$ it %ery o#%ious, until the response is
$i%en e2ually well to the new stimulus, e%en without $i%in$ the old one at all. This usually $oes
2uite a #it faster than the trainin$ of the ori$inal si$nal; since A*o this #eha%iorA and A*o this
#eha%ior on cueA ha%e already #een esta#lished, A*o this #eha%ior on another cue, tooA is more
easily learned.
Si'na, 8a'nit0de and Fadin'
<earned cues or si$nals do not ha%e to #e of any particular %olume or si?e to $et results. 8 primary,
or unconditioned, stimulus produces a $radation of results, dependin$ on its intensity; one reacts
more %i$orously to a sharp >a# than to a pinprick, and the louder the noise, the more it startles. 8
learned cue, howe%er, merely has to #e reco$ni?ed to lead to the full response. 5ou see a red li$ht
and you stop the car; you don(t stop faster or slower dependin$ on the si?e of the li$ht fi@ture. 8s
lon$ as you reco$ni?e the si$nal you know what to do. Therefore, once a stimulus has #een learned,
it is possi#le not only to transfer it #ut also to make it smaller and smaller, until it is #arely
percepti#le, and still $et the same results. 6%entually you can $et results with a si$nal so small that
it cannot #e percei%ed #y a #ystander. This is a form of Afadin$A the stimulus.
We use fadin$ all the time What has to #e a %ery #road stimulus at first &A-o, *ickie, we do not put
sand in other children(s hair,A as you remo%e *ickie forci#ly from the sand#o@' #ecomes, with time,
a small si$nal &merely a lifted eye#row or wa$$ed inde@ fin$er'. 8nimal trainers sometimes $et
wonderful, apparently ma$ical results with faded stimuli. One of the funniest acts "(%e seen in%ol%ed
a parrot at the San *ie$o Wild 8nimal +ark that cackled in hysterical lau$hter in response to a tiny
mo%ement of the trainer(s hand. 5ou can see the possi#ilities A+edro, what do you think of this
man(s hatDA A,ahahahaha ... A !ecause the audience did not see the si$nal, the parrot(s sin$le
learned #eha%ior seemed the product of a sardonic intelli$ence cuttin$ly answerin$ the 2uestion;
actually, it was a well=timed response to a well=faded stimulus, and the sardonic intelli$ence, if any,
#elon$ed to the trainer, or may#e the scriptwriter.
The #est e@amples of conditionin$, fadin$, and transferrin$ stimuli " ha%e o#ser%ed occurred not in
the world of animal trainin$ #ut in symphony rehearsal halls. 8s an amateur sin$er " worked in
se%eral opera and symphony choruses, often under $uest conductors. While many of the si$nals
conductors $i%e to musicians are more or less standardi?ed, each conductor has personal si$nals as
well. The meanin$ of these must #e esta#lished in a %ery short time; rehearsal time often #arely
e@ceeds performance time. Once, in a rehearsal of 7ahler(s AResurrectionA symphony, >ust as the
#asses were a#out to make their usual #oomin$ entrance, " watched the conductor esta#lish an
unconditioned stimulus for A.ome in softlyA #y mimin$ an e@pression of wild alarm and crouchin$
with a hand thrown across his face as if to ward off a #low. 6%eryone $ot the messa$e, and in the
ne@t few minutes the conductor was a#le to fade the stimulus, reducin$ %olume in any section of the
chorus with a warnin$ $lance and a #it of a crouch, or a fleetin$ echo of the hand $esture, and
finally with >ust a flinch of the shoulder. .onductors also often transfer stimuli #y com#inin$ a
known or o#%ious $esturean upward mo%ement of the palm for A<ouder,A saywith an unknown
$esture such as a personal tilt of the head or turn of the #ody. Sittin$ on the conductor(s left in the
alto section, " once saw a $uest conductor momentarily transfer all the altos( louder=softer si$nals to
his left el#ow.
One result of esta#lishin$ stimulus control is that the su#>ect must #ecome attenti%e if it wants to
$et reinforced for respondin$ correctly, especially if the stimuli are faded. "n fact the su#>ect may
e%entually #e a#le to percei%e si$nals so su#tle that the trainer is not e%en aware of $i%in$ them.
One classic e@ample is the case of .le%er ,ans, a horse in 0ermany at the turn of the century,
which was said to #e a $enius. !y pawin$ with its foot it could count, do arithmetic, spell out
words, and e%en do s2uare roots; ri$ht answers were, of course, rewarded with a tid#it. The owner,
a retired schoolteacher, truly thou$ht he had tau$ht the horse to read, think, do math, and
communicate. "ndeed the animal would AanswerA 2uestions when the owner was not present.
7any learned $entlemen tra%eled to !erlin to study .le%er ,ans and were con%inced the horse was
a $enius. One psycholo$ist, howe%er, e%entually demonstrated that the horse was #ein$ cued
somehow, in that if no one in the room knew the answer, the horse would paw indefinitely. "t took
much further in%esti$ationo%er the protests of those who were con%inced the horse really was a
$eniusto demonstrate that the cue to stop pawin$ was a minuscule lift of the owner(s or any
$#estioner's head when the ri$ht num#er was reached, a mo%ement ori$inally e@a$$erated #y a
#road=#rimmed hat the schoolteacher wore #ut #y now so small that it was not only almost
impossi#le to see &e@cept #y .le%er ,ans' #ut almost impossi#le to suppress #y conscious effort.
That was how the horse could tell when to stop pawin$ from watchin$ people other than its owner.
The .le%er ,ans phenomenon has now #ecome the name for any circumstance in which apparently
ama?in$ #eha%ior, ran$in$ from animal intelli$ence to psychic phenomena, is actually
unconsciously cued #y some often=minute or faded #eha%ior of the e@perimenter that has #ecome a
discriminati%e stimulus for the su#>ect(s #eha%ior.
Tar'etin'
8 physical tar$et can #e a %ery useful type of discriminati%e stimulus for all sorts of learners and
#eha%iors. Tar$etin$ is a fa%orite de%ice of many marine mammal trainers; you(ll see tar$ets in use
at almost any marine park. Trainers hold out a fist for the sea lion to touch, and then mo%e the sea
lion around the sta$e #y mo%in$ the fist. *olphins are tau$ht to >ump strai$ht up to #ump a #all
hun$ hi$h a#o%e the water. Sometimes two or three trainers, each with a #all or padded tar$et on a
pole, are stationed around the pool to pro%ide a series of tar$ets for a whale swimmin$ from point to
point.
Teachin$ an animal to touch the end of a stick with its nose is an e@cellent #e$innin$ e@ercise for
the new reinforcement trainer. 5ou can see and feel the #eha%ior; it(s easy to reinforce, and easy to
see how to raise criteria in small steps two inches from the nose, four inches, to the left, ri$ht, up,
down, and then forward, until the animal &or the #ird, or the fish' is followin$ the tar$et stick
around. The owner of a do$ trainin$ school in ,olland told me that one mornin$ she clicker=trained
her house cat to tar$et on her coffee spoon and thus was a#le to lead it all around the #reakfast
ta#le. The e@perience was so con%incin$ that she immediately con%erted her entire school to clicker
trainin$.
/oos use tar$etin$, with clicks and treats, to mo%e ti$ers and polar #ears from one ca$e to another;
to $et small animals such as pottos and lemurs to hold still for medication or %eterinary inspection;
and to separate animals. 8 %ideo #y 0ary +riest, curator of #eha%ior at the San *ie$o /oo, shows
three $iraffes learnin$ to touch three indi%idual tar$ets, so that they can #e shaped to $o calmly into
a stall and allow their hoo%es to #e trimmed.
*o$ owners ha%e taken to the tar$et stick with alacrity. One can use a tar$et stick to teach a
ram#unctious, out=of=control do$ to walk nicely in heel position. -o >erkin$ on the leash, no
ela#orate trainin$, >ust lon$er and lon$er stretches of AIeep your nose >ust a#out here for a click
and a treat.A 5ou can stick the tar$et stick in the $round and use it to teach the do$ to $o away from
you on cue, somethin$ o#edience competitors often find difficult. 5ou can put the do$ throu$h
o#stacles, or into new places, with a tar$et. +olice trainers and search=and=rescue do$ trainers are
usin$ a laser pointer to send do$s into particular areas. .ats, also, will readily learn to chase the
little red dot that the laser pointer pro>ects. "t(s a $reat way to ha%e fun with and e@ercise an indoor
cat; and it impresses %isitors no end if, for e@ample, your cat, trained with the laser, will >ump to the
top of the refri$erator on cue.
Tar$et=trainin$, esta#lished with a marker si$nal and treats, can #e useful with non%er#al humans,
too. 8 special education teacher told me that she saw marine mammal trainers usin$ tar$ets and
immediately applied tar$etin$ in her work. One day she was assi$ned to work with an e@tremely
acti%e little #oy with de%elopmental deficits. The work re2uired him to sit at a desk; #ut their usual
classroom was #usy, so they were sent to work in the $ym. Surrounded #y #i$ #alls and rockers and
clim#in$ e2uipment, the child, of course, ran off to play. She could not physically make him sit at
the ta#le, nor did she want to. So she held out her palm and said ATouch.A ,e did. A0ood.A With
AtouchA and A$oodA she was a#le to lead him to his chair and keep him there lon$ enou$h to $et the
work done, with short #outs of rompin$ inserted periodically. &Inowin$ you can $et your learner
#ack, with a cue such as a tar$et, makes one much more willin$ to use freedom as a reinforcerB' "
ha%e also witnessed tar$ets, includin$ the teacher(s hand and the laser pointer, #ein$ used to help
profoundly low=functionin$ indi%iduals learn to walk to their classrooms, or desks, or other
destinations, %oluntarily and without physical $uidancea li#eratin$ skill for the learner and the
teacher #oth.
Conditioned /%ersi%e Stim0,i as t"e C0e
The one case where ma$nitude of a discriminati%e stimulus mi$ht seem to make a difference is in
the traditional trainin$ of domestic animals. Often the cuea tu$ on the reins, or on the leash, a
nud$e in the horse(s ri#sis a watered=down %ersion of the ori$inal unconditioned stimulus, the
harsher pull or >erk or hard kick that pro%oked an untrained response. So if the $entle stimulus
doesn(t work, it seems as if you should $et a #i$$er response with a #i$$er stimulus. 6fforts to put
this into practice lead to pro#lems, howe%er.
The learned si$nal and the primary stimulus are two separate kinds of e%ents, and no%ices tend to #e
unaware of this. "f they don(t $et a response to, say, a $entle pull, they pull a little harder, then a
little harder than that, all 2uite futilely as the horse or do$ is pullin$ with e2ually increasin$ force in
the opposite direction.
.on%entional trainers tend to treat the cue and the use of force separately; they $i%e the si$nal, and
if it is not o#eyed, they skip any $radations and immediately elicit the #eha%ior with an e@tremely
stron$ a%ersi%e stimulusenou$h to Arefresh his memory,A as one horse trainer puts it. This is the
function of the choke chain used in do$ trainin$. +roperly tau$ht, e%en a small person usin$ such a
collar can $i%e a 2uick >erk=and=release powerful enou$h to knock a 0reat *ane off its feet. With
this primary stimulus in reser%e, one can 2uickly de%elop $ood response to a %ery $entle tu$. 8s
!ritish trainer !ar#ara Woodhouse pointed out, it is in the lon$ run far kinder than perpetually
tu$$in$ and haulin$ on the poor #east(s neck at some intermediate and meanin$less le%el of force.
Shapin$ the same #eha%ior with positi%e reinforcers is, of course, e%en kinder, and also more
effecti%e in the short and the lon$ run. 7odern do$ trainers now use positi%e reinforcers and a
marker si$nal, such as a word or a click, to accomplish all of the traditional do$ #eha%iors that used
to #e trained #y force.
8 discriminati%e stimulus that is a cue for a%oidin$ an a%ersi%e e%ent can not only reduce any need
for physical control or inter%ention, it can e%en suppress #eha%ior in the trainers a#sence. 7y
!order terrier, as a youn$ do$, #ecame fond of di$$in$ into the waste#askets and spreadin$ the
contents around. " didn(t want to punish her, #ut " also didn(t want to constantly empty the
waste#askets.
" filled a spray #ottle with water and added a few drops of %anilla e@tract a stron$ #ut pleasant
scent to me. Then " $ritted my teeth and sprayed the do$ in the face. She was dismayed and ran. "
sprayed the waste#askets with the scented water. She stayed away from the waste#askets from then
on. There was no need for the scent to #e distasteful to her; the stimulus was completely neutral in
itself. "t was the association that was distasteful. " did find that to maintain her #eha%ior, " had to
refresh the stimulus #y sprinklin$ a few drops of %anilla in the waste#askets a#out e%ery three
months. "t was ne%er a$ain necessary to spray the do$.
The same principle is at work in the "n%isi#le Fence systems for keepin$ a do$ on your property. 8
radio wire is strun$ around the area in which you want to confine the do$. The do$ wears a collar
with a recei%er in it. "f the do$ $ets too near the line, the collar shocks it. ,owe%er, a few feet
#efore that point, the collar $i%es a warnin$ #u??. The warnin$ #u??er is a discriminati%e stimulus
for A*on(t $o any further.A "f the setup is properly installed, a trained do$ can #e effecti%ely
confined and will ne%er recei%e an actual shock. " used such a fence when my terrier and " li%ed in a
house in the woods. 8n actual fence would ha%e #een a perpetual in%itation to try to di$ under it or
escape throu$h an open $ate; the conditioned warnin$ si$nal and the "n%isi#le Fence were far more
secure.
4imited Ho,ds
8 %ery useful techni2ue for $ettin$ a prompt response to a discriminati%e stimulus is the limited
hold. <et us say your su#>ect has learned to offer a #eha%ior in response to a cue, #ut there is usually
some $ap in time #etween presentation of the stimulus and the su#>ect(s response. 5ou call folks for
supper, and in due course they come; or you si$nal a halt, and your elephant $radually slows to a
stop.
"f you wish, #y usin$ a limited hold, you can actually shape this inter%al downward until the
#eha%ior occurs as fast as is physically possi#le. 5ou start #y estimatin$ the normal inter%al in
which the #eha%ior usually occurs; then you reinforce only #eha%ior that occurs durin$ that inter%al.
Since li%in$ creatures are %aria#le, some responses will fall outside the inter%al, and those no lon$er
earn reinforcers. For e@ample, if you ser%e supper a set time after callin$, rather than waitin$ for
stra$$lers, stra$$lers may $et cold food or less choice of food.
When you set a time inter%al like this and reinforce only within it, you will find that $radually all
responses fall within that inter%al and no more are occurrin$ outside it. -ow you can ti$hten the
screws a$ain. *oes it take fifteen minutes for the family to $atherD Start ser%in$ twel%e minutes
after you call, or ten. ,ow fast you ti$hten the screws is strictly a matter of >ud$ment; as in any
shapin$ procedure, you want to stay within the ran$e where most of the #eha%ior is occurrin$ most
of the time.
8nimals and people ha%e a %ery sharp time sense and will respond to limited=hold trainin$ with
dramatic precision, #ut the trainer should not rely on $uesswork. 4se the clock, e%en a stopwatch, if
you want limited=hold trainin$ to happen for you. On #riefer #eha%iors, count to yourself, $ettin$
response time down from fi%e #eats to two, say. 8nd of course, if you are workin$ in a human
situation, don(t discuss what you are doin$; you(ll $et nothin$ #ut ar$uments. Fust do it and watch it
work.
8t Sea <ife +ark in the 1C;Js one of our most effecti%e show hi$hli$hts was a $roup of si@ little
spinner dolphins performin$ se%eral kinds of aerial acro#atics in unison. They did %arious leaps and
whirls in response to underwater sound cues. "nitially, when the cue went on, the leaps or spins, or
whate%er was called for, occurred ra$$edly and sporadically across a fifteen= to twenty=second
period. !y usin$ a stopwatch and esta#lishin$ a limited hold, we were a#le to crank down the
performance inter%al to two and a half seconds. 6%ery animal knew that in order to $et a fish it had
to hit the air and perform the ri$ht leap or spin within two and a half seconds of the time the cue
went on. 8s a result, the animals poised themsel%es attenti%ely near the underwater loudspeaker.
When the cue went on, the pool erupted in an e@plosion of whirlin$ #odies in the air; it was 2uite
spectacular. One day while sittin$ amon$ the audience, " was amused to o%erhear a professorial
type firmly informin$ his companions that the only way we could #e $ettin$ that kind of response
was #y electric shock.
<imited holds in real life are simply the amount of time you are willin$ to wait for a re2uest or
instruction to #e carried out. +arents, #osses, and teachers who are consistent as to what they e@pect,
once the specific time inter%al has #een esta#lished, are usually re$arded as fair and relia#le to deal
with, e%en if the limited holdthe AwindowA in time durin$ which the #eha%ior must occur in order
to #e reinforcedis 2uite #rief.
/ntici+ation
8 common flaw in stimulus=controlled #eha%ior is anticipation Once the cue has #een learned, the
su#>ect is so ea$er to offer the #eha%ior that it acts #efore the cue has actually #een $i%en. The
e@pression descri#in$ this e%ent comes from human anticipatory #eha%ior in footraces >umpin$ the
$un. +eople who anticipate cues or re2uests of others are $enerally percei%ed to #e o%erea$er,
fawnin$, or o#se2uious; it(s an irritatin$ ha#it, not a %irtue.
*o#erman pinschers sometimes run into trou#le in o#edience competitions. 8lthou$h they are
mar%elously traina#le do$s, they are so alert that they anticipate commands #y the smallest of hints
and often work #efore they ha%e actually #een told to, thus losin$ points. 8nticipation is a common
fault in calf=ropin$ horses in rodeos. The cow#oy and horse are supposed to wait #ehind a #arrier
for the calf to #e $i%en a head start, #ut the horse, e@cited, plun$es off #efore the si$nal. The
cow#oy sometimes thinks he(s $ot a real $oer, #ut what he(s really $ot is incompletely trained
stimulus control. 8nother %ery common occurrence of anticipation is the AoffsidesA call in foot#all.
One player is so ea$er that he mo%es into the other team(s territory #efore the si$nal to play is $i%en,
and the team must #e penali?ed.
One way to cure anticipation is to use time=outs. "f the su#>ect anticipates the cue, and if that is
undesira#le, stop all acti%ity. 0i%e no cues and do nothin$ for one full minute. 6%ery time the
su#>ect >umps the $un a$ain, reset the clock. 5ou are penali?in$ o%erea$erness #y makin$ it the
cause of delay of the chance to work. This will effecti%ely e@tin$uish anticipatin$ a command when
re#uke, punishment, or repetition mi$ht ha%e no effect at all.
Stim0,i as Reinforcers !e"a%ior C"ains
Once a conditioned stimulus is esta#lished, an interestin$ thin$ happens "t #ecomes a reinforcer.
Think of the recess #ell in school. The recess #ell is a si$nal meanin$ A5ou(re e@cused, $o out and
playA 8nd yet it is percei%ed as a reinforcerchildren are $lad to hear it, and if they could do
somethin$ to make it rin$ sooner, they would. -ow ima$ine a recess #ell that did not rin$ unless the
classroom was 2uiet. 8round recess time you would $et some %ery 2uiet classrooms.
8 discriminati%e stimulus si$nals the opportunity for reinforcement, so it #ecomes a desira#le
e%ent. 8 desira#le e%ent is in itself a reinforcer. That means that you can actually reinforce a
#eha%ior #y presentin$ the stimulus for another #eha%ior. For e@ample "f " reward my cat with a
tid#it for comin$ to me when " say A.ome,A and she learns this and does it, and if " then say A.omeA
and reinforce her for doin$ so each time " happen to see her sittin$ on the mantelpiece, it will soon
happen that the cat, wantin$ a tid#it, will #e found on the mantelpiece. &From her standpoint,
remem#er, she is trainin$ me; she has found a way to $et me=to say A.ome.A' -ow suppose " teach
her to >ump to the mantel when " point to it, usin$ either food or A.omeA as the reinforcer; and then
" point to the mantel whene%er &a' " know she is hun$ry, and &#' she happens to roll on her #ack ...
" ha%e trained a #eha%ior chain.
!eha%ior chains are %ery common. We often do lon$ series of connected #eha%iors in real life,
#eha%iors in%ol%in$ many known stepscarpentry and housework come to mindand we e@pect
our animals to do the same A.ome,A ASit,A A*own,A A,eel,A and so on at len$th, with no o#%ious
reinforcement. These lon$ strin$s of #eha%ior are #eha%ior chains. 4nlike simple lon$=duration
#eha%iorsdo this for an hour, do this a hundred timesthey can #e maintained comforta#ly,
without deterioration or delayed starts, #ecause each #eha%ior is actually reinforced #y the si$nal or
opportunity to perform the ne@t #eha%ior, until the final reinforcement of a >o# completed.
There are se%eral kinds of #eha%ior chains. %omogeneo#s chains are chains in which the same
#eha%ior is repeated o%er and o%er a$ain, like a horse $oin$ o%er a series of identical >umps in a
row. %eterogeneo#s chains consist of %arious different #eha%iors that are reinforced only when the
last #eha%ior is completed. 7ost formal do$ o#edience competition e@ercises are hetero$eneous
chains. "n one midle%el e@ercise, for e@ample, the do$ is re2uired &1' to sit at the owner(s side while
the owner tosses a dum##ell #eyond a >ump, and then &)' on hearin$ the cue, $o o%er the >ump and
&1' locate and pick up the dum##ell and &3' turn around and >ump #ack o%er the >ump while
carryin$ the dum##ell and &:' sit in front of the owner until the owner takes the dum##ell and &;'
return, on cue, to the sit=at=heel position. "n competition these chains are always performed in the
same se2uence. They may, howe%er, #e trained as indi%idual #eha%iors or as parts of the chain in
other se2uences.
The pattern of the se2uence is not essential to the nature of a chain. What is essential is that the
#eha%iors in the chain follow each other without a time $ap, that they are $o%erned #y cues, either
from the trainer or from the en%ironment, and that the primary reinforcer occurs at the end of the
chain. The same do$, in a huntin$ or herdin$ trial, mi$ht perform a lon$ series of learned #eha%iors
that mi$ht %ary considera#ly in se2uence from one day to the ne@t dependin$ on the en%ironment.
The whole se2uence, howe%er, would e%entually #e reinforced when the pheasant is retrie%ed or the
sheep are in the pen.
What makes #eha%ior chains work is that each #eha%ior has a history of reinforcement, and each
#eha%ior is under stimulus control, or on cue. Thus the learned cues, which are $uarantees of future
reinforcers, maintain #eha%iors within the chain. The cues can #e $i%en #y a handler The shepherd,
with whistles, can tell the sheepdo$ e@actly which way to turn, how fast to $o, when to stop, and
when to return. The cues can also #e pro%ided #y the en%ironment. Once the o#edience competition
do$ has $one o%er the >ump, the si$ht of the dum##ell is the cue to pick it up, the pickup is a cue to
return to the owner, and the si$ht of the >ump is the cue to >ump #ack o%er it a$ain. The owner need
not pro%ide %er#al cues for those parts of the chain, #ut the cues are there.
Sometimes the cue for the ne@t #eha%ior consists of the pre%ious #eha%ior. " recently mo%ed to a
new city and esta#lished #oth a new residence and a new place of #usiness. " memori?ed the new
addresses, phone num#ers, fa@ num#ers, and e=mails, #ut for many months " could not $i%e you >ust
a part of any one of those chains. 8sk me for the office ?ip code and " was stumped, unless " said
the name of the town and state first, then the ?ip code reeled out. Same thin$ for phone num#ers "
had to say the area code to recite the rest of the num#eran internally cued #eha%ior chain.
7any thin$s we do e%ery day such as takin$ a shower and $ettin$ dressed, are #eha%ior chains of
this nature. "n teachin$ people with de%elopmental deficits, #eha%ior analysts find that constructin$
carefully cued and reinforced #eha%ior chains is e@tremely useful in $i%in$ people the skills they
need to li%e independently or semi=independently.
We reco$ni?e that #eha%ior chains are useful and powerful. What we don(t always reco$ni?e,
howe%er, is that what we see as mis#eha%ior is often >ust a result of a chain #reakin$ down. "n
teachin$ operant conditionin$ to do$ trainers, " ha%e heard many other e@planations for mis#eha%ior
the do$ is stu##orn; the do$ is >ust tryin$ to $et #ack at me; the do$ is stressedEin heatE>ust out of
heatEand so onwhen the incorrect e%ents, in fact, are the result of the trainer(s failure to #uild or
maintain a #eha%ior chain.
!eha%ior chains #reak down and the #eha%ior $oes to pieces if there are unlearned #eha%iors in the
chain, or #eha%iors that ha%e not #een #rou$ht under stimulus control. 5ou can(t reinforce the
su#>ect with a cue if it doesn(t reco$ni?e the cue, or if it cannot accomplish what the cue indicates.
This means that #eha%ior chains should #e trained backward. Start with the last #eha%ior in the
chain; make sure it has #een learned and that the si$nal to #e$in it is reco$ni?ed; then train the ne@t=
to=last one, and so on. For e@ample, in memori?in$ a poem, a piece of music, a speech, or lines in a
play, if you di%ide the task up into, say, fi%e sections, and memori?e the sections in re%erse order,
startin$ with the last, you will always #e $oin$ from weakness to stren$th, from the stuff you(re not
2uite sure of yet into the $reat, reinforcin$, well=memori?ed stuff you know cold. 7emori?in$
material in the order in which it is written and will #e presented necessitates plowin$ continuously
from familiar $round into the more difficult and unknown, a most unreinforcin$ e@perience.
Treatin$ memori?ation tasks as #eha%ior chains not only shortens the needed memori?in$ time
considera#ly, it also makes the whole e@perience more pleasant.
!eha%ior chains are a peculiar concept. "(%e often #een thwarted #y them myself, feelin$ that "(m
pushin$ at the end of a strin$ #ecause " can(t $et an animal, or a child, or myself, to do some
apparently simple series of thin$s, until " reali?e that "(m tryin$ to train a #eha%ior chain from the
wron$ end. When you make a cake, the frostin$ $oes on last; #ut if you want to teach a child to
en>oy makin$ a cake, you start #y askin$ for AhelpA with the frostin$.
