Introduction to Precipitators (Back to top)

An electrostatic precipitator is a large, industrial emission-control unit. It is

designed to trap and remove dust particles from the exhaust gas stream of an
industrial process. Precipitators are used in these industries:
Power/Electric
Cement
Chemicals
Metals
Paper

In many industrial plants, particulate matter created in the industrial process is
carried as dust in the hot exhaust gases. These dust-laden gases pass through an
electrostatic precipitator that collects most of the dust. Cleaned gas then passes
out of the precipitator and through a stack to the atmosphere. Precipitators
typically collect 99.9% or more of
the dust from the gas stream.
Precipitators function by
electrostatically charging the dust
particles in the gas stream. The
charged particles are then attracted
to and deposited on plates or other
collection devices. When enough
dust has accumulated, the collectors
are shaken to dislodge the dust,
causing it to fall with the force of
gravity to hoppers below. The dust is then removed by a conveyor system for
disposal or recycling.
Depending upon dust characteristics and the gas volume to be treated, there are
many different sizes, types and designs of electrostatic precipitators. Very large
power plants may actually have multiple precipitators for each unit.
Basic Principles (Back to top)
Electrostatic precipitation removes particles from the exhaust gas stream of an
industrial process. Often the process involves combustion, but it can be any
industrial process that would otherwise emit particles to the atmosphere. Six
activities typically take place:
Ionization - Charging of particles
Migration - Transporting the charged particles to the collecting surfaces
Collection - Precipitation of the charged particles onto the collecting
surfaces
Charge Dissipation - Neutralizing the charged particles on the collecting
surfaces
Particle Dislodging - Removing the particles from the collecting surface
to the hopper
Particle Removal - Conveying the particles from the hopper to a disposal
point
Troubleshooting
Checklists
Available
Documents
Precipitator Tutorial
1 - ESP Operation
2 - ESP Components
3 - ESP Design Parameters
4 - ESP Design Review
5 - Industrial Applications
for ESPs
6 - ESP Operation &
Maintenance
Product Manuals
The major precipitator components that accomplish these activities are as follows:
Discharge Electrodes
Power Components
Precipitator Controls
Rapping Systems
Purge Air Systems
Flue Gas Conditioning

Design & Performance Requirements (Back to top)
Designing a precipitator for optimum performance requires proper sizing of the
precipitator in addition to optimizing precipitator efficiency. While some users
rely on the precipitator manufacturer to determine proper sizing and design
parameters, others choose to either take a more active role in this process or hire
outside engineering firms.
Precipitator performance depends on its size and collecting efficiency. Important
parameters include the collecting area and the gas volume to be treated. Other key
factors in precipitator performance include the electrical power input and dust
chemistry.
Precipitator sizing
The sizing process is complex as each precipitator manufacturer has a
unique method of sizing, often involving the use of computer models and
always involving a good dose of judgment. No computer model on its
own can assess all the variables that affect precipitator performance.
Collecting Efficiency
Based on specific gas volume and dust load, calculations are used to
predict the required size of a precipitator to achieve a desired collecting
efficiency.
Power Input
Power input is comprised of the voltage and current in an electrical field.
Increasing the power input improves precipitator collecting efficiency
under normal conditions.

Process Variables (Back to top)
Gas characteristics and particle properties define how well a precipitator will
work in a given application. The main process variables to consider are:
Gas flow rate
The gas flow rate in a power plant is defined by coal quality, boiler load,
excess air rate and boiler design. Where there is no combustion, the gas
flow rate will have process-specific determinants.
Particle size and size distribution
The size distribution in a power plant is defined by coal quality, the coal
mill settings and burner design. Particle size for non-combustion
processes will have similar determinants.
Particle resistivity
The resistivity of fly ash or other particles is influenced by the chemical
composition and the gas temperature.
Gas temperature

