1

PS3880E
Human Trafficking in South East Asia

Group Research Report

Research Question: What challenges do non-governmental
organizations face in the effective reintegration of trafficked
children in Cambodia?

Daphne Goh A0070715L
Josephine Lee A0084338Y
Namira Nasir A0085181E
Rachel Chng A0078623Y


Submission date: 25 July 2014

Word Count: 7,739


2

3
Table of Contents
Executive Summary 4
1. Introduction 5
2. Why is Child Trafficking a Problem in Cambodia? 6
3. What is Effective Reintegration? 8
4. General Background - Cambodias Reintegration Industry 10
5. Limitations to Analysis 15
6. Literature Review 16
7. Key Findings
7.1 Lack of Substantial State Support and Collaboration
7.2 Lack of Strong Child Protection Mechanisms
7.2.1 Weak Protection in Legal Proceedings
7.2.2 Weak Child Protection Networks
7.3 Education
7.3.1 Poor Quality of National Education System
7.3.2 Lack of Access to Education and Rights
7.4 Lack of Skills and Funds
7.5 Familial Ties
17
17
19
20
21
23
23
24
26
29

8. Political Obstacles 30
9. Analysis and opportunities 32
10. Conclusion 34
Bibliography

4
Executive summary
Child trafficking is a form of human trafficking that is problematic on various
accounts, such as the extreme vulnerability of their social, cultural and economic
positions. We are particularly keen about understanding the reintegration of trafficked
children due to the extremely vulnerable positions that follow, or deepen, even after
being rescued. In this paper, we identified key obstacles in the reintegration efforts of
non-governmental organizations (NGOs). These obstacles present NGOs and the
Cambodian government not as hurdles that are insurmountable, but can be flipped on
its head to be points of intervention both in the procedural, as well as socio-political
process of reintegrating a trafficked victim. Furthermore, we concur that the current
focus on problems faced by NGOs in reintegration efforts deals with the symptoms of
child trafficking, and that a more effective gauge of their success has to focus on the
effectiveness and sustainability of the reintegrating a child back into a safe
environment.











5
1. Introduction
The protection of children from violence, exploitation and abuse is weak in most parts
of the world despite near universal ratification of the UN Convention on the Rights of
the Child (CRC).
1
This is largely due to the lack of parallel development between
improved legislation and changes in state and private capacities and practices. In
recent years, international legal instruments have been established to tackle the issue
of child trafficking and exploitation, such as The International Labor Organization
(ILO) Convention 182 on Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor and the
Trafficking Protocol to the Palermo Protocol on Transnational Organized Crime. Yet,
despite the number of international, national instruments and organizations to protect
the rights of the child, children still remain vulnerable to human rights abuses.
According to UNICEF, a total of 1.2 million children are trafficked every year.
2


In Cambodia, child trafficking occurs in a myriad of industries and sectors, such as
the fishing industry, sex trade, forced marriages and domestic servitude. Cambodian
children are also found to be begging, doing street work as well as being forced to
scavenge refuse of work in quarries.
3


Child trafficking is a form of human trafficking that is problematic on various
accounts, such as the extreme vulnerability of their social, cultural and economic
positions. We are particularly keen on studying the reintegration of trafficked children

1
. Landgren, Karin. "The Protective Environment: Development Support For Child
Protection." Human Rights Quarterly 27, no. 1 (2005): 214
2
UNICEF. "Trafficking." Child Protection Information Sheet .
http://www.unicef.org/protection/files/Trafficking.pdf (accessed July 23, 2014).
3
Cody, Claire. Reintegration of Victims of Trafficking: 'Towards' Good Practice in Cambodia.
Cambodia: The National Committee to Lead Suppression of Human Trafficking, Smuggling
Labour and Sexual Exploitation, 2012.
6
due to the extremely vulnerable positions that follow and/or deepen, even after being
rescued. Our research is thus focused on the obstacles present in the child reintegration
component with regards to helping trafficked children assimilate back into safe and
nurturing environments. We concur that the reintegration of trafficked children is the
most important aspect of dealing with the problems of human trafficking, yet it is also the
most problematic and cumbersome due to political inability and the lack of capacity, as
well as a reintegration process that is expensive and prolonged, well beyond the resources
and project-based work of non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Through our
research, we hope to uncover key points for intervention that may help pave the way
for a reintegration process that is better managed, executed, and monitored.