/n E1am+,e of a !e"a%ior C"ain Teac"in' a Do' to P,ay Fris3ee
8 -ew 5ork friend who takes his $olden retrie%er to .entral +ark each weekend to play Fris#ee
tells me the world seems to #e full of people who ha%e #een stymied in tryin$ to teach their do$ this
$ame. This is a pity, #ecause playin$ Fris#ee is an e@cellent way to e@ercise a #i$ do$ in the city.
The Fris#ee is a much slower and more erratic tar$et than a simple #all, more like real prey perhaps,
encoura$in$ the do$ into leaps and fancy catches that are fun for the owner, too. 8nd playin$
Fris#ee allows the owner to stand in one place and still run the do$(s le$s off.
What people complain of is that their do$, when encoura$ed, will leap for the Fris#ee and try to
$ra# it as it is wa%ed around, #ut when they throw it, the do$ >ust stands there and watches it $o. Or
the do$ chases and $ra#s it, #ut ne%er #rin$s it #ack.
There are two trainin$ pro#lems in this $ame The first is that the distance the do$ $oes after the
Fris#ee must #e shaped. The second is that the $ame is a #eha%ior chain First the do$ chases the
Fris#ee, then the do$ catches the Fris#ee, then the do$ #rin$s the Fris#ee #ack for another throw. So
each #eha%ior must #e trained separately, and the last #eha%ior in the chain, retrie%in$, must #e
trained first.
5ou can teach retrie%in$ o%er %ery short distancesindoors, e%enwith somethin$ easy to hold
an old sock, may#e. ,untin$ do$s almost do it spontaneously. Other #reeds, such as #ulldo$s and
#o@ers, may ha%e to #e carefully shaped to drop or $i%e #ack the item, since they tend to prefer
playin$ tu$=of=war.
When the do$ will carry thin$s to you on cue and $i%e them up, you shape catchin$ the Fris#ee.
First you $et the do$ all e@cited a#out the Fris#ee, wa%in$ it around his face. 5ou let him take it and
ha%e him $i%e it #ack a few times, praisin$ him madly for returnin$ it, of course. Then you hold it
in the air, let him ha%e it when he leaps for it, and make him $i%e it #ack. Then you toss it
momentarily into the air and make a #i$ fuss when he catches it. When he has the idea, you can start
shapin$ the first #eha%ior of the chain, the chase, #y tossin$ the Fris#ee up and out from you a few
feet so the do$ has to mo%e off after it, to catch it. 8nd now you are on your way to ha%in$ a $reat
Fris#ee do$.
8s the distance $rows lon$er, the do$ needs to learn to watch the Fris#ee and place himself well for
the catch. This takes practice, so it mi$ht take a couple of weekends to $et the do$ $oin$ out
twenty=fi%e feet or so. 8 fast do$ will e%entually #e a#le to $et under and catch a Fris#ee as far as
you can throw itthe star Fris#ee do$ 8shley Whippet could catch a Fris#ee thrown the len$th of a
foot#all field. *o$s seem to relish their own e@pertise. 8 #rilliant run or a terrific o%er=the=shoulder
four=le$s=off=the=$round catch that #rin$s cheers from spectators also makes the do$ sparkle all
o%er. -e%ertheless, after that catch the do$ #rin$s the Fris#ee #ack #ecause you trained that end of
the chain first, and #ecause that is what earns him the reinforcement, whether it is praise from you
or another toss of the Fris#ee.
Of course you can see that if you are inattenti%e, so that he repeatedly $ets neither the praise nor the
toss, retrie%in$ will deteriorate. 8lso, when the do$ is $ettin$ too tired to play anymore, he will
#e$in to falter on the retrie%e #y comin$ in slowly or droppin$ the Fris#ee en route. This means it is
hi$h time to 2uityou(%e #oth had your fun.
Genera,i(ed Stim0,0s Contro,
With most animals, you ha%e to $o to some len$ths to esta#lish stimulus control at first, #ut often
#y the time you start #rin$in$ the third or fourth #eha%ior under stimulus control, you will find that
the animal seems to ha%e $enerali?ed, or come to some conceptual understandin$. 8fter learnin$
three or four cued #eha%iors, most su#>ects seem to reco$ni?e that certain e%ents are si$nals, each
si$nal means a different #eha%ior, and ac2uirin$ reinforcers depends upon reco$ni?in$ and
respondin$ correctly to si$nals. From then on, esta#lishment of learned stimuli is easy. The su#>ect
already has the picture, and all it has to do is learn to identify new si$nals and associate them with
the ri$ht #eha%iors. Since you, as trainer, are helpin$ all you can #y makin$ that %ery clear,
su#se2uent trainin$ can itself $o much faster than the initial la#orious steps.
+eople $enerali?e e%en faster. "f you reward responses to e%en one learned command, people
rapidly start respondin$ to other commands to earn reinforcement. 7y friend <ee, a si@th=$rade
math teacher in one of the rou$h parts of -ew 5ork .ity, always #e$ins the school year #y trainin$
his pupils to $et rid of their chewin$ $um when he tells them to. -o coercion. Fust AOkay,
e%ery#ody, the first thin$ we(re $oin$ to do is take our chewin$ $um out of our mouths. 0oodB
Oops, wait, *oreen(s still $ot some ... $reatB She took it outB <et(s hear it for *oreen.A ,e also
instructs them, at the end of class, to resume chewin$ $um &usin$ A.lass dismissedA as the
reinforcer'. This mi$ht seem fri%olous, e%en silly &thou$h it does spare <ee the si$ht of masticatin$
>aws, which he hates', #ut he finds that this first e@ercise awakens his class to the possi#ility of
earnin$ reinforcement #y respondin$ to his re2uests.
Of course, like a $ood killer whale trainer, he uses a %ariety of reinforcers #esides $ood $rades and
his own appro%al, includin$ $ames, peer appro%al, early dismissal, e%en free $um. 8nd of course at
first he is willin$ to spend considera#le time on $um that mi$ht #e spent on fractions; his kids think
he is weird a#out $um. !ut his kids also learn he means what he says, and that it pays off to do what
he wants; so they #ecome $enerally responsi%e and attenti%e.
The other teachers think <ee has some in#orn knack for keepin$ his classroom 2uiet, and the
principal thinks he(s a A$ood disciplinarian.A <ee thinks kids are #ri$ht enou$h to $enerali?e their
responses, and he lo%es them for doin$ so. 8nd for not chewin$ $um.
Pre,earnin' Di+s and Tantr0ms
!rin$in$ #eha%ior under stimulus control often $i%es rise to an interestin$ phenomenon " call the
Aprelearnin$ dip.A 5ou ha%e shaped a #eha%ior, and now you are #rin$in$ it under stimulus control.
!ut >ust as the su#>ect seems to #e showin$ si$ns of respondin$ to the stimulus, it suddenly not only
stops respondin$ to the stimulus, it stops respondin$ alto$ether. "t acts as if it has ne%er heard of the
thin$ you ha%e shaped it to do.
This can #e most discoura$in$ for the trainer. ,ere you ha%e cle%erly tau$ht a chicken to dance, and
now you want it to dance only when you raise your ri$ht hand. The chicken looks at your hand, #ut
it doesn(t dance. Or it may stand still when you $i%e the si$nal and then dance furiously when the
si$nal is not present.
"f you were to $raph this se2uence, you would see a $radually clim#in$ line as the su#>ect(s
percenta$e of correct responses &that is, on=cue responses' increases, followed #y a sharp dip as
correctness falls to ?ero &as you $et a #unch of nonresponses or wron$ responses'. 8fter that,
howe%er, if you persist, illumination strikes Suddenly, from total failure, the su#>ect leaps to
respondin$ %ery well indeedyou raise your hand, the chicken dances. The #eha%ior is under
stimulus control.
What is $oin$ on, in my opinion, is that at first the su#>ect is learnin$ the cue without really #ein$
aware of doin$ so; the trainer sees only a heartenin$ tendency toward slowly increasin$ correct
performance. !ut then the su#>ect notices the cue, and #ecomes aware that the si$nal has somethin$
to do with whether it $ets reinforced. 8t that point it attends to the si$nal rather than offerin$ the
#eha%ior. Of course it $i%es no response and $oes unreinforced. When, #y coincidence or the
trainer(s perse%erance, it does once a$ain offer the #eha%ior in the presence of the cue, and it does
$et reinforced, the su#>ect A$ets the picture.A From then on, it AknowsA what the cue means and
responds correctly and with confidence.
" reali?e " am throwin$ a lot of words around here, such as AawareA and Aknows,A referrin$ to what
is $oin$ on in the su#>ect(s head, which most psycholo$ists do not like to see applied to animals.
8lso, it(s true that sometimes, in trainin$ an animal, the le%el of correct response $radually increases
without any #i$ e%ents occurrin$; it would #e hard to say at what point, if e%er, the animal #ecomes
consciously aware of what it is doin$. !ut when a prelearnin$ dip does occur, " think it is a si$n of a
shift in awareness, no matter what species is in%ol%ed. " ha%e seen in the data of 4ni%ersity of
,awaii researcher 7ichael Walker clear=cut prelearnin$ dips &and conse2uently some kind of
awareness shift' durin$ sensory=discrimination e@periments with tuna, one of the more intelli$ent
sorts of fishes, #ut after all, merely a fish.
For the su#>ect, the prelearnin$ dip can #e a %ery frustratin$ time. We all know how upsettin$ it is
to stru$$le with somethin$ we half=understand &math concepts are a common e@ample', knowin$
only that we don(t really understand it. Often the su#>ect feels so frustrated that it e@hi#its an$er and
a$$ression. The child #ursts into tears and sta#s the math #ook with a pencil. *olphins #reach
repeatedly, slappin$ their #odies a$ainst the surface of the water with a crash. ,orses switch their
tails and want to kick. *o$s $rowl. *r. Walker found that if, durin$ the trainin$ of stimulus
reco$nition, he let his tuna make mistakes and $o unreinforced for more than forty=fi%e seconds at a
time, they $ot so upset, they >umped out of the tank.
" ha%e come to call this the Aprelearnin$ temper tantrum.A "t seems to me that the su#>ect has the
tantrum #ecause what it has always thou$ht to #e true turns out suddenly not to #e true; and there(s
no clear reason why ... yet. "n humans prelearnin$ temper tantrums often seem to take place when
lon$=held #eliefs are challen$ed and the su#>ect knows deep inside that there is some truth to the
new information. The reco$nition that what has #een learned is not 2uite true seems to lead to the
furious come#ack, to e@cessi%e response, far #eyond the disa$reement, discussion, or 2ueryin$ that
mi$ht offhand seem more pro#a#le and appropriate. Sometimes when talkin$ a#out reinforcement
at scientific meetin$s, " ha%e pro%oked more hostility than " e@pected from indi%iduals in other
disciplines, ran$in$ from co$niti%e psycholo$ists to neurolo$ists to an 6piscopal #ishop. " often
suspect the an$ry words are actually prelearnin$ symptoms.
" am always sorry to see the prelearnin$ temper tantrum occur, e%en in a tuna, #ecause with skill
one should #e a#le to lead the su#>ect throu$h the learnin$ transition without arousin$ so much
frustration. ,owe%er, " ha%e come to re$ard the prelearnin$ tantrum as a stron$ indicator that real
learnin$ is actually finally a#out to take place. "f you stand #ack and let it pass o%er, like a
rainstorm, there may #e rain#ows on the other side.
T"e Fses of Stim0,0s Contro,
-o#ody needs to control or #e controlled #y cues and si$nals all the time; li%in$ creatures are not a
#unch of machines. 7ost of the time there(s no need to #oss the world around. "f the kids dawdle
and you(re not in a hurry, you can slow down yourself. 6mployees who are already workin$ hard
don(t need orders and instructions. There(s no point in surroundin$ oursel%es or others with
unnecessary rules and re$ulations; that only #reeds resistance. "n fact, respondin$ to learned si$nals
is an effort, and an effort that not only shouldn(t #e #ut can(t #e carried on continuously.
Stimulus control is o#%iously in%ol%ed in producin$ cooperati%e children, o#edient pets, relia#le
staff mem#ers, and so on. Gery specific stimulus control is also necessary for many $roup acti%ities,
such as marchin$ #ands, dance troupes, and team sports. There is a certain amount of satisfaction in
respondin$ to ela#orate sets of learned si$nals; e%en animals seem to en>oy it. " think this is #ecause
the si$nals #ecome reinforcers, as in a #eha%ior chain, so that once one has mastered all #eha%iors
and si$nals, e@ecutin$ the responses #rin$s a lot of reinforcement. "n a word, it is fun. ,ence the
fun of participatin$ in si$nal=controlled $roup acti%ities, such as s2uare dancin$, playin$ foot#all,
and sin$in$ or playin$ music in $roups.
When we see some e@ample of #eautifully e@ecuted stimulus=controlled #eha%iorfrom the na%y(s
acro#atic >et=plane team, the !lue 8n$els, to a classroom of well=mannered childrenwe often
praise it in terms of discipline AThey are really well disciplinedA or AThat teacher knows how to
maintain discipline.A The word discipline, howe%er, contains implications of punishment, which, as
we(%e seen, is 2uite unnecessary in the esta#lishment of stimulus control.
"n popular parlance the disciplinarian is the coach, parent, or trainer who demands perfection and
punishes anythin$ less, not the one who approaches perfection #y rewardin$ impro%ement in that
direction. 8nd so it is that people who set out to esta#lish AdisciplineA often tend to try to $et
stimulus control on a A*o what " say or else ... A #asis. Since the su#>ect has to mis#eha%e or
diso#ey to find out what the Aor elseA is, and since #y then it(s too late to undo the #eha%ior, this
e%er=popular approach doesn(t work %ery well.
Real, ele$ant stimulus control; esta#lished throu$h use of shapin$ and reinforcers, may produce
somethin$ we interpret as discipline in the su#>ect. The person who really has to #ecome
disciplined, howe%er, is the trainer.
5es, b#t where do you #e$inD What if you li%e or work amon$ people who are already confirmed
si$nal i$norersD ,ere is the Iaren +ryor system of effectin$ a chan$e in a hard case
&aren 'ryor &Seein$ a youn$ %isitor(s wet #athin$ suit and towel on the li%in$=room couch' +lease
take your wet thin$s off the couch and put them in the dryer.
!o#ng (isitor) Okay in a minute.
&.'. &+hysically $oes to the youn$ %isitor and stands there, sayin$ nothin$.'
!.(.) What(s the matter with youD
&.'.) +lease take your wet #athin$ suit off the couch and put it in the dryer. &-.! Without addin$
A-owBA or ARi$ht this minute,A or A" mean it,A or anythin$ else. " am trainin$ this person to o#ey
re2uests the first time, not to wait until the si$nal has #een hei$htened with further details or
threats.'
!.(.) Well, >ee?, if you(re in such a hurry, why don(t you do it yourselfD
&.'. &+leasant smile, no comment. " am waitin$ to reinforce the #eha%ior " want. 0i%in$ me an
ar$ument is not the #eha%ior " want, so " i$nore it.'
!.(.) Okay, okay. &0ets up, $oes to couch, picks up stuff, tosses it at the laundry room.'
&.'.) "n the dryer.
!.(. &0rum#lin$, puts stuff in the dryer.'
&.'. &!i$ smile, sincere, no sarcasm' "hank youB
The ne@t time " ha%e to ask the youn$ %isitor to do somethin$, pro#a#ly all "(ll ha%e to do is look at
him to $et action. !y and #y he will #e one of the people in the household who do what " ask
promptly, and for my part " will #e fair"(ll do what he asks, if it(s feasi#le, and "(ll #e careful not to
ask him to do more than his share.
Inowin$ how to $et stimulus control without resortin$ to uproar and coercion makes life a lot
easier for e%eryone, trainer and su#>ect alike. When my dau$hter, 0ale, was a >unior in hi$h school,
she directed a class playsomethin$ a student was chosen to do e%ery year. She had a #i$ cast of
a#out twenty #oys and $irls. 6%erythin$ went well, and the play was a $reat success. 8t the closin$
performance the drama coach told me that she(d #een ama?ed to see that throu$hout rehearsals 0ale
ne%er yelled at her cast. Student directors always yell, #ut 0ale ne%er yelled. AOf course not,A " said
without thinkin$, Ashe(s an animal trainer.A From the look on the teacher(s face, " reali?ed "(d said
the wron$ thin$her students were not animalsB !ut of course all " meant was that 0ale would
know how to esta#lish stimulus control without unnecessary escalation.
+eople who ha%e a disciplined understandin$ of stimulus control a%oid $i%in$ needless instructions,
unreasona#le or incomprehensi#le commands, or orders that can(t #e o#eyed. They try not to make
re2uests they(re not prepared to follow throu$h on; you always know e@actly what they e@pect.
They don(t fly off the handle at a poor response. They don(t na$, scold, whine, coerce, #e$, or
threaten to $et their way, #ecause they don(t need to. 8nd when you ask them to do somethin$, if
they say yes, they do it. When you $et a whole family, or household, or corporation workin$ on the
#asis of real stimulus controlwhen all the people keep their a$reements, say what they need, and
do what they sayit is perfectly ama?in$ how much $ets done, how few orders e%er need to #e
$i%en, and how fast the trust #uilds up. 0ood stimulus control is nothin$ more than true
communicationhonest, fair communication. "t is the most comple@, difficult, and ele$ant aspect
of trainin$ with positi%e reinforcement.
>Fntrainin' Fsin' Reinforcement to Get Rid of !e"a%ior 6o0 Don't #ant
-ow that you know all a#out esta#lishin$ new #eha%ior, how do you $et rid of #eha%ior you don(t
want that(s already happenin$D
+eople and animals are always doin$ thin$s we wish they wouldn(t do. The kids scream and fi$ht in
the car. The do$ #arks all ni$ht. .ats claw the furniture. 5our roommate lea%es dirty laundry all
o%er the place. 8 relati%e repeatedly makes 2uarrelsome, demandin$ phone calls. These are
unwanted #eha%iors.
There are ei$ht methods of $ettin$ rid of a #eha%ior. Only ei$ht. "t doesn(t matter if it(s a lon$=term
#eha%ior such as the messy roommate or a short=term pro#lem such as kids makin$ too much noise
in the car; anythin$ you do a#out it is $oin$ to #e a %ariation of one of the ei$ht methods. &" am not
concerned with comple@ constellations of #eha%ioral pro#lems such as arise in the psychotic person
or the unpredicta#ly dan$erous do$; " am considerin$ only sin$le items of undesira#le #eha%ior.'
The ei$ht methods are
8et"od 1 AShoot the animal.A &This definitely works. 5ou will ne%er ha%e to deal with that
particular #eha%ior in that particular su#>ect a$ain.'
8et"od 7 +unishment. &6%ery#ody(s fa%orite, in spite of the fact that it almost ne%er really
works.'
8et"od < -e$ati%e reinforcement. &Remo%in$ somethin$ unpleasant when a desired
#eha%ior occurs.'
8et"od > 6@tinction; lettin$ the #eha%ior $o away #y itself.
8et"od ? Train an incompati#le #eha%ior. &This method is especially useful for athletes
and pet owners.'
8et"od @ +ut the #eha%ior on cue. &Then you ne%er $i%e the cue. This is the dolphin
trainer(s most ele$ant method of $ettin$ rid of unwanted #eha%ior.'
8et"od A AShape the a#senceA; reinforce anythin$ and e%erythin$ that is not the undesired
#eha%ior. &8 kindly way to turn disa$reea#le relati%es into a$reea#le relati%es.'
8et"od B .han$e the moti%ation. &This is the fundamental and most kindly method of all.'
5ou can see that there are four A#ad fairies,A or ne$ati%e methods, and four A$ood fairies,A or
methods usin$ positi%e reinforcement. 6ach has its place. "(m $oin$ to descri#e the pros and cons of
each method, one #y one, to$ether with some anecdotes of circumstances in which that method has
worked. "(m also $oin$ to include under each method a repeated set of familiar pro#lems &the noisy
do$, the cra##y spouse, and so on' with e@amples of how each pro#lem could #e sol%ed #y each
particular method.
" don(t recommend all these solutions. For e@ample, " think ha%in$ a %eterinarian Ade#arkA your do$
#y cuttin$ its %ocal cords &7ethod 1' is a lousy solution to the pro#lem of a do$ that #arks all ni$ht.
" say that e%en thou$h my uncle Fohn Slater resorted to this solution, with my reluctant appro%al,
when the nei$h#ors complained a#out the #arkin$ of his sea lions. Of course, not many people keep
sea lions in their swimmin$ pool. 7ay#e it(s the method of choice in that case.
" cannot tell you which of the ei$ht methods is the method of choice for $ettin$ rid of your
particular nuisance. 5ou(re the trainer; you ha%e to decide.
8et"od 1 .S"oot t"e /nima,.
This always works. 5ou will definitely ne%er ha%e that #eha%ioral pro#lem with that su#>ect a$ain.
This is in fact the worldwide and only reco$ni?ed method of dealin$ with do$s that take to killin$
sheep.
.apital punishment is 7ethod 1. Whate%er the moral and other implications of capital punishment
may #e, if you e@ecute a murderer, he certainly will not #e a#le to do any more murderin$. 7ethod
1 $ets rid of the #eha%ior #y $ettin$ rid of the doer, temporarily or permanently.
Firin$ an employee, di%orcin$ a spouse, dealin$ with a messy roommate #y chan$in$ roommates
all are 7ethod 1. -ew pro#lems with new people may come alon$, #ut the su#>ect whose #eha%ior
you are specifically fed up with is $one, and the #eha%ior $oes away, too.
7ethod 1 is pretty se%ere, #ut it is sometimes appropriate when the offense is too ma>or to endure
and seems unlikely to #e easily modified. For e@ample, suppose your parent or your spouse &or your
child' #eats you. +eople sometimes deal with this #y actually eliminatin$ the person, and in e@treme
cases of self=defense this could #e >ustifia#le. <ea%in$ home is another 7ethod 1 solution, and more
humane.
" once had a cat that de%eloped the peculiar ha#it of stealin$ into the kitchen in the ni$ht and
urinatin$ on the sto%e #urners. The odor, when you unknowin$ly turned on one of those #urners the
ne@t day, was incredi#ly offensi%e. The cat had free access to the outdoors, " ne%er cau$ht her at the
#eha%ior, and if you co%ered the #urners she urinated on the co%ers. " could not decipher her
moti%ation, and " finally took that cat to the pound to #e put to sleep. 7ethod 1.
There are many simple and common %ersions of 7ethod 1 sendin$ a child to his or her room for
distur#in$ adult con%ersation; tyin$ up the do$ so it can(t chase cars; puttin$ people in prison for
%aryin$ len$ths of time. We tend to think of these thin$s as punishment &7ethod )', and they may
or may not #e seen as punishments #y the su#>ects, #ut these are 7ethod 1 techni2ues.
Fundamentally they eliminate the #eha%ior #y restrainin$ the su#>ect physically from the
performance, or #y eliminatin$ the presence of the su#>ect.
The %ital thin$ to understand a#out 7ethod 1 is that it teaches the su#>ect nothin$. +re%entin$ the
su#>ect from e@hi#itin$ the #eha%ior#y restraint, confinement, di%orce, electrocutiondoes not
teach the su#>ect much a#out the #eha%ior. "t seems reasona#le that a man sent to prison for theft
will think twice #efore he steals a$ain, #ut we know that %ery often that is far from the case; all we
can #e sure of is that he cannot rip off your TG while he is locked up.
!eha%ior is not necessarily reasona#le. "f it has already #een esta#lished as a way to earn
reinforcement, and if the moti%ation and circumstances that elicit the #eha%ior are present, the
#eha%ior is likely to manifest itself a$ain.
While the su#>ect is under restraint, no relearnin$ a#out the #eha%ior $oes on; you cannot modify
#eha%ior that is not occurrin$. The child shut up in his or her room may #e learnin$ somethin$ &to
resent and fear you, perhaps' #ut not how to en$a$e in polite social con%ersation. <et that do$ off
the rope, and it will promptly chase cars a$ain.
7ethod 1 has its place. "t is often the most practical solution, and it is not necessarily cruel. We
often use some kind of temporary incarceration when we don(t ha%e time to train or super%ise a
su#>ect. We put #a#ies in swin$s or #a#y seats to amuse themsel%es #riefly and for short periods
most #a#ies ha%e no o#>ections. -ow that most people keep their pet do$s indoors all the time,
confinin$ puppies to shippin$ #o@es called crates has #ecome a standard aid to house#reakin$.
*o$s like ha%in$ a co?y, pri%ate place to sleep in. 7ost do$s 2uickly re$ard their crate as home and
will retire to it %oluntarily durin$ the day.
6%en small puppies prefer not to soil their sleepin$ 2uarters. So confinement when you can(t watch
the puppy reduces the chance of accidents and usually means that the puppy is ready for an
educational and reinforced trip to the yard to relie%e itself, when you do take it out. For lon$
confinements the puppy is commonly put in a wire e@ercise pen with newspaper on the floor and
the crate, door a>ar, in one corner. Thus it has room to romp around and play, it can lea%e the crate
if it needs to piddle, it(s easily cleaned up after, and at least it(s not makin$ spots on the ru$ in the
owner(s a#sence.
S/8P4ES OF 8ETHOD 1 .SHOOT THE /N$8/4.
7ethod 1 sol%es the pro#lem in a way #ut may or may not #e the method of choice in any $i%en
situation.
!EH/2$OR /PPRO/CH
Roommate lea%es dirty laundry all o%er the
place.
.han$e roommates.
*o$ in yard #arks all ni$ht. Shoot the animal. Sell it. ,a%e its %ocal cords
cut #y the %et.
Iids too noisy in the car. 7ake them walk home. 7ake them take the
#us. 0et someone else to dri%e the car pool.
Spouse ha#itually comes home in a #ad mood. *i%orce.
Faulty tennis swin$. Stop playin$ tennis.
Shirkin$ or la?y employee. Fire him or her.
,atin$ to write thank=you notes. -e%er write any thank=you notes. Then may#e
people will stop $i%in$ you presents.
.at $ets on the kitchen ta#le. Ieep the cat outdoors or $et rid of it.
Surly #us dri%er is rude to you and makes you
mad.
0et off the #us and take the ne@t one.
8n adult offsprin$ who you think should #e
self=sufficient wants to mo%e #ack in with you.
Say no and stick to it.