Following are details of these process variables:
1. Gas Flow Rate
A precipitator operates best with a gas velocity of 3.5 - 5.5 ft/sec. At
higher velocity, particle re-entrainment increases rapidly. If velocity is
too low, performance may suffer from poor gas flow distribution or from
particle dropout in the ductwork.
2. Particle Size
A precipitator collects particles most easily when the particle size is
coarse. The generation of the charging corona in the inlet field may be
suppressed if the gas stream has too many small particles (less than 1
m).
Very small particles (0.2 - 0.4m) are the most difficult to collect
because the fundamental field-charging mechanism is overwhelmed by
diffusion charging due to random collisions with free ions.
3. Particle Resistivity
Resistivity is resistance to electrical conduction. The higher the
resistivity, the harder it is for a particle to transfer its electrical charge.
Resistivity is influenced by the chemical composition of the gas stream,
particle temperature and gas temperature. Resistivity should be kept in
the range of 108 - 1010 ohm-cm.
High resistivity can reduce precipitator performance. For example, in
combustion processes, burning reduced-sulfur coal increases resistivity
and reduces the collecting efficiency of the precipitator. Sodium and iron
oxides in the fly ash can reduce resistivity and improve performance,
especially at higher operating temperatures.
On the other hand, low resistivity can also be a problem. For example (in
combustion processes), unburned carbon reduces precipitator
performance because it is so conductive and loses its electrical charge so
quickly that it is easily re-entrained from the collecting plate.
4. Gas Temperature
The effect of gas temperature on precipitator collecting efficiency, given
its influence on particle resistivity, can be significant.
5. Interactions to Consider
Particle size distribution and particle resistivity affect the cohesiveness
of the layer of precipitated material on the collecting plates and the
ability of the rapping system to dislodge this layer for transport into the
precipitator hopper without excessive re-entrainment.

About Discharge Electrodes (Back to top)
Discharge electrodes emit charging current and provide voltage that generates an
electrical field between the discharge electrodes and the collecting plates. The
electrical field forces dust particles in the gas stream to migrate toward the
collecting plates. The particles then precipitate onto the collecting plates.
Common types of discharge electrodes include:
Straight round wires
Twisted wire pairs
Barbed discharge wires
Rigid masts
Rigid frames
Rigid spiked pipes
Spiral wires

Discharge electrodes are typically supported from the upper discharge frame and
are held in alignment between the upper and lower discharge frames. The upper
discharge frame is in turn supported from the roof of the precipitator casing.
High-voltage insulators are incorporated into the support system. In weighted
wire systems, the discharge electrodes are held taut by weights at the lower end of
the wires.
About Collecting Plates (Back to top)
Collecting plates are designed to receive and retain the precipitated particles until
they are intentionally removed into the hopper. Collecting plates are also part of
the electrical power circuit of the precipitator. These collecting plate functions are
incorporated into the precipitator design. Plate baffles shield the precipitated
particles from the gas flow while smooth surfaces provide for high operating
voltage.
Collecting plates are suspended from the precipitator casing and form the gas
passages within the precipitator. While the design of the collecting plates varies
by manufacturer, there are two common designs:
Plates supported from anvil beams at either end
The anvil beam is also the point of impact for the collecting rapper
Plates supported with hooks directly from the precipitator casing
Two or more collecting plates are connected at or near the center by
rapper beams, which then serve as impact points for the rapping system

Top, center, or bottom spacer bars may be used to maintain collecting plate
alignment and sustain electrical clearances to the discharge system.
About Power Supplies and Controls (Back to top)
The power supply system is designed to provide voltage to the electrical field (or
bus section) at the highest possible level. The voltage must be controlled to avoid
causing sustained arcing or sparking between the electrodes and the collecting
plates.
Click here to view a precipitator power system animated schematic showing
representative components.
Electrically, a precipitator is divided into a grid, with electrical fields in series (in
the direction of the gas flow) and one or more bus sections in parallel (cross-wise
to the gas flow). When electrical fields are in series, the power supply for each
field can be adjusted to optimize operation of that field. Likewise, having more
than one electrical bus section in parallel allows adjustments to compensate for
their differences, so that power input can be optimized. The power supply system
has four basic components:

Automatic voltage
control
Step-up transformer
High-voltage rectifier
Sensing device
1. Voltage control
Automatic voltage
control varies the power
to the transformer-
rectifier in response to
signals received from
sensors in the precipitator and the transformer-rectifier itself. It monitors
the electrical conditions inside the precipitator, protects the internal
components from arc-over damages, and protects the transformer-
rectifier and other components in the primary circuit.
The ideal automatic voltage control would produce the maximum
collecting efficiency by holding the operating voltage of the precipitator
at a level just below the spark-over voltage. However, this level cannot
be achieved given that conditions change from moment to moment.
Instead, the automatic voltage control increases output from the
transformer-rectifier until a spark occurs. Then the control resets to a
lower power level, and the power increases again until the next spark
occurs.