2. Why is child trafficking a problem in Cambodia?
In order to understand the problem of child trafficking in Cambodia, we need to first
understand the context that has propelled it to the forefront of our attention. The concept
of poverty is imperative in understanding why Cambodian children are at such high risk
of trafficking. Cambodias recent history, colored by massive violence and destruction
first during the civil war, followed by genocide during the Khmer Rouge regime under
Pol Pot, has left the society, economy and polity in ruins. As such, social and political
institutions, norms and practices have all but been destroyed to such a great extent that
even after 36 years since the Vietnamese liberation, the Cambodian society is still in the
midst of recovery from this horrific past and many people still live below the poverty line.
34% of the countrys population is estimated to be absolutely poor, concentrated in
remote rural areas, with an earning of less than US$1 per day
4
and lacking basic
amenities for survival. This means that one in every four child aged 0-59 months lived

4
Hong, Rathavuth, and Vinod Mishra. ", Effect of Wealth Inequality on Chronic Under-
nutrition in Cambodian Children." Journal of Health Population and Nutrition 24, no. 1
(2006): 89.
7
in the poorest 20% households.
5
This puts children in the lowest 20% of society at the
greatest risk of exploitation, abuse and violence that is often marginalized and
overlooked by the rest of society.

Although economy has been growing, income and welfare disparities are widening,
particularly between rural and urban areas,
6
highlighting the fact that growth does not
always trickle down the lowest rungs of society. Furthermore, the destruction of modes
of public service provisions under the Khmer Rouge regime meant that Cambodias
government systems remain unclear and discontinuous in its recovery and development,
exacerbating the problem of poverty through the lack of government and public health
service provisions. As a result, deprivation and vulnerability as outcomes of poverty
7
has
greatly increased the susceptibility of children in these communities to be subjected to
trafficking, exploitation and abuse.

In addition, families during the Khmer Rouge regime were taught that productive time
is spent on the field, not in the classrooms. Such legacies have influenced familial
relations in present day Cambodia. This mindset, coupled with poverty, drives families to
see children not as innocent and growing human beings with the need to be nurtured, but
as economic beings capable of earning keep for the family. As such, poverty has driven
families to contribute a supply of children for child labor in order to support family
livelihood.[U1] The focus on short term gains, immediate income generation to alleviate
poverty, at the expense of long term family planning, development of the child, has
resulted in the concept of children as laborers that exists in a feedback loop reinforcing
and perpetuating the cycle of exploitation, deprivation and vulnerability.

5
Ibid. 91.
6
. Varis, Olli. "Poverty, Economic Growth, Deprivation, and Water: The Cases of Cambodia
and Vietnam." AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment 37, no. 3 (2008): 227.
7
Ibid., 225.
8
3. What is effective reintegration?
Borrowing Reimar et al.s (Figure 1) phased model of reintegration, reintegration is a
process of recovery and socio-economic inclusion of children after a trafficking
experience that continues beyond ones reintegration back into his/her family or
alternative residence. It encompasses securing his/her internal well-being and
ensuring the environment the child is reintegrated back into is safe from any future re-
trafficking/abuses.
8


Figure 1: What is reintegration? (The National Committee to Lead Suppression of Human Trafficking,
Smuggling, Labour and Sexual Exploitation, 2012)

The reintegration of a child back into his/her community is vital for his/her
development because trafficked children, if not reintegrated, do not have a network of
support from families and friends, and will become vulnerable to traffickers threats
and exploitation. Trafficked victims may also be exposed to a range of health