8et"od 7 P0nis"ment
This is humanity(s fa%orite method. When #eha%ior $oes wron$, we think first of punishment. Scold
the child, spank the do$, dock the paycheck, fine the company, torture the dissident, in%ade the
country. !ut punishment is a clumsy way of modifyin$ #eha%ior. "n fact, much of the time
punishment doesn(t work at all.
!efore considerin$ what punishment can and cannot do, let us note what happens when we try it
and it doesn(t work. Suppose we ha%e punished a child, or a do$, or an employee for some #eha%ior,
and the #eha%ior occurs a$ain. *o we say, A,mm, punishment isn(t workin$; let(s try somethin$
elseAD -o. We escalate the punishment. "f scoldin$ doesn(t work, try a slap. "f your kid has a #ad
report card, take away his #ike. "f the ne@t report card is also #ad, take away his skate#oard, too.
5our employees are $oofin$ offD Threaten them. *oesn(t workD *ock their pay. Still no resultsD
Suspend them, fire them, call out the -ational 0uard. Whippin$s do not chan$e the heretic(s
#eha%iorD 7ay#e thum#screws will work, or the rack.
The hideous thin$ a#out the escalation of punishment is that there is a#solutely no end to it. The
search for a punishment so #ad that Amay#e this one will workA is not a concern of apes or
elephants, #ut it has preoccupied humans since history #e$an and pro#a#ly #efore.
One reason punishment doesn(t usually work is that it does not coincide with the undesira#le
#eha%ior; it occurs afterward, and sometimes, as in courts of law, lon$ afterward. The su#>ect
therefore may not connect the punishment to his or her pre%ious deeds; animals ne%er do, and
people often fail to. "f a fin$er fell off e%ery time someone stole somethin$, or if cars #urst into
flames when they were parked ille$ally, " e@pect stolen property and parkin$ tickets would #e
nearly none@istent.
"n 7ethod ), as in 7ethod 1, the su#>ect learns nothin$. While prompt punishment may stop an
on$oin$ #eha%ior, it does not cause any particular impro%ement to occur. +unishment does not
teach a child how to achie%e a #etter report card. The most the punisher can hope for is that the
child(s moti%ation will chan$e The child will try to alter future #eha%ior in order to a%oid future
punishment.
<earnin$ to alter #eha%ior in the future in order to a%oid conse2uences in the future is more than
most animals can understand. "f a man catches his #ird do$ and #eats it #ecause it has #een chasin$
ra##its, the do$ has no way of knowin$ which particular recent acti%ity is #ein$ reprimanded. "t
may #ecome more fearful of the owner, which mi$ht allow the owner, from then on, to call it off
when it chases ra##its, or mi$ht cause the do$ to run away e%en faster when called. The #eatin$ in
itself will not affect ra##it chasin$ in itself.
.ats, incidentally, seem particularly dense a#out associatin$ their punishments with their crimes.
<ike #irds, they merely #ecome fri$htened when threatened, and they learn nothin$, which is why
people think cats are difficult to train. They really can(t #e trained #y puniti%e methods, #ut they(re a
snap to train with positi%e reinforcement.
While punishment or the threat of it doesn(t help the su#>ect learn how to modify the #eha%ior
in%ol%ed, what the su#>ect does learnespecially if the #eha%ior is so stron$ly moti%ated that the
su#>ect needs to continue it &stealin$ food when hun$ry, #ein$ one of the $an$ durin$ adolescence'
is to try not to $et cau$ht. 6%asi%eness increases rapidly under a punishment re$imena sad
situation in a family settin$ and not so $reat in society at lar$e either. 8lso, repeated or se%ere
punishment has some %ery nasty side effects fear, an$er, resentment, resistance, e%en hate in the
punished one and sometimes in the punisher, too. These mental states are not conduci%e to learnin$
&unless you want the su#>ect to learn fear, an$er, and hatred, emotions that are sometimes
deli#erately esta#lished in the trainin$ of terrorists'.
One reason we keep thinkin$ punishment works is that sometimesif the su#>ect understands
which action is #ein$ punished, if the moti%ation for doin$ the #eha%ior is small, if the fear of
future punishment is lar$e, and finally, if the su#>ect can control the #eha%ior in the first place
&punishment doesn(t cure #ed=wettin$, for e@ample'the punished #eha%ior stops. 8 child who is
scolded se%erely the first time he or she crayons on the wall may %ery well stop defacin$ the house.
8 citi?en who cheats on his income ta@ and $ets fined for it may not try it a$ain.
+unishment has the #est chance of haltin$ a #eha%ior in its tracks if the #eha%ior is cau$ht early, so
that it has not #ecome an esta#lished ha#it, and if punishment itself is a no%el e@perience for the
su#>ect, a shock to which the person or animal has not #ecome hardened.
7y parents punished me e@actly twice in my whole up#rin$in$ &and then only with scoldin$s', once
at a$e si@ for pilferin$, and once at a$e fifteen for skippin$ school and causin$ e%eryone to think "(d
#een a#ducted. The e@treme rarity of the punishment e@perience contri#uted %astly to the effect.
!oth #eha%iors stopped instantly.
"f you are $oin$ to use punishment, you may want to arran$e thin$s so that the su#>ect sees the
a%ersi%e as a conse2uence of its own acts, and not as somethin$ associated with you. Suppose you
ha%e a lar$e hairy do$ that likes to sleep on the couch, and you don(t want it doin$ that. +unishment
scoldin$ and so onmay keep the do$ off the couch when you are there, #ut not when you are
a#sent. One old trainin$ trick is to set a few small mousetraps and put them on the couch
punishment in a#sentia. Then, when the do$ >umps up, the mousetraps $o off, startlin$ and perhaps
pinchin$ him. The mousetraps punish >umpin$ on the couch. This e%ent also ne$ati%ely reinforces,
or stren$thens, the #eha%ior of stayin$ on the floor in order to a%oid mousetraps. The do$(s own
action tri$$ered the a%ersi%e e%ent, and one #ad e@perience can #e sufficient to eliminate the
#eha%ior of sneakin$ onto the couch. " hasten to add that this is likely to work with some do$s #ut
not others. One #o@er owner reported that his do$, faced with mousetraps for the second time,
dra$$ed a #lanket down from the #ack of the couch onto the mousetraps, set off the traps, and then
lay on the #lanket on the couch.
When a punishment does effecti%ely halt a #eha%ior, that se2uence of e%ents is %ery reinforcin$ for
the punisher. The punisher tends then to sally forth confidently to punish a$ain. "t always surprises
me to witness the $reat faith that arises, in some indi%iduals, in the effecti%eness of punishment. "
ha%e seen it e@hi#ited and defended #y disciplinarian schoolteachers, #ullyin$ athletic coaches,
domineerin$ #osses, and well=intentioned parents. Their own punishin$ #eha%ior may #e
maintained #y a mea$er handful of successes in a morass of not=so=$ood results and can persist
despite lo$ical e%idence to the contrarydespite the presence of other teachers in the same school,
other coaches, heads of other #usinesses, other $enerals, presidents, or parents who can #e seen to
#e $ettin$ results that are >ust as $ood or #etter without usin$ punishment at all.
+unishment often constitutes re%en$e. The punisher may not really care whether the %ictim(s
#eha%ior chan$es or not; he or she is >ust $ettin$ re%en$e, sometimes not a$ainst the recipient #ut
a$ainst society at lar$e. Think of o#durate clerks who, with concealed $lee, delay or pre%ent you
from $ettin$ your license, your loan, or your li#rary pass o%er some minor technicality; you $et
punished and they $et e%en.
+unishin$ is also reinforcin$ for the punisher #ecause it demonstrates and helps to maintain
dominance. 4ntil the day when a #oy is #i$ enou$h to hit his #rutal father #ack, the father feels
dominant and is in truth the dominant one. This in fact may #e the main moti%ation #ehind our
human tendency to punish esta#lishin$ and maintainin$ dominance. The punisher may #e primarily
interested not in #eha%ior #ut in #ein$ pro%ed to #e of hi$her status.
*ominance hierarchies and dominance disputes and testin$ are a fundamental characteristic of all
social $roups, from flocks of $eese to human $o%ernments. !ut perhaps only we humans learn to
use punishment primarily to $ain for oursel%es the reward of #ein$ dominant. So think, when you
are tempted to punish *o you want the do$, the child, the spouse, the employee to alter a $i%en
#eha%iorD "n that case, it(s a trainin$ pro#lem, and you need to #e aware of the weaknesses of
punishment as a trainin$ de%ice. Or do you really want re%en$eD "n that case you should seek more
wholesome reinforcers for yourself.
Or perhaps you really want the do$, the child, the spouse, the employee, the nei$h#orin$ nation, and
so on to stop diso#eyin$ you. "n whate%er manifestation, do you want the su#>ect to stop $oin$
a$ainst your superior will and >ud$mentD "n that case it(s a dominance dispute, and you(re on your
own.
0uilt and shame are forms of self=inflicted punishment. 8lmost no sensation is more disa$reea#le
than the clammy hand of $uilt closin$ around one(s heart; it is a punisher that only the human race
could ha%e in%ented. Some animalsdo$s, certainlycan show em#arrassment. !ut none, " think,
waste time sufferin$ from $uilt o%er actions in the past.
The amount of $uilt we deal out to oursel%es %aries hu$ely One person can feel rela@ed and >ustified
after committin$ a ma>or crime while another feels $uilty o%er chewin$ a stick of $um. 7any
people do not e@perience $uilt or shame in their daily li%es, not #ecause they are perfect, nor
#ecause they are unfeelin$ hedonists, #ut #ecause they respond to their own #eha%ior in alternati%e
ways. "f they do somethin$ that #others them in retrospect, then they don(t do it a$ain. Others make
the same mistake o%er and o%eractin$ the fool at a party, sayin$ unfor$i%a#le words to a lo%ed
onein spite of in%aria#ly feelin$ hellishly $uilty the ne@t day
One would think that fear of feelin$ $uilty would act as a deterrent, #ut usually at the moment we
are doin$ the deed that will later cause $uilt, we are feelin$ impecca#ly fearless. 8s a way of
chan$in$ #eha%ior, $uilt ranks ri$ht alon$ with flo$$in$ or any other form of delayed punishment
it is not %ery effecti%e.
Therefore, if you are a person who punishes yourself in this way &and most of us are, ha%in$ #een
tau$ht to do so in early childhood', you should reco$ni?e that it is a 7ethod ) solution and not
necessarily somethin$ you deser%e. 5ou mi$ht ha%e $ood reasons to want to $et rid of the #eha%ior
that makes you feel $uilty, #ut you mi$ht then ha%e much #etter luck with some method or
com#ination of methods other than self=punishment.
S/8P4ES OF 8ETHOD 7 PFN$SH8ENT
These are seldom effecti%e and lose effect with repetition #ut are widely used.
!EH/2$OR /PPRO/CH
Roommate lea%es dirty laundry all o%er
the place.
5ell and scold. Threaten to confiscate and throw away
the clothes, or do so.
*o$ in yard #arks all ni$ht. 0o out and hit him or spray him with the hose when he
#arks. &-.!. *o$ will #e so $lad to see you, he(ll
pro#a#ly Afor$i%eA the punishment.'
Iids too noisy in the car. 5ell at them. Threaten. Turn around and smack them.
Spouse ha#itually comes home in a #ad
mood.
Start a fi$ht. !urn the dinner. Sulk, scold, cry.
Faulty tennis swin$. .urse, $et mad, critici?e yourself e%ery time you do it
wron$.
Shirkin$ or la?y employee. Scold and critici?e, prefera#ly in front of others.
Threaten to dock pay, or do so.
,atin$ to write thank=you notes. +unish yourself #y postponin$ the task and feelin$ $uilty
at the same time.
.at $ets on the kitchen ta#le. Strike it andEor chase it out of the kitchen.
Surly #us dri%er is rude to you and
makes you mad.
O#tain the dri%er(s num#er, complain to the company,
and try to $et him or her transferred, reprimanded, or
fired.
8n adult offsprin$ who you think
should #e self=sufficient wants to mo%e
#ack in with you.
<et the adult child mo%e in #ut make life misera#le for
him or her.
8et"od < Ne'ati%e Reinforcement
8 ne$ati%e reinforcer is any unpleasant e%ent or stimulus, no matter how mild, that can #e halted or
a%oided #y chan$in$ one(s #eha%ior. 8 cow in a field with an electrified fence touches her nose to
the fence, feels a shock, and pulls #ack, which stops the shock. She learns to a%oid the shock #y not
touchin$ the fence. While touchin$ the fence has #een punished, the #eha%ior of a%oidin$ the fence
has #een reinforced, #y a ne$ati%e rather than positi%e reinforcer.
<ife a#ounds in ne$ati%e reinforcers. We shift position when a chair $ets uncomforta#le. We know
enou$h to come in out of the rain. Some people find the smell of $arlic appeti?in$, and others find it
offensi%e. The stimulus #ecomes a ne$ati%e reinforcer only if it is percei%ed as unpleasant #y the
recipient and if the #eha%ior is modifiedshiftin$ seats on the #us, away from a $arlic=eater, say
to remo%e the unpleasantness.
8s we saw in .hapter 1, almost all traditional animal trainin$ consists of the applied use of ne$ati%e
reinforcers. The horse learns to turn left when the left rein is pulled, #ecause #y doin$ so it can
ameliorate the tu$$in$ feelin$ in the left corner of its mouth. 6lephants, o@en, camels, and other
#easts of #urden learn to mo%e forward, halt, pull loads, and so on to a%oid the tu$ of a halter, the
poke or #low of a prod, $oad, or whip.
-e$ati%e reinforcement can #e used to shape #eha%ior. 8s with positi%e reinforcement, the
reinforcer must #e contin$ent upon the #eha%ior; one must cease Aproddin$A when the response is
correct. 4nfortunately, #ecause the proddin$, in whate%er form, results in a chan$e in #eha%ior, the
#eha%ior of the person doin$ the proddin$ may #e positi%ely reinforced, so that, as with punishin$,
the tendency to lay on with the a%ersi%es increases. -a$$ers, for e@ample, may e%entually $et
results, and this is reinforcin$ to the na$$er. So na$$in$ escalates, sometimes so much that the
na$$er $oes on na$$in$ whether the desired response has occurred or not. Think of the mother in
'ortnoy's *omplaint who complains, while her son is %isitin$, AWe ne%er see youBA
+ositi%e and ne$ati%e reinforcement contin$encies are often reciprocal. !eha%iorist 7yrna <i##y,
+h.*., $a%e me this e@ample 8 child is tantrumin$ in the store for candy. The parent $i%es in and
lets the child ha%e a candy #ar. The tantrumin$ is positi%ely reinforced #y the candy, #ut the more
powerful e%ent is that the parent is ne$ati%ely reinforced for $i%in$ in, since the pu#lic tantrum, so
a%ersi%e and em#arrassin$ for the parent, actually stopped.
Tantrums can #ecome part of a %icious circle. The parent will $o to all kinds of len$thssoothin$,
protestin$, ar$uin$, and reinforcin$to stop a tantrum. So the tantrums escalate, and #ecause they
do, the parents inad%ertently reinforcin$ efforts escalate as well. " know of one household in which
a child threw a full=#lown, fifteen= or twenty=minute screamin$ tantrum nearly e%ery ni$ht, >ust at
dinnertime. !oth the child(s #eha%ior and the parents( an@ious responses were so stron$ly
maintained, #y interlockin$ positi%e and ne$ati%e reinforcements, that the #eha%ior continued for
o%er three years.
+eople use spontaneous ne$ati%e reinforcers on each other all the time the warnin$ $lance, the
frown, the disappro%in$ remark. Some children(s li%es, and some spouses( li%es too, are filled with
constant daily effort to #eha%e in such a way as to a%oid disappro%al. The o%erpunished child may
#ecome hostile, e%asi%e, and a punisher himself in adulthood. "n contrast, the child that $rows up
stri%in$ not to please, e@actly, #ut to #rin$ a halt, if only temporarily, to chronic disappro%al, may
#ecome timid, self=dou#tin$, and an@ious in adult life. 8 therapist speciali?in$ in pho#ic patients
tells me that her clients, with their cripplin$ irrational fears of crowds or ele%ators, were all raised
on a steady diet of ne$ati%e reinforcement.
Since one can use ne$ati%e reinforcement effecti%ely to shape impro%ed #eha%ior, as with
punishment, the e@perience can reinforce the trainer(s willin$ness to use coercion. 8s 7urray
Sidman, +h.*., has o#ser%ed to me, A8 few successful applications of e%en mild ne$ati%e
reinforcement may turn a trainer into an in%aria#le user of ne$ati%e reinforcement.A
,owe%er, #ecause ne$ati%e reinforcers are a%ersi%esomethin$ the su#>ect wants to a%oide%ery
instance of their use contains a punisher. +ull on the left rein, and you are punishin$ $oin$ strai$ht
ahead, as well as ne$ati%ely reinforcin$ turnin$ to the left when that occurs. The traditional trainer
typically doesn(t think of his ne$ati%e reinforcershis reins or choke chains or %er#al corrections
as punishment. 8fter all, trainers e@plain, these tools are $ently used, on the whole if the trainer
really wanted to punish, there are much more se%ere corrections a%aila#le. 8nd, the ar$ument
typically continues, if you use a lot of praise and positi%e reinforcers as well, no harm is done in the
lon$ run.
,owe%er, the stren$th of the a%ersi%e can only #e >ud$ed #y the recipient. What the trainer may
consider to #e mild may #e seen #y the trainee as #listerin$ly se%ere. Furthermore, since all
ne$ati%e reinforcement, #y definition, includes a punisher, makin$ a practice of usin$ ne$ati%e
reinforcement puts you at risk for all the unpredicta#le fallout of punishment a%oidance, secrecy,
fear, confusion, resistance, passi%ity, and reduced initiati%e, as well as spillo%er associations, in
which anythin$ that happens to #e around, includin$ the trainin$ en%ironment and the trainer,
#ecomes distasteful or disliked, somethin$ to #e a%oided or e%en fled from.
!ecause trainin$ with ne$ati%e reinforcers or correction is the traditional and con%entional system,
the resultin$ fallout is e@traordinarily o#%ious once you look for it. " ha%e attended national=le%el
do$ o#edience competitions and #een startled #y the $lum faces, unwa$$ed tails, and cautious,
inhi#ited mo%ements of many of the top=le%el performance do$s. 0o to any ridin$ academy or
horse#ack e%ent, and ask yourself if the horses look cheerful. 7ost people, e%en professional
e2uestrians, and e%en those who consider themsel%es to #e modern and humane trainers, don(t know
what a happy=eyed horse looks like. They(%e ne%er seen one. -e$ati%e reinforcers can #e #eni$n, as
illustrated earlier in the matter of the shy llama. 7y dau$hter(s do$ is affectionate and likes to lick
the #a#y(s face. The #a#y, a year old, likes the do$ #ut doesn(t like ha%in$ his face washed. ,e has
learned that if he puts his hands out and s2uawks, the do$ will stop. -ow when the do$ approaches,
tail wa$$in$, the #a#y produces his #a#y %ersion of A-o wayBA and the lick is forestalled. The #a#y
is 2uite happy with his new #eha%ior and sometimes tries it &less effecti%ely' on parents and
si#lin$s.
!ut on the whole, #a#ies are one class of or$anisms for which ne$ati%e reinforcement is an
inappropriate teachin$ mechanism. "t(s difficult to discoura$e a #a#y from doin$ what she needs and
wants to do #y arran$in$ a%ersi%e contin$encies. !a#ies don(t understand time=outs and scoldin$s.
The crawler reachin$ for the #ric=a=#rac on 0randma(s coffee ta#le is most likely to i$nore the
warnin$ A-oBA and to wail#ut keep ri$ht on reachin$if her hands are smacked. "t(s far #etter to
use 7ethod 9 &.han$e the moti%ation' #y puttin$ the o#>ects out of reach, or 7ethod : &Train an
incompati#le #eha%ior' #y $i%in$ the #a#y somethin$ else to play withor #oth. !a#ies are not
pro$rammed to learn easily to a%oid a%ersi%es, thou$h they can learn rapidly throu$h positi%e
reinforcement. One mi$ht say that #a#ies are #orn to please, not to o#ey.
!a#y animals also tend to learn more easily throu$h positi%e reinforcement and to #e #ewildered
and fri$htened #y punishment and ne$ati%e reinforcers. .on%entional do$ trainers usually do not
ad%ise formal o#edience trainin$ until a do$ is si@ months of a$e. The reason they $i%e is that the
puppy is too youn$ to learn; #ut the real pro#lem is that formal trainin$ is $enerally a%ersi%e, and
the puppy is too youn$ to learn that particular way. With praise and pettin$ and food, you can teach
a puppy almost anythin$, startin$ e%en #efore weanin$, #ut put a choke chain on it and try to force
it to heel, sit, or stay, and you will cow and fri$hten the puppy #efore you can teach it much.
There is another class of su#>ects that are sin$ularly unamena#le to ne$ati%e reinforcement wild
animals. 8nyone who has e%er kept a wild petan ocelot, a wolf, a raccoon, an otterknows that
they don(t take orders. "t is e@traordinarily difficult, for e@ample, to teach a wolf to walk on a leash,
e%en if you ha%e raised it from puppyhood and it is 2uite tame. "f you pull, it pulls #ack
automatically, and if you are too insistent and pull too hard, the wolf, no matter how calm and
socia#le it usually is, panics and tries to escape.
+ut a tame pet otter on a leash, and either you $o where the otter wants to $o, or it fi$hts the leash
with all its mi$ht. There seems to #e no middle $round where a little tu$ mi$ht #e used to shape
compliance.
*olphins are the same. For all their %aunted traina#ility, they either resist or flee any kind of force.
+ush a dolphin, and it pushes #ack. Try to herd dolphins from one tank to another with nets; if they
feel crowded, #old indi%iduals will char$e the net and timid ones will sink to the tank #ottom in
helpless fear. 5ou ha%e to shape the #eha%ior, with positi%e reinforcers, of mo%in$ 2uietly ahead of
the net; and e%en if you ha%e done that, almost any nettin$ operation re2uires one alert human
standin$ #y, ready to >ump into the water and disentan$le an animal that has rushed the net #efore it
drowns.
+sycholo$ist ,arry Frank su$$ests that this resistance to ne$ati%e reinforcement is a principal
difference #etween wild and domesticated animals. 8ll domesticated animals are suscepti#le to
ne$ati%e reinforcementthey can #e herded, led, shooed, or $enerally pushed around. We humans,
intentionally or accidentally, ha%e selecti%ely #red this characteristic into them. 8fter all, the cow
that cannot #e herded or shooed, that like a wolf or dolphin either resists the a%ersi%e stimulus or
panics and flees, is the cow that(s $oin$ to end up outside the kraal at ni$ht and $et eaten #y lions;
or, as a nuisance, it will #e the cow most likely to #e killed and eaten #y the people. ,er $enes
won(t stay in the $ene pool.
O#edience, whether e@pressed as a willin$ness to knuckle under or as a hesitation in the fi$ht=or=
fli$ht reaction in which mild ne$ati%e reinforcement may #e used to coerce learnin$, is #uilt into all
of our domestic animalswith one e@ception the cat. "t is, for e@ample, really hard to teach a cat to
walk on a leash; $o to a cat show, and you will see that the professionals don(t e%en #other to try
cats are carried or cats are ca$ed, #ut they are not walked around on leashes.
,arry Frank su$$ests that this is #ecause the cat is not a true domestic animal and therefore lacks
that suscepti#ility to ne$ati%e reinforcement. "t may, rather, #e a commensal, an animal that, like the
rat and the cockroach, shares our a#odes to its #enefit. 7ore pro#a#ly the cat is a sym#iote, an
animal that trades fa%ors with us for mutual #enefitfood, shelter, and pattin$ from us; mouse
catchin$, entertainment, and purrin$ from the cat. Work and o#edience, howe%er, no. Which may
e@plain why some people don(t like cats They fear the uncontrolla#ility.
For all you cat haters out there, there is one punisher that does work with cats and can #e used as a
ne$ati%e reinforcer sprayin$ water at the cat(s face. Once at a dinner party where " was wearin$ a
new #lack wool dress, my hostess(s white an$ora cat repeatedly >umped into my lap. The hostess
thou$ht that was cute, #ut " did not want white cat hairs on my dress. When she was not lookin$, "
dipped my fin$ers into my wine$lass and sprit?ed the cat in the face. "t left at once and ne%er came
#ack a fine and useful ne$ati%e reinforcer.
S/8P4ES OF 8ETHOD < NEG/T$2E RE$NFORCE8ENT
-e$ati%e reinforcement may #e effecti%e and the method of choice in some situations. The car
de%ice descri#ed here works %ery well, especially if the children are too tired and cross to #e
amena#le to alternati%es such as playin$ $ames and sin$in$ son$s &7ethod :'.
!EH/2$OR /PPRO/CH
Roommate lea%es dirty
laundry all o%er the place.
*isconnect the TG or withhold dinner until the laundry is picked
up. &.ease ne$ati%e reinforcer when compliance is o#tained;
reinforce e%en halfhearted efforts at first.'
*o$ in yard #arks all ni$ht. Shine a stron$ li$ht on do$house when do$ #arks. Turn the li$ht off
when the do$ stops #arkin$.
Iids too noisy in the car. When the deci#el le%el meets the pain threshold, pull o%er and stop
the car. Read a #ook. "$nore ar$uin$ a#out stoppin$; that(s noise,
too. *ri%e on when silence rei$ns.
Spouse ha#itually comes
home in a #ad mood.
Turn your #ack or lea%e the room #riefly when the tone of his or
her %oice is disa$reea#le. Return and $i%e your attention at once
when the %oice is silent or normal.
Faulty tennis swin$. ,a%e a coach or #ystander %er#ally correct the #ad swin$ &A8h=ah=
ah,A or A-oBA' in midswin$ each time you do it. *e%elop another
swin$ that shuts off the correction.
Shirkin$ or la?y employee Ti$hten super%ision and re#uke each instance in which work falls
#elow par.
,atin$ to write thank=you
notes.
-e$ati%e reinforcement comes automatically from friends and
lo%ed ones. 8unt 8lice will let you know how worried she is that
you ne%er $ot the scarf, and your family will let you know that you
ou$ht to write 8unt 8lice. The information will #e deli%ered with
definite a%ersi%e o%ertones.
.at $ets on the kitchen ta#le. +ut cellophane tape, sticky side up, on the kitchen ta#le.
