JOURNAL O !

GEOCHIMICAL
EXPLORATION
ELSEVI ER Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 409~,28
Structural controls and genesis of epithermal gold-
bearing breccias at the Lebong Tandai mine,
Western Sumatra, Indonesia
David H. Jobson, Clive A. Boulter, Robert P. Foster
Department of Geology, University of Southampton, Southampton S09 5NH, UK
(Received 31 August 1993; accepted after revision 28 October 1993)
Abstract
Lebong Tandai is a low-sulphidation, volcanic-hosted epithermal gold deposit of Neogene age,
located within the foothills of the Barisan Mountains, Sumatra. To date, the mine has produced
approximately 40 t onnes of gold and 400 tonnes of silver. The mineralisation is exclusively in the
form of tabular quartz-cemented breccias bodies which are localised along faults. The breccias
comprise angular to sub-rounded clasts of the wallrocks and earlier barren breccias cemented by
banded or massive quartz, and in many instances, the clasts are supported within the quartz cement.
The sulphide minerals occur as either a single cockade band around the clasts in the breccia, or as
polymineralic aggregates disseminated throughout the breccia cement. The mai n precious-metal-
bearing phase is electrum, with silver-sulphosalts and silver-tellurides also present. Highly variable
concentrations of pyrite, sphalerite, galena and chalcopyrite are associated with the precious-metal
phases.
With the exception of two mi nor lodes, the mineralised breccias are localised along strike-slip
faults which display changes in orientation indicative of D-, R- and P-shears and T-fractures, with
individual segments ranging from a few metres to a few hundred metres in length. Two strike-slip
fault systems are recognised, one sinistral, trending east -west and the other dextral, trending northwest,
the latter of which is parallel to the Sumatran Fault System. The majority of gold and silver production
is from breccias localised along faults formed duri ng the sinistral tectonism. The breccias are believed
to have been generated duri ng compressional reactivation of the east -west sinistral strike-slip faults
in response to the subduction of the Indi an-Aust ral i an plate beneath Sumatra. Supralithostatic fluid
pressures are a necessary pre-requisite for such reactivation, and the sudden drop in fluid pressure
duri ng reactivation is thought to have resulted in both the formation of the breccias by hydraulic
fracturing, and the deposition of amorphous silica, precious metals and base metal sulphides. High
rates of fluid flow subsequent to fracturing are thought to have led to fluidisation of the breccia clasts
and abrasion to their current morphologies.
Microthermometry of fluid inclusions in sphalerite indicates that the mineralising fluids were of
low salinity, less than 3 wt% NaClequ~va~e,t, and that mineralisation took place at temperatures of 260-
0375-6742/94/$07.00 1994 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved
SSDI 0375- 6742( 93) EOO43- V
410 D.H. Jobson et al. / Journal of Geochemi cal Exploration 50 (1994) 409- 428
280C. Variations of salinity and homogenisation temperature due to boiling are poorly developed,
although if boiling occurred, the metalliferous minerals would have been deposited early in the boiling
process before the fluid had cooled appreciably.
1. I nt roduct i on
The Lebong Tandai gold deposit is located in the Bengkulu province of Sumatra, Indo-
nesia, at latitude 0301 ' 48.20" south, longitude 10151 '39.19" east (Fig. 1 ). Gold and silver
ores in the area have been expoited since the fourteenth century by both local and Hindu
miners, although modem mining methods were not initiated until the Dutch company M.M.
Simau commenced mining in 1910 (Van Bemmelen, 1949). During the period 1900 until
1940 the Bengkulu province was the most important producer of gold and silver in what
was then the Dutch East Indies, with most of the gold production coming from the Lebong
Tandai (then called Simau) and Lebong Donok mines. During this period, Lebong Tandai
produced approximately 37 tonnes of gold and 422 tonnes of silver, with Lebong Donok
producing slightly more gold (41 tonnes) and approximately half as much silver (228
tonnes). Gold production ceased at the start of World War Two, although copper was mined
2S0km
PLATE
CONVERGENCE
N
!
Fig. 1. Location map of the Lebong Tandai mine, showi ng the locations of the Sumat ran Fault Syst em, the Sumat ra
Trench and the Lebong Donok deposit. The large arrow represents the direction of convergence of the I ndi an-
Australian and Eurasian plates.
D.H. Jobson et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 409~428 41 I
at Lebong Tandai by the Japanese u.ntil the end of the war. No large-scale mining was then
undertaken until the mine was re-opened in 1983 by CSR Minerals Ltd. The mine is currently
operated by P.T. Lusang Mining, and produces approximately 110,000 tonnes of ore per
year at an average grade of 8.8 g/ t gold and 42 g/ t silver (Iskander, 1990).
Much of the previously published work was undertaken when the Dutch operated the
mine, and is written in Dutch. A general account of the deposit was given by Van Bemmel en
(1949) and more recently, the results of a preliminary structural appraisal of the mineral-
isation were presented by Harris (1989).
2. Regional geology
Much of the geology of Sumatra is influenced by the past and present subduction of the
Indian-Australian Plate along the Sunda subduction syst em (Hami l t on, 1979). Relative to
the Eurasian plate, the Indian-Australian plate is movi ng northwards, resulting in oblique
subduction along the northwest-trending Sumatran sector of the arc. The most obvious
products of subduction are the Barisan Mountains, a continental-based volcanic arc which
extends the entire length of Sumatra and rises to altitudes in excess of 4000 m. A discontin-
uous line of northwest-trending straight river valleys and intermontane depressions is trace-
able for virtually the entire length of the Barisan Mountains, effectively defining the
Sumatran Fault System, a series of dextral strike-slip faults which parallel the Sumatra
trench, and lie some 300 km inland of it (Fig. 1 ). The Sumatran Fault System forms the
northeast boundary of a prism of lithosphere, the other boundaries of which are the trench
to the southwest, and the subducting oceanic crust at the base. The oblique subduction of
the Indian-Australian plate beneath the Eurasian plate results in the whole prism movi ng
northwestwards relative to the craton of northeast Sumatra and Malaysia (Hami l t on, 1979),
the movement being taken up along the Sumatran Fault System. Total offset along the
Sumatran Fault Syst em has been estimated at between 130 km and 400 krn. The Lebong
Tandai mine is located approximately 20 km west of the Sumatran Fault System, within the
allochthonous crustal block.