8
Reimer, J.K., E. Langeler, Seng Sophea, and Sok Montha. The Road Home: Towards a
model reintegration and considerations for alternative care for children trafficked for sexual
exploitation in Cambodia. C: World Vision Cambodia, 2007. and Cody Claire, 2012. and
Muco, Ervin. "Trafficking in Human Beings: Paradigms of a Successful Reintegration into
Society (Albanian case)." European Scientific Journal 4 (2013): 93.
9
concerns
9
such as the lack of food, water, and unsanitary conditions. A goal of
reintegration is that an individual gains a sense of belonging and is treated and
respected equally as a member of the family and society.
10


In determining the success of reintegration that goes past family identification and
assessment, our analysis interest lie in exploring the factors that affect effective and
sustainable reintegration. This means that an evaluation of reintegration efforts has to
incorporate the idea of sustainable and effective reintegration that go past the
procedural nature of the reintegration process. Firstly, effective reintegration tries to
address the problem of reintegrating the child back to a safe environment that
prevents him/her being re-trafficked or exploited. Secondly, sustainable reintegration
points to the importance of keeping the child in the community for an extended period
of time that sees the opportunities for economic and social development of the child.
This means that attention, education, and support also need to extend to the family
and wider community in order for reintegration of the child to be deemed successful.




9
Ibid.
10
Cody Claire, 2012.
10
4. General Background - Cambodias reintegration industry
The Royal Government of Cambodia has taken significant steps in combating child
trafficking in the past decade, inching towards its fulfillment of Article 48 of the
Cambodian Constitution, as well as upholding the ratification of Article 19 of the
United Nations Convention of the Rights of the Child signed in 1992.
11


In order to meet its commitment to protect children, the Ministry of Social Affairs,
Veteran and Youth Rehabilitation (MOSAVY) works to reduce trafficking in
partnership with intergovernmental agencies such as IOM, UNHCR and UNICEF.
12

In its efforts to combat child trafficking, MOSAVY has established the Sub-
Committee on Combating Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation of Children in
December 2000.
13
The Royal Government of Cambodia has also set up the Anti-
trafficking and Reintegration Office (ATRO) in an effort to step up its commitment to
alleviate the problem of human trafficking.
14


Apart from government efforts to set up legal frameworks governing the state of
human trafficking, as well as official bodies to oversee the works of alleviating the
problem, there are scores of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that provide a
slew of services in the reintegration works of trafficked victims in Cambodia. For
example, World Vision Cambodia supports the victims including immediate
assistance to cover basic needs, counseling and medical assistance, sheltering for both

11
An Evaluation of the Anti Trafficking and Reintegration Programme of the Ministry of
Social Affairs, Veterans and Youth Rehabilitation, Cambodia. Phnom Penh: UNICEF, 2009.
12
"Cambodia Government Agency: Ministry of Social Affairs, Veteran and Youth
Rehabilitation." HumanTrafficking.org. http://www.humantrafficking.org/organizations/42
(accessed July 24, 2014).
13
Ibid.
14
An Evaluation of the Anti Trafficking and Reintegration Programme of the Ministry of
Social Affairs, Veterans and Youth Rehabilitation, UNICEF, 2009.
11
short and long term, vocational training, family tracing and assessment, capital for
income generating activity, legal support and follow up with the families of the
returnees.
15

Figure 2: Service mapping of both governmental and non-governmental organizations who reported to
the National Practitioner Forum of Reintegration of Victims of Human Trafficking and shows us what
type of service is provided.
16



15
World Vision Cambodia, and UNIAP, 2011.
16
Ibid.
12
Figure 2 presents a snapshot of NGOs who attended the National Practitioner Forum
of Reintegration of Victims of Human Trafficking in 2011, organized by World
Vision Cambodia (WVC) and UNIAP. Representatives from 159 NGOs, providing
reintegration services in immediate support and emergency, medical and
psychological support, shelter and interim care, vocational education, legal aid, and
community acceptance and integration attended the forum. Through a study of
findings presented in the Forum, it has helped us to better understand the type of
services that NGOs provide in Cambodia, as well as the areas that these services are
located in, mainly Phnom Penh and the border towns. It also points to the fact that the
reintegration industry in Cambodia consists of partnerships and dialogues among
government bodies, as well as international and local NGOs. According to the
International Journal of Not-for-Profit Law, there were 2,465 local NGOs, as well as
close to 300 international NGOs registered with the Ministry of Interior in 2011.
17

Even though informal NGO networks at the local level have contributed significantly
to the operations of rehabilitation, reconstruction, reintegration, and development of
localities, most of this cooperation remain at the dialogue level. There has been
negligible literature on the evaluation of effective and sustainable reintegration that
goes beyond the procedural problems faced by NGOs and government bodies.