Surly #us dri%er is rude to
you and makes you mad.
Stand in the door or near the dri%er so he can(t dri%e on until you
mo%e. 7o%e when he stops talkin$, e%en for an instant.
8n adult offsprin$ who you
think should #e self=
sufficient wants to mo%e
#ack in with you.
<et the adult child come #ack, #ut char$e him or her e@actly what
you would char$e a stran$er for rent, food, and any additional
ser%ices such as laundry or #a#ysittin$. 7ake it worthwhile
financially to mo%e on.
8et"od > E1tinction
"f you ha%e trained a rat to press a le%er repeatedly for a food reward and then you shut off the food=
deli%erin$ machine, the rat will press the le%er a lot at first, then less and less, until it finally $i%es
up. The #eha%ior is Ae@tin$uished.A
+xtinction is a term from the psycholo$y la#oratories. "t refers to the e@tinction not of an animal #ut
of a #eha%ior, a #eha%ior " that dies down #y itself for lack of reinforcement, like a #urnt=out
candle.
!eha%ior that produces no resultsnot $ood results or #ad results, >ust no resultswill pro#a#ly
e@tin$uish. This does not always mean you can i$nore a #eha%ior and it will $o away. The #eha%ior
of i$norin$ a human #ein$ is a result in itself, #ein$ such an unsocial thin$ to do. One cannot
always count on e@tin$uishin$ #eha%ior in another #y i$norin$ it.
"f a #eha%ior has #een reinforced #y attention, i$norin$ it may work. " once watched Thomas
Schippers, the symphony conductor, runnin$ a rehearsal of the -ew 5ork +hilharmonic. 8
ferocious conductor#ut a ferocious orchestra, too. 8s Schippers walked to the podium, the
orchestra was #ein$ nau$hty; a woodwind war#led A" wish " was in *i@ie,A and a %iolin made an
incredi#ly human AOh=oh.A Schippers i$nored the foolery, and it 2uickly e@tin$uished.
6@tinction in human interactions #est applies, it seems to me, to %er#al #eha%iorwhinin$,
2uarrelin$, teasin$, #ullyin$. "f these kinds of #eha%ior do not produce results, do not $et a rise out
of you, they e@tin$uish. Ieep in mind that $ettin$ someone(s $oat can #e positi%ely reinforcin$. The
#rother who $ets his little sister into a fit of ra$e #y teasin$ her a#out her hairdo is #ein$ reinforced.
When you flame up at someone else in the office who is one=uppin$ you, he or she has won.
We often accidentally reinforce the #eha%ior we wish would e@tin$uish. Whinin$, in children, is a
parent=trained #eha%ior. 8ny child who is tired, hun$ry, and uncomforta#le may whine, like a
puppy. The world=class whiner, howe%er, is the child whose parents are such masters of self=control
that they can withstand hu$e amounts of whinin$ #efore they finally crack and say, A8ll ri$ht, "(ll
$et you the damned ice cream cone; now will you please shut upDA We for$et, or do not understand,
that the e%entual reinforcement maintains the #eha%ior; and the %aria#ility of the elapsed time to
reinforcement makes for a %ery dura#le #eha%ior. Once " saw a pretty little $irl of a#out si@ in
!loomin$dale(s #rin$ her mother, her $randmother, and the whole !loomin$dale(s linen department
to a complete standstill with a %irtuoso display of A!ut you said, you promised, " don(t wannaA and
so forth. 8s well as " could fi$ure out, the child was tired=of shoppin$, perhaps reasona#ly so. Or
she was >ust tired, period. She wanted to lea%e, and she had learned to $et what she wanted #y
whinin$, which e%entually was always reinforced.
What do you do if you happen to #e stuck for an afternoon with someone else(s whiny childD ,ere(s
what " do. The minute the protestin$ or complainin$ #e$ins in that telltale nasal tone, " inform the
child that whinin$ doesn(t work with me. &This usually $i%es him or her food for thou$ht, since they
don(t think of it as whinin$; they think of it as lo$ical or e%en #rilliant persuasion.' When they stop
whinin$, " make haste to reinforce, with praise or a hu$. "f the child for$ets and starts whinin$
a$ain, " can usually stop the #eha%ior with a raised eye#row or a 2uellin$ $lance. 8ctually, whiners
are often 2uite intelli$ent and make pleasant, e%en interestin$ companions when they $i%e up their
$ame and the whinin$ is e@tin$uished.
One of the pro#lems of dealin$ with #eha%ior that is e@pressed in words is that we humans ha%e
inordinate respect for our lan$ua$e. Words are almost ma$ical. "n a situation of #ein$ #ullied or
teased, or when one is #ein$ whined at, or perhaps most o#%iously in a marital fi$ht, we tend to deal
with the words said, not with the #eha%ior. A!ut you promisedA e%okes the response A-o, " did not
promise,A or A" know, #ut " ha%e to $o to .hica$o tomorrow, so " can(t do what " said; can(t you
understand thatDA and so on fore%er.
We need to separate the words #ein$ said from the #eha%ior. When a hus#and and wife are fi$htin$,
for e@ample, fi$htin$ is what is $oin$ on. 5et the topic of the fi$ht often steals the show. 5ou can
ar$ue each point into the $round, and you can #e dead ri$ht a#out the words that are #ein$ said
&therapists ha%e to listen to miles of replays of such tapes', #ut you still are not dealin$ with the
#eha%iorfi$htin$.
"n addition to #ein$ too easily sucked into the words of a conflict &A,e said "(m a coward" am not
a cowardA', we often fail to notice the %ery fact that we are reinforcin$ it. 8nd not >ust #y lettin$
oursel%es #e trapped into an$er. Take the hus#and who always comes home in a #ad mood. The
cra##ier he is, the faster his wife rushes a#out to try to please him, ri$htD What is she actually
reinforcin$D
.ra##iness.
8 cheerful demeanor, no speedin$ up of dinner, and an a#sence of hand wrin$in$ and upset on the
spouse(s part can do a lot to eliminate the usefulness to the cra##y one of any display of moodiness
or temper. On the other hand, withdrawin$ into icy silence or screamin$ #ack or punishin$ would
all #e results and conse2uently mi$ht #e reinforcin$.
!y i$norin$ the #eha%ior without i$norin$ the person, you can arran$e for many disa$reea#le
displays to e@tin$uish #y themsel%es #ecause there is no result, $ood or #ad. The #eha%ior has
#ecome unproducti%e. ,ostility re2uires a hu$e amount of ener$y, and if it doesn(t work it is usually
2uickly a#andoned.
7any #eha%iors are temporarily limited in themsel%es. When children or do$s or horses are first let
out=of=doors after a period of confinement and inacti%ity, they cra%e to run and play. "f you try to
control this, you may ha%e to e@ert 2uite a lot of effort. "t(s often easier >ust to let them run around
for a while, until the ur$e for action is satiated, #efore you ask for disciplined #eha%ior or start to
train them. ,orse trainers call this A$ettin$ the #u$s out.A 8 wise horse trainer may turn a youn$
horse loose in the rin$ for a few minutes, to kick and #uck and run around, #efore saddlin$ it and
makin$ it $et to work. .alisthenics #efore drill team or foot#all practice ser%e somewhat the same
purpose. "n addition to $ettin$ the muscles mo%in$, which reduces the chance of strains and
in>uries, these A$ross motor acti%itiesA sop up some of the loose ener$y, so that rompin$ and
horseplay e@tin$uish and the troops or players can #ecome more attenti%e to the trainin$ process.
,a#ituation is a way to eliminate unconditioned responses. "f a su#>ect is e@posed to an a%ersi%e
stimulus that it cannot escape or a%oid, and which nothin$ it does has any effect on, e%entually its
a%oidance responses will e@tin$uish. "t will stop reactin$ to the stimulus, pay no attention, and
apparently #ecome unaware of it. This is called ha#ituation. "n my -ew 5ork apartment " found the
street noise un#eara#le at first, #ut e%entually, like most -ew 5orkers, " learned to sleep throu$h
the sirens, yellin$, $ar#a$e trucks, e%en car crashes. " #ecame ha#ituated. +olice horses are
sometimes trained #y su#>ectin$ them to all kinds of harmless #ut alarmin$ e%ents, such as openin$
um#rellas, flappin$ papers, #ein$ tapped all o%er with rattlin$ tin cans, and so on. The horses
#ecome so ha#ituated to startlin$ si$hts and sounds that they remain unflappa#le no matter what
e%ents the city streets ha%e to offer.
S/8P4ES OF 8ETHOD > EGT$NCT$ON
7ethod 3 is not useful for $ettin$ rid of well=learned, self=rewardin$ #eha%ior patterns. "t is
$ood, howe%er, for whinin$, sulkin$, or teasin$. 6%en small children can learnand are $ratified
to disco%erthat they can stop older children from teasin$ them merely #y not reactin$ in any
way, $ood or #ad.
!EH/2$OR /PPRO/CH
Roommate lea%es dirty laundry all
o%er the place.
Wait for him or her to $row up.
*o$ in yard #arks all ni$ht. This #eha%ior is self=reinforcin$ and seldom e@tin$uishes
spontaneously.
Iids too noisy in the car. 8 certain amount of noise is natural and harmless; let it #e,
they(ll $et tired of it.
Spouse ha#itually comes home in
a #ad mood.
See to it that his or her harsh words ha%e no results, either
$ood or #ad.
Faulty tennis swin$. Work on other strokes, footwork, and so on, and try to let the
specific error die down from lack of concentratin$ on it.
Shirkin$ or la?y employee. "f the mis#eha%ior is a way of $ettin$ attention, remo%e the
attention; shirkin$, howe%er, may #e self=reinforcin$.
,atin$ to write thank=you notes. This #eha%ior $enerally e@tin$uishes with a$e. <ife #ecomes
so full of onerous chores such as payin$ #ills and doin$ ta@es
that mere thank=you notes #ecome rela@ation #y comparison.
.at $ets on the kitchen ta#le. "$nore the #eha%ior. "t will not $o away, #ut you may
succeed in e@tin$uishin$ your own o#>ections to cat hair in
your food.
Surly #us dri%er is rude to you and
makes you mad.
"$nore the dri%er, pay your fare, and for$et it.
8n adult offsprin$ who you think
should #e self=sufficient wants to
mo%e #ack in with you.
8ccept it as a temporary measure and e@pect that the adult
child will mo%e out as soon as finances impro%e or the
present crisis is o%er.
8et"od ? Train an $ncom+ati3,e !e"a%ior
,ere come the $ood fairies the positi%e methods for $ettin$ rid of unwanted #eha%ior.
One ele$ant method is to train the su#>ect to perform another #eha%ior physically incompati#le with
the one you don(t want. For e@ample, some people do not like to ha%e do$s #e$$in$ at the dinin$=
room ta#le. " hate it myselfthere is nothin$ more likely to cur# my appetite than do$$y #reath,
sad=do$ eyes, and a hea%y paw on my knee >ust as " am liftin$ a piece of steak to my mouth.
8 7ethod 1 solution is to put the do$ outside or shut it in another room durin$ mealtimes. !ut it is
also possi#le to control #e$$in$ #y trainin$ an incompati#le #eha%iorfor e@ample, trainin$ a do$
to lie in the dinin$=room doorway when people are eatin$. First you train the do$ to lie down,
there#y #rin$in$ the #eha%ior under stimulus control. 5ou can then make the do$ A0o lie downA
elsewhere durin$ meals. 5ou reward this #eha%ior with food in the kitchen after the plates are
cleared. 0oin$ away and lyin$ down is incompati#le with #e$$in$ at the ta#le; a do$ cannot
physically #e two places at once, and so #e$$in$ is eliminated.
" once saw an orchestra conductor hit on a #rilliant use of an incompati#le #eha%ior durin$ an opera
rehearsal. The whole chorus suddenly fell out of synchrony with the orchestra. "t seemed they had
memori?ed one measure of music a #eat short. ,a%in$ identified the pro#lem, the conductor looked
for an AsA in the lyrics of that measure, found one, and told the chorus to stress that AsA AThe
kin$(sssss comin$.A "t made a funny #u??in$ sound, #ut it was incompati#le with rushin$ throu$h
the measure too fast, and it sol%ed the pro#lem.
7y own first use of 7ethod : was in the handlin$ of a potentially %ery serious dolphin pro#lem. 8t
one time at Sea <ife +ark we had three kinds of performers in the outdoor show a $roup of si@
dainty little spinner dolphins, a hu$e female #ottlenose named 8po, and a pretty ,awaiian $irl who
swam and played with the spinner dolphins durin$ part of the show. .ontrary to popular opinion,
dolphins are not always friendly, and #ottlenoses in particular are apt to #ully and tease. 8po, the
si@=hundred=pound #ottlenose, took to harassin$ the swimmer when she $ot in the water, dashin$
under her and #oostin$ her into the air, or slappin$ her on the head with her tail flukes. "t terrified
the $irl, and it was indeed %ery dan$erous.
We did not want to take 8po out of the show, since her leaps and flips made her its star. We started
constructin$ a pen in which she could #e shut durin$ the swimmer(s performancea 7ethod 1
solution#ut meanwhile we trained an incompati#le #eha%ior. We $ot 8po to press on an
underwater le%er, at the pool(s ed$e, in return for fish rewards.
8po enthusiastically learned to press the le%er repeatedly for each fish; she e%en took to defendin$
her le%er from other dolphins. *urin$ shows a trainer put 8po(s le%er in the pool and reinforced
le%er pressin$ whene%er the swimmer was out in midwater playin$ with the spinners. 8po could not
press her le%er and simultaneously #e in the middle of the pool #eatin$ up the swimmer; the two
#eha%iors were incompati#le. Fortunately 8po preferred le%er pressin$ to swimmer harassment, so
the #eha%ior was eliminated. &The swimmer, howe%er, ne%er 2uite trusted this ma$ic and calmed
down completely only when 8po was #ack safely #ehind #ars.'
Trainin$ an incompati#le #eha%ior is a $ood way to attack a faulty tennis swin$ or any other
muscular pattern that has #een learned wron$. 7uscles AlearnA slowly #ut well; once somethin$ has
#ecome part of your mo%ement patterns it is hard to unlearn. &+iano lessons were frustratin$ to me
as a child #ecause it seemed in e%ery piece my fin$ers would learn one note wron$ and stum#le in
the same place e%ery time.' One way to deal with this is to train an incompati#le #eha%ior. 4sin$ a
tennis swin$ as an e@ample, first take the mo%ement apart in your mindposture, position,
footwork, start, middle, and endand $o %ery slowly throu$h each portion of the mo%ement, or
many times throu$h >ust one portion if necessary. Train a completely different swin$, a set of new
motions. When the muscles #e$in to learn the new pattern, you can put it to$ether and speed it up.
When you start usin$ it in playin$ time, at full speed, you must pay a#solutely no attention at first to
where the #all $oes; >ust practice the mo%ement pattern. -ow you should ha%e two swin$sthe old
faulty one and the new one. The two are incompati#le; you cannot make two swin$s at once. !ut
while you may ne%er $et rid of the old pattern completely, you can reduce it to a minimum #y
replacin$ it with the new one. Once that pattern has #ecome a muscle ha#it, you can concentrate
a$ain on where the #all $oes. 8nd presuma#ly, with a #etter swin$, the #all will #eha%e #etter too.
&This is also how " could ha%e tackled my piano=lesson pro#lem.'
Trainin$ an incompati#le #eha%ior is 2uite useful in modifyin$ your own #eha%ior, especially when
dealin$ with emotional states such as $rief, an@iety, and loneliness. Some #eha%iors are totally
incompati#le with self=pity dancin$, choral sin$in$, or any hi$hly kinetic motor acti%ity, e%en
runnin$. 5ou cannot en$a$e in them and wallow in misery simultaneously. Feelin$ awfulD Try
7ethod :.
S/8P4ES OF 8ETHOD ? TR/$N /N $NCO8P/T$!4E !EH/2$OR
Sensi#le people often employ this method. Sin$in$ and playin$ $ames in the car relie%es parents
as well as children from #oredom. *i%ersion, distraction, and pleasant occupations are $ood
alternati%es durin$ many tense moments.
!EH/2$OR /PPRO/CH
Roommate lea%es dirty
laundry all o%er the place.
!uy a laundry hamper and reward the roommate for placin$
laundry in it. Wash laundry to$ether, makin$ it a social occasion,
when the hamper is full. <aundry care is incompati#le with laundry
ne$lect.
*o$ in yard #arks all ni$ht. Train it to lie down on command; do$s, like most of us, seldom
#ark lyin$ down. 5ell the command out the window or ri$ an
intercom to the do$house. Reward with praise.
Iids too noisy in the car. Sin$ son$s, tell stories, play $ames A0host,A A" Spy with 7y <ittle
6ye,A A)J Kuestions,A AFound a +eanut,A and so on. 6%en three=
year=olds can sin$ AFound a +eanut.A "ncompati#le with s2ua##lin$
and yellin$.
Spouse ha#itually comes
home in a #ad mood.
"nstitute some pleasant acti%ity on homecomin$, incompati#le with
$rouchin$, such as playin$ with the children or workin$ on a
ho##y. Thirty minutes of total pri%acy is often $ood. Spouse may
need time to unwind #efore switchin$ to family life.
Faulty tennis swin$. Train an alternati%e tennis swin$ from scratch &see te@t'.
Shirkin$ or la?y employee. Order him or her to work 2uicker or harder on a specific task;
watch, and praise the >o# on completion.
,atin$ to write thank=you
notes.
Train some replacement #eha%ior "f someone sends you a check,
write a few $rateful words on the #ack as you endorse itthe #ank
will take care of the rest. For other kinds of presents, call the
sender that %ery ni$ht and say thank you. Then you will ne%er ha%e
to write a letter.
.at $ets on the kitchen ta#le. Train the cat to sit on a kitchen chair for pettin$ and food reward.
8n ea$er or hun$ry cat may hit that chair so hard it slides halfway
across the kitchen, #ut still the cat is where you want it, not on the
ta#le.
Surly #us dri%er is rude to
you and makes you mad.
Respond to snarls or #ullyin$ with eye contact, a ci%il smile, and
an appropriate social remarkA0ood mornin$Aor, if the dri%er is
really scoldin$ you, with sympathy A5ou must ha%e a hard >o#BA
This sometimes prompts courtesy in return, which you can then
reinforce.
8n adult offsprin$ who you
think should #e self=
sufficient wants to mo%e
#ack in with you.
,elp him or her to find another place to li%e, e%en if you ha%e to
pay for it at first.
8et"od @ P0t t"e !e"a%ior on C0e
This one(s a dilly. "t works in some circumstances when nothin$ else will suffice.
"t is an a@iom of learnin$ theory that when a #eha%ior is #rou$ht under stimulus controlthat is,
when the or$anism learns to offer the #eha%ior in response to some kind of cue and only thenthe
#eha%ior tends to e@tin$uish in the a#sence of the cue. 5ou can use this natural law to $et rid of all
kinds of thin$s you don(t want, simply #y #rin$in$ the #eha%ior under the control of a cue ... and
then ne%er $i%in$ the cue.
" first disco%ered the use of this ele$ant method while trainin$ a dolphin to wear #lindfolds. We
wanted to $i%e a demonstration of dolphin sonar, or echolocation, in our pu#lic shows at Sea <ife
+ark. " intended to train a male #ottlenose dolphin named 7akua to wear ru##er suction cups o%er
his eyes and then, temporarily #linded, to locate and retrie%e o#>ects underwater usin$ his
echolocation system. The #eha%ior has #ecome a standard item in oceanarium shows nowadays.
The #lindfolds didn(t hurt 7akua, #ut he didn(t care for them. !y and #y, when he saw the suction
cups in my hands, he took to sinkin$ to the #ottom of the tank and stayin$ there. ,e would lie there
for up to fi%e minutes at a time, wa%in$ his tail $ently and watchin$ me up throu$h the water with a
A0otchaBA look in his eye. " >ud$ed it would #e unprofita#le to try to scare or poke him up to the
surface, and foolish to #ri#e or lure him. So one day, when he sank on me, " rewarded him with the
whistle and a #unch of fish. 7akua emitted a Asurprise #u##leAa #asket#all=si?ed sphere of air
which, in the dolphin world, means A,uhDAand came up and ate his fish. Soon he was sinkin$ on
purpose, to earn reinforcers.
Then " introduced an underwater sound as a cue and reinforced him only for sinkin$ on cue. Sure
enou$h, he stopped sinkin$ in the a#sence of the cue. Sinkin$ was ne%er a pro#lem a$ain; when "
went #ack to #lindfold trainin$, he accepted his #lindfolds like a trouper.
" ha%e also used this method to calm down noisy kids in the car. "f you are on your way to
someplace wonderfulthe circus, saythe children may #e noisy #ecause they are e@cited, too
e@cited to #e amena#le to 7ethod :, playin$ $ames and sin$in$ son$s. 8nd on a happy occasion
you don(t want to use 7ethod 1, ne$ati%e reinforcement, #y pullin$ o%er and stoppin$ the car until
they are 2uiet. -ow 7ethod ; is useful !rin$ the #eha%ior under stimulus control. AOkay,
e%ery#ody make as much noise as you possi#ly can, startin$ nowBA &5ou make noise, too.' This is a
lot of fun for a#out thirty seconds, and then it palls. Two or three repetitions are usually more than
enou$h to ensure reasona#le 2uiet for the rest of the ride. 5ou could say that #ein$ noisy on cue
takes the fun out of it; or you could say that #eha%ior occurrin$ under stimulus control tends to
e@tin$uish in the a#sence of the stimulus. 7ay#e somethin$ more; #ut this works.
*e#orah Skinner, dau$hter of psycholo$ist !. 6 Skinner, passed on to me a splendid use of 7ethod
; to control do$s cryin$ at the door. She had a small do$ that, when shut outside, would #ark and
whine at the #ack door instead of $oin$ off and relie%in$ itself. *e#orah made a small card#oard
disk, one side #lack and the other white, that she hun$ on the outside door handle. When the #lack
side was out, no amount of yappin$ would make the people inside open the door. When the white
side was out, the do$ would #e let in. The do$ 2uickly learned not to #other tryin$ to $et #ack in on
the #lack cue. When *e#orah >ud$ed that an appropriate amount of time had passed she would open
the door a crack, turn the cue around, then let the do$ in as soon as it asked.
" tried *e#orah(s doorkno# cue when my dau$hter ac2uired a toy poodle puppy. +eter was a %ery
small do$, #arely si@ inches hi$h at two months, and it really was not safe to let him run around
loose e%en indoors with no one to watch him. When " was #usy and 0ale was at school, " shut him
in 0ale(s room, with food, water, newspapers, and a #lanket.
Of course when he was shut up alone, he made a terri#le racket. " decided to try *e#orah(s trick #y
pro%idin$ a si$nal for when #arkin$ would and would not #e responded to. " $ra##ed the nearest
thin$a small toweland hun$ it on the inside doorkno#. When the towel was there, no amount of
yappin$ would produce results. When the towel was remo%ed, the puppy(s calls for company and
freedom would #e answered.
The puppy cau$ht on ri$ht away and $a%e up a$itatin$ when the towel was on the doorkno#. The
only thin$ " had to remem#er in order to maintain the #eha%ior was not to >ust let the puppy out
when " felt like doin$ so, #ut to open the door, remo%e the towel, close the door, wait till the puppy
#arked, and then let him out, thus keepin$ the #arkin$ #eha%ior under stimulus control &in this case,
Ano towelA #ein$ the si$nal for #arkin$=will=#e=rewarded', and thus also keepin$ all other #arkin$
e@tin$uished.
"t worked splendidlyfor three days. Then one mornin$ +eter(s noisy demands were suddenly
heard anew. " opened the door and disco%ered that he had fi$ured out how to leap up, with all his
tiny mi$ht, and >erk the towel off the doorkno#. Once the towel was on the floor, he felt perfectly
free to call for release.
S/8P4ES OF 8ETHOD @ PFT THE !EH/2$OR ON CFE
"t doesn(t seem lo$ical that this method would work, #ut it can #e startlin$ly effecti%e, and
sometimes almost an instantaneous cure.
!EH/2$OR /PPRO/CH
Roommate lea%es dirty
laundry all o%er the place.
,a%e a laundry fi$ht. See how #i$ a mess you can #oth make in ten
minutes. &6ffecti%e; sometimes the untidy person, seein$ what a #i$
mess looks like, is then a#le to reco$ni?e and tidy up smaller messes
one shirt, two socksthat may still #other you #ut were pre%iously
not percei%ed as messy #y the roommate.'
*o$ in yard #arks all
ni$ht.
Train the do$ to #ark on command ASpeakBA for a food reward. "n the
a#sence of the command, no point in #arkin$.
Iids too noisy in the car. +ut noisemakin$ under stimulus control &see te@t'.
Spouse ha#itually comes
home in a #ad mood.
Set a time and a si$nal for $rouchin$; sit down for ten minutes, say,
startin$ at : +.7. *urin$ that period reinforce all complainin$ with
your full attention and sympathy. "$nore complainin$ #efore and after.
Faulty tennis swin$. "f you told yourself to hit the #all wron$, and learned to do it on
purpose, would the fault tend to e@tin$uish when you did not $i%e the
commandD "t mi$ht.
Shirkin$ or la?y
employee.
Order up $oof=off time. This was an ama?in$ly effecti%e techni2ue
used #y the president of an ad a$ency where " once worked.
,atin$ to write thank=you
notes.
!uy a memo pad, notepaper, stamps, a pen, an address #ook, and a
red #o@. +ut the supplies inside the #o@. When you $et a present, write
the donor(s name on the memo pad, put it on the #o@, put the red #o@
on your pillow or dinner plate, and don(t sleep or eat until you(%e
o#eyed the cue of the #o@ and written the letter and sealed, stamped,
and mailed it.
.at $ets on the kitchen
ta#le.
Train it to >ump up on the ta#le on cue and also to >ump down on cue
&this impresses $uests'. 5ou can then shape the len$th of time it has to
wait for the cue &all day, e%entually'.
Surly #us dri%er is rude to
you and makes you mad.
+uttin$ this #eha%ior on cue is not recommended.
8n adult offsprin$ who
you think should #e self=
sufficient wants to mo%e
#ack in with you.
8s soon as adult children lea%e home for $ood, in%ite them #ack for
%isits, makin$ it clear that they should come only #y your in%itation.
Then don(t in%ite them to mo%e in.