The oldest rocks in the mine are the Old Andesites of Van Bemmel en (1949), which are
now termed the Hul usi mpang and Painan Formations, and dated as Oligocene to Lower
Miocene in age ( Gaf oer and Purbo-Hadiwidjoyo, 1986). They are overlain by a series of
volcaniclastic conglomerates, agglomerates and tufts of Miocene age. The host rocks have
undergone very little deformation, folding being rarely observed, and overall, the strata dip
gently towards the northwest. Polymict volcaniclastic conglomerates are the most com-
monly observed host rock. They compri se angular to rounded volcanic rock clasts contained
in a generally fine-grained matrix. The clasts are usually poorly sorted, matrix supported,
and range in size up to 15 cm. The youngest rocks observed are Pliocene to Pleistocene
volcaniclastics which unconformabl y overlie the earlier strata, and apparently post-date the
mineralised breccias.
Rhyolite occurs as vertically-oriented, dyke-like bodies up to I m in thickness, particularly
at the west end of the mine. They are usually spatially associated with the mineralisation,
often empl aced along the structures which have localised the orebodies. Their empl acement
412 D.H. Jobson et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 409-428
clearly pre-dates the mineralisation, as blocks of rhyolite are observed within the mineralised
breccias.
3. Wallrock alteration
The wallrocks are typically silicified within 1-2 m of the mineralised breccias. Sericitic
alteration, comprising pyrite, illite and mi xed-l ayer illite-smectite, is dominant in zones
15-20 m wide around the orebodies. The mixed-layer illite-smectite compri ses 75- 80%
illitic layers, and systematic variations in composition are not observed with increasing
distance from the orebody. The composition of mi xed-l ayer illite-smectite is temperature
dependent, although illite-smectite comprising 80% illite suggests temperatures of approx-
imately 200-220C (J.W. Hedenquist, pers. commun. , 1993) which is at least 50C less
than temperatures indicated by fluid inclusions studies of the mineralised breccias. This
suggests either that thermal equilibration of the hydrothermal fluids and the wallrocks did
not occur, possibly due to the short-lived nature of the hydrothermal events, or that the
composition of the illite-smectite is controlled by a factor other than temperature, probabl y
the chemistry of the fluid and the wallrocks. Chlorite and pyrite occur in virtually all of the
wailrock lithologies, even 150-200 m from the mineralised breccias, possibly indicative of
wide-scale propylitic alteration.
4. Description of orebodies
Gol d- si l ver mineralisation at Lebong Tandai occurs entirely as quartz-cemented breccias
which contain variable concentrations of base metal sulphides, chlorite, adularia and calcite.
The breccias form a broadly continuous series of mainly steeply-dipping tabular bodies
(Fig. 2). Individual breccia bodies may be up to 700 m in length and up to 6m wide,
although 1-2 m is more common. Known vertical extents are up to 500 m (Fig. 2). The
breccia bodies are highly discordant to the bedding in the host volcaniclastics, and commonl y
display well defined, planar hangingwall and footwall contacts with the host rocks. Where
such contacts are observed, either di p-sl i p or strike-slip striations are common. In places,
however, both di p-sl i p and strike-slip striations may be observed on a single surface, or
the footwall and hangingwall contacts may display striations of different orientations. Planar
contacts are not always observed, and breccias may display a planar footwall contact, with
the hangingwall contact being an irregular zone of quartz veining up to 1 m wide where the
intensity of veining decreases away from the orebody.
4. 1. Br e c c i a t y pe s
The breccias at Lebong Tandai are ext remel y heterogeneous, both along the strike of the
mineralised structures and within individual lodes, although there does not appear to be any
systematic spatial distribution of the breccia types. The breccias compri se angular to sub-
rounded clasts of the wallrocks cemented by quartz. The clasts range widely in size, and
may be up to I m in diameter, although most are between 5 cm and 20 cm. Silicified chloritic
D.H. Jobson et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 409- 428 413
Magazine l O N G SECTION Lu~Ri ver
Lo d e S l m s n A
Ae r N o a r O s l a m ::i:i:i:i:i:i:i: : i : i : i : i : i : i : i J ' ~ = 4 , v . . . ,
T ~ l a l
PLAN
~ _ 7 ~ . . ~ - ~ ~ * Manazine
"' , , - . - - t- . 41rob ~ X ~
Aer Noar Aer Noar
Eu t Derek
~ " L Kip $a tu
Siman 7s" ~ "
I DeJern t ~
Tandal Lode Lus a n g
, ,500m , River
Lode
EUitu
Fig. 2, Long section and plan view of the Lebong Tandai mi ne showi ng the locations of the different orebodies.
The stippled areas on the long section are areas of past and present production; the 6 and 8 level drives are shown
for reference. The plan view shows the positions of the mineralised breccia bodies on 6 level, and the dips of the
orebodies are indicated.
volcaniclastic clasts are the most common, and rhyolite clasts are locally common within
Aer Noar East. Most of the clasts display variable amounts of pre-mineralisation quartz
veining and brecciation, and clasts of quartz-cemented breccias are ubiquitous.
4.2. Cockade breccias
These breccias are the most abundant, and are typified by cockade bands of quartz with
chlorite and/ or base metal suiphides around the clasts (Fig. 3), and crustiform bands,
particularly of quartz and sulphide minerals, along one or both of the margins of the orebody.