In order to comply with Cambodian laws, most NGOs involved in reintegration works
follow the Reintegration and Follow up Programme guidelines set out by MOSALVY.
The 14-step process of reintegration is as follows:


17
Bunthoeurn, Ke. "Legal Framework of NGOs in Cambodia." The International Journal of
Not-for-Profit Law 13, no. 1-2 (2011).
http://www.icnl.org/research/journal/vol13iss1/art_1.htm (accessed July 24, 2014).

13
1. Pre-registration: 3 step case management process of Family Tracing, Family
Assessment, Social Support
2. Reintegration: 4 step process that requires the cooperation between the NGO and
the provincial social worker to go to the home of the client (child)
3. Follow Up Phase One: 3 step process for house visits with the NGOs and social
workers
4. Follow Up Phase Two: 4 step process after NGO is out of the picture, social
worker takes over the home visits and keeps the NGOs updated about the situation
of the client (child).

This 14 step process has been highlighted by NGOs working in the reintegration
sector, such as the Cambodian Organization for Children and Development (COCD),
as a cumbersome process that requires patience, willingness of volunteers, as well as
funds to complete it. Even though the Programme tries to encompass levels of
engagement by the NGOs and local officials in the effective reintegration of
trafficked children back to their communities, both NGOs and officials often lack
funds to ensure that the process is being monitored and executed in the best possible
way.

The Programme presents NGOs and organizations with procedural problems that slow
down the process of reintegration. Firstly, family tracing is not always successful due
to incorrect addresses as well as the remoteness
18
of locations. Furthermore, it is
difficult to locate victims as they often move from place to place.
19
Victim

18
Ibid.
19
ibid.
14
identification is still a challenge, as most Cambodian children living in rural remote
areas do not have birth certificates.
20


In addition, the Programme failed to provide provisions for rehabilitation of trafficked
children. Rehabilitation is a big hurdle for effective reintegration of trauma victims
due to treatment being given only at Takmao Hospital, Kandal Province, and the
Russia hospital, and the lack of psychosocial specialists, as well as the long wait to
receive treatment.
21


Even though the Programme presents a procedural problem of reintegration, we
concur in this paper that in order for effective and sustainable reintegration of
trafficked children to take place, there needs to be an analysis of the social and
political dimensions of the trafficking problem as well.












20
ibid.
21
ibid.
15
5. Limitations to Analysis
Our understanding of what makes reintegration of a child effective and sustainable
appears limited in light of local circumstances. For example, we have been informed
by a framework based on western ideals of childhood as a time of dependency and
innocence during which children are socialized by adults and become competent
social actors. Children who are not raised this way are considered victims who have
had their childhood stolen from them. This framework views universal concern for
children as transcending political and social divides, assumes a universally applicable
model of childhood development, and presupposes a consensus on what policies
should be in place to realize the best interest of the child.
22


However, this framework expounded by international NGOs working in Cambodia
have failed to capture the local nuances that are unique to Cambodia, such as the key
role poverty plays in prompting families and children to migrate in search for work.
Thus, there is need for a framework that takes into account both universality of child
rights protection and a localized perspective of the problem and its corresponding
solutions. The key findings in this paper point towards the localized problems faced
by NGOs working to effectively and sustainably reintegrate trafficked Cambodian
children.