8et"od A S"a+e t"e /3sence of t"e !e"a%ior
This is a useful techni2ue in cases where you don(t ha%e anythin$ particular that you wish the
su#>ect to do, >ust that you want him to stop what he is doin$. 6@ample complainin$, $uilt=
en$enderin$ phone calls from relati%es whom you like and don(t wish to hurt #y 7ethod 1, han$in$
up, or #y 7ethods ) or 1, scoldin$ or ridicule. The technical term for 7ethod H is *RO
&*ifferential Reinforcement of Other #eha%ior'.
8nimal psycholo$ist ,arry Frank, who was sociali?in$ wolf pups #y #rin$in$ them into the house
for daily %isits, decided to reinforce, with pettin$ and attention, anythin$ that was not in the
cate$ory of destroyin$ property. "t turned out that a#out the only pastime in a human household that
did not in%ol%e the pups( chewin$ up couches, telephone wires, ru$s, and so on was lyin$ on the
#ed; in due course e%enin$s were passed peacefully with ,arry, his wife, and three increasin$ly
lar$e youn$ wol%es lyin$ on the family #ed, watchin$ the ni$htly news. 7ethod H.
" used 7ethod H to chan$e my mother(s #eha%ior on the telephone. 8n in%alid for some years, my
mother li%ed in a nursin$ home. " %isited her when " could, #ut most of our communication took
place on the telephone. For years, these phone calls were a trou#le to me. The con%ersations were
usually, and sometimes e@clusi%ely, concerned with my mother(s pro#lemspain, loneliness, lack
of money real pro#lems " was powerless to miti$ate. ,er complaints would turn to tears, and tears
to accusationsaccusations that made me an$ry. The e@chan$es were unpleasant, to the e@tent that
" tended to duck the phone calls.
"t occurred to me that there mi$ht #e a #etter way. " #e$an concentratin$ on my own #eha%ior
durin$ these phone calls. " used 7ethod 3 and 7ethod H. " deli#erately let her complaints and tears
e@tin$uish7ethod 3#y sayin$ A8h,A and A,mm,A and AWell, well.A -o real results, $ood or
#ad. " did not han$ up, or attack; " let nothin$ happen. " then reinforced anythin$ and e%erythin$
that was not a complaint 2ueries a#out my children, news from the nursin$ home, discussion of
weather, or #ooks, or friends. These remarks " responded to with enthusiasm. 7ethod H.
To my astonishment, after twenty years of conflict, within two months the proportion of tears and
distress to chat and lau$hter in our weekly phone calls #ecame re%ersed. 8t the start of the phone
calls my mother(s worriesA,a%e you mailed a checkD *id you talk to the doctorD Would you call
my social workerDAturned into simple re2uests instead of reiterated $rie%ances. -ow the rest of
the time #ecame filled with $ossip, reminiscin$, and >okes.
7y mother had #een in her youth, and now #ecame a$ain, a fascinatin$, witty woman. For the
remainin$ years of her life, " really lo%ed talkin$ to her, in person and on the phone.
A"sn(t that awfully manipulati%eDA a psychiatrist friend once asked. Sure. What was happenin$
#efore to me was awfully manipulati%e, too. +erhaps some therapist mi$ht ha%e persuaded me to
deal differently with my mother, or she with me, #ut perhaps not. ,ow much simpler it seemed to
ha%e a clear=cut 7ethod H $oal. What are you actually reinforcin$D 8nythin$ #ut what you don(t
want.
S/8P4ES OF 8ETHOD A SH/PE THE /!SENCE OF FN#/NTED !EH/2$ORS
This takes some conscious effort o%er a period of time, #ut is often the #est way to chan$e deeply
in$rained #eha%ior.
!EH/2$OR /PPRO/CH
Roommate lea%es dirty laundry
all o%er the place.
!uy #eer or in%ite o%er mem#ers of the opposite se@ whene%er
2uarters are tidy or roommate does the laundry.
*o$ in yard #arks all ni$ht. 0o out and reward him new and then at ni$ht when he has #een
2uiet for ten, twenty minutes, an hour, and so on.
Iids too noisy in the car. Wait for a 2uiet time and then say A5ou all ha%e #een so 2uiet
today that "(m $oin$ to stop at 7c*onald(s.A &Say this ri$ht near
7c*onald(s so you can keep your promise promptly, #efore
they $et noisy a$ainB'
Spouse ha#itually comes home
in a #ad mood.
Think up some $ood reinforcers and surprise him or her with
them whene%er the mood does happen to #e pleasant.
Faulty tennis swin$. "$nore #ad shots, and praise yourself for $ood ones. &This really
works.'
Shirkin$ or la?y employee. +raise the hell out of him for any >o# actually done
satisfactorily. &5ou do not ha%e to keep this up for a lifetime,
>ust lon$ enou$h to esta#lish the new trend.'
,atin$ to write thank=you
notes.
Treat yourself to a mo%ie any time you $et a present and
promptly write and mail the thank=you note.
.at $ets on the kitchen ta#le. Rewardin$ the cat for periods of stayin$ off the ta#le is practical
only if you keep the kitchen door closed when you(re not home
so the cat can(t indul$e in the #eha%ior #y itself.
Surly #us dri%er is rude to you
and makes you mad.
"f you run into the same #us dri%er on your route e%ery day, a
pleasant A$ood mornin$A or e%en a flower, or a soft drink, when
he or she is not #ein$ rude, should lead to impro%ement in a
week or two.
8n adult offsprin$ who you
think should #e self=sufficient
wants to mo%e #ack in with
you.
Reinforce adult children for li%in$ away from home when they
are doin$ so. *on(t critici?e their housekeepin$, choice of
apartment, decor, or taste in friends, or they may decide you(re
ri$ht, your house is a #etter place to li%e.
8et"od B C"an'e t"e 8oti%ation
6liminatin$ the moti%ation for a #eha%ior is often the kindliest and most effecti%e method of all.
The person who has enou$h to eat is not $oin$ to steal a loaf of #read.
8 common si$ht " always wince at is the mother whose small child is ha%in$ a tantrum in the
supermarket and who is >erkin$ on the kid(s arm to make it hush up. Of course one can empathi?e
the tantrum is em#arrassin$, and >erkin$ is a surreptitious way to shock the child into silence, less
conspicuous than yellin$ or smackin$. &"t(s also a $ood way to dislocate a little child(s el#ow or
shoulder, as any orthopedic sur$eon can tell you.' The pro#lem is usually that the child is hun$ry,
and the si$ht and smell of all that food is too much for it. Gery few youn$ mothers ha%e someone to
lea%e the kids with while they market, and workin$ mothers often ha%e to market ri$ht #efore
dinnertime, when they themsel%es are tired and hun$ry and hence irrita#le.
The solution is to feed the kids #efore or while $oin$ to the market; any sort of >unk food would #e
prefera#le to the distressin$ scenes that upset child, mother, checkout clerks, and e%eryone else
within ran$e.
Some #eha%iors are self=reinforcin$that is, the %ery enactment of the #eha%ior is a reinforcement.
0um chewin$, smokin$, and thum# suckin$ are e@amples. The #est way to $et rid of these
#eha%iors in yourself or another is to chan$e the moti%ation. " $a%e up chewin$ $um as a child
#ecause an aunt told me it made $irls look cheap, and not lookin$ AcheapA was a lot more important
to me than the pleasure of chewin$ $um. Smokers 2uit when their moti%es for smokin$ are met in
other ways or when moti%ation to stopfear of cancer, sayoutwei$hs the reinforcers of smokin$.
Thum# suckin$ stops when a child(s le%el of confidence is hi$h enou$h that he or she no lon$er
needs the self=comfortin$.
To chan$e moti%ation, one needs to make an accurate estimate of what the moti%ation is, and we are
often %ery incompetent at that. We lo%e to >ump to conclusions AShe hates my $uts,A AThe #oss has
it in for me,A AThat kid is >ust no damned $ood.A Often we don(t e%en understand our own
moti%ations. The whole profession of psycholo$y and psychiatry has arisen in part for that reason.
6%en if we ha%e no unhealthy moti%ations oursel%es, we pay a #i$ penalty for this popular
misreadin$ of hidden moti%ation, especially when we must rely on the medical professions.
+hysical pro#lems, if not #latantly o#%ious, are all too often assumed to #e emotional in ori$in and
are treated as such, without further e@amination for a real physical cause. "(%e seen a #usinessman
treated with amphetamines so he would stop Afeelin$A e@hausted, when in fact he was e@hausted
from o%erwork. "n a West .oast city, a woman was dia$nosed as neurotic and treated with
tran2uili?ers #y half a do?en doctors who apparently saw no physical reason for her symptoms. She
nearly ended up in a mental hospital #efore the se%enth doctor disco%ered she was not malin$erin$
#ut in fact was slowly dyin$ of car#on mono@ide poisonin$ due to a leaky furnace in her home. "
myself had some doctor "(d ne%er seen #efore $i%e me a scoldin$ and a prescription for tran2uili?ers
when what was wron$and "(d told him " thou$ht sowas not an Aima$inaryA sore throat #ut an
incipient case of the mumps.
Sometimes, of course, the moti%e really consists of a need for reassurance, and therefore &if the
dispenser of relief is percei%ed as a powerful and #elie%a#le person' a tran2uili?er or e%en a su$ar
pill, or place#o, can calm the spirit, lower the #lood pressure, and ease symptoms. ,oly water and a
#lessin$ can do it, too, if you #elie%e they will. The so=called place#o effect also pro#a#ly helps to
keep witch doctors in #usiness. " see nothin$ wron$ with that. The moti%ation is a need for
reassurance, a %ery $enuine need. The trick in any circumstance is to identify the moti%ation, rather
than >ust >ump to conclusions. One way to do that is to notice what actually helps chan$e the
#eha%ior and what doesn(t.
The messa$e "f you or a friend has a pu??lin$ #eha%ioral pro#lem, think hard a#out possi#le
moti%ations. -e%er for$et the possi#ility of a cause such as hun$er, illness, loneliness, or fear. "f it
is possi#le to eliminate the underlyin$ cause, and thus eliminate or chan$e the moti%ation, you(%e
$ot it made.
S/8P4ES OF 8ETHOD B CH/NGE THE 8OT$2/T$ON
"f you can find a way to do it, this method always works and is the #est of all.
!EH/2$OR /PPRO/CH
Roommate lea%es dirty
laundry all o%er the
place.
,ire a maid or housekeeper to tidy up and do laundry, so neither you nor
the roommate has to cope. This may #e the #est solution if you are
married to this roommate and you #oth work. Or the messy person could
shape the tidy one to #e more casual.
*o$ in yard #arks all
ni$ht.
!arkin$ do$s are lonely, fri$htened, and #ored. 0i%e e@ercise and
attention #y day so that the do$ is tired and sleepy at ni$ht, or pro%ide
another do$ to sleep with at ni$ht for company. Or #rin$ do$ inside.
Iids too noisy in the
car.
6scalation of noise and conflict is often due to hun$er and fati$ue.
+ro%ide >uice, fruit and cookies, and pillows for comforta#le loun$in$ on
home=from=school trips. On lon$ >ourneys all of the a#o%e plus ten
minutes per hour of stoppin$ and runnin$ around outdoors &$ood for
parents too'.
Spouse ha#itually
comes home in a #ad
mood.
6ncoura$e a >o# chan$e. Feed cheese and crackers or a cup of hot soup
ri$ht at the door if hun$er and fati$ue are the moti%ation. "f stress is the
pro#lem, a $lass of wine, or fresh air and e@ercise, may #e appropriate.
Faulty tennis swin$. Stop tryin$ to #eat the world #y winnin$ on the tennis court. +lay for fun.
&-ot applica#le to world=class tennis playersor is itD'
Shirkin$ or la?y
employee.
+ay for work done, not for hours put in. Task=oriented payment is often
%ery effecti%e with non=Western employees. "t(s the #arn=raisin$
principle; e%eryone works like mad until the known task is completed,
and then e%eryone can lea%e. ,ollywood mo%ies are made this way.
,atin$ to write thank=
you notes.
We dislike this task #ecause it is a #eha%ior chain &see 7ethod ;' and
therefore hard to start, especially since there is no $ood reinforcement at
the end &we already ha%e the presentB'. We also sometimes put it off
#ecause we think we ha%e to write a $ood, cle%er, or perfect letter. -ot
true 8ll the recipient needs to know is that you are $rateful for his or her
sym#ol of affection. Fancy words in a thank=you note are no more
important than fancy penmanship on a check On=time deli%ery is what
counts.
.at $ets on the kitchen
ta#le.
Why do cats $et on the ta#leD &1' to look for food, so put the food away;
&)' cats like to loun$e in a hi$h place where they can see what(s $oin$ on.
8rran$e a shelf or a pedestal hi$her than the ta#letop, close enou$h so
you can pet the cat, and offerin$ a $ood %iew of the kitchen, and the cat
may well prefer it.
Surly #us dri%er is
rude to you and makes
you mad.
8%oid #ein$ snarled at on #uses #y doin$ yo#r >o# ,a%e your chan$e
ready, know your destination, don(t #lock the aisle, don(t mum#le
2uestions, try to #e sympathetic a#out traffic tie=ups, and so on. !us
dri%ers $et cra##y #ecause #us riders can #e such a pain.
8n adult offsprin$ who
you think should #e
self=sufficient wants to
mo%e #ack in with
you.
8dults with friends, self=esteem, a purpose in life, some kind of work,
and a roof o%er their heads usually don(t want to li%e with or on their
parents. ,elp your kids find the first three as they are $rowin$ up, and
they(ll usually take care of the >o# and the roof on their own. Then you
can all stay friends.
8oti%ation and De+ri%ation
7oti%ation is a hu$e su#>ect to which scientists ha%e de%oted lifetimes of study. !y and lar$e it lies
outside the scope of this #ook, #ut #ecause it has #een necessary to discuss moti%ation as it relates
to undesira#le #eha%ior, perhaps this is the place to discuss a trainin$ de%ice sometimes used to
hei$hten moti%ation depri%ation. The theory is if an animal is workin$ for positi%e reinforcement,
the more it needs that reinforcer, the harder and more relia#ly it will work. <a#oratory rats and
pi$eons are often conditioned with food reinforcers. To hei$hten their moti%ation, they are fed less
food than they would eat on their own. "t is customary to $i%e them >ust enou$h to keep them at 9:
percent of normal #ody wei$ht. This is called food depri%ation.
*epri%ation has #ecome such a standard techni2ue in e@perimental psycholo$y that when " started
trainin$, " assumed it was pro#a#ly a necessity in workin$ with rats and pi$eons. Of course we did
not use depri%ation with dolphins. Our dolphins were $i%en all they would eat whether they(d
earned it or not at the end of each day since dolphins that do not $et enou$h to eat often #ecome
sick and die.
"t did occur to me in those days that " was usin$ food and social reinforcers with ponies and
children, 2uite successfully, without first ha%in$ to reduce the #aseline supply of lo%e or
nourishment to $et results. +erhaps food depri%ation was necessary only with simpler or$anisms,
such as rats and pi$eonsD 5et our Sea <ife +ark trainers were shapin$ #eha%ior with food
reinforcers in pi$s, chickens, pen$uins, e%en fish and octopi, and no one e%er dreamed of makin$
the poor thin$s e@tra=hun$ry first.
" still thou$ht depri%ation must #e necessary in some kinds of trainin$, since it is so widely used
until " ran into *a%e !utcher(s sea lions. " had ne%er worked with sea lions myself, and my cursory
impression was that they worked only for fish and that they were antisocial and #it trainers. " also
thou$ht that only youn$ animals were used for trainin$. 8ll the workin$ animals " had e%er seen
were comparati%ely small, #etween one hundred and two hundred pounds, and " knew that sea lions
in the wild $et 2uite lar$e.
*a%e !utcher, director of trainin$ for Sea World in Florida, showed me more than "(d ima$ined
possi#le. ,is sea lions worked for social and tactile reinforcers as well as fish, and of course for
conditioned reinforcers and on %aria#le schedules as well. .onse2uently they did not ha%e to #e
kept hun$ry in order to make them perform; durin$ and after the day(s performances, the sea lions
could ha%e all the fish they wanted. One result was that the sea lions were not snarly and cra##y, as
any hun$ry animal mi$ht #e. They were friendly to those humans they knew, and they en>oyed
#ein$ touched. " was astonished to see trainers on their lunch hour sun#athin$ in a pile with their
sea lions, each youn$ man restin$ a$ainst the ample flank of one sea lion, with the head of another
sea lion in his lap. 8nother result of the discontinuance of food depri%ation was that these sea lions
$rew ... and $rewB 7ost trained sea lions in the past, *a%e speculated, were small not #ecause of
youth #ut #ecause they were stunted. Sea World(s performers wei$h si@, se%en, ei$ht hundred
pounds. They are %ery acti%e, not a #it o#ese, #ut they are hu$e, as nature intended. 8nd they work
hard. The fi%e or more daily shows are mar%elous.
"t(s my suspicion now that tryin$ to increase moti%ation #y usin$ depri%ation of any sort is not only
unnecessary #ut deleterious. Reducin$ the normal le%els of food, attention, company, or anythin$
else a su#>ect likes or needs #efore trainin$ #e$insand solely in order to make the reinforcer more
powerful #y makin$ su#>ect more needfulis >ust a poor e@cuse for #ad trainin$. 7ay#e it has to
#e used in the la#oratory, #ut in the real world it is $ood trainin$ that creates hi$h moti%ation, not
the other way around.
Gettin' Rid of Com+,icated Pro3,ems
"n the ta#les in this chapter, " ha%e shown how each of the ei$ht methods mi$ht #e applied to
specific #eha%ioral pro#lems. For some pro#lems there are one or two solutions that are o#%iously
#est. For the do$ that #arks in the ni$ht from fear and loneliness, #rin$in$ the do$ inside or
pro%idin$ it with a companion will usually ensure that it #arks only when $enuinely alarmed. For
other pro#lems, different methods are appropriate at different times. One can keep children from
#ein$ too noisy in the car in se%eral ways, dependin$ on the circumstances.
There are other #eha%ioral pro#lems, howe%er, that arise from multiple causes, #ecome firmly
entrenched, and are not controlla#le #y any sin$le methodstress symptoms such as nail #itin$,
#ad ha#its such as chronic lateness, addicti%e #eha%iors such as smokin$. These #eha%iors can #e
reduced or eliminated #y calculated use of the ei$ht methods, #ut it may take a com#ination of
se%eral methods to #rin$ the #eha%ior to a halt &and a$ain, " am talkin$ a#out #eha%ioral pro#lems
only in reasona#ly normal su#>ects, not in mentally ill or dama$ed su#>ects'.
<et(s look at some e@amples of pro#lems re2uirin$ multiple=method approaches.
!itin' 6o0r Nai,s
-ail #itin$ is #oth a symptom of stress and a di%ersion that tends to relie%e tension momentarily. "n
animals such acti%ity is called displacement #eha%ior. 8 do$ in a situation of tensionfor instance,
when #ein$ coa@ed o%er to #e petted #y a stran$ermay suddenly sit down and scratch itself. Two
horses threatenin$ each other in a dominance conflict may suddenly $o throu$h the motions of
$ra?in$. *isplacement #eha%ior %ery often consists of self=$roomin$ acti%ities. "n animals under
conditions of confinement, the #eha%ior may #e carried out so repetitiously that it leads to self=
mutilation. !irds preen their feathers until they ha%e plucked themsel%es #are; cats lick a paw until
they ha%e created an open wound. -ail #itin$ &and hair pullin$, scratchin$, and other $roomin$
#eha%iors' can #e carried to this e@treme in people, and yet e%en pain does not stop the #eha%ior.
!ecause the #eha%ior does indeed distract one from stress momentarily, it #ecomes self=reinforcin$
and thus %ery hard to $et rid of. "n fact, it #ecomes a ha#it and can occur e%en when there is no
stress around. Sometimes 7ethod 3 workse@tinction. The ha#it fades away as one $rows older
and more confident. !ut that can take years. 7ethod 1makin$ nail #itin$ impossi#le #y, say,
wearin$ $lo%esand 7ethod )punishment #y $uilt or scoldin$swill not teach the nail #iter an
alternati%e #eha%ior.
7ethod 1, ne$ati%e reinforcementpaintin$ the fin$ernails with somethin$ #ad=tastin$ perhapsis
effecti%e only if the ha#it is fadin$ away anyway. &This $oes for thum# suckin$, too.'
"f you ha%e this ha#it, the #est way to $et rid of it is pro#a#ly to use a com#ination of all four of the
positi%e methods. First, usin$ 7ethod :, an incompati#le #eha%ior, learn to o#ser%e yourself
startin$ to nail=#ite, and e%ery time your hand drifts toward your mouth, >ump up and do somethin$
else. Take four deep #reaths. *rink a $lass of water. ,op up and down. Stretch. 5ou cannot #e nail
#itin$ and doin$ these thin$s at the same time &and all are, in themsel%es, tension relie%ers'.
7eanwhile, work on 7ethod 9, chan$in$ the moti%ation. Reduce the o%erall stress in your life.
Share your worries with others, who may in fact ha%e solutions. 0et more physical e@ercise, which
usually ena#les one to face pro#lems more easily. 5ou can also shape the a#sence of #eha%ior
&7ethod H' #y rewardin$ yourself with a rin$ or a $ood manicure as soon as one and then another
nail $rows enou$h to #e %isi#le &e%en if you had to #anda$e a fin$er to $et there at first'. 8nd you
mi$ht also try psycholo$ist Fennifer Fames(s e@cellent su$$estion for puttin$ the #eha%ior on cue
8ll day lon$, e%ery time you find yourself startin$ to #ite your nails, write down what is #otherin$
you at the moment. Then e%ery e%enin$ sit down at a specific time and #ite your nails continuously
for twenty minutes while worryin$ o%er e%erythin$ on your list. "n due course, you should #e a#le
to shape the nail=#itin$ time down to ?ero, especially if you com#ine this effort with the other
methods a#o%e.
C"ronic 4ateness
+eople who lead comple@, demandin$ li%es sometimes $et to places late #ecause they ha%e too
much to do and ha%e to try to cram it all in somehowworkin$ mothers, people in new and fast=
$rowin$ #usinesses, some doctors, and so on. Other people tend to #e late as a $eneral rule, whether
they are #usy or not.
Since some of the world(s #usiest people are impecca#ly punctual, we ha%e to suspect that some of
the people who are often late are choosin$ to #e so.
One would think that tardiness would carry its own downfall, in the form of ne$ati%e reinforcement
you miss half the mo%ie, the party is almost o%er, the person you keep waitin$ is furious. !ut
these are apt to #e punishers, not ne$ati%e reinforcers. They punish the #eha%ior of arri%in$. 8nd
ha#itually late people $enerally ha%e mar%elous e@cuses prepared, for which they are pleasantly
reinforced with for$i%eness &which de%elops their e@cuse=makin$ skills and in fact reinforces late
arri%in$'.
The fastest way to con2uer #ein$ late is 7ethod 9, chan$in$ the moti%ation. +eople ha%e many
reasons for #ein$ late. One is fear 5ou don(t want to #e in school, so you dawdle. 8nother is a #id
for sympathy A+oor little me, " ha%e #een saddled with so many responsi#ilities that " cannot meet
my commitments.A There is hostile latenesswhen you secretly do not wish to #e with those
people at alland show=off lateness, when you make it o#%ious that you ha%e much more
important thin$s to do with your time than show up here.
"t really doesn(t matter what the particular moti%es are in a $i%en case. To stop #ein$ late, all one
has to do is chan$e the moti%ation #y decidin$ that in all circumstances #ein$ on time is $oin$ to
ha%e first priority o%er any other consideration. +restoB 5ou will ne%er ha%e to run for a plane or
miss an appointment a$ain. 8s a lifelon$ latecomer, that(s how " cured myself. ,a%in$ made the
decision that promptness was now of ma>or importance, " found that answers came automatically to
such 2uestions as A*o " ha%e time to $et my hair done #efore the committee meetin$DA or A.an "
s2uee?e in one more errand #efore the dentistDA or A*o " ha%e to lea%e for the airport nowDA The
answers are always no, no, and yes. Once in a while " still slip up, #ut #y and lar$e choosin$ to #e
on time has made my life enormously easier, and that of family, friends, and collea$ues as well.
"f chan$in$ the moti%ation is not enou$h for you, you could add 7ethod :, trainin$ an incompati#le
#eha%ior, #y aimin$ at $ettin$ places early &#rin$ a #ook'. Or add 7ethod H, shapin$ the a#sence
reinforce yourself, and $et your friends to reinforce you, for what in others mi$ht #e normal #ut
what in you takes special effort, a#sence of lateness. 8nd try 7ethod ;, puttin$ lateness on cue.
.hoose some e%ents to which you truly wish to #e late, announce that you intend to #e late, and
then #e late. Since #eha%ior occurrin$ on cue tends to e@tin$uish in the a#sence of the si$nal, #ein$
deli#erately late when it(s safe to #e so may help e@tin$uish #ein$ AaccidentallyA or unconsciously
late when you really should #e on time.
/ddictions
8ddictions to in$ested su#stancesci$arette smoke, alcohol, caffeine, dru$s, and so onha%e
physical effects that tend to keep you hooked whate%er you do and to $i%e you nasty withdrawal
symptoms if you must $o without the su#stance. !ut there are hu$e #eha%ior components to these
addictions as well. Some people #eha%e as if addicted, includin$ sufferin$ withdrawal symptoms, to
relati%ely harmless su#stances such as tea, soda pop, and chocolate, or to pastimes such as runnin$
and eatin$. Some people can turn addictions on and off. 7ost smokers, for e@ample, find that the
ur$e to smoke hits as re$ularly as a clock and that they are frantic if they run out of ci$arettes. !ut
some Orthodo@ Fews can smoke hea%ily si@ days a week and then a#stain completely on the
Sa##ath without a pan$.
"n addition to physical symptoms, most addictions pro%ide temporary stress relief, so that they
#ecome displacement acti%ities, which makes them dou#ly hard to eliminate. !ut #ecause
addictions ha%e stron$ #eha%ioral components, it is concei%a#le that any addiction pro#lem can #e
tackled #eha%iorally #y one or more of the ei$ht methods with some possi#ility of $ood results.