Automatic Voltage Controllers (for Electrostatic Precipitators)
An electronic device used to control the application of D.C. power into a field of
an electrostatic precipitator. (PIC OF MVC4 FACE PANEL AND PIC OF
INTERFACE BOARD)
Theory
Optimize power application The primary purpose of a voltage controller is to
deliver as much useful electrical power to the corresponding electrostatic
precipitator field(s) as possible. This is not an easy job; electrical characteristics
in the field(s) are constantly changing, which is why a voltage controller is
required.
Spark reaction When the voltage applied to the electrostatic precipitator field
is too high for the conditions at the time, a spark over (or corona discharge) will
occur. Detrimentally high amounts of current can occur during a spark over if not
properly controlled, which could damage the fields. A voltage controller will
monitor the primary and secondary voltage and current of the circuit, and detect a
spark over condition. Once detected, the power applied to the field will be
immediately cut off or reduced, which will stop the spark. After a short amount of
time the power will be ramped back up, and the process will start over.
Protect system components by adhering to component limitations The
Transformer Rectifier set (TR set) can be damaged by excessive amounts of
current or voltage flowing through it. Each TR set has voltage and current limits
established by the manufacturer, which are labeled on an attached nameplate (PIC
OF A NAMEPLATE). These nameplate limit values (typically primary and
secondary current, and voltage) are programmed into the voltage controller.
Through metering circuits, the voltage controller will monitor these values, and
ensure these limits are not exceeded.
Tripping When a condition occurs that the voltage controller cannot control,
often times the voltage controller will trip. A trip means the voltage controller (by
way of the contactor) will shut off the individual precipitator power circuit. A
short inside the electrostatic precipitator field caused by a fallen discharge
electrode (wire), or a shorted out Silicone Controlled Rectifier are examples of
conditions that a voltage controller cannot control. (PIC OF CLOSE-UP OF TRIP
LIGHT ON MVC4 FACE PANEL)
Operation

To maximize electrostatic precipitator efficiency a voltage controller usually
attempts to increase the electrical power delivered to the field. However in some
conditions a voltage controller must just maintain power at a constant level.
Increased electrical power into the electrostatic precipitator directly correlates
with better precipitator performance, but there is a limit. If too much voltages is
applied for a given condition (as mentioned in the spark reaction section), a spark
over will occur. During a spark over precipitator performance in that field will
drop to zero, rendering that field temporarily ineffective.
To overcome the crippling effect that spark over has to increasing the electrical
power in the precipitator field, spark response algorithms have been developed
that will interrupt power upon detection of a spark, then ramp power back up to a
high level. These response algorithms can greatly influence overall precipitator
performance.
1. Transformer-Rectifiers
The transformer-rectifier rating should be matched to the load imposed
by the electrical field or bus section. The power supply will perform best
when the transformer-rectifiers operate at 70 - 90% of the rated capacity,
without excessive sparking. This reduces the maximum continuous-load
voltage and corona power inputs. Practical operating voltages for
transformer-rectifiers depend on:
o Collecting plate spacing
o Gas and dust conditions
o Collecting plate and discharge electrode geometry
At secondary current levels over 1500 mA, internal impedance of a
transformer-rectifier is low, which makes stable automatic voltage
control more difficult to achieve. The design of the transformer-rectifier
should call for the highest possible impedance that is commensurate with
the application and performance requirements. Often, this limits the size
of the electrical field or bus section.
It is general practice to add additional impedance in the form of a
current-limiting reactor in the primary circuit. This reactor will limit the
primary current during arcing and also improve the wave shape of the
voltage/current fed into the transformer-rectifier.
2. Corona current density
Corona current density should be in the range of 10 - 100 mA/1000 ft2
of plate area. (Calculate this using secondary current divided by
collecting area of the electrical field or bus section.) The actual level
depends upon:
o Location of electrical field or bus section to be energized
o Collecting plate area
o Gas and dust conditions
o Collecting electrode and discharge wire geometry