22
Godziak, Elbieta M.. "On Challenges, Dilemmas, And Opportunities In Studying
Trafficked Children." Anthropological Quarterly 81, no. 4 (2008): 905.
16
6. Literature Review
Past research in the field of child trafficking has focused on describing the
characteristics and stories of victims and their families. There are far fewer studies
investigating the effectiveness of reintegration of children back into the community.
Instead, most of the studies focus on the victims and describe only minimal areas for
the improvement of organisations themselves. Detailed information on reintegration,
especially with regards to the challenges that NGOs face, is restricted to standard
protocols and good practice manuals based on the experience of organisations such as
Friends International and Hagar International who have a large clientele and resource
pool.

One issue that surfaced when we were researching about NGO efforts is the
politicisation of information. For example, the Trafficking In Persons report that we
consulted for this report is often seen more as a diplomatic tool than an objective
assessment of countries reintegration efforts and NGO reports often focus on the
successful aspects of their projects in order to attract or maintain funding. As such,
gaps remain in the literature in terms of the objectively assessing effectiveness.
Scholars writing about reintegration and child protection efforts often write with an
eye to encourage policy initiative from the state rather than to examine the role of
NGOs on a critical level.


17
7. Key Findings

7.1 Lack of substantial state support and collaboration
Given that effective and sustainable reintegration of trafficked children entails children
not returning to a vulnerable position and/or becoming victims of trafficking again,
the lack of government support and collaboration is a hindrance to the reintegration
process. As we will discuss later, this lack of strong government support and
collaboration is found most prominently in rehabilitation services that are
fundamental to effective reintegration of trafficked children.

Borrowing Bales and Choi-Fitzpatricks words, governments carry(ing) the biggest
stick in the fight against human trafficking but often lack the political will to do so
23
.
This is reflective of the situation in Cambodia. Despite being party to the Palermo
Protocol and the CRC which accord states responsibility in implementing measures
to provide for the physical, psychological and social recovery of victims of trafficking
in person
24
and taking all appropriate measures to promote the physical and
psychological recovery and social integration of children
25
, the authors of this paper
have found that there is lack of substantial state support and collaboration in
provisions for rehabilitation of trafficked children. For instance, although it is
commendable that the MOSAVY has established the Reintegration and Follow up
Programme guideline, the fact that only three hospitals (Takmao Hospital, Russian
Hospital and the hospital in Kandal Province) provide treatment for trauma victims,

23
Bales, Kevin, and Austin Choi-Fitzpatrick. "The Anti-Slavery Movement: Making Rights
Reality." In From human trafficking to human rights: reframing contemporary slavery.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012. 200.
24
Article 6 of Palermo Protocol
25
Article 39 of UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
18
demonstrates that there is still a lack of substantial state support. As a result, trauma
victims often have to endure long waiting periods before receiving treatment
26
. This
poses as a challenge for reintegration as rehabilitation is integral to the reintegration
process.

Furthermore, a recurring theme that emerges over the course of interviews we
conducted with local NGOs such as Damnok Toek, Komar Rikraey, Cambodian
Organization for Children and Development (COCD) and Cambodian Children
Against Starvation and Violence (CCASVA) was that the lack of government support
and collaboration in education is a significant challenge to NGOs efforts in the
reintegration process.
27
Granted, the non-profit nature of NGOs imposes considerable
stress on the skills and resource capacity of NGOs, compounded with the very fact that
the bulk rehabilitation and reintegration services in Cambodia is provided by NGOs
28

makes it no wonder that NGOs perceive the lack of government support and
collaboration to be a significant challenge in the reintegration process. A recollection
by Mr Prum Vannak from CCASVA of being brushed aside on various accounts
when he called for meetings to collaborate with various ministry departments further
demonstrates the difficulty NGOs face in simply attempting to collaborate with the
Cambodian government.
29


However, it must be noted that local NGOs like Damnok Toek, Komar Rikraey,
COCD and CCASVA have noted relatively strong working relationships with the

26
World Vision Cambodia, and UNIAP. National Practitioner Forum on Reintegration of
Victims of Human Trafficking. Phnom Penh: 2011.
27
Interview with Damnok Toek, Komar Rikreay, COCD and CCASVA in July 2014.
28
"US Trafficking in Persons Report 2014." Country Narratives.
http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/226845.pdf (accessed July 24, 2014).
29
Interview with Mr Prum Vannak of CCASVA on 12 July 2014
19
MOSAVY with regards to the referral of deported victims to their organization and
tracing of victims families.
30
.Additionally, another caveat to note is that international
NGOs like International Organization for Migration (IOM) have successfully
collaborated with the MOSAVY to help victims reintegrate back to their families and
communities.
31
Nevertheless, the fact of the matter is blatant lack of government
collaboration with local NGOs on rehabilitation services, as will be elaborated further
in the following sections, undermines the reintegration process as local NGOs often
struggle to make ends meet for trafficked children.