8lmost all addict=reha#ilitation pro$rams, from dry=out clinics to Synanon, rely hea%ily on 7ethods
1 and 9. The desired su#stance is made physically una%aila#le, and therapy is $i%en to try to find
some other source of satisfaction for the su#>ectincreased self=esteem, insi$ht, >o# skills,
whate%erto chan$e the moti%ation that pro%ides the needfulness. 7any treatments also rely on
7ethod ), punishment, usually #y preachin$ a#out lapses and thus inducin$ $uilt. " once went
throu$h a 2uit=smokin$ pro$ram, which was in fact %ery helpful, e%en thou$h " fre2uently cheated.
When " cheatedsmoked someone else(s ci$arettes at a tense #usiness meetin$, for e@ample" felt
dreadfully $uilty; the ne@t mornin$ " would #e practically ill with $uilt. !ut that didn(t stop me the
ne@t time; 7ethods ) and 1, punishment and ne$ati%e reinforcement, did not work %ery well for me.
!ut they do for some. Wei$ht=loss pro$rams often emphasi?e not only pu#lic praise for losin$
pounds #ut shame in front of the $roup for $ainin$, and some people will work to a%oid the
possi#ility of that shame.
8 lot of addicti%e #eha%ior has elements of superstitious #eha%ior. The actioneatin$, smokin$,
whate%erhas accidentally $otten hooked to en%ironmental cues that tri$$er the ur$e. 8 time of
day makes you want a drink, the phone rin$s and you think of li$htin$ up a ci$arette, and so on.
Systematic identification of all these cues, and e@tinction of the #eha%ior #y not doin$ it on each
cue, one cue at a time, is a %alua#le 7ethod 3 ad>unct to $ettin$ rid of an addicti%e ha#it. This
mi$ht mean somethin$ simple such as puttin$ the ashtrays out of si$ht, or it mi$ht in%ol%e a whole
chan$e of scenery, a mo%e to a new en%ironment where nothin$ constitutes an old familiar tri$$er
cue &cured heroin addicts are not likely to stay clean if they $o ri$ht #ack to life on familiar streets'.
+unishment has #een touted as a #eha%ioral method for controllin$ addiction. 8lcoholics, for
e@ample, ha%e #een wired up and then $i%en shocks while liftin$ a $lass of li2uor, and medicine
e@ists that will make you %omit if you in$est alcohol. <ike most ne$ati%e reinforcers, these work
well only if there is someone around to administer them, and prefera#ly unpredicta#ly.
7ost addicti%e #eha%ior doesn(t yield %ery easily to >ust one method. " think the way to tackle
addicti%e #eha%ior in yourselfand this is one situation where the su#>ect may %ery well #e the
most effecti%e traineris to study all ei$ht methods and find some way, with the e@ception of
punishment, to en$a$e in fre2uent application of e%ery sin$le one.
?Reinforcement in t"e Rea, #or,d
"n discussin$ Skinnerian theory, " pointed out that Schopenhauer once said that e%ery ori$inal idea
is first ridiculed, then %i$orously attacked, and finally taken for $ranted. " think there is a fourth step
in the e%olution of an idea The idea is not only accepted, #ut understood, cherished, and put to
work. This is what " see #e$innin$ to happen with positi%e reinforcement, especially amon$ people
who ha%e $rown up with Skinnerian concepts in the /eit$eist, in the air around thempeople, that
is, who ha%e #een #orn since 1C:J. They take to positi%e reinforcement and shapin$ without fear or
resistance, as children nowadays take to the computers that their parents may still shrink from. They
share techni2ues with their elders, and they infect those around them with their enthusiasm. <et me
$i%e you some e@amples " find heartenin$.
Reinforcement in S+orts
From my casual o#ser%ations, the trainin$ of most team sportspro foot#all, for e@ample
continues in the $ood old -eanderthal tradition lots of depri%ation, punishment, fa%oritism, and
%er#al and mental a#use. The trainin$ of indi%idual sports, howe%er, seems to #e under$oin$ a
re%olution. "n fact, it was a symptom of that re%olution that prompted the writin$ of this #ook. 8t a
dinner party in Westchester .ounty, -ew 5ork, " was seated ne@t to my hostess(s tennis pro, a nice
youn$ man from 8ustralia. ,e said to me, A" hear you were a dolphin trainer. *o you know a#out
Skinner and all thatDA
A5es.A
AWell, tell me, where can " $et a #ook a#out Skinner that will help me #e a #etter tennis coachDA
" knew there was no such thin$. Why there wasn(t continues to #e a mystery to me, #ut " set out to
write one, and here it is. 7eanwhile, " pondered the ama?in$ fact that this person, and presuma#ly
many like him, knew e@actly what was needed. "t meant there are people out there who already
ha%e a $rasp of reinforcement trainin$ and want to know more a#out it.
8t that time " was li%in$ in -ew 5ork .ity. +artly for relief from house=pent, sedentary city life,
and partly from a trainer(s curiosity, " #e$an to take a few lessons in %arious kinds of physical
acti%ities ran$in$ from name=#rand e@ercise classes to s2uash, sailin$, skiin$ &#oth downhill and
cross=country', fi$ure skatin$, and dance.
To my surprise, only one of the instructors " worked under &the e@ercise=class teacher' relied on
traditional #row#eatin$ and ridicule to elicit #eha%ior. 8ll the rest used well=timed positi%e
reinforcers and often %ery in$enious shapin$ procedures. This contrasted sharply with my earlier
memories of physical instruction#allet classes, ridin$ lessons, $ym classes at school and colle$e
none of which " shined in, and all of which " feared as much as en>oyed. Take ice skatin$, for
e@ample. " took fi$ure=skatin$ lessons as a child at a lar$e and successful skatin$ school. The
instructor showed us what to do, and then we practiced and stru$$led until we could do it while the
instructor corrected our posture and arm positions and e@horted us to try harder. " ne%er could learn
my Aoutside ed$esA$lidin$ in a circle to the left, say, with my wei$ht on the outside ed$e of the
left foot. Since that was preliminary to most of the fi$ures, " didn(t $et %ery far.
-ow " tried a few lessons at a modern skatin$ school in -ew 5ork, mana$ed #y an Olympic coach.
The staff used e@actly the same methods on adults as on childrenno scoldin$ or ur$in$, >ust
instant reinforcement for each accomplishment; and there was plenty of accomplishment. 6%ery
sin$le thin$ a skater needs to know was #roken down into easily mana$ed shapin$ steps, startin$
with fallin$ down and $ettin$ up a$ain. 0lidin$ on one footD 6asy Sho%e off from the wall, feet
parallel, $lidin$ on two feet; lift one up, e%er so #riefly, put it down, then lift the other; then do it
a$ain, lift a little lon$er, and so on. "n ten minutes the entire #e$inners( class, includin$ the weak,
the wo##ly, the %ery youn$, and the %ery old, were $lidin$ on one foot with looks of wild
astonishment and elation on their faces.
" didn(t e%en reali?e that the Acrosso%erA step they(d shaped in my second lesson had cured my
childhood #alance pro#lems, until " found myself, durin$ the free=skatin$ period after class, sailin$
around corners #lithely on my outside ed$es. 8nd moreB !y the third lesson " could do spins, real
spins like the skaters on TG, and natty little >ump turns " ne%er dreamed of aspirin$ to in childhood.
&These were at first shaped most in$eniously alon$ the wall.' What a re%elation. The difficulty in
learnin$ such skills is caused not #y physical re2uirements #ut #y the a#sence of $ood shapin$
procedures.
Skiin$ is another e@ample. The ad%ent of the fi#er$lass ski and ski #oot made skiin$ possi#le for
the multitudes, not >ust for the e@ceptionally athletic. !ut what $ets the multitudes out on the slopes
is the teachin$ methods that use short skis at first and shape each needed #eha%ior &slowin$ down,
turnin$, and stoppin$and of course fallin$ down and $ettin$ up' throu$h a series of small, easily
accomplished steps marked #y positi%e reinforcers. " went to 8spen, took three skiin$ lessons, and
skied down an entire mountain. The more %i$orous in my #e$inners( class were tacklin$ the
intermediate slopes #y the end of a week.
There ha%e always #een indi%idual teachers who produce rapid results. " think what had chan$ed in
the last decade or two is that the principles that produce rapid results are #ecomin$ implicit in the
standard teachin$ strate$ies AThis is the way to teach skiin$ *on(t yell at them, follow steps one
throu$h ten, praise and reinforce accomplishment at each step, and you(ll $et most of them out on
the slopes in three days.A When most instructors are usin$ shapin$ and reinforcement, and
conse2uently $ettin$ rapid results, the rest find they ha%e to shift to the new methods >ust to
compete for >o#s. "f this is happenin$ in e%ery indi%idual sport, it is pro#a#ly a ma>or contri#ution
to the so=called fitness cra?e. <earnin$ acti%e skills has #ecome fun.
Reinforcement in !0siness
"n our country la#or and mana$ement traditionally adopt an ad%ersary position. The idea that
e%eryone is in the same $ame to$ether has ne%er #een particularly popular in 8merican #usiness.
0eneral #usiness practice seems to decree that each side try to $et as much as possi#le from the
other while $i%in$ as little as possi#le. Of course this is really dum# from a trainin$ standpoint, and
some mana$ements lean toward other approaches. "n the 1C;Js Asensiti%ity trainin$A and other
social=psycholo$y approaches were popular, to enli$hten mana$ement a#out the needs and feelin$s
of coworkers and employees. One can #e as enli$htened as possi#le, howe%er, and still not know
what to do a#out an employee pro#lem. The facts of #usiness are that some people ha%e more status
and some less, some take orders and some $i%e them. "n our country a workin$ situation is, for the
most part, not like a family, nor should it #e. Family=type interpersonal pro#lem sol%in$ is therefore
inappropriate.
" was interested recently to see, croppin$ up here and there in #usiness news and pu#lications, a
more trainerly approachways to use reinforcement that ran$e from the in$enious to the downri$ht
#rilliant. For e@ample, one mana$ement consultant su$$ests that when part of a $roup must #e laid
off, you identify the #ottom 1J percent and the top )J percent. 5ou lay off the poorest performers,
#ut you also make sure to tell the top )J percent that they are #ein$ retained #ecause they(re doin$
such a $ood >o#. What a sensi#le idea. !esides sa%in$ your #est people some sleepless ni$hts and
reinforcin$ them 2uite powerfully under the worrisome circumstances, you may #e moti%atin$
intermediate performers either to seek the reinforcer they can now see is a%aila#le or to a%oid
fallin$ into the lowest percentile themsel%es.
Reinforcers for middle=le%el, middle=a$ed mana$ers can consist of more interestin$ work at their
present le%el instead of promotion, which they may not #e a#le to handle &or may not want, if it
in%ol%es relocatin$ the family'. .ash #onuses for nonsmokers and for 2uittin$ smokin$ are paid #y
one computer=software company, and for $ood reason The products it makes can #e dama$ed #y
smoke particles. Other reinforcers in widenin$ use include free choice of workin$ hours, the
Afle@timeA system &especially desira#le for workin$ mothers', workin$ in self=mana$ed production
teams, and #ein$ rewarded for $ettin$ the >o# done rather than for puttin$ in the hours. 8ll of these
mana$ement techni2ues are desi$ned around what the worker actually finds reinforcin$what
works for people, not >ust for profits.
+ro$rams aimed at cost cuttin$ and work speedupspro$rams that essentially try to force workers
to do not $#ite as #ad a >o# as they are presently doin$are not nearly as effecti%e as pro$rams that
help workers to do a #etter >o# and then reward them for it. .orporations that use positi%e
reinforcement often see the results on their #ottom line. One e@ample is *elta 8irlines, which is
known for takin$ %ery $ood care of its employees. *urin$ the 1C91 recession, in spite of operatin$
losses, *elta refused to lay off any of its 1H,JJJ employees. "n fact, it $a%e a companywide 9
percent pay raise. "n a lon$=esta#lished climate of positi%e reinforcement, the employees thou$ht in
the same terms; they turned around and reinforced the company #y poolin$ funds and #uyin$ it a
new airplane, a M1J=million !oein$ H;H.
Reinforcement in t"e /nima, #or,d
Throu$hout this #ook " ha%e spoken of the way reinforcement theory has ena#led professional
animal trainers to esta#lish #eha%iors in creatures that simply cannot #e trained #y force cats,
cou$ars, chickens, #irds in the air, whales and dolphins. Trainin$ with reinforcement has opened up
areas of disco%ery that " #elie%e we(%e only #e$un to e@plore.
One of the ad%anta$es of reinforcement trainin$ is that you don(t ha%e to think up somethin$ for the
animal to do and then train it to do that; you can reinforce anythin$ the animal happens to offer and
see where it leads. -o one dreamed that har#or seals could Atalk,A #ut at the -ew 6n$land
82uarium $raduate student !etsy .onstantine noticed that a rescued har#or seal named ,oo%er
could make humanlike sounds. She shaped ,oo%er(s sounds with fish reinforcers. Soon ,oo%er was
Asayin$A a num#er of thin$s.
ASay hello to the lady, ,oo%er.A
,oo%er &in a $uttural #ass %oice #ut %ery distinctly' A,iya, honey, h(are yuh.A
"t(s funny to hear, #ut also of real scientific interest to mammalo$ists and #ioacousticians.
To me as a #eha%ioral #iolo$ist the most useful and wonderful aspect of reinforcement trainin$ is
the window that the trainin$ opens up into an animal(s mind. "t(s #een fashiona#le for decades to
deny that animals ha%e minds or feelin$s, and this was pro#a#ly healthyit cleared up a lot of
superstitions, o%er=interpretation &A7y do$ understands e%ery word " sayA', and misreadin$. !ut
then alon$ came the etholo$ists, spearheaded #y Ionrad <oren?, to point out that animals ha%e
internal statesan$er, fear, and so onand that these are si$naled #y %ery clear=cut postures,
e@pressions, and mo%ements, which can #e reco$ni?ed and interpreted.
When you can see the su#>ect and the su#>ect can see you, and yet #oth of you are protected from
any physical encounter or #odily harm &perhaps the animal is inside a ca$e or pen and you are not',
then the animal is free to e@press any internal states the trainin$ interaction pro%okes. Gery often
the animal #e$ins directin$ the resultin$ social #eha%ior at the trainerin si$nals ran$in$ from
$reetin$ #eha%ior to temper tantrums. Inowin$ nothin$ a#out a particular species #ut knowin$ how
any su#>ect tends to react to %arious trainin$ e%ents, one can learn more a#out the nature of a
species( social si$nals in a half hour of trainin$ than in a month of watchin$ the animal interact with
its own kind. For e@ample, if " see a dolphin >ump up in the air and come down with a #i$ splash in
a pool of other dolphins, " can only speculate as to why it did that; #ut if, in a trainin$ session, " fail
to reinforce somethin$ " had pre%iously reinforced e%ery time, and the dolphin >umps up in the air
and comes down with a #i$, directed splash that soaks me from head to toe, " can say with some
certainty that at least part of the time it would seem likely that >ump=splashes are a$$ressi%e
displays, and effecti%e ones, too.
One can tell more than that. 6n$a$in$ a wild animal in some simple shapin$ procedure can $i%e you
a startlin$ $limpse of what mi$ht #e called species temperamentof how not only that indi%idual
#ut that species tends to tackle the challen$es in its en%ironment. Teachin$ trainin$ to my class of
keepers at the -ational /oo, " used a num#er of different species as demonstration animals. " stood
on my side of the fence, usin$ a whistle as conditioned reinforcer, and tossin$ in food; the animals
mo%ed a#out freely on their side. The polar #ears turned out to #e immensely persistent and do$$ed.
One #ear which accidentally $ot reinforced while sittin$ still took to offerin$ Asittin$ stillA as a
response; sla%erin$ hopefully, eyes $lued to the trainer, it could sit still for half an hour or more,
hopin$ for reinforcement. "t seems possi#le that in an animal which stalks seals on ice floes for a
li%in$, this kind of tenacity and patience has important sur%i%al %alue. " wouldn(t ha%e dreamed of
$oin$ inside the elephant pens at the -ational /oo, no matter how docilely the elephants o#eyed
their re$ular handlers. !ut with the help of keeper Fim Fones, " did run a couple of AfreestyleA
trainin$ sessions throu$h the #ars with a youn$ "ndian female named Shanti. " decided to shape her
to throw a Fris#ee, startin$ with retrie%in$ it. Shanti immediately started playin$ 1J1 Thin$s to *o
with a Fris#ee, especially makin$ noise. &Fim told me elephants like to make noise.' Shanti made
noise with the Fris#ee #y holdin$ it in her trunk and #an$in$ it on the wall, #y rattlin$ it alon$ the
#ars like a child with a stick, and #y puttin$ it on the floor and shufflin$ it #ack and forth with her
foot. " was already amused. She was fun.
Shanti 2uickly learned to fetch the Fris#ee to me in return for a toot on the whistle and snack from
the #ucket. She also 2uickly learned to stand >ust a little #it farther away each time so " had to reach
farther in for the Fris#ee. When " didn(t fall for that, she whopped me on the arm. When Fim and "
#oth yelled at her for that &a si$n of disappro%al, which elephants respect', she started fetchin$
nicely #ut pretended she(d for$otten how to pick up carrots. "t took her a full minute, feelin$ the
carrot in my hand with her trunk, while lookin$ meanin$fully into my #ucket, to $et me to
understand that she preferred the apples and sweet potatoes that were also in there.
When " pro%ed to #e intelli$ent and #idda#le in this matter and started $i%in$ her the preferred
reinforcers, she immediately used the same techni2uefeelin$ with the trunk tip while makin$
meanin$ful $lances and eye contactto try to $et me to open the padlock on her ca$e. 6lephants
are not >ust a little #it smart; elephants are eerily smart.
Species temperament shows up in many, many species in a shapin$ session. When " inad%ertently
failed to reinforce a hyena, instead of $ettin$ mad or 2uittin$, it turned on the charm, sittin$ down
in front of me, $rinnin$ and chucklin$ like a fur=co%ered Fohnny .arson. "n shapin$ a wolf to $o
around a #ush in its yard, " made the same mistake, failin$ to reinforce it when " should ha%e; the
wolf looked o%er its shoulder, made eye contact with a lon$, thou$htful stare, then ran on, ri$ht
around the #ush, earnin$ all the ki##le " had in my pocket; it had si?ed up the situation, perhaps
decidin$ that " was still in the $ame since " was still watchin$, and it had taken a chance and
$uessed at what would work. !i$ risk takers, wol%es. "f hyenas are comedians, wol%es are Gikin$s.
Sometimes the animals understand reinforcement perfectly. 7elanie !ond, in char$e of the
-ational /oo(s $reat apes, had started reinforcin$ ,am, the chimpan?ee, for %arious #eha%iors. One
mornin$ he was accumulatin$ his food rather than eatin$ it, with the intention, 7elanie supposed,
of eatin$ outdoors. When ,am saw that at last 7elanie was $oin$ o%er to open the door and let him
outside, he knew what to do ,e handed her a stalk of celery.
" can sympathi?e with #iolo$ists who want to o#ser%e the natural #eha%ior of animals without
distur#in$ or interferin$ with that #eha%ior in any way, and who thus re>ect $ross interference such
as trainin$. 8nd " can understand, thou$h " do not sympathi?e with, the e@perimental psycholo$ist
who shuns any conclusions a#out animals that are purely o#ser%ational and cannot #e #acked up #y
numerical data. !ut " remain con%inced that shapin$ sessions offer a fruitful way to com#ine #oth
approaches and that #oth field and la#oratory workers who can(t or don(t consider this tool may #e
missin$ a #et.
Shapin$ and reinforcement, deftly used, may also #e of enormous importance in $ainin$ insi$ht into
otherwise impenetra#le human minds. 7y friend !e%erly worked as a therapist in an institution for
multiply handicapped childrenchildren #oth deaf and #lind or paraly?ed and retarded. She
constructed a de%ice that made patterns of colored li$hts in response to sounds made into a
microphone. *e##ie, a paraly?ed and retarded %ictim of cere#ral palsy, who lay listless and
motionless in #ed day and ni$ht, lau$hed when she first saw the li$hts. She heard her %oice
amplified, saw the li$hts increase, and immediately learned that she could make the li$hts dance
herself #y continuin$ to lau$h and %ocali?e. This disco%ery, that she, *e##ie, could cause an
interestin$ e%ent to happen, made it possi#le for the therapist to #e$in to teach *e##ie to
communicate. 8nother child, #orn with part of his skull missin$ and forced to wear a helmet at all
times, had always #een assumed to #e totally #lind, since he felt his way from spot to spot and
failed to respond to any %isual stimuli. !e%erly was encoura$in$ him to %ocali?e into her
microphone for the reinforcement of hearin$ his own %oice amplified. Then she reali?ed the #oy
was orientin$ to the flickerin$ colored li$hts, tooand %ocali?in$ lon$er and lon$er to make the
colors dance. ,e could see >ust fine. Once the staff knew that, they had a whole new AchannelA
throu$h which this child mi$ht #e reached and helped.
"n an institutional settin$ this particular trainin$ toy ended up in a closet. !e%erly had only a
master(s de$ree and was not e@pected to initiate inno%ati%e therapy. There were no research papers
pro%in$ that the multiply handicapped could #e helped with colored li$hts, and indeed the departure
from esta#lished protocol was resented #y other staff mem#ers. That is not the point. The point is
that reinforcement trainin$ can pro%ide a lot of illuminationnot only to the su#>ect #ut a#out the
su#>ectand sometimes in >ust a few moments of trainin$ time.
Reinforcement and Society
"t sometimes seems to other people as if the #eha%iorists are preachin$ that e%erythin$ in human
#eha%ior is a product of learnin$ and conditionin$, and that e%ery human ill, from wars to warts,
can #e cured with proper use of reinforcement. This is, of course, not so. !eha%ior is a rich soup of
e@ternal and internal responses, learned and unlearned. "ndi%iduality is in#orn, as e%ery mother
knows. &The #iolo$ist T. .. Schneirla demonstrated indi%idual #eha%ior e%en in insects.'
Furtherance, a tremendous amount of what we do and feel is a product of our e%olution as social
animals. This includes our tendencies to cooperate and #e $ood to each other &Areciprocal altruismA'
as well as our tendencies to react a$$ressi%ely if someone tromps on our ideas or property
&AterritorialityA'. 8nd then what one does or says at a $i%en moment may depend >ust as much on
one(s physical state as on past e@perience or future e@pectations. 8 person who is e@tremely hun$ry
or has a #ad cold may #eha%e 2uite differently from the same person when comforta#le, re$ardless
of what else is $oin$ on.
So reinforcement has limitations, and " see nothin$ wron$ with that. " en%ision our understandin$ of
#eha%ior as resem#lin$ three interlockin$ rin$s. "n one rin$ are the #eha%iorists such as Skinner and
e%erythin$ we know a#out learnin$ and the ac2uisition of #eha%ior; in another rin$ are the
etholo$ists such as <oren? and e%erythin$ we know a#out the #iolo$ical e%olution of #eha%ior; and
in the third rin$ is #eha%ior we don(t yet understand well, such as play. 8nd each rin$ shares part of
its contents #y o%erlappin$ with the other two.
Since society does not consist entirely of e@chan$es of reinforcers, social e@periments in%ol%in$
reinforcement in $roup settin$s ha%e produced mi@ed results. For e@ample, the use of reinforcers in
a structured societya prison, hospital, or detention home, saymay #e undermined #y the %ery
people doin$ the reinforcin$. 8 psycholo$ist friend has descri#ed to me a token reinforcement
system with >u%enile offenders in detention that worked wonderfully in a pilot pro>ect #ut fell apart
completely, e%en producin$ dissension and re#ellion, when esta#lished at another institution. "t
turned out the people in char$e were distri#utin$ reinforcers as instructed for classroom attendance
and other desira#le #eha%ior, #ut they didn(t smile when they handed out the tokens. 8nd with that
small lapse, which was re$arded &and ri$htly, " think' as an insult #y the macho youn$ offenders,
the whole effort crum#led.
Reinforcement has #een used on an indi%idual and $roup #asis to foster not >ust specific #eha%ior
#ut characteristics of %alue to societysay, a sense of responsi#ility. .haracteristics usually
considered to #e AinnateA can also #e shaped. 5ou can, for e@ample, reinforce creati%ity. 7y son
7ichael, while $oin$ to art school and li%in$ in a loft in 7anhattan, ac2uired a kitten off the streets
and reinforced it for Acuteness,A for anythin$ it did that amused him. " don(t know how the cat
defined that, #ut it #ecame a most unusual cat#old, attenti%e, loyal, and full of deli$htful surprises
well into middle a$e. 8t Sea <ife +ark we shaped creati%ity with two dolphinsin an e@periment
that has now #een much antholo$i?ed#y reinforcin$ anythin$ the animals did that was no%el and
had not #een reinforced #efore. Soon the su#>ects cau$ht on and #e$an Ain%entin$A often 2uite
amusin$ #eha%iors. One came up with wackier stuff than the other; on the whole, e%en in animals,
de$rees of creati%ity or ima$inati%eness can %ary from one indi%idual to another. !ut trainin$
AshiftsA the cur%e for e%eryone, so that anyone can increase creati%ity from whate%er #aseline he or
she #e$an at.
Society, especially in the school system, is sometimes critici?ed for dampenin$ creati%ity rather
than encoura$in$ it. " think that while such criticism is warranted, it(s understanda#le that society
would prefer the status 2uo. Once those dolphins learned the %alue of inno%atin$, they #ecame real
nuisances, openin$ $ates, stealin$ props, and in%entin$ mischief. "nno%ati%e people are
unpredicta#le #y definition, and perhaps society can stand only a certain percenta$e of these types.
"f e%ery#ody #eha%ed like our creati%e dolphins, we(d ne%er $et anythin$ done. So, %ery often,
indi%idual creati%ity is discoura$ed in fa%or of $roup norms. +erhaps the coura$e it takes to defy
that trend #enefits the inno%ators who do succeed.
" think the important impact of reinforcement theory on our society will #e not to chan$e specific
#eha%iors or institutions #ut in the effect on indi%iduals of positi%e reinforcement itself.
Reinforcement is informationit(s information a#out what you are doin$ that is working. "f we
ha%e information a#out how to $et the en%ironment to reinforce us, then we control our
en%ironment; we are no lon$er at its mercy. "ndeed, our e%olutionary fitness to some e@tent depends
on such success.