The morphol ogy of the quartz varies from chalcedonic to comb-textured, and alternating
bands of different grain size are typical (Fig. 4). Quartz bands range in thickness from < 1
mm to 20 mm, although chalcedonic quartz bands are usually thinner than those composed
of comb-t ext ured quartz. Chalcedonic quartz commonl y displays col l oform banding, result-
ing in fine-scale botryoidal or reniform textures. Bands of comb-t ext ured quartz are usually
a single layer of quartz crystals oriented orthogonal to their substrate (Fig. 4). Adularia
forms up to 10% of the breccias and occurs as rhomb-shaped crystals within the bands of
comb-t ext ured quartz.
Quartz is commonl y accompani ed by a single polymineralic band of sulphide minerals
usually less than 4 mm in thickness (Fig. 4) . In breccias which display cockade sulphide
bands, not all of the clasts have sulphide rims, although there is no correlation between the
presence of sulphide minerals and the composition of the clast. The sulphide minerals are
usually associated with fine-grained ( = 50/ xm) quartz, and typically comprise 1-2% of
the breccias.
Cockade bands of chlorite cemented by fine-grained quartz may be up to 4 mm in
414 D. tl. Jobson et al. / Jour nal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 409- 428
Fig. 3. Cockade breccia from Lusang River Lode. The sulphide minerals form one of the dark bands around the
clasts, the remainder of the dark bands comprising chlorite. Cockade quartz bands are visible around all of the
clasts. Note the earlier brecciation and quartz veining visible in some of the clasts.
thickness. The margins of the chlorite bands are commonl y irregular in morphology, usually
as a result of the irregular nature of the quartz substrate on which they occur. Chlorite is
normally associated with finer-grained quartz bands, and has not been observed in contact
with sulphide bands. In breccias where cockade sulphide bands do not occur, the chlorite
bands may contain sulphide minerals.
4.3. Disseminated-sulphide breccias
Some breccias do not display banding and the sulphide minerals are disseminated through-
out the cement of the breccias (Fig. 5). The clasts are typically of similar shape, size and
composition to those in the cockade breccias, although they may have a much higher cement
to clast ratio and are commonl y cement supported. The cement is composed of quartz of
variable morphology, ranging from very fine-grained, virtually cryptocrystalline silica to
relatively coarse, equant or euhedral grains. The quartz forming the cement of disseminated-
sulphide breccias is usually massive, with quartz bands rarely present. Where coarser quartz
occurs, vugs up to I 0 mm in diameter may be observed.
The mi neral ogy and paragenesis of the disseminated-sulphide breccias is the same as for
the cockade breccias, with the sulphide minerals occurring either as polymineralic aggre-
gates up to 10 mm in diameter, or as isolated grains up to 2 mm in diameter. The sulphide
mineral content of these breccias is very variable, with 1-2% sulphides typical, although
D.H. .lobson et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 409-428 415
Fig. 4. Photomicrograph of cockade quartz bands around a clast of earlier vein quartz (bottom). Note the variable
morphology of the banded quartz, and the band of opaque sulphide minerals at the top of the photograph. Cross-
polarised light. Field of view 5.44 ram.
t hey may f or m up to 75% of the cement of some breccias. Sul phi de-ri ch brecci as occur
l ocal l y in all parts of the mine, al t hough t hey are usually very limited in extent. In Lebong
Baru, however, brecci as compri si ng a mi ni mum of 30% sulphide minerals ext end for at
least 40 m bot h vertically and hori zont al l y, and in some cases virtually the entire cement of
the brecci a may compri se sulphide minerals. These sul phi de-ri ch brecci as at Lebong Baru
are of l ower gol d grade than the brecci as el sewhere in the mine, al t hough Lebong Baru is
the onl y area where there is a definite correl at i on bet ween l ow gol d grade and hi gh sulphide
mi neral content.
Chlorite is commonl y observed di ssemi nat ed t hroughout the cement of disseminated-
sulphide breccias. Wher e the quart z cement of the brecci as is very fine-grained, the chlorite
occurs as rounded inclusions up to 2 0 0 / x m in di amet er within the quartz, resulting in a
promi nent green col ourat i on of t he brecci a cement . I n brecci as where the quart z cement is
more coarsel y grained, discrete grains of chlorite up to 5 mm in di amet er are observed.
Chl ori t e usual l y f or ms 5- 10% of the cement of the breccias, al t hough chl ori t e-ri ch brecci as
occur where up t o 50% of the cement may be chlorite i nt ergrown wi t h fine- to medi um-
grai ned quartz. In these breccias, sulphide mi neral s are associ at ed wi t h bot h chlorite and
quartz.
Bot h varieties of brecci a cont ai n amet hyst i ne quartz and carbonat e whi ch post -dat e the
brecci at i on process. Amet hyst i ne quart z is usual l y obser ved within vugs in the brecci as,
where the t ermi nat i ons of comb- t ext ur ed quart z cryst al s are t ypi cal l y purple in col our.
416 D.H. Jobson et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 409--428
Fig. 5. Disseminated-sulphide breccia from Lebong Baru. The sulphide minerals form the dark areas within the
quartz cement of the breccia. Post-mineralisation quartz veining has fractured the elongate clast at the bottom of
the sample.
Calcite also occurs within vugs in the breccias where it forms crystals up to 20 cm in
diameter.