7.2 Lack of strong Child Protection Mechanisms
Keeping in mind Reimar et al.s (Figure 1) phased model of reintegration, whereby
reintegration is a process that continues beyond the childs reintegration back into
his/her family or alternative residence, securing the childs internal well-being and
ensuring the environment the child is reintegrated back into is safe from any future re-
trafficking/abuses is part of the reintegration process
32
As such, strong child
protection mechanisms are indispensable in ensuring a childs effective and
sustainable reintegration.

However, as related by Mr Ung Pola from Cambodian Organization for Children and
Development (COCD), the lack of strong child protection mechanisms in Cambodia
is an obstacle in his organizations efforts to effectively reintegrate victims of child

30
Interview with Damnok Toek, Komar Rikreay, COCD and CCASVA in July 2014.
31
"Reintegration Assistance of Trafficked Women & Children in CambodiaA Review."
The Asia Foundation.
http://www.worldwideopen.org/uploads/resources/files/810/REIN008_Reintegration_Assista
nce_for_Trafficked_Women_and_CHildren_in_Cambodia.pdf (accessed July 23, 2014).
32
Reimer, J.K., E. Langeler, Seng Sophea, and Sok Montha. The Road Home: Towards a
model reintegration and considerations for alternative care for children trafficked for sexual
exploitation in Cambodia. C: World Vision Cambodia, 2007. and Cody Claire, 2012.
20
trafficking
33
. In this groups research, the lack of child protection mechanisms
hindering NGOs reintegration efforts can be broadly categorized into two main
types: weak protection in legal proceedings and weak child protection networks.

7.2.1 Weak Protection in Legal Proceedings
Given that a childs security is often associated with the indictment of perpetrators,
there is a need to cater to the special needs of child victims of trafficking in legal
proceedings to ensure perpetrators are arrested and prosecuted.
34
Prosecution of
perpetrators is important as it helps to reduce the possibility of children being re-
trafficked and sends a clear message to other traffickers. As such, prosecution of
perpetrators will go a long way in reducing the vulnerability of the child and making
NGOs reintegration of trafficked children more successful.

Although the Law on Suppression of Human Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation was
passed in 2007
35
, reports of the lack in investigation and prosecution of human
traffickers in Cambodia are aplenty
36
. Terrified of speaking in front of the perpetrator
in the courtroom, unwillingness to identify their perpetrators for fear of causing
trouble to their family and the involvement of powerful and/or influential people who
intimidate, force, threaten and use their status or position to stop the witnesses; fear

33
Interview with the Executive Director, Mr Ung Pola of COCD on 10 July 2014
34
Reimer et al., 2007
35
"The Law on Suppression of Human Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation." Unofficial
Translation by UNICEF. http://www.no-
trafficking.org/content/Laws_Agreement/cambodia%20new%20law%20on%20trafficking%2
0&%20sexual%20exploitation%20-%20english.pdf (accessed July 24, 2014).
36
"CAMBODIA: National Laws." Child Rights International Network (CRIN).
https://www.crin.org/en/library/publications/cambodia-national-laws (accessed July 24,
2014).and "US Trafficking in Persons Report 2014." Country Narratives.
http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/226845.pdf (accessed July 24, 2014).
21
is a common narrative
37
. This is further corroborated by Shahrzad Kojouri from the
International Justice Mission who spoke of the need to create a human barrier around
the victim after rescue. Her concern, and rightly so, is that the lack of adequate
victim protection mechanisms has led to victims unwillingness to cooperate in cases
and their access to legal redress
38
. By not prosecuting perpetrators, victims are
precluded of a safe environment upon return to their families. Hence, the lack of
witness protection programs for the child and their family in a hindrance to NGOs
efforts of effective reintegration.