About Gas Distribution Systems (Back to top)
One electrical field or bus section of an electrostatic precipitator is by itself an
independent precipitator. Its operation is governed by the inlet gas and dust
conditions, as well as the collecting plate and discharge electrode geometries.
Within this electrical field or bus section, one gas passage is also an independent
precipitator - governed by the same factors. (Note that the gas passage shares the
voltage level with the adjacent gas passages of the same electrical field or bus
section, but not the corona current level, which can be different in each gas
passage.)
This points to the importance of creating similar gas and dust conditions 1) at the
inlet of each electrical field or bus section, and 2) further at the inlet of each gas
passage of the electrical field or bus section. Ideally, uniformity is desired in:
Gas velocity
Gas temperature
Dust loading
Gas velocity distribution can be most effectively influenced by the use of gas
distribution devices.
The quality of gas velocity distribution can be measured in a scaled-down model
of the precipitator and its ductwork, and also in the precipitator itself. Typical
criteria are based on ICAC (Institute of Clean Air Companies) recommendations
using average gas velocities or on a calculated RMS statistical representation of
the gas velocity pattern.
In general, gas distribution devices consist of turning vanes in the inlet ductwork,
and perforated gas distribution plates in the inlet and/or outlet fields of the
precipitator.
About Rapping Systems (Back to top)
Rappers are time-controlled systems provided for removing dust from the
collecting plates and the discharge electrodes as well as for gas distribution
devices (optional) and for hopper walls (optional). Rapping systems may be
actuated by electrical or pneumatic power, or by mechanical means. Tumbling
hammers may also be used to dislodge ash. Rapping methods include:
Electric vibrators
Electric solenoid piston drop rappers
Pneumatic vibrating rappers
Tumbling hammers
Sonic horns (do not require transmission assemblies)
1. Discharge Electrode Rapping
In general, discharge electrodes should be kept as free as possible of
accumulated particulate. The rapping system for the discharge electrodes
should be operated on a continuous schedule with repeat times in the 2 -
4 minute range, depending on the size and inlet particulate loading of the
precipitator.
2. Collecting Plate Rapping
Collecting plate rapping must remove the bulk of the precipitated dust.
The collecting plates are supported from anvil beams or directly with
hooks from the precipitator casing. With anvil beam support, the impact
of the rapping system is directed into the beams located at the leading
and/or trailing edge of the collecting plates. For direct casing support, the
impact is directed into the rapper beams located at or near the center of
the top of the collecting plates.
The first electrical field generally collects about 60-80% of the inlet dust
load. The first field plates should be rapped often enough so that their
precipitated layer of particulate is about 3/8 - 1/2" thick. There is no
advantage in rapping more often since the precipitated dust has not yet
agglomerated to a sheet which requires a minimum layer thickness.
Sheet formation is essential to make the dust drop into the precipitator
hopper without re-entrainment into the gas stream. Rapping less
frequently typically results in a deterioration of the electrical power input
by adding an additional resistance into the power circuit. Once an
optimum rapping cycle has been found for the first electrical field (which
may vary across the face of a large precipitator), the optimum rapping
cycles for the downstream electrical fields can be established.
The collecting plate rapping system of the first field has a repeat time T
equal to the time it takes to build a 3/8 - 1/2"layer on the collecting
plates. The plates in the second field should have a repeat time of about
5T, and the plates in the third field should have a repeat time of 25T.
Ideally, these repeat times yield a deposited layer of 3/8-1/2" for the
plates in all three fields. Adjustment may be required for factors such as
dust resistivity, dust layer cohesiveness, gas temperature effects,
electrical field height and length, and the collecting area served by one
rapper.
3. Gas Distribution Plate and Hopper Wall Rapping
The gas distribution plates should also be kept free of excessive
particulate buildup and may require rapping on a continuous base with a
cycle time in the 10-20 minute range, depending on the inlet particulate
loading of the precipitator and the nature of the particulate. Gas
distribution plates in the outlet of the precipitator may be rapped less
often (every 30 - 60 minutes).
4. Improving Rapping System Performance
All precipitator rapping systems allow adjustment of rapping frequency,
normally starting with the highest frequency (the least time between
raps), progressing to the lowest frequency. The times that are actually
available may be limited. Rapping systems with pneumatic or electric
actuators allow variations of the rapping intensity. Pneumatic or electric
vibrators allow adjustments of the rapping time. State-of-the-art rapper
controls allow selection of rapping sequences, selection of individual
rappers, and provide anti-coincidence schemes which allow only one
rapper to operate at a given time.