5. Structural interpretation
The orebodies at Lebong Tandai form three essentially east -west -t rendi ng segments:
Lebong Baru, Tandai Lode, and Aer Noar / Aer Noar East ( Fig. 2). Between these segments
are the northeast-trending Lusang Ri ver Lode and Derek Satu orebodies, and a relatively
unmineralised area containing only the minor Siman Lodes (Fig. 2). This pattern closely
resembles that of a low-displacement strike-slip system, where straights, which are parallel
to the shear zone boundaries, step both to the left and the right. The style of segmentation
and the nature of orientation changes within the straights (e.g. Tandai Lode; Fig. 6)
strengthens the compari son with strike-slip tectonics, which is also compat i bl e with the
widespread strike-parallel striations. Unfortunately, the available kinematic indicators do
not provide independent evidence for the sense of movement on the east - west shear zone.
Despite this, discrimination is straightforward because the central and eastern straights are
linked by the steeply dipping northeast-trending Lusang Ri ver and Derek Satu lodes. Only
sinistral shear could result in this geometry, as dextral shear would only generate shallowly
dipping contractional faults with a northeast strike. Thus, the Lusang Ri ver Lode- Der ek
D.H. Jobs on et al. / Jour nal o f Geochemi cal Expl orat i on 50 ( 1994) 4 0 9 - 4 2 8 417
TAN D AI LO D E
R
R . . . . . R R . . . . .
R . P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . / ~
D ' k:~m '
Fig. 6. Composite plan of the mineralised breccias on 6 level (continuous line) and 8 level (dashed line) of
Tandai Lode (see Fig. 2) which are localised along the east-west sinistral fault system. The different shear
orientations are indicated. Shafts are shown as black squares.
AER NOAR A BLOCK
7 - ; ..............
T X
MINERAUSED EAST-WEST
SINISTRAL SYSTEM
MINERALISED NORTHWEST
. . . . DEXTRAL SYSTEM
AMBIGUOUS ORIENTATIONS
N
Fig. 7. Plan view of the mineralised breccia bodies in Aer Noar East and Aer Noar on 8 level. Breccias are localised
along both the east-west-trending sinistral and northwest-trending dextral fault systems. The orientations of the
different shears are indicated, based on comparisons with Tchalenko diagrams for the two strike-slip shear-zone
orientations.
Satu link is a dilational j og where the separation of the straights is approximately 200 m,
and the lodes are parallel to the tensional fracture direction.
Interpretation of the step from Tandai Lode to Aer Noar East is complicated by the lack
of continuity of the mineralisation. This step, which involves a separation of 650 m, could
either be entirely an anti-dilational j og where the east-west system stepped to the right, or
solely the result of cross-faulting generated in sympathy with the Sumatran fault. Although
some combination of the two is likely, the lack of significant northwest-trending faults in
the drives between Siman Dalam and Magazine Lode suggests that the j og is the major
contributor to the step. Extensive zones of 030 - and 060-trending quartz stockwork and
silicification in the unmineralised section have geometries indicative of subsidiary shears
of the Sumatran Fault, but these would not result in direct northwest dextral offsets between
Siman Dalam and Magazine Lode. The intermediate dip of the Siman Dalam oreboby is
probably the result of its formation within an anti-dilational jog with a significant contrac-
tional component.
Variations in the orientation of the mineralised breccia bodies occur on all scales, with
individual segments varying in length from a few metres (Fig. 7), to tens or even hundreds
of metres (Fig. 6). When the orientations of the lodes are compared to the predicted
418 D.H. Jobson et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 409~128
orientations of fractures within shear zones, it is clear that approxi mat el y 75% of the total
strike length of mineralised breccias corresponds to D-, R- and P-shears and T-fractures ( as
defined by Tchalenko and Ambraseys, 1970) of the sinistral strike-slip fault system,
although the total production from lodes localised along these faults is much higher than
this because of the greater depth of mining in Tandai Lode. The east -west -t rendi ng lodes
are localised along D-shears, which are parallel to the strike of the shear zone. Lodes that
trend approxi mat el y 075 are along R-shears, whilst those which trend 105 are localised
along P-shears (Fig. 8). Poles to the northeast-trending T-fractures cluster around a bearing
of 135 . The angles between the groupings representing the D-, R- and P-shears are approx-
imately 15 (Fig. 8). This is in close agreement with the orientations predicted by the
models of Tchalenko and Ambraseys (1970), if the angle of internal friction (~b) is 30 , a
good average for most rocks (Bartlett et al., 1981 ). Thus, it appears that no transpression
or transtension occurred.
The orientations of Siman A, Lebong Kip and parts of Aer Noar East C block ( Fig. 7 )
do not correspond well with those predicted for a sinistral system. They are, however,
consistent with the predicted orientations of a northwest-trending strike-slip fault system.
The sense of movement of this fault system cannot be constrained on the basis of its
geometry. However, its average orientation is 316 , virtually parallel to the 320 trend of
the adjacent segment of the dextral Sumatran Fault System, and anything other than dextral
movement along it would require a highly improbable re-alignment of regional stresses
within Sumatra. Within Aer Noar East C block, D-, R- and P-shears of this syst em are
mineralised (Fig. 7; Fig, 8), and the shallowly-dipping Siman A orebody is a reverse fault.
Lebong Kip is localised along R- and X-shears. No T-fractures are observed within the
dextral system.
East-west-trending
sinistral system
N
n
Northwest-trending
dextral system
N
Fig. 8. Lower-hemisphere equal-area stereographic projections of downward-pointing poles to mineralised breccias
localised along both fault systems. The clusters relating to different shear orientations are labelled.
D,H. Jobson et al. / Journal c~' Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 409~128
6. Mineralogy of the mineralised breccias
419
The mineralised brecci as compri se quartz and sulphide minerals, t oget her with chlorite
and adularia in some instances. Whi l st quartz and chlorite are spatially and t emporal l y
associated with the base metal sulphides and preci ous-met al -beari ng phases, adularia is
associ at ed with quartz whi ch is paragenet i cal l y later than the mineralisation. Truscottite
( Ca~4Si 2aOss( OH) s. 2H20) , the t ype locality of whi ch is Lebong Donok, has not been
observed in the mineralised breccias at Lebong Tandai.