7.2.2 Weak Child Protection Networks
Even if child victims of trafficking are deemed fit for reintegration back into their
families/alternative forms of care, the absence of strong child protection networks is a
hindrance to effective and sustainable reintegration. Given that one of the top four
factors hindering reintegration of child victims of trafficking is family violence
39
,
there is even more cause for strengthening child protection networks in Cambodia.

Although NGOs such as Friends International and Komar Rikraey have initiated child
protection mechanism such as the ChildSafe Network and the Child Safe Programme
to fill in the gaps left by the government
40
, findings by the United Nations Childrens
Fund (UNICEF) suggest that child protection mechanisms in Cambodia remain

37
"Stories from the Field: A Glimpse on Trafficked Childrens Access to Justice in Thailand,
Cambodia, and Philippines." Asia Against Child Trafficking. http://destination-
unknown.org/wp-content/uploads/STORIES-FROM-THE-FIELD-final-AsiaACTs-TDH-NL-
2013.pdf (accessed July 24, 2014).
38
Interview with Shahrzad Kojouri from International Justice Mission on 10 July 2014
39
Reimer et al., 2007
40
Interview with Friends International on 9 July 2014 and Komar Rikraey on 8 July 2014.
22
weak, with their reach being limited.
41
For instance, one of the problems Komar
Rikraey faced in the course of implementing their Child Safe Programme is the
difficulty of ensuring children/their families receive emergency payment and/or
support promptly. Given that some of the children reside far from the organizations,
by the time help arrives, there is a possibility of it being too late.
42
Furthermore, when
previously trafficked children or vulnerable children who have not been trafficked are
found to be at risk or face violence, the common recourse is to raise the issue with the
local village chief. However, as these local village chiefs often have limited
understanding and capacity in child protection
43
, children often have no one else to
turn to when put in vulnerable positions. The corollary is that many children find
themselves victims of trafficking again
44
. On the other hand, given the growing scope
of child protection networks established by Friends International, there is hope that
with time, there will be stronger child protection mechanisms put in place.
Nonetheless, in the current state of affairs, even as NGOs have successfully
rehabilitated trafficked children, the lack of strong child protection networks still
poses as a problem in NGOs efforts of effectively reintegrating child victims of
trafficking.





41
"Child Protection." UNICEF. http://www.unicef.org/cambodia/12961.html (accessed July
24, 2014).
42
Interview with Komar Rikraey on 8 July 2014.
43
"National Child Protections System in the East Asia and Pacific Region: A review of
Mappings and Assessments." ECPAT International.
http://www.ecpat.net/sites/default/files/Child%20protection%20System_full_2014June11_FI
NAL.pd (accessed July 21, 2014).
44
Interview with Mr Ung Pola from COCD ON 10 July 2014
23

7.3 Education
7.3.1 Poor Quality of National Education System
According to Cambodias Constitution, children are provided with nine years of free
education
45
Foremost among the challenges facing reintegrated children in the
community is the general poor quality of public school education, exacerbated by low
government funding, low teacher salaries and a general lack of incentives for schools
to provide better quality education.
46
Consequently, families find themselves facing
unnecessary costs such as additional tutoring to meet the standards of the regular
curriculum. Children who have been trafficked often come from vulnerable or
marginalized families and rising costs of education may be a burden that these
families have to share with NGOs. Dropout rates at the primary school level are high
and enrolment rates for secondary school are low. Late enrolment is also another
significant barrier to learning
47
. Taken together, NGOs have to deal with a myriad of
issues when reintegrating trafficked children back into the national school system
after a long period of abuse.