Rapping systems can be optimized for top precipitator performance using
precipitator power input and stack opacity as criteria. Optimization of the rapping
system starts with the discharge electrode rapping system operating on its own
time schedule, for example with repeat times of 2 - 4 minutes. The rapping system
for the gas distribution screens in the inlet and outlet of the precipitator should
then be operated with repeat times of 2-3 minutes for the inlet and 2 - 3 hours for
the outlet screens.
The only rapping system requiring optimization is the collecting plate rapping
system. The optimization should start with the Collecting Plate Rapping Schedule
determined above. Next, the rapping frequency of the inlet field should be
increased or decreased until the electrical power input of the inlet field remains
constant. Next, the rapping frequency of the other fields should be adjusted in
sequence until their electrical power inputs remain constant. If the stack opacity
trace shows rapping spikes, the rapping intensity should be reduced while
observing the electrical power input of the precipitator.
The adjustment of the rapping system for optimum precipitator performance is a
slow process. It requires a substantial amount of time for stabilization after each
adjustment.
About Hoppers (Back to top)
Precipitator hoppers are designed to completely discharge dust load on demand.
Typically, precipitator hoppers are rectangular in cross-section with sides of at
least 60-degree slope. These hoppers are insulated from the neck above the
discharge flange with the insulation covering the entire hopper area. In addition,
the lower 1/4- 1/3 of the hopper wall may be heated. Discharge diameters are
generally 8" - 12".
1. Insulation
Insulation provides protection for facility personnel as well as working
to retain as much hopper wall temperature as possible. Hopper wall
temperature retention discourages condensation on the inside of the
hopper. Heaters are added to ensure hot metal surfaces immediately
above the fly ash discharge.
2. Facilitating hopper discharge
Hopper discharge problems are caused by compaction of the fly ash in
the hopper. Compaction characteristics are affected by moisture content,
particle size and shape, head of material, and vibration. The flow of fly
ash out of the hopper can be facilitated by the use of external vibrators.
These can operate on the outside wall of the hopper or on an internal
hopper baffle.
3. Hopper fluidizers
Hopper fluidizers have a membrane that permits air flow to the fly ash
directly above. This air flow fills the voids between the fly ash particles
at a slight pressure, changes the repose angle of the particles, and
promotes gravity flow.
4. Ash handling system
The fly ash handling system evacuates the fly ash from the hoppers, and
transports the fly ash to reprocessing or to disposal. The ash handling
system should be designed and operated to remove the collected fly ash
from the hoppers without causing re-entrainment into the gas flow
through the precipitator. The design of the ash handling system should
allow for flexibility of scheduling the hopper discharges according to the
fly ash being collected in these hoppers.

Either the precipitator hopper or the feeder hopper is used for temporarily storing
material prior to discharge. Three types of handling systems are in use:
Negative pressure or vacuum system
Connects to the hopper by a simple discharge valve
Positive pressure dilute phase system
Uses an airlock-type feeder; the feeder is separated from the hopper by
an inlet gate and from the conveying line by a discharge gate
Positive pressure dense phase system
Connects to the hopper with an airlock type feeder.