The concent rat i on of base metal sulphides within the breccias is hi ghl y variable, rangi ng
from < 1% to virtually 100% of the cement. El ect rum is the onl y gol d-beari ng phase present
in the mineralisation, with additional silver sulphosalts and silver tellurides. Preci ous-met al -
bearing minerals usually form less than 1% of the metalliferous minerals, with the remai nder
being base metal sulphides, principally pyrite, chal copyri t e, sphalerite and galena. Within
individual brecci a samples, all of the base metal sulphides are usually present, al t hough the
relative amount s of each of mineral vary greatly.
Grains of sulphide minerals are up to 5 mm in diameter, al t hough the larger grains are
t ypi cal l y aggregat es of smaller grains. Wher e i nt ergrown sulphide minerals occur, the
textures indicate repl acement has taken place al ong rounded fronts, resulting in lobate
embayment s of the later mineral in the earlier one (Fig. 9). Bet ween these lobate embay-
Fig. 9. Reflected light photomicrograph showing typical ore mineral textures from Lebong Tandai. Pyrite (Py)
was deposited first, followed by galena (GI), chalcopyrite (Cp), acanthite (Ac) and electrum (El). Later sphalerite
(Sp) partially replaces all of the earlier base-metal sulphides and electrum. Field of view I. 15 mm
420 D.H. Jobson et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 409~128
ments, the early mineral remains as cuspate relics which are often completely isolated as
irregularly shaped inclusions with cuspate morphologies.
Pyrite was the first of the base metal sulphides to be deposited, and where crustiform
bands of base metal sulphides occur, pyrite forms the earliest of the bands. Pyrite may occur
as euhedral grains, although more commonly it is subhedral in morphology. Pyrite grains
are of variable size, although most are between 250/ xm and 2 mm in diameter. They are
usually surrounded by later base metal sulphides, with some replacement, especially by
galena and sphalerite. Replacement of pyrite by chalcopyrite is less pronounced, and pyrite
which is completely enclosed within chalcopyrite often shows no evidence for replacement.
Where the sulphides are enclosed by chlorite, pyrite is the most abundant sulphide mineral
observed and is typically euhedral or subhedral.
Galena and chalcopyrite usually occur together and are intergrown. They form irregularly
shaped grains, and the boundaries between them are commonl y very irregular. The textures
do not indicate the consistent replacement of one mineral by the other and are thought to
represent contemporaneous deposition of the galena and chalcopyrite.
Sphalerite was the last of the base metal sulphides to be deposited, and the partial
replacement of the earlier base metal sulphides by sphalerite is typically observed ( Fig. 9).
Sphalerite forms irregularly shaped aggregates of grains up to 6 mm in diameter, or indi-
vidual grains which are up to 2 ram. The sphalerite is translucent, with a pale-brown to
honey-yellow colour, and electron microprobe analysis indicates the iron content to be less
than 1.5 wt%. Coiour zoning of the sphalerite is usually very poorly developed. Chalcopyrite
inclusions in the sphalerite mostly occur as trails, although some sphalerite grains display
marginal zones rich in chalcopyrite inclusions.
Precious-metal-bearing phases are closely associated with the base metal sulphides, and
all of the base- and precious-metal-bearing phases were deposited during a single mineral-
ising event. Electrum is associated with all of the base metal sulphides, either as inclusions
within them (Fig. 9), along the boundary between adjacent grains, or on the surface of
pyrite. It also occurs as isolated grains within the quartz matrix of the breccias, and associated
with chlorite. Electrum grains are typically rounded or elongate in morphology, and up to
200 /xm in diameter. Where electrum is observed in the quartz matrix of the breccias,
individual grains or groups of grains are often completely isolated within a single quartz
grain, indicating that quartz deposition paragenetically overlapped the deposition of elec-
trum. Electrum within chlorite may either be associated with sulphide minerals in the chlorite
or occur as isolated inclusions. Inclusions of electrum in chlorite tend to be small (less than
50/ xm) , and rounded or irregular in shape.
As electrum occurs in spatial association with all of the base metal sulphides, it is difficult
to place it within the paragenetic scheme. However, it appears that the deposition of electrum
was synchronous with that of the pyrite, chalcopyrite and galena. The composition of the
electrum grains ranges from 49 to 72 wt% gold, although the gold content is virtually
constant throughout individual grains.
Acanthite is the main silver-sulphosalt present, with pearceite and members of the pear-
ceite-polybasite solid-solution series also evident. They are found in association with the
base metal sulphides and precious-metal phases (Fig. 9) or within the quartz matrix of the
breccias, and do not replace any of the base metal sulphides, although they may be partially
replaced by chalcopyrite and sphalerite. The silver-sulphosalt grains are usually irregular
D.H. Jobson et al. / Journal of Geochemi cal Exploration 50 (1994) 4 0 9 4 2 8 421
in shape, especially when intergrown with other minerals. The acanthite contains up to 7
wt% selenium, indicating that it may contain fine-scale lamellae of aguilarite (Petruk et al.,
1974).
Hessite (Ag2Te) and cervelleite (AgaTeS; Criddle et al., 1989) are the only telluride
phases which have been observed. Hessite typically occurs as rounded inclusions, up to 50
/~m in diameter, in galena or sphalerite, although it can form larger grains intergrown with
the base metal sulphides. Grains of hessite which are intergrown with the base metal
sulphides are usually irregular in shape, and up to 200/ zm in diameter. Cervelleite has only
been observed as inclusions in galena, or within hessite inclusions in galena. Cervelleite
inclusions in hessite are up to 10/ xm in length, and typically irregularly shaped, whilst
inclusions of cervelleite in galena are rounded in morphology, and up to 20/ xm in diameter.