So su#>ects like to learn throu$h reinforcement not for the o#%ious reasonto $et food or other
rewards#ut #ecause they actually $et some control o%er what is happenin$. 8nd the reason
people like to modify the #eha%ior of others throu$h reinforcement is that the response is so
$ratifyin$. Seein$ animals #ri$hten up, little kids( eyes shine, people #loom and $low with
accomplishment you ha%e helped them achie%e, is in itself an e@tremely powerful reinforcer. One
$ets a#solutely hooked on the e@perience of $ettin$ $ood results.
8 curious #ut important corollary to trainin$ #y reinforcement is that it #reeds affection in #oth
su#>ect and trainer. When " was at Sea <ife +ark, it happened se%eral times that an untamed dolphin,
ha%in$ #een shaped with a marker si$nal, the whistle, and food reinforcers, suddenly #ecame 2uite
docile, allowed itself to #e petted, and solicited social attention without any effort #y us to Ahand=
tameA it or train it to do so. " ha%e seen this happen with horses, too, sometimes in a sin$le trainin$
session, and e%en with se%eral species of ?oo animals that were in no way $entled or made pets of.
The animals #eha%e as if they lo%e the trainer.
The trainer rapidly de%elops an attachment, too. " remem#er Shanti the elephant and that wolf,
*(8rta$nan, with respect, and " e%en ha%e a soft spot for that dunderheaded polar #ear. What
happens, " #elie%e, is that the success of the trainin$ interchan$e tends to turn the participants into
$enerali?ed conditioned reinforcers for each other. The trainer is the source of interestin$, e@citin$,
rewardin$, life=enhancin$ e%ents for the su#>ect, and the su#>ect(s responses are interestin$ and
rewardin$ for the trainer, so that they really do #ecome attached. -ot dependent, >ust attached.
.omrades in the #attle of life.
On the le%el of human interaction, $ood use of positi%e reinforcement can ha%e profound effects. "t
de%elops and intensifies family feelin$s, cements friendships, $i%es children coura$e, and teaches
them to #e ima$inati%e and skilled reinforcers in turn. "t makes for $reat se@, for se@, after all, is in
part a mutual e@chan$e of positi%e reinforcers. "f two people $et really $ood at reinforcin$ each
other, they are likely to #e a happy pair.
0ood use of reinforcement does not mean >ust scatterin$ rewards around indiscriminately or ne%er
sayin$ no. +eople do fall into that misconception. Once, watchin$ a mother pushin$ a toddler in a
stroller down the street, " noticed that e%ery time the #a#y #e$an to fret, the mother stopped, $ot out
a little #a$ of healthful snacksraisins and nutsand fed the child, althou$h the child did not
appear particularly hun$ry and sometimes pushed her hand away. Tryin$ to do the ri$ht thin$, she
was conscientiously offerin$ reinforcers to the child for fussin$. She was also failin$ to check for
rumpled clothes or other discomforts that mi$ht ha%e #een makin$ the #a#y fuss in the first place.
-one of us will e%er #e perfect, and " am not proposin$ that we should #e thinkin$ a#out
reinforcement all the time. " am su$$estin$ that a shift to usin$ positi%e responses in interactions
with others, instead of the harshness, ar$umentati%eness, and withdrawal that are the style in many
households and or$ani?ations, affects not only the indi%iduals in%ol%ed #ut, ripplin$ outward, their
whole portion of society.
"t seems to me that 8merican society is, for all its freedom, a puniti%e society. We carry a #urden of
.al%inistic ne$ati%eness that colors all our institutions and much of our >ud$ment, no matter what
our personal #ack$rounds. 8 switch to positi%e reinforcement can #e a startlin$ e%ent. "n 1C91 a
little town in 8ri?ona, desperate to han$ on to its $ood schoolteachers, set up a foundation, raised
money locally, and $a%e cash #onuses to fi%e teachers, selected #y faculty and community %ote,
amountin$ in some cases to a month(s salary. The money was presented at hi$h school $raduation,
and the teachers $ot a spontaneous standin$ o%ation from the students, too. !y the third year of
operation the pro$ram seemed to #e #enefitin$ students as well as teachers. 8 typical mi@ed #a$ of
races, ethnic #ack$rounds, and rich and poor, the students were #y then rankin$ well a#o%e a%era$e
on national testin$s.
What " sense as si$nificant in this story is not the method of reinforcin$ the top teachers, a $ood
idea in itself, #ut the fact that the e%ent made the wire ser%ices and was national news. Switchin$ to
positi%e reinforcement is at this moment in our culture a no%el idea. !ut then, 2uickly #ecomin$ an
accepta#le idea, it is less often #ein$ dismissed as e@perimental or crackpot.
"t may take a $eneration or two, or three. " suspect that positi%e reinforcement#ecause it is now
coupled with a #ody of theory that makes it possi#le to analy?e what happens when thin$s $o wron$
is an idea that will o%er time pro%e to #e too infectious to keep down. 7ost #eha%iorists would, "
e@pect, a$ree with me, wonderin$ only why it(s takin$ so lon$.
+erhaps what the humanists o#>ect to most in #eha%iorism is the implication that e%erythin$ in
society could and should #e run #y intent &as much of it is already#ut #adly run'. " think this is a
#aseless fear. Skinner(s ima$inary society, Walden Two, set up entirely on contin$encies of
reinforcement, would not, in my opinion as a #iolo$ist, work out. "dealistic societies, in ima$ination
or in practice, sometimes fail to take into account or seek to eliminate such #iolo$ical facts as status
conflict. We are social animals, after all, and as such we must esta#lish dominance hierarchies.
.ompetition within $roups for increased statusin all channels, not >ust appro%ed or ordained
channelsis a#solutely ine%ita#le and in fact performs an important social function Whether in
4topias or herds of horses, the e@istence of a fully worked=out hierarchy operates to reduce conflict.
5ou know where you stand, so you don(t ha%e to keep $rowlin$ to pro%e it. " feel that indi%idual
and $roup status, and many other human needs and tendencies, are too comple@ to #e either met or
o%erridden #y planned arran$ements of reinforcement, at least on a lon$=term #asis.
What #others the #eha%iorists, in turn, is their reco$nition of the many situations in society where
proper use of reinforcement principles could #e effecti%e and where we stu##ornly, stupidly,
unceasin$ly prefer to do it wron$. For instance $i%in$ arms and aid to countries we hope will
re$ard us fa%ora#ly. .ome onB Rewardin$ someone else in hope of $ain to oneself doesn(t work; it
#ackfires e%en on the simplest le%el. &AShe only in%ited me to her party so "(d #rin$ a present; " hate
her.A A8unt Tilly(s #ein$ e@traordinarily nice today; wonder what the old #at wants this time.A' "(m
also not sure that our #ein$ tou$h on countries that mis#eha%e is any #etter. What if they don(t careD
What if they wanted to $et us mad in the first placeD
" reali?e this may #e simplistic, #ut " also think it is simple=minded to $o on and on #eha%in$ as a
nation in ways that any clicker trainer can tell you are $uaranteed not to work. 8s a nation, as well
as on an indi%idual le%el, we ou$ht to #e continuously askin$ oursel%es the trainer(s fundamental
2uestion What am " actually reinforcin$D
The laws of reinforcement are powerful tools. !ut the rule #ook is far more %ersatile than some
people ha%e supposed, in fact more %ersatile than some people would like it to #e. To #e usin$
reinforcement is to #e in%ol%ed in a process of continual chan$e, of continual $i%e=and=take, of
continual $rowth. One #ecomes aware of the dualistic, two=way nature of this communion. One
#ecomes more aware of others and, ine%ita#ly, more aware of oneself. "t could #e said that trainin$
is a process that re2uires one to #e #oth inside and outside of one(s own skin at the same time. Who
is the trainer and who is the trainedD !oth chan$e and #oth learn.
Some people ha%e seen reinforcement theory as a method of control, of manipulation, of restriction
of indi%iduals and society. !ut societal chan$es must #e$in with personal chan$eswith shifts in
what #enefits the indi%idual>ust as species chan$es must #e$in in the indi%idual $ene. Social
chan$e cannot #e dictated from a#o%eat least not for lon$. &Orwell(s ,-./ is wron$, #iolo$ically.'
<i%in$ creatures ha%e a ri$ht not only to food and shelter #ut to a reinforcin$ en%ironment. The use
and understandin$ of reinforcement is an indi%idual e@perience, which may lead to #enefits for all.
Far from #ein$ constrictin$, it frees each one of us to e@perience, #e aware of, and enhance not the
mechanistic aspects of li%in$ #ut the rich and wonderful di%ersity of all #eha%ior.
@C,ic*er Trainin' / New Tec"no,o'y
C,ic*er Trainin' Catc"es On
When Don't Shoot the Dog! was first pu#lished in 1C93, applied #eha%ior analysis was still not in
$eneral use. Thirty years of dolphin trainin$ had not led to other applications. The academic
community, while successfully usin$ #eha%ior analysis in corporate and institutional settin$s, had
not come up with easily understood ways for untrained people to use their science. !ut with do$
owners it was #e$innin$ to #e different. "an *un#ar, *.G7., a tremendously talented and influential
do$ #eha%iorist, had #een writin$ a#out and teachin$ noncoerci%e, #eha%ior=oriented trainin$ for
pet owners, and he was recommendin$ Don't Shoot the Dog!
"t was !. F. Skinner himself who first su$$ested usin$ clickers with do$s, in the 1C;Js. !ut " feel
that clicker trainin$ #e$an in 7ay 1CC), with a panel discussion #etween trainers and scientists at
the 8ssociation for !eha%ior 8nalysis meetin$s in San Francisco. This was followed a few days
later #y a A*on(t Shoot the *o$BA seminar for ):J do$ trainers that " conducted alon$ with do$
trainer 0ary Wilkes and marine mammal trainer "n$rid Shallen#er$er. The little plastic clickers
0ary had located in a no%elty shop made $reat teachin$ tools as well as marker si$nals. +eople took
to them. One do$=trainin$ seminar led to others. These pu#lic seminars, and the #ooks, %ideos, and
"nternet acti%ities they spawned, were, " #elie%e, the start of the clicker=trainin$ mo%ement.
The people in the seminar audiences were not necessarily professional trainers, thou$h they mi$ht
#e keen ho##yists. They were attorneys, pilots, law enforcement officers, teachers, computer
pro$rammers, #usiness e@ecuti%es, dentists, doctors, and >ournalists. They were people with li%ely
interests, lots of ener$y, and an analytical turn of mind. They #e$an teachin$ others. Soon
thousands of people were tryin$ clicker trainin$ and takin$ it farther than we who kicked it off
could e%er do on our own.
Two youn$ women in Gir$inia made a %ideo showin$ how to use the clicker to teach do$s a#out
thirty tricks, ran$in$ from the easy &rin$ a #ell to #e let out' to the fiendishly difficult &pass the
#iscuit from one do$ to another'. Ste%e White, a I=C police officer in Seattle, de%eloped a clicker=
trainin$ system for trainin$ patrol do$s. One of his canine $raduates cau$ht three A#ad $uysA on its
first ni$ht on the streets &and its tail was wa$$in$ the whole time, a characteristic of clicker do$s'.
Rosemary !esenick, in Te@as, #e$an teachin$ wheelchair=#ound clients, some of whom were
de%elopmentally disa#led as well, to train their own helper do$s. *o$ fanciers clicker=trained show=
rin$ #eha%iors and won at Westminster.
Iathleen Wea%er, another police do$ trainer and a hi$h=school computer instructor in Te@as,
esta#lished an online discussion list for clicker trainers, and two thousand si$ned up. .licker
trainers set up we#sites, e@chan$in$ 2uestions and ideas. &See Resources.' Se%eral #eha%ior analysts
>umped on #oard the "nternet and helped to sol%e pro#lems and impro%e our understandin$ of the
%oca#ulary of the science. .hief amon$ these was 7arian !reland !ailey, a scientist who had #een
one of Skinner(s first $raduate students, and her hus#and !o#. The !aileys la%ished time and
teachin$ skills on the "nternet clicker community, winnin$ new reco$nition from their scientific
collea$ues and a new pu#lic audience.
8n astronomer in -ew 7e@ico, ,eli@ Fairweather, opened a we#site to maintain an archi%e of the
most important and useful posts on the e%er=$rowin$ lists the so=called AkeeperA posts. 8le@andra
Iurland, a ridin$ instructor and horse trainer in upper -ew 5ork State, de%eloped the application of
clicker trainin$ for horsesall kinds of horses and all kinds of tasks, includin$ retrainin$
dan$erously a$$ressi%e horses.
-ew clicker trainers shared their achie%ements on the "nternet. +eople with no pre%ious trainin$
skills were teachin$ their do$s how to find the car keys or TG remote, how to #rin$ in the firewood,
and how to open the refri$erator, select the ri$ht drink &the soda, not the salad dressin$', close the
refri$erator, and #rin$ the drink to the person who asked for it. Then there was the $reat "nternet
,ot *o$ .hallen$e .an you train your do$ to retrie%e a whole hot do$ without eatin$ itD Of
course. The real show=offs tau$ht the cheese#ur$er retrie%e as wellthou$h e%eryone a$reed the
cheese#ur$er arri%ed a #it too slimy for human consumption.
What was happenin$ was a sort of $roup creation of a new technolo$y a new application of an
e@istin$ science. 5ou could ne%er do this physically; you could ne%er, for e@ample, ha%e that many
students in one $raduate pro$ram, or that many thinkers communicatin$ effecti%ely face=to=face. 8s
.anadian clicker trainer *iana ,illiard o#ser%ed, the "nternet $a%e us a sort of $lo#al 7anhattan
+ro>ect $ood minds, and a lot of them, workin$ to$ether on one technolo$y.
4on'5Term Side5Effects of C,ic*er Trainin'
*ue to the e@plosion of clicker trainin$, " #e$an to o#ser%e some lon$=term and more $eneral
effects of reinforcement trainin$ that " couldn(t ha%e ima$ined earlier. "n a paper pu#lished #y the
-ew 5ork 8cademy of Sciences in 1C91, " pointed out that the 2ualities people attri#ute to dolphins
playfulness, intelli$ence, curiosity, friendliness to humans, and so onare perhaps due not so
much to the dolphins themsel%es as to the way we train them. -ow " had the e%idence firsthand.
8ny creaturea do$, a horse, a polar #ear, e%en a fishthat you shape with positi%e reinforcers
and a marker si$nal #ecomes playful, intelli$ent, curious, and interested in you. What, you don(t
#elie%e the fishD For %ideo purposes " shaped a cichlid fish 01stronot#s oscellat#s2 to swim throu$h
a hoop and to follow a tar$et. &The #link of a flashli$ht made a $ood marker si$nal.' While these
fish, commonly called oscars, are known for their tameness and intelli$ence, "(d ne%er seen one $o
this far. That fish #ecame kin$ of the castle in my house, splashin$ water and #an$in$ its tank lid to
attract attention, touchin$ noses with little children throu$h the $lass, and threatenin$ %isitin$ do$s
#y spreadin$ its fins and $ills and makin$ attack=feints. "t #ecame, to a 2uite astonishin$ e@tent,
playful, intelli$ent, curious, and friendly, for its fi%e=year life, e%en thou$h it had lon$ #een retired
from show #i?and $ot all its food free.
4on'5Term Reca,,
Whate%er the species, another lon$=term effect of clicker trainin$ is that #eha%ior, once learned, is
not for$otten. Fifteen years a$o " knew this was true for the dolphins, #ut " couldn(t #e sure it wasn(t
special to them. -ow " know #etter. One of the most common reactions, when con%entional do$
trainers switch o%er to clicker trainin$, is their astonishment at how incredi#ly well the do$s retain
what they(%e learned. 5ou don(t ha%e to keep retrainin$ the #eha%ior and polishin$ it and #rushin$ it
up, the way you do with correction=trained #eha%iors. +ut in the #eha%ior, and it(s there fore%er. "
suspect &thou$h no formal data that " know of yet pro%e it' that this hi$h rate of retention mi$ht #e
one of the fundamental differences not only #etween trainin$ with positi%e reinforcers and a%ersi%es
#ut #etween trainin$ with a marker si$nal, and trainin$ with >ust primary reinforcers.
,ere(s one of my fa%orite e@amples of lon$=term retention from a sin$le trainin$ episode. LFrom
&aren 'ryor on Behavior) +ssays and 3esearch &Sunshine !ooks, 1CC:'.N One ni$ht after dinner, to
amuse my cousins( children, " tau$ht their cat to play the piano. With the word good as a marker
si$nal and #its of ham as the primary reinforcer, " shaped the #eha%ior of the cat sittin$ on the piano
#ench and plunkin$ at the keys with one paw. &With most cats this takes a#out fi%e minutes. .ats
like to train people to produce treats predicta#ly.' 8fter that e%enin$ no one e%er asked the cat to do
it a$ain, nor did the cat offer the #eha%ior.
One mornin$ two years later my cousin called to tell me that the pre%ious ni$ht they were awakened
#y $hostly sounds from downstairs Someone seemed to #e playin$ the piano. On in%esti$ation, he
found that the li%in$=room doors, as usual, had #een shut to conser%e heat. 8nd inside the li%in$
room, the cat, who normally slept upstairs in the #edroom, was sittin$ on the piano #ench. When,
one presumes, the normal responses of meowin$ and perhaps scratchin$ at the door didn(t work, the
cat offered a learned #eha%ior to ask, not for food this time, #ut for its preferred sleepin$ place. The
effort was a success.
/cce,erated 4earnin'
8nother newly apparent element of clicker trainin$ is the acceleration of learnin$ that occurs with
it. .ompetent clicker trainers &some of whom achie%e competency almost from the #e$innin$' may
accomplish in days #eha%ior that takes months or years to esta#lish #y con%entional trainin$. The
most clear=cut e@amples " ha%e found so far are in the do$ o#edience world, where traditional
trainin$ methods are 2uite standardi?ed. The testin$ process is also %ery uniform. +eople ha%e #een
de%elopin$ and testin$ this %ery precise set of #eha%iors for decades. So a chan$e can show up
clearly
.on%entional trainin$ procedures usually re2uire a year or e%en two to de%elop a -o%ice
competitor, another year or two for Open competition, and another year or two for 4tility, the
hi$hest testin$ le%el. -ow people are clicker=trainin$ do$s to do the same #eha%iors in far less time.
One person went from #uyin$ a do$ to finishin$ all three le%els of competition in a little o%er a
year. 8nother do$ owner tau$ht her 8ustralian cattle do$ all the 4tility hand si$nals for down,
come, sit, and so on, in three minutes, #y the clock. 8nother woman passed the three 2ualifyin$ le$s
of the -o%ice competition, with %ery nice scores, with a ten=year=old "rish setter she(d trained for
only three weeks. &6@cuse me, #ut the #reed is not known for intellect.' The do$ died of old a$e
shortly thereafter, and the owner said she wished she had found this wonderful method of
communication earlier in his life. This is accelerated learnin$ for trainer and trainee #oth.
Some people dismiss these reports of superfast learnin$ as testimonials, #ut for me they ha%e
#ecome dia$nostic tools. When e@perienced traditional trainers Across o%erA to clicker trainin$
and tell me e@citedly that somethin$ that used to take months >ust happened in a week, or a
mornin$, or a minute" can #e pretty sure, e%en without seein$ them work, that they(%e learned the
two #asic elements of clicker trainin$. First, they ha%e the clicker timin$ down pat, and second, they
ha%e also $rasped the idea of raisin$ criteria in small steps #ut 2uickly. "ncidentally, another
indicator that the new clicker trainer is usin$ the technolo$y correctly is that he or she
spontaneously transfers the trainin$ from one species to another A" tau$ht my horse three thin$s in
a mornin$, and then " came into the house and clicker=trained the do$, the cat, and the $uinea pi$.A
.lickB
Wouldn(t it #e fun to ha%e data on the 2uickness with which clicker trainin$ worksD "(m hopin$
some $raduate student will make use of the competiti%e o#edience community(s rich data#ase to
scientifically compare con%entional methods and the new technolo$y.
Gettin' Rid of t"e C,ic*er
8 fre2uent and understanda#le o#>ection to the idea of clicker trainin$ is that you wouldn(t want to
#e stuck ha%in$ to click and treat for the rest of your su#>ect(s natural life. This, of course, is a
misconception. The click is not intrinsic to maintainin$ the #eha%ior; any old cue and any kind of
reinforcer can do that. The click is for the training only. Once the learner has learned what you set
out to teach it, you can put the clicker away. !ut you mi$ht use it a$ain if you need to Ae@plainA
some new thin$; you can communicate 2uite specific information with your clicker.
For e@ample, my friend +atricia !rewin$ton owns a clicker=trained +ercheron $eldin$ named
Fames. +at and her hus#and *aucy trained Fames with the clicker from #a#yhood throu$h all his
mature tasks of carryin$ riders, pullin$ wa$ons and slei$hs, and haulin$ lo$s out of the woods.
When Fames was fully educated, the clicker and food treats were no lon$er needed. Fames knew and
complied with many %oice cues and hand si$nals. ,e %isi#ly en>oyed praise and pattin$ as
reinforcers for work well done; and also ice cu#es, playin$ with #alls, rin$in$ his slei$h=#ells with
his nose, comin$ into the #arn, $oin$ out of the #arn, #ein$ allowed to watch whate%er the people
were doin$, and many other daily=life reinforcers.
One day Fames de%eloped an a#scess in his foot. The %et decreed that the foot should #e soaked
periodically. So +at $ot a #ucket of warm water, set it ne@t to Fames, and put his foot into the
#ucket. Fames took it out. +at put it in. Fames took it out. -ow Fames is a %ery lar$e horse, and +at
is a small woman. +hysical force was not an option; and +at almost ne%er scolds her horses. What
to doD She went in the house and found a clicker. She came #ack out to the #arn. She put Fames(s
foot in the #ucketand clicked. +at descri#ed his response metaphorically, as reinforcement
trainers often do AOhhhB 5ou mean keep my foot in the #ucket. Oh, okay.A -o carrot was needed to
seal the #ar$ain; Fames >ust hadn(t understood what was wanted, and when he did understand, he
didn(t mind doin$ it.
C,ic*er Trainin' and Creati%ity
*urin$ my dolphin=trainin$ days " pu#lished a paper called AThe .reati%e +orpoise Trainin$ for
-o%el !eha%ior,A descri#in$ some work we had done at Sea <ife +ark. This >ournal article #ecame
a psycholo$y=classroom classic, used #y professors year after year to pi2ue students( interest in
operant conditionin$. Once a$ain it wasn(t entirely clear to me whether the capacity for in%entin$
new #eha%ior was special to dolphins or due to the trainin$ system. -ow " can say with some
certainty that creati%ity, or at least e@perimentation and initiati%e, is an intrinsic #y=product of
clicker trainin$in the trainer for sure, and in the learner as well.
The learner trained with a conditioned reinforcer is en$a$ed in a kind of $ame how to come up
with #eha%ior that will make the teacher click. "f you watched a child playin$ this $ame, you
wouldn(t hesitate to say that it makes her want to learnor e%en that it makes her think. 7i$ht that
not also #e true of animalsD
" once %ideotaped a #eautiful 8ra#ian mare who was #ein$ clicker=trained to prick her ears on
command, so as to look alert in the show rin$. She clearly knew that a click meant a handful of
$rain. She clearly knew her actions made her trainer click. 8nd she knew it had somethin$ to do
with her ears. !ut whatD ,oldin$ her head erect, she rotated her ears indi%idually one forward, one
#ack; then the re%erse; then she flopped #oth ears to the sides like a ra##it, somethin$ " didn(t know
a horse could do on purpose. Finally, #oth ears went forward at once. .lickB 8haB She had it
strai$ht from then on. "t was charmin$, #ut it was also sad We don(t usually ask horses to think or
to #e in%enti%e, and they seem to like to do it.
Some owners of clicker=wise do$s ha%e #ecome so accustomed to canine initiati%e and
e@perimentation that they rely on the do$ Aofferin$ #eha%iors,A #oth learned and new, as a standard
part of the trainin$ process. 7any clicker trainers play a $ame with their do$s that " ha%e
nicknamed A1J1 Thin$s to *o with a !o@A &or a chair, or a #all, or a toy'. 4sin$ essentially the
same procedure we used at Sea <ife +ark to de%elop Acreati%ityA in a dolphin, in each session the
do$ is clicked for some new way of manipulatin$ the o#>ect. For e@ample, you mi$ht put a
card#oard #o@ on the floor and click the do$ for sniffin$ it and then for #umpin$ it with his nose,
until he(s pushin$ it around the room. The ne@t time, you mi$ht let the do$ disco%er that pushin$ the
#o@ no lon$er $ets clicked #ut that pawin$ it or steppin$ o%er the side and e%entually $ettin$ into
the #o@ is what works. The do$ mi$ht also come up with dra$$in$ the #o@, or liftin$ and carryin$
the #o@. One do$, faced anew with the challen$e of the #o@ $ame, $ot all his toys and put them into
the #o@. .lickB 7y !order terrier once tipped the #o@ o%er onto herself and then scooted around
under it, creatin$ the spectacle of a mysterious tra%elin$ #o@. 6%eryone in the room lau$hed
hysterically, which seemed to please her. Some do$s are >ust as cle%er at comin$ up with new ideas
as any dolphin could #e; and do$s, like dolphinsand horsesseem to lo%e this challen$in$
clicker $ame.
Freedom from Fear
8 much=de#ated element in clicker trainin$, #oth #y insiders and outsiders, is the a#sence of
punishment. .on%entional wisdomand some psycholo$istsstill hold that you should praise the
$ood and punish the #ad, and the result will #e some kind of perfection in the middle. "n fact, many
of the pro#lems people ha%e in con%entional trainin$ arise directly from the use of punishment.
That 8ra#ian mare had #ecome unshowa#le #ecause of a con%entional method used for makin$ a
horse prick its ears 5ou swish a whip around its head &and hit it with the whip, now and then, #ack
in the #arn, so it knows the whip is dan$erous'. This mare had taken to layin$ her ears #ack and
lookin$ u$ly instead of alert, a #eha%ior that intensified with more punishment. Thus the remedial
clicker trainin$.
*urin$ trainin$ sessions, clicker trainers are findin$ if they mi@ reinforcement of desira#le #eha%ior
with punishment or correction of #eha%ior that they don(t want, $ood thin$s stop happenin$. First,
the accelerated learnin$ stops, as the su#>ect $oes #ack to learnin$ at the AnormalA rate slowly.