About Ductwork (Back to top)
Ductwork connects the precipitator with upstream and downstream equipment.
The design of the ductwork takes into consideration the following:
Low resistance to gas flow
Achieved by selecting a suitable cross-section for the ductwork and by
installing gas flow control devices, such as turning valves and flow
straighteners
Gas velocity distribution
Gas flow control devices are used to maintain good gas velocity
distribution
Minimal fallout of fly ash
Fallout can be minimized by using a suitable transport velocity
Minimal stratification of the fly ash
A suitable transport velocity also reduces fly ash stratification in the gas
stream
Low heat loss
The goal is to reduce the heat loss of the flue gas to a level that will
prevent acid or moisture condensation in the downstream equipment,
requiring the use of thermal insulation protected by external siding.
Structural integrity
Ductwork structure supports its total load, including wind and snow
loads. The design also allows for accumulated fly ash, negative/positive
operating pressure, and gas temperature. Expansion joints are used to
accommodate thermal growth.

About Gas Velocity Distribution (Back to top)
Efficient precipitator performance depends heavily upon having similar gas
conditions at the inlet of each electrical field or bus section and at the inlet of each
gas passage of the electrical field or bus section. Uniformity of gas velocity is
also desirable - good gas velocity distribution through a precipitator meets these
requirements:
85% of all measured gas velocities < 1.15 times the average gas velocity
99% of all measured gas velocities < 1.40 times the average gas velocity
1. Improving Gas Velocity Distribution
The gas velocity distribution in a precipitator can be customized
according to the design of the precipitator and the characteristics of the
dust particles. Traditionally, precipitators have been designed with
uniform gas velocity distribution through the electrical fields, to avoid
high-velocity areas that would cause re-entrainment. While this is still a
recommended practice, there is an advantage in some cases to
developing a velocity profile that brings more particles closer to the
hopper.
Both of these schemes have applications in site-specific conditions. Gas velocity
distribution can be controlled by the following:
Adding/improving gas flow control devices in the inlet ductwork
Adding/improving flow control devices in the inlet of the precipitator
Adding/improving flow control devices in the outlet of the precipitator
Adding a rapping system to the flow control devices (where applicable)
Adding/improving anti-sneak baffles at the peripheries of the electrical
fields
Adding/improving hopper baffles
Eliminating air leakages into the precipitator

About Re-entrainment (Back to top)
Reducing rapping re-entrainment to an acceptable level generally requires a
substantial improvement of the gas velocity distribution and the electrical power
density and uniformity, as well as an extended optimization program for the
collecting-plate rapping system.
Factors Affecting Re-entrainment
Re-entrainment of collected particles is the major contributor to particulate
emissions of the precipitator. In some cases, re-entrainment accounts for 60 - 80%
of the residual. The major causes of re-entrainment are as follows:
Particles: Low cohesiveness
Low adhesion to collecting plates
Particle size
Low resistivity
Voltage
Controls:
Spark rate setting
Design: Collecting plate design
Discharge electrode design
Plate spacing
Rapping
System:
Frequency
Intensity
Duration (if applicable)
Electrical
Field:
Collecting plate and discharge electrode rapping
Sparking
Saltation
Erosion (localized high gas velocity)
Sneakage
Hopper: Hopper design
Leakage (hopper valve)
Hopper gas flow

About Corona Power (Back to top)
Precipitator corona power is the useful electrical power applied to the flue gas
stream to precipitate particles. Either precipitator collecting efficiency or outlet
residual can be expressed as a function of corona power in Watts/1000 acfm of
flue gas, or in Watts/1000 ft of collection area.
The separation of particles from the gas flow in an electrostatic precipitator
depends on the applied corona power. Corona power is the product of corona
current and voltage. Current is needed to charge the particles. Voltage is needed
to support an electrical field, which in turn transports the particles to the
collecting plates.
In the lower range of collecting efficiencies, relatively small increases in corona
power result in substantial increases in collecting efficiency. On the other hand, in
the upper ranges, even large increases in corona power will result in only small
efficiency increases.
Equally, in the lower range of the corona power levels, a small increase in the
corona power results in a substantial reduction in the gas stream particle content.
In the upper range of the corona power level, a large increase is required to reduce
the particle content.
Optimizing Corona Power
Optimum conditions depend upon the location of the field (inlet, center and
outlet), fly ash characteristics (resistivity) and physical conditions (collecting
plates and discharge wires). Corona power levels can be optimized by adjusting
or optimizing the following:
Gas
velocity:
Uniformity