Fine-scale intergrowths of late-stage covellite and digenite are common within some
samples, although their occurrence is sporadic. They commonl y form rims up to 40/ xm
thick around the base metal sulphides, or veinlets within them. They are rarely seen in
association with galena, and covellite or digenite rims around sphalerite or chalcopyrite
often terminate against galena grains.
7. Fluid inclusion studies
When thin sections of the quartz matrix of the breccias are viewed under cross-polarised
light, many of the quartz crystals display anomalous, pl umose extinction (Fig. 10). This
results from the presence of small quartz crystallites arranged in a radial pattern around the
c-axis of the quartz crystal, so that each of the quartz crystallites has a different maxi mum
extinction position. In some samples from Lebong Tandai, the quartz crystallites are
restricted to a zone around the margins of quartz crystals (Fig. 10), whilst elsewhere the
entire crystal may be composed of quartz crystallites. Where the plumose quartz forms only
the margins to quartz crystals, the core of the crystal is usually optically homogenous,
displaying neither anomalous extinction nor refractive index variations. The cores of the
crystals may be euhedral, although they are mostly irregular in morphology.
Plumose textures are thought to result from the recrystallisation of originally amorphous
or cryptocrystalline silica to form crystalline quartz (Sander and Black, 1988). This would
result in fluid inclusions within the quartz which were not representative of the conditions
of deposition of the original silica minerals (Sander and Black, 1988). Microthermometric
analysis of fluid inclusions in quartz did not yield any meaningful data and so fluid inclusions
in sphalerite were analysed, as these should provide evidence of the conditions of base
metal, and hence gold, mineralisation.
7.1. Petrography of fluid inclusions in sphalerite
Fluid inclusions within sphalerite are of variable size and morphology. Individual inclu-
sions are up to 50/ xm in diameter, although the majority are between 5/ xm and 15 /xm.
Fluid inclusions of two different morphologies are recognised. The most abundant are
rounded, either roughly spherical, ellipsoidal or elongate in shape. Less frequent are inclu-
sions with angular morphologies which are usually multi-faceted, the different facets appar-
422 D.H. Jobson et a l . / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 409~128
Fig. 10. Transmitted light photomicrograph of the quartz cement of the breccias. The cores of the crystals are
optically homogenous, whilst the margins display plumose extinction. The dark spots seen within both the cores
and the margins of the crystals are fluid inclusions, although recrystallisation of the quartz means that these
inclusions are unlikely to be indicative of the conditions of mineralisation. Cross-polarised light. Field of view
1.36 ram.
Table I
Characteristics of fluid inclusions in sphalerite from Lebong Tandai
Type Characteristics
A Isolated inclusions conforming to primary criteria of Roedder (1984).
Trails of inclusions parallel to edges of crystals or colour banding.
Inclusions in trails at high angles to the edges of crystals or colour banding.
Conform to criteria for secondary inclusions (Roedder, 1984).
Inclusions in trails which are parallel to trails of chalcopyrite inclusions.
Individual inclusions occurring in same trail as chalcopyrite inclusions.
May be attached to chalcopyrite inclusions.
e nt l y c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o c l e a v a g e f a c e s o f t he hos t s phal er i t e. Th e y ma y a dopt ve r y i r r egul ar
and c o mp l e x s ha pe s , but do not a ppe a r t o r e p r e s e n t a di f f e r e nt p o p u l a t i o n o f i nc l us i ons , as
t r ai l s c o n t a i n i n g bot h r o u n d e d a nd a ngul a r i nc l us i ons ar e obs e r ve d.
Th r e e d i f f e r e n t mo d e s o f o c c u r r e n c e o f i nc l us i ons ha ve be e n r e c o g n i s e d , a nd ar e s um-
ma r i s e d i n Ta bl e 1. The mo s t a b u n d a n t f l ui d i nc l us i ons are a que ous , us ual l y c o n t a i n i n g
D.H. Jobson et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 409-428 423
both liquid and a vapour phase. Thei r degrees of fill are variable, ranging from 0.50 to 0.95,
with most between 0.70 and 0.85. Monophase inclusions are relatively rare. Where seen,
they are usually dark in appearance, and occur in association with the primary inclusions.
They may contain predominantly vapour, with refractive index variations between the
vapour and the sphalerite resulting in diffraction of light along the vapour-sphal eri t e inter-
face, and thus accounting for their dark appearance.
Microtbermometric analysis of fluid inclusions was undertaken on samples from through-
out the mine, although Tandai Lode, which is now largely worked out and inaccessible,
could not be sampled. The ice which forms in the inclusions upon freezing has a refractive
index very close to that of the fluid, and recognition of the temperature of first melting of
the ice proved impossible. Laser Raman analysis of the inclusions did not reveal the presence
of any volatile phases above the mi ni mum detection limits of the microprobe. Although the
detection limits are dependent on the size and depth within the sample of individual inclu-
sions, Raman analysis indicates that the volatile content of the inclusions is less than 1
mol e% (e.g. about 2.5 wt% CO2, the dominant gas in the epithermal environment; Hed-
enquist and Henley, 1985).
Microthermometric data from Aer Noar East A bl ock are presented in the form of
histograms and bivariate plots in Fig. 11. The fluid inclusions which were analysed are from
10 and 11 level in Aer Noar East A block, corresponding to depths of 300-350 m below
the current surface. Primary ( Type A) inclusions have degrees of fill of 0.60 to 0.95.