Second, if they(re not careful, the su#>ect stops learnin$ alto$etherand stops wanting to learn,
which is worse. 8s a child mi$ht dra$ himself unwillin$ly to school, dawdlin$ alon$ the way, do$s
can show reluctance to perform, and stress when in the trainin$ situation. They pant, they yawn;
they(d rather #e elsewhere. !ut it(s not unusual for clicker=trained do$s to actually initiate trainin$
sessions and to show enthusiasm #y rushin$ ea$erly into the trainin$ area.
" am not sayin$ that clicker trainers ne%er say no. Of course, you mi$ht reprimand a do$ for eyein$
the hors d(oeu%res on the coffee ta#le, or restrain it with a leash on a crowded sidewalk. !ut we
a%oid usin$ punishment, or its euphemism Acorrection,A as a learnin$ tool. *urin$ a trainin$ session
the animal is free to take a chance, to make a $uess, to try to come up on its own with reinforcea#le
#eha%ior. "f it $uesses wron$, fine. The worst that can happen is no click. "n this safe arena learners
2uickly disco%er ways to show you the %ery #est they are capa#le of, and that leads to wonderful
results.
4earnin' and F0n
,ere(s another side effect of clicker trainin$ that people report o%er and o%er a$ain the $lo#al
#eha%ior of the learner chan$es. 8 punished or correction=trained animal learns to $i%e the
minimum necessary in order to stay out of trou#le. These learners are A$ood soldiersA They do
what they(re told, and they ne%er %olunteer. 4nder this re$imen, e%en if o#edient, learners remain
far more interested in their own doin$s and pri%ate life than in whate%er you or any %oice of
authority mi$ht want. They are therefore not only %ulnera#le to distractions, they are hoping for
distractions. Furthermore, when pushed too hard or punished too much, these learners $et mad or
2uit. This is >ust the suite of #eha%iors we see in most household do$s, in many employeesand in
kids in school.
"n contrast, clicker trainin$ is fun, for trainer and learner #oth. +lay is an important component. "(%e
seen a profoundly low=functionin$ teena$er lau$h when she first $ot a click for a new #eha%ior, and
si$n AplayA when she saw the clicker, a si$n her teacher didn(t know she knew. .licker trainers ha%e
learned to reco$ni?e play #eha%ior in animals as a si$n that the learner has #ecome consciously
aware of what #eha%ior was #ein$ reinforced. When Athe li$ht #ul# $oes on,A as clicker trainers put
it, do$s $am#ol and #ark, horses prance and toss their heads, and elephants, " am told, run around in
circles chirpin$. They are happy. They are e@cited. That(s reinforcin$ in itself. This e%ent is
predicta#le and replica#le, and it is almost certainly accompanied #y physiolo$ical chan$es, another
fertile area for research.
When an animal participates at this le%el, the click ac2uires enormous %alue. "t is worth, much more
than the food. !oth the sound and the o#>ect that produces it #ecome reinforcin$. ,ere(s an
e@ample. *e##ie *a%is is a clicker=trainin$ instructor who teaches disa#led people to train their
own ser%ice do$s. She herself is wheelchair=#ound, and her ser%ice do$ is a papillon, a little #lack
and white toy #reed a#out the si?e of a cat. The do$ is %ery useful, in spite of his si?e. ,e can
retrie%e pencils, find the TG remote, and pull laundry out of the dryer. When he and *e##ie $o to
trainin$ class, this little do$ $ets down off her lap, $oes around under the chairs, $ets into people(s
trainin$ e2uipment #a$s, and steals clickers A,ere, 7omcan(t ha%e too many of these, can weBA
C,ic*er Trainin' for Peo+,e
The laws of learnin$, like the laws of physics, apply to all of us, #ut %isuali?in$ the applications is
not always easy. -ew clicker trainers often ask, with an em#arrassed $i$$le, A*oes this work with
childrenDA &Or spousesD' Of course it could. !ut you ha%e to learn how to do it. For e@ample,
shuttin$ up a#out what you don(t like, in order to wait for and reinforce #eha%ior you do like, is
counterintuiti%e and takes some practice.
6@periencin$ clicker trainin$ with a pet turned out to #e a $reat place to start. +eople #e$an to
$enerali?e their understandin$. Seminar participants were makin$ comments like these
A" stopped >erkin$ my do$s aroundand then " reali?ed what " was still doin$ to my kidsBA
A" used to run my dental office staff with instruction and correction. -ow " use shapin$ and
reinforcement. 5ou know whatD The turno%er dropped to ?ero.A
AThis has #een nice for my do$s#ut for me it has chan$ed the way " deal with e%ery sin$le person
in my life.A
.licker trainin$, so simple and strai$htforward, had $i%en people not >ust intellectual insi$ht #ut
also a new set of tactics to apply across many #eha%ioral settin$s.
-owadays this transfer of applications has #ecome commonplace in the clicker community. .licker
trainers in the teachin$ professionshi$h school and colle$e teachers, special ed teachers, physical
therapists, care$i%ers in $roup homesuse the technolo$y in their work. +arents of children with
%arious de%elopmental or physical deficits share with me what they are doin$ with and for their
children, with their new skills. 8 mother is teachin$ her hi$h=functionin$ autistic dau$hter to make
appropriate social con%ersation, throu$h shapin$ and reinforcement. +arents are impro%in$ the
skills of their children with disa#ilities, from eatin$ to dressin$ to walkin$ and talkin$, with
reinforcers and a marker si$nal.
4nderstandin$ reinforcement trainin$ can(t repair physical or neurolo$ical deficits, and it won(t
replace the help that only skilled professionals can $i%e, #ut it can make life easier for e%eryone.
+arents are learnin$ to shape appropriate #eha%ior instead of accidentally reinforcin$ inappropriate
#eha%ior to reinforce silence, not noise; play, not tantrums. "t is not that they are Atreatin$ their
children like animals,A an e%er=popular pre>udiced attack; clicker trainin$ is not a#out animals or
people. "t(s a#out #etter ways of teachin$ and learnin$.
!est of all, you don(t need a +h.*. to #e an effecti%e shaper. Recently " was dri%in$ home from an
outin$ with my dau$hter and her family when her fourteen=month=old #a#y #e$an to yell. ,e wasn(t
cryin$yet, anywayhe was >ust makin$ a %ery loud noise to protest the len$th of the dri%e and
his incarceration in his car seat; and we were still twenty minutes from home. 7y se%en=year=old
$randson Wylie, in the #ackseat with his little #rother, calmly $ot rid of the yellin$ #y reinforcin$
lon$er and lon$er periods of silence. The markerD Wylie(s $rin. The reinforcerD One lick of Wylie(s
lollipop.
When " recently tau$ht a course in shapin$ and reinforcement to a#out fifty educators, " asked them
to do a shapin$ pro>ect. Sharon 8mes, a speech and lan$ua$e patholo$ist, chose her three=and=a=
half=year=old twins. ,er shapin$ challen$e was this Thou$h ei$ht +.7. was the twins( supposed
#edtime, it was takin$ three hours or more to $et the little darlin$s to sleep e%ery ni$ht.
Sharon introduced pennies, dropped into >ars, as the reinforcer. "n the mornin$ each twin would #e
a#le to cash in the pennies for pri?es. The first ni$ht the kids $ot a clickand a pennyfor each
sta$e of the $o=to=#ed process. .lick for $ettin$ in the #ath. .lick for $ettin$ out, click for $ettin$
into pa>amas, and so on. Then, when the li$hts went out, they $ot a click &and a penny, of course' if
they were on their #edsnot in them, >ust on theme%ery time Sharon came #ack in the room.
The first ni$ht she came in once a minute for the first half hourthat(s thirty clicksand then once
e%ery fi%e minutes for another hour, #y which time the children were asleep. The second ni$ht, she
thinned the reinforcement schedule to e%ery ten minutes, and within an hour, they were asleep. The
third ni$ht the twins went to sleep ri$ht away. "n three days the time it took to $et the twins to #ed
and to sleep went from three hours a ni$ht to a#out twenty minutes, a comforta#le le%el, and there it
stayed. The twins endorsed the clicker. A.an we play the clicker $ame some moreDA The reinforcer
for Sharon and her hus#and was, of course, a real >ackpot a full ni$hts sleep.
The 8mes family then incorporated clicker trainin$ into their daily life. &Sharon told me they found
it more effecti%e to click %ery occasionally, #ut with #i$$er reinforcers.' Sharon(s mother sometimes
#a#y=sits for them, and Sharon showed her mother how to use the clicker with the twins. Then
Sharon(s mother adopted a do$. She complained a#out some #eha%ior pro#lems with her new pet.
AWhy don(t you use the clickerDA Sharon said.
,er mother looked du#ious. AWell, of course, it(s wonderf#l for children, #ut do you really think it
would work with do$sDA
Some 8ore H0man /++,ications
8s " write this, "(m personally in%ol%ed in de%elopin$ two new human applications. One is the use
of the clickerin this case, an electronic A#lack #o@A clicker that plu$s into a headsetin fli$ht
trainin$. 8 click is not only more accurate, it permits reinforcement of #eha%ior that is difficult to
$et at in other ways. For e@ample, when turnin$ to look at the instruments, you should take your
hands off the airplane(s controls to pre%ent accidentally turnin$ the plane. ,owe%er, as car dri%ers
we(%e all learned to never take our hands off the wheel. 4ntrainin$ a learned #eha%ior is always
much more tiresome than trainin$ a new one. 8 %er#al reminder or correction takes far too lon$ and
comes too late. 8 click, howe%er, can mark the smallest lift of the hands and pin it down fore%er.
8 fli$ht instructor can also click a student for initiati%e and for $ood thinkin$ for e@ample, for
$lancin$ o%er the instrument panel before #ein$ reminded to do so. So the clicker can reward
non%er#al #eha%ior non%er#ally in the instant it(s occurrin$. 7y son 7ichael +ryor, a pilot and the
pro>ect de%eloper, reports from preliminary data that in learnin$ a skill such as instrument flyin$,
clickin$ seems to #uild competency faster, and what(s learned is retained well. 6%ery pilot "(%e
talked to since this pro>ect started pricks up his or her ears at the possi#ility of maintainin$
instrument ratin$ and skills without ha%in$ to $o #ack into the simulator 2uite so often.
.licker trainin$ is also much more en>oya#le for the student. 7ichael +ryor says, AWhen you don(t
$et clicked, and you thou$ht you would, you escalate your mo%ements. 5ou try harder to find the
thin$ you should #e doin$. 8nd then when you do $et a click, there(s this neat feelin$ of winning.
"t(s a lot #etter than $ettin$ yelled at.A
7y second pro>ect in%ol%es my consultin$ work with the -ew 6n$land .enter for .hildren, in
South#orou$h, 7assachusetts. The -ew 6n$land .enter, with a fi%e=hundred=person staff and two
hundred students, is one of the leadin$ 4.S. centers de%oted to children with de%elopmental deficits,
especially autism. We are e@plorin$ the use of an e%ent markersometimes a clicker, sometimes
notwith children dia$nosed with autism and other de%elopmental deficits. The youn$ and
ener$etic teachers at the center, who supply around=the=clock, one=on=one, hands=on care for these
challen$in$ children, are colle$e $raduates, usually with a ma>or in education or a related field.
From the center they recei%e intensi%e on=the=>o# trainin$ in #eha%ior analysis and its applications.
What the clicker adds to their skills, at least to start, is a clear=cut piece of positi%e information for
those children who can(t or don(t respond to spoken lan$ua$e; and feed#ack for the teachers on their
own timin$ and escalation of criteria.
7y year and a half of consultin$ has $i%en me $reat hope that we will #e a#le to document some of
our preliminary o#ser%ations. We(%e noticed that some #eha%iors that children with deficits are
customarily tau$ht seemed to #enefit from usin$ a marker si$nal alon$ with a preferred edi#le treat.
Such #eha%iors mi$ht include impro%ed physical skills, impro%ed eye contact, willin$ness to attend,
and compliance with instructions. Some teachers " worked with used clicker trainin$ to reduce or
eliminate resistance, in %ery easily upset children, to such necessary procedures as tooth #rushin$,
haircuts, and takin$ temperatures. 8nd sometimes the children really seem to #e ha%in$ fun.
" wish to emphasi?e that none of this is pro%en yet to scientifically accepta#le standards. One $reat
#enefit of ha%in$ the -ew 6n$land .enter, a stron$ly research=oriented institution, take an interest
in this e@ploration is that it mi$ht lift us clicker trainers out of anecdotal and descripti%e uses of the
application and make a data=#ased contri#ution to learnin$ theory and its applications.
What(s ne@tD Trainers ha%e #een >oinin$ the 8ssociation for !eha%ior 8nalysis &8!8' and
presentin$ papers and symposia at the annual meetin$s. The trainin$ community is meanwhile
dippin$ further and further into the science, some e%en $oin$ #ack to school for ad%anced de$rees.
We are learnin$ to name and reco$ni?e concepts we used only intuiti%ely in the past, such as
fluency latency, and adduction.
" ha%e #een fascinated, throu$h the 8!8, to disco%er a $roup of researchers and educators who are
seein$ in their schoolrooms many of the phenomena we clicker trainers see. The applications they
ha%e de%eloped are called +recision Teachin$ and *irect "nstruction. The technolo$y is
tremendously effecti%e. " %isited one of the primary sites, a la#oratory school in Seattle named
7ornin$=side 8cademy, esta#lished #y Ient Fohnson, +h.*., and run #y principal Foanne Ro##ins.
The school takes only si@ty children at a time. 7ost students at this school ha%e #een dia$nosed
with attention deficit disorder, hyperacti%ity or learnin$ disa#ilities. -o child is accepted unless he
or she is at least two years #ehind $rade le%el in school. 7ornin$side char$es a respecta#le tuition,
#ut it offers a full refund if the child does not impro%e #y two full $rade le%els per year.
They ha%e ne%er had to $i%e anyone their money #ack.
What do they do to make this happenD 6%erythin$ a child needs to know to succeed academically is
#roken down into small steps. The steps are trained one #y one, in %ery short sessions, with the kids
trackin$ their own pro$ress. The $ains are self=reinforcin$you keep #eatin$ your own pre%ious
time and raisin$ your own skill le%el#ut they also can pay off in reinforcers such as computer
time or computer $ames &which of course are all #ased on escalatin$ reinforcement schedules'.
Sometimes small $aps in a child(s education cause endless pro#lems, e%en thou$h they are easily
fi@ed. "n one classroom " leaned o%er the shoulder of a nine=year=old #oy who was workin$ on
writin$ the num#ers from ?ero to nine as fast as he could, o%er and o%er, for one minute, for, in
effect, a click. ,e(s smart, #ut somehow the school system failed to teach him to write num#ers
clearly and 2uickly. That little $litch in his trainin$ mi$ht ha%e made a ni$htmare out of e%erythin$
in his future career, from al$e#ra to >ottin$ down a $irl(s phone num#er. So fi@ it now.
That of course is >ust a tiny sample of this educational application of operant conditionin$. The
7ornin$side 7odel is spreadin$. *r. Fohnson and his partner, T.5 Foe <ayn$, +h.*., are also
runnin$ a much lar$er pro$ram in the .hica$o school system, and there are other related pro$rams
elsewhere.
The transformation of school systems so that they actually work will #e, " hope and e@pect, partly
due to science, and inno%ators like <ayn$ and Fohnson, and partly due to parents. To make any of
this work, you ha%e to do somethin$ yourself. 5ou cannot >ust hire an e@pert and say AFi@ my do$,A
or AFi@ my child,A or e%en, AFi@ the school system.A 5ou are the primary trainer. This is a
participation sport.
C,ic*er Trainin' /ro0nd t"e #or,d
" #elie%e the $eneral pu#lic(s attitude a#out this #ranch of science has chan$ed considera#ly in the
last fifteen years. There are still people who shudder at the %ery name of Skinner, which con>ures in
their minds some amal$am of Brave ew 4orld, mind control, and electric shock. !ut for e%ery
one of those there are many more people who are comforta#le with the concept of positi%e
reinforcement.
Some >ust $i%e it lip ser%ice, of course. 8s Iathleen Wea%er, the founder of the "nternet .licker
<ist, points out, we trainers mean much more #y the term clicker training than mere clicker-#sing.
.licker Ausers,A who may call themsel%es Apositi%eA or Amoti%ationalA trainers, mi$ht #orrow that
particular de%ice, the clicker, to mark their choice of specific #eha%iors. !ut then they $o on usin$
punishment, physical coercion, and all the other a%ersi%e tools of con%entional trainin$ as well.
.licker trainers, #y contrast, may use any sort of stimulus as a marker si$nal; they attach no
superstitious ma$ic to the clicker itself. !ut they also consciously a%oid superstitious #eha%ior
&such as escalation of punishment'. 8nd their toolkit consists of the full panoply of shapin$,
positi%e reinforcement, and related operant conditionin$ laws. They are the ones, whether workin$
with children or adults, or horses or do$s, or any other animal, who reap the #enefitsrapid
learnin$, lon$ retention, happy, participatin$ learners, and pure funof the technolo$y we call
clicker trainin$.
+erhaps the multitudinous minds workin$ on the new technolo$y will come up with a more
distin$uished and $eneric name for this approach than clicker trainin$; " hope so. !ut that ultimate
identifier mi$ht not #e in 6n$lish. Thanks to the "nternet, clicker trainin$ has #ecome a planetary
phenomenon. The .licker <ist mi$ht hear one day from sled=do$ trainers in Finland who use
reindeer #one whistles &metal ones free?e to your lips' to click their do$s, and the ne@t day from a
poodle owner in !osnia or a %eterinarian in Sin$apore. Or an 6n$lishwoman writes of teachin$ her
pet hed$eho$ to fetch. "n 1CC9 my we#site, www.dontshootthedo$.com, was recei%in$ 1:J,JJJ
AhitsA a month, from at least forty different nations monthly.
There is a #u??, a feelin$ of e@citement, in all this shared communication, e@perimentation, and
disco%ery. The early days of de%elopment of any technolo$y must ha%e #een much the same the
early days of flyin$, or of radio, when kids in remote farms tuned in on crystal sets if only to hear a
distant time si$nal. We are pioneerin$. We don(t know where we will end up yet.
8aron <ynch, author of "ho#ght *ontagion, 2uotes from communication en$ineerin$ science on
the special communication in%ol%ed in the spread of a technolo$y. For a technolo$y to spread fast,
he says, it has to ha%e three characteristics "t must #e easy; it must ha%e %isi#le #enefits to the user;
and it must #e somethin$ that can #e learned in small increments. .licker trainin$ fits the #ill.
That(s certainly what happened for the do$ owners. When people see a con%entionally trained do$
in action, they tend to say, AThat must ha%e taken years, " could ne%er do that.A Or, A7y do$ could
ne%er #e that smart.A "n contrast, people see a clicker=trained do$ in action and e@claim A,ow did
you do thatD .an " do itD Show me. <et me try.A
5ou can(t tell, in ad%ance, what particular e%ent will #e the hook for each new $roup of users.
8le@andra Iurland(s horses and clients, workin$ in a #i$ #oardin$ sta#les with do?ens of other
people around e%ery day, were learnin$ all kinds of new skills and at tremendous rates; #ut it was
all dismissed #y the onlookers as Athat cra?y clicker stuffAuntil she tau$ht a horse to retrie%e. To
fetch a toy, like a do$. Suddenly e%eryone in the sta#les had to ha%e a retrie%in$ horse. A,ow(d you
do thatD .an " do it tooDA
"n a recent e=mail 8le@ wrote, A"t(s done. We can(t put the $enie #ack in the #ottle now. This is
$oin$ to #e fun.A
" hope she(s ri$ht a#out the $enie and the #ottle.
" know she(s ri$ht a#out the fun. "t has always #een fun.
Reso0rces
The 8ssociation for !eha%ior 8nalysis
1)J1 Oli%er Street
Western 7ichi$an 4ni%ersity, )11 West ,all,
Ialama?oo, 7" 3CJJ9
Tel. ;1;=19H=9131
www.wmich.eduEa#a
The scientific society for #eha%ior analysts; pu#lications, >ournals, and re$ional and international
annual conferences.
The 8ssociation of +et *o$ Trainers
+.O. !o@ 19:
*a%is, .8 C:J1H
Tel. 1 9JJ=+6T=*O0S
www.apdt.com
+ositi%e trainin$ methods emphasi?ed. -ewsletter, annual conference.
8u#rey *aniels 8ssociates
1:11 ,a%ersham at -orthlake
Tucker, 08 1JJ93
Tel. 1 9JJ=))1=;1C1
8pplied #eha%ior analysis in the corporate settin$.
The .am#rid$e .enter for !eha%ioral Studies
11; !aker 8%enue
.oncord, 78 J1H3)
Tel. CH9=1;C=)))H
www.#eha%ior.or$
8 #rid$e #etween #eha%ioral science and the pu#lic. The powerful we#site can steer you toward the
information you need and the people who ha%e it in any area of applied #eha%ioral science, from
autism to animal hus#andry to education to industrial safety.
*o$ and .at !ook .atalo$ *irect !ook Ser%ice
HJ1 ! +oplar Street +.O. !o@ )HH9
Wenatchee, W8 C99JH=)HH9
Tel. 9JJ=HH;=);;:
www.do$andcat#ooks.com
8 %ery complete source for pet=trainin$ #ooks and %ideos, includin$ small=press and out=of=print
titles.
The "nternational 8ssociation of 7arine 8nimal Trainers
1H)J South Shores
Road San *ie$o, .8 C)J1C
7em#ership is limited to acti%e trainers, #ut the ma$a?ine, research >ournal, and annual conference
are open to all.
7ornin$side <earnin$ Systems
1;11 Twelfth 8%enue
Seattle, W8 C91))
Tel. )J;=1)C=C31)
8 source for information on +recision Teachin$ and related educational applications.
The -ew 6n$land .enter for .hildren
11 Turnpike Road
South#oro, 78 J1HH)
Tel. :J9=391=1J1:
www.necc.or$
Speciali?in$ in applied #eha%ior analysis, ser%in$ children with autism, per%asi%e de%elopmental
deficit, and related disorders.
www.onlearn.com
*a%id Feeney(s online learnin$ we#site. Fun and cuttin$ ed$e. 7ana$e your own #eha%ior with
online interacti%e chartin$ and reinforcement. Smokin$, wei$ht loss, and the like.
Sunshine !ooks, "nc.
3C Ri%er Street
Waltham, 78 J)3:1
Tel. 9JJ=3H.<".I or H91=1C9=JH:3
www.clickertrainin$.com
+u#lisher and distri#utor of #ooks and %ideos on positi%e reinforcement, clicker trainin$, +recision
Teachin$, and other human and animal #eha%ioral applications. On=line orderin$ and free catalo$
#y mail.
/c*now,ed'ments
"(d like to thank 7urray and Rita Sidman for their friendship and encoura$ement and for 7urray(s
detailed editorial commentary on the first edition of Don't Shoot the Dog! and on the re%isions. ,is
wise and kindly $uidance contri#uted %astly to this more informed and" hopemore useful new
edition. 8ny new or retained errors, howe%er, are solely mine.
"(d like to thank +hil ,ineline, for in%itin$ me to speak at the 8!8 meetin$s in 1CC) and thus
openin$ up new paths; the late 6llie Reese, for forcin$ me to take myself and my work more
seriously; 7yrna <i##y and Gincent Strully for $i%in$ me the opportunity to work at the -ew
6n$land .enter for .hildren; and the late Ienneth -orris, for makin$ me a dolphin trainer and
$ettin$ me into all this trou#le in the first place.
"(d also like to thank Fon <ind#er$h and 0ary and 7ichele Wilkes for the series of seminars we put
on to$ether, across the 4nited States and .anada, in the early 1CCJs. "t was a hu$e effort, yet
enormous fun as well, and " learned a lot a#out the fascinatin$ pro#lem of trainin$ trainers.
Since then the community of clicker trainers has continued to de%elop and e@pand this application
of #eha%ioral science in a #lend of #rilliance, creati%ity, and warmheartedness. "(m especially
$rateful to Iathleen Wea%er, for maintainin$ the lon$est=runnin$ flame=free "nternet list " know of,
the .licker <ist; and to Iathleen .hin, for or$ani?in$ and sponsorin$ so many %alua#le seminars
and conferences. "(m also $rateful to all the clicker=trainin$ inno%ators, especially .orally
!urmaster &competition do$s and horses', Ste%e White &police do$s', .arolyn .lark and her staff
&pet owners', 7or$an Spector &o#edience', 8le@andra Iurland &horses', *iana ,illiard &ser%ice and
show do$s', 7elinda 7iller &horses', <ana 7itchell &herdin$ do$s', Ste%e <ayman &falconry', Fim
and 8my <o$an &llamas', 7yrna <i##y &children', 7ike +ryor &adults', and !o# and 7arian !ailey
&all a$es and all species'. The ne@t round of e@pansion is >ust #e$innin$; it(s a >oy to ha%e so many
friends and collea$ues sharin$ the trip.
/3o0t t"e /0t"or
I8R6- +R5OR is a writer and a #eha%ioral #iolo$ist. She was a founder and pioneerin$ dolphin
trainer at ,awaii(s Sea <ife +ark, where she #efriended and worked with !. 6 Skinner and Ionrad
<oren?. She en>oys an international reputation as a scientist in #oth #eha%ioral psycholo$y and
marine mammal #iolo$y. She has ser%ed as a federal commissioner on the 7arine 7ammal
.ommission and has consulted on human and animal #eha%ior and learnin$ for or$ani?ations
ran$in$ from -8S8 to the -ational /oolo$ical +ark. She is a trustee of the .am#rid$e .enter for
!eha%ioral Sciences.
,er first #ook, #rsing !o#r Baby, has sold more than two million copies; her dau$hter 0ale +ryor
has updated a re%ised edition. +ryor is also the author or coauthor of some thirty scientific papers.
She is the founder and .6O of Sunshine !ooks, "nc., a #eha%ioral pu#lishin$ company.
+ryor has three children, si@ $randchildren, and a !order terrier. She li%es in the !oston area.
Gisit Iaren +ryor(s home pa$e www.clickertrainin$.com for a listin$ of #ooks, %ideos, clickers. For
a free catalo$, please call 1=9JJ=3H=.<".I or F8O H91=1C9=JH;1