Fly Ash:
Particle size Resistivity
Voltage
Controls:
Spark rate setting
Current & voltage limits
Design: Plate spacing
Collecting plate & discharge electrode design
Rapping
System:
Frequency & intensity
Support
Insulator:
Purge air system operation

About Performance Improvements (Back to top)
Improvement or optimization of precipitator operation can result in significant
savings. Many specific situations encourage a review of precipitator operation:
Deterioration of existing equipment
Tightening of air pollution emission regulations
Changes in products and/or production rates
Frequent forced outages
De-rating of production
To learn more about performance improvement programs, refer to the appropriate
section:
Gas Velocity Distribution
Corona Power
Re-entrainment
Process Improvements
Flue Gas/Fly Ash Conditioning
Equipment Improvements

Equipment Improvements (Back to top)
The objectives of equipment improvements are to optimize corona power, reduce
re-entrainment, and optimize gas velocity distribution inside the precipitator.
Some important topics to consider when planning equipment improvements
include:
1. Precipitator Size
When sizing the precipitator, it is important to provide a cross-section
that will maintain an acceptable gas velocity. It is also important to
provide for enough total discharge wire length and collecting plate area,
so that the desired specific corona current and electrical field can be
applied.
2. Gas Velocity Distribution
Improving gas velocity distribution in the precipitator reduces particle
re-entrainment and boosts precipitator efficiency. Typically, a uniform
gas velocity is desired, but there are site-specific exceptions. Gas
velocity distribution can be modified by using flow control devices and
baffles. Refer to the special section on gas velocity distribution.
3. Corona Power
The separation of dust particles from the gas flow in an electrostatic
precipitator depends on the applied corona power. Corona power is the
product of corona current and voltage. Current is needed to charge the
particles. Voltage is needed to support an electrical field, which in turn
transports the particles to the collecting plates. For additional
information, refer to Corona Power.
4. Sectionalization
The precipitator is divided into electrical sections that are cross-wise and
parallel to the gas flow to accommodate spatial differences in gas and
dust conditions. Optimization of corona power involves adjusting the
corona power (secondary voltage and current) in each electrical section
for optimum conditions.
5. Particle Re-entrainment
Minimizing re-entrainment of dust particles is important to improvement
of precipitator efficiency. Most precipitator equipment affects the re-
entrainment level. For a detailed discussion, visit the special section on
re-entrainment.
6. Additional Equipment
Performance improvement options include the installation of a second
precipitator in series with the existing precipitator; using fabric filters
downstream of the precipitator; and adding a second particle collector in
parallel with the existing collector. Other possibilities include sonic or
electrostatic particle agglomerators upstream of the precipitator; a
mechanical upstream collector; or an electrostatically-enhanced or
mechanical collector, or a filter downstream of the precipitator.
7. Review the General Equipment Requirements
Reviewing the Neundorfer Knowledge Base sections on equipment will
provide additional insight into performance improvements.
For more information, see these related topics:

Gas Velocity Distribution
Corona Power
Re-entrainment
Discharge Electrodes
Collecting Plates
Power Supplies
Gas Distribution
Rapping Systems
Hoppers and Dust Handling
Ductwork

Combustion Process Improvements for Power Plants (Back to top)
Combustion process conditions mainly affect the corona power level. The
primary contributors to combustion process conditions and their effects include:
Coal
Flue gas flow rate
Flue gas moisture content
Fly ash resistivity
Fly ash inlet loading
Fly ash particle size
Coal mills
Fly ash particle size
Unburned carbon (LOI)
Furnace
Base load/swing load operation
Flue gas flow rate
Burners
Flue gas temperature
Fly ash resistivity
Unburned carbon (LOI)
Air pre-heaters
Rotation
Gas flow pattern
Gas temperature pattern
SO
3
distribution pattern

Coal

Bituminous coals from Eastern mines, sub-bituminous and lignite coals from
Western mines, and lignites from Texas mines are substantially different from
each other in the combustion process. Coal blending is now used for operational
and financial benefits. This results in a wide range of boiler and precipitator
operating conditions.
Precipitating fly ash from difficult coals can be improved with conditioning
systems. However, the furnace and its associated equipment can still cause
problems in the precipitator, particularly coal mills, burners, and air pre-heaters.