Hi st ograms of homogenisation temperature indicate the presence of two mean homogeni-
sation temperatures, one at 220-230C and one at 270-280C. The majority of the high-
temperature pri mary inclusions have salinities of approximately 2 wt% NaClequiwlem. The
lower temperature inclusions have salinities ranging from 2 to 5.5 wt% NaClequiv,te m. Sec-
ondary, Type B, inclusions form a well defined cluster on bivariate plots of salinity versus
homogenisation temperature. Homogenisation temperatures are between 220 and 250C,
with a mean at 230-240C. Salinities range from 2. 5-4 wt% NaCl equi val e m. Chalcopyrite-
associated, Type C, inclusions also display two means on histograms of homogenisation
temperature, one at 230-240C and a higher temperature mean at 280-290C. The low
temperature inclusions have salinities of 2- 4 wt% NaClequivalent whilst the higher temperature
inclusions have salinities of approximately 2 wt% NaCleqmva~cm. The low temperature appar-
ent primary inclusions are interpreted as being secondary inclusions which have been mis-
identified, and mineralisation occurred at temperatures of 270-280C. The chalcopyrite-
associated fluid inclusions comprise both primary and secondary inclusions, indicating that
the formation of chalcopyrite inclusions in sphalerite occurred both during the deposition
of the sphalerite and during post-sphalerite activity.
Trends of salinity and homogenisation temperature which may be indicative of boiling
are not evident from the microthermometric data. The high-temperature chalcopyrite-asso-
ciated inclusions record a slight increase in salinity with decreasing homogenisation tem-
peratures, possibly indicative of the concentration of solutes due to steam loss. The
mi crot hermomet ri c data from other areas of the mine are very similar to that from Aer Noar
East A block, although pri mary inclusions from Aer Noar East C bl ock display homogen-
isation temperatures of 30(O320C, with salinities between 1 and 1.5 wt% NaCleqmval~,,.
Elsewhere in the mine, homogenisation temperatures are in the range 260-280C, with
salinities between 1 and 3wt% NaCl~q,+v~m. Siman A records homogenisation temperatures
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D.H. Jobson et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 4 0 9 4 2 8 425
of approxi mat el y 250C, although this is believed to be a function of the more shallow
palaeodepths of the mineralisation in this area ( 200 m below the present surface). Possible
boiling trends are rarely observed in the mi crot hermomet ri c data from the other mine areas
studied, although in Lebong Baru salinity decreases by approxi mat el y 1.5 wt% over a very
narrow range of homogenisation temperatures (less than 20C). This may result from the
loss of dissolved CO2, which acts as a solute, to the vapour phase during boiling (Hedenquist
and Henley, 1985). The dark, apparently monophase fluid inclusions may contain the vapour
exsolved from such a boiling fluid, although analysis of these inclusions has proved impos-
sible, and such a conclusion is tentative at best.
Boiling point versus depth relationships, as tabulated by Haas ( 1971 ), indicate that a 2
wt% NaC1 solution at 270C would boil approxi mat el y 600 m below the watertable, assum-
ing that the confining pressure was hydrostatic. The presence of even small amounts of CO2
in the hydrothermal fluid would increase this depth. Thus there has been at least 250 to 300
m of erosion in the area since mineralisation.
8. Genesi s of t he mi neral i sed brecci as
The east - west trending sinistral fault cannot be a Riedel-shear of the Sumatran Fault
System, as this is not consistent with both the observed orientation and the inferred sense
of movement . Instead it may be the result of domi ng of the Barisan Mountains (Harris,
1989). The northwest-trending dextral system is parallel to the Sumatran Fault System, and
is a response to nort h-sout h relative motion of the Indi an-Aust ral i an plate with respect to
Sumatra and Asia.
Of maj or importance in developing a structural model of a deposit is the relative timing
of mineralisation and tectonism. If mineralisation occurs synchronously with strike-slip
faulting, high rates of fluid-flow would occur in dilational areas, especially tension fractures,
and along the intersection of different shear segments of the fault. Such enhanced fluid-flow
may lead to high-grade mineralisation on dilational segments, fault intersections, and at 90
to the slip direction. Conversely, i f the mineralising fluids merel y utilised a pre-existing
fault as a high permeability pathway, pronounced high-grade oreshoots in these orientations
would not be expected, although some grade-enhancement may occur at the junction of two
segments of different orientations. In both cases there may be considerable variations in the
grade of the mineralisation from one planar segment to another.
Within the sinistral system, many potentially dilational zones occur, the most obvious of
which are the tensional fractures at Lusang Ri ver Lode and Derek Satu. Dilation would also
occur where active faulting stepped from D- to R-shear or T-fracture orientations, such as
can be seen in Tandai Lode (Fig. 6). Ha ms (1989) stated that the mineralisation within
the dilational j og at Lusang River Lode and Derek Satu compri sed syntaxial quartz veins,
citing this as evidence that mineralisation was syntectonic with the east - west sinistral
tectonism. In the current study, syntaxial quartz veins were not observed, and no consistent
differences in the style, mineralogy, or gold-grade of the breccias were found between lodes
of different orientations; zones which must have been dilational during east - west sinistral
faulting do not display enhanced gold-grades. Contouring of gold-grades recorded within
stopes localised along the east - west fault systems does not indicate the presence of steeply-
426 D.H. Jobson et al. / Journal of Geochemi cal Exploration 50 (1994) 409~128
plunging higher-grade oreshoots where the orientation of the mineralisation changes, sug-
gesting that mineralisation was not synchronous with east -west -ori ent ed sinistral st ri ke-
slip tectonism, contrary to the interpretation of Harris (1989).