Coal Mills

The setting of the coal mills and classifiers defines the coal particle size which in
turn impacts the fly ash particle size. Larger coal particles are more difficult to
combust, but larger fly ash particles are easier to collect in the precipitator.

Furnace

Base-load operation of the boiler is usually better for precipitator operation than
swing-load operation due to more stable operating conditions. Boiler operation at
low loads may be as problematic for the precipitator as operating the boiler at its
maximum load level, due to fallout of fly ash in the ductwork, low gas
temperatures, and deterioration of the quality of the gas velocity distribution.
If low load operation cannot be avoided, the installation of additional gas flow
control devices in the inlet and outlet of the precipitator may prove beneficial.

Coal Burner

The operation of coal burners, together with the setting of the coal mills and their
classifiers, affects the percentage of unburned carbon (LOI or UBC) in the fly
ash. The use of Lo-NOx burners increases this percentage, and causes re-
entrainment and increased sparking in the precipitator. Further, the UBC tends to
absorb SO
3
, which in turn increases the fly ash resistivity. Over-fire air
optimization or coal-reburn systems may reduce UBC in the fly ash.

Air Pre-heater

Regenerative air pre-heaters cause temperature and SO
3
stratification in the
downstream gas flow. This problem is more severe in closely coupled systems,
where the precipitator is located close to the air pre-heater. Depending upon site-
specific conditions, flow mixing devices may be installed in the ductwork to the
precipitator, or flue gas conditioning systems may be used to equalize the gas
flow characteristics.

Fly Ash and Flue Gas Conditioning (Back to top)
Flue gas and fly ash characteristics at the inlet define precipitator operation. The
combination of flue gas analysis, flue gas temperature and fly ash chemistry
provides the base for fly ash resistivity. Typically, fly ash resistivity involves both
surface and volume resistivity. As gas temperature increases, surface conductivity
decreases and volume resistivity increases.
In lower gas temperature ranges, surface conductivity predominates. The current
passing through the precipitated fly ash layer is conducted in a film of weak
sulfuric acid on the surface of the particles. Formation of the acid film (from SO
3

and H
2
O) is influenced by the surface chemistry of the fly ash particles.
In higher gas temperature ranges, volume conductivity predominates. Current
conduction through the bodies (volume) of the precipitated fly ash particles is
governed by the total chemistry of the particles.
Fly ash resistivity can be modified (generally with the intent to reduce it) by
injecting one or more of the following upstream of the precipitator:
Sulfur trioxide (SO
3
)
Ammonia (NH
3
)
Water

Sulfur Trioxide and Ammonia Conditioning Systems
In most cases, a sulfur trioxide conditioning system is sufficient to reduce fly ash
resistivity to an acceptable level. The source of sulfur trioxide can be liquid sulfur
dioxide, molten elemental sulfur, or granulated sulfur. It is also possible to
convert native flue gas SO
2
to SO
3
.
In some instances, ammonia alone has been proven a suitable conditioning agent.
It forms an ammonia-based particulate to increase the space charge. The source of
ammonia may be liquid anhydrous or aqueous ammonia, or solid urea.
Finally, sulfur trioxide and ammonia may be used in combination. This solution
has been successful because it can lower fly ash resistivity and also form
ammonia bisulfate. The latter increases the adhesion of particles, and thus reduces
re-entrainment losses.
Water Injection
The injection of water upstream of the precipitator lowers the gas temperature and
adds moisture to the flue gas. Both are beneficial in cold-side precipitator
applications. However, care must be taken that all of the water is evaporated and
that the walls in the ductwork or gas distribution devices do not get wet.