The di p-sl i p striations on the surfaces of many of the original strike-slip faults indicate
that they were reactivated, and Turvey (1984) recorded reverse offsets. Nort h-sout h com-
pression would not lead to the reactivation of the east -west -t rendi ng faults under conditions
of normal crustal fluid pressure, although greatly enhanced fluid pressure would allow the
reactivation of such severely mis-oriented faults. In order to reactivate faults at high angles
( > 55 ) to the maxi mum compressive stress, the fluid pressure must exceed the vertical
stress (Sibson et al., 1988), which is equal to the lithostatic load. To accumulate suprali-
thostatic fluid pressures, the original strike-slip faults must have been sealed to the migration
of hydrothermal fluids. Silica deposited along the faults would act as a seal and prevent the
preferential mineralisation of the northwest-trending dextral faults. As the fluid pressure
below the silica seal increased, pressurised fluid would be forced into fractures in both the
silica seal and the wallrocks. Di p-sl i p reactivation of the fault, probabl y in response to
increasing shear stress, would result in a drop in the pressure of the fluid along the fault
plane, and the fluid contained in the fractures in both the silica seal and the wallrocks being
overpressured relative to the fluid along the fault plane. Subsequent explosive decompres-
sion of this fluid into voids created along the fault plane formed the breccia clasts by
hydraulic fracturing of the wallrocks and the silica seal. The occurrence of cement-supported
breccias suggest that, subsequent to the hydraulic fracturing, the ascent of the hydrothermal
fluids was rapid enough to fluidise the clasts, such that the frictional drag exerted by the
fluid on the clasts was sufficient to support them within the ascending hydrothermal fluid
( McCallum, 1985). Variable degrees of clast abrasion during fluidisation are likely to have
led to the sub-angular to sub-rounded morphologies which are now preserved (Phillips,
1972).
Rapid decompression of the hydrothermal fluid is likely to have resulted in boiling if the
confining pressure of the fluid dropped below its vapour pressure. Boiling is likely to be
isoenthalpic ( Dr ummond and Ohmoto, 1985), and deposition of the base- and precious-
metal phases from the hydrothermai fluids probabl y occurred in response to the loss of
volatiles, specifically H2S and CO2, during boiling. The loss of these volatiles occurs early
in the boiling process, before the hydrothermal fluid has cooled appreciably, so the narrow
band of sulphide minerals around many of the clasts represents a restricted temperature
interval. Primary fluid inclusions contained in sphalerite are thus indicative of only the early
stages of boiling of the fluid, and would not be expected to record large variations in
homogenisation temperature, resulting in possible boiling trends being very poorly devel-
oped. The presence of adularia within the comb-textured quartz bands is consistent with
boiling (Browne, 1978). The deposition of adularia paragenetically after the sulphide
minerals may reflect an increase in the pH of the mineralising fluid to values above that
where adularia is stable. I f due to boiling, this pH increase is a response to the loss of CO2
during boiling, although the late occurrence of the adula:ria does not prove that boiling
occurred during the earlier deposition of the precious metals and base metal sulphides.
Rapid decompression of a hydrothermal fluid will lead to supersaturation of the fluid
with silica and the rapid deposition of amorphous silica from solution (Fournier, 1985).
As fluid velocities waned, fluidisation of the clasts was no longer possible, leading to the
D.H. Jobson et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 409~428 427
formation of cement-supported breccias. The re-crystallisation of amorphous silica to the
currently observed varieties of quartz may have occurred in response to elevated geothermal
gradients due to extensive magmatic activity during the Neogene, although elevated tem-
peratures are not a prerequisite for such recrystallisation.
The reasons for the absence of orebodies in the region between Siman Dalam and
Magazine Lode are not clear. I f no steeply dipping faults existed in the area, as would occur
if the area represents an anti-dilational step-over within the sinistral system, there would be
few structures which could be reactivated under conditions of elevated fluid pressure.
Additionally, high fracture permeability due to the presence of subsidiary Sumatran fault-
related fractures allowed a more dispersed fluid flow, resulting in the formation of the
observed zones of quartz stockwork and silicification. I f east -west trending faults are present
in this area, they may have prevented significant fluid pressure increases, and hence fault
reactivation and brecciation, from occurring.
9. Conclusions
The mineralised breccias at the Lebong Tandai mine are hosted by a series of volcanic
and volcaniclastic rocks of Neogene age. The ore-bearing breccias comprise clasts of the
wallrocks and earlier barren breccias cemented by quartz of variable morphology, together
with precious-metal bearing phases, base metal sulphides, adularia and chlorite. The pres-
ence of adularia and chlorite within the breccias, together with a halo of sericitic alteration
around the mineralisation indicates that the deposit is low-sulphidation in character, as
defined by White and Hedenquist (1990). Regional tectonics played a vital role in both the
localisation and formation of the deposit, and the geological structures did not simply act
as high permeability pathways for the mineralising hydrothermal fluid. Instead, compression
at high angles to pre-existing structures, combi ned with supralithostatic fluid pressures,
resulted in reverse reactivation of original strike-slip faults, with consequent hydraulic
brecciation and fluidisation of the clasts. The deposition of silica, base metal sulphides and
precious-metal minerals was in response to boiling associated with fluid decompression,
and was rapid enough to form cement-supported breccias before fluid velocities waned to
the extent that fluidisation of the clasts could not be maintained. Mineralisation took place
at temperatures of 260-280C from fluids that were of low apparent salinity, and at least
250-300 m deeper than the current levels of mineralisation, corresponding to depths of at
least 500-600 m below the palaeosurface.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank P.T. Lusang Mining, Billiton Compani es in Indonesia, and the Uni-
versity of Southampton, for their financial support in the course of this study. Additionally,
thanks are due to all the empl oyees of P.T. Lusang Mining and Billiton Compani es in
Indonesia l br their assistance and friendship during fieldwork at Lebong Tandai. We also
acknowledge Journal of Geochemical Exploration reviewers Stuart Simmons, Jeff Heden-
428 D.H. Jobson et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 4 0 9 4 2 8
q u i s t , T h e o v a n L e e u we n a n d Ya s u s h i Wa t a n a b e wh o s e c o mme n t s i mp r o v e d t h i s ma n u -
s c r i p t .
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