The lack of rights education is also a challenge NGOs face in the process of
effectively reintegrating trafficked children. Given that children in Cambodia are

45
Article 68 of the Constitution of the Royal Government of Cambodia
46
Wilson, Kenneth. Cambodias Educational System is a system utterly in need. The
Cambodia Daily. http://www.cambodiadaily.com/opinion/cambodias-educational-system-is-
a-system-utterly-in-need-32937/ (Accessed July 24, 2014)
47
"Education." UNICEF. http://www.unicef.org/cambodia/3.Education.pdf (accessed
July 24, 2014).
24
often seen as having responsibilities rather than rights, there is a pressing need to
educate not only the child, but also the family on the importance of child rights
48
.


7.3.2 Lack of Access to Education and Rights
The geographical isolation of some rural villages causes some provinces to have low
primary school enrolment rates. The lack of schools and adequate transport
infrastructure in these rural areas mean that children will have to travel unnecessarily
long distances to school everyday. In fact, the representative from Damnok Toek
explained in an interview that the building of schools should be a top government
priority in rural border towns like Poipet because the nearest public schools are still
too far away for some of the children under their care. Compounded by the lack of
sanitation and hygiene facilities and subsequent health problems, a child may be
subjected to extended periods of absence from school.
49
These are community and
infrastructural problems that NGOs cannot prevent but certainly impact NGOs
efforts of reintegrating children.

Although it was found that poor children with minimal education are most at risk of
being trafficked.
50
, contrary evidence have revealed that children in ethnic minorities
are also especially prone to trafficking. This is due to the lack of a national

48
"(Re) Building the Future Terre des Hommes Projects and Programmes Working in Asia."
Supporting the Recovery & Reintegration of Trafficked Children A Handbook for Project
Staff and Front-line Workers .
49
"Education." UNICEF.
50
"Fact Sheet: Child Trafficking." UNICEF.
http://www.unicef.org/protection/files/ipuglobaltrafficking.pdf (accessed July 21, 2014).
25
mechanism that makes education compulsory.
51
As these communities practise
subsistence farming and often move from place to place, NGOs find it hard to read
out to them. Compounded by the language barrier, the challenge NGOs face in
finding a place for ethnic minority children in the mainstream education system
increases twofold.

Moreover, the illiteracy gap is another issue NGOs have to take into account when
working with impoverished families struggling to make ends meet. As the
representative from COCD, Mr Ung Pola explains, illiteracy is a major problem in
vulnerable communities like the slum areas of Phnom Penh, and extends into many
aspects of the trafficking narrative. This includes parents not understanding the
importance of formal education and thus not enrolling their children back into schools;
trafficked children not aware that they are put in a position of exploitation, and
families as a whole not knowing the opportunities for safe economic aid and
assistance that are available to them. Even the basic ability to read and write Khmer,
which is usually taught at the preschool level, is a major problem for the marginalized
communities. For instance, in the 2010/2011 school year, less than 26 percent of
children between the ages of three to five have access to early childhood development
opportunities.
52
Consequently the majority of Cambodian children who enter the first
grade can neither read nor write. This problem is further amplified in families whose
parents are illiterate and do not have the money nor knowledge to teach their children
literacy skills. Therefore, more NGO services are needed in providing rehabilitative
services that will allow trafficked children to reintegrate into mainstream education
without stigma or learning disabilities caused by psychological or physical trauma.

51
"Education." UNICEF.
52
"Education." UNICEF.
26
This is only the first step towards overcoming the illiteracy gap in vulnerable
communities. They also need to understand the importance of formal education, and
find alternative means of ensuring the familys economic survival rather than push
this responsibility to the child.

Although the government has planned to make improvements to the education system
in three areas: access, quality and capacity,
53
information on whether these plans are
actually being implemented are still lacking. However a political incentive to improve
the education system exists not through government enforcement, but rather through
the rapidly developing economy, where expectations of employers are rising and
labour demand is increasing.
54
Education and economic restructuring has to happen
hand in hand in order for skills to correspond to the labour market. Policies should
aim at reducing the vulnerability of children at risk of trafficking, not just
reintegrating them. Thus, there needs to be more vigorous efforts in improving the
environments of families and communities.

7.4 Lack of Skills and Funds
The non-profit nature of non-governmental organizations implies that complete self-
sustainability is virtually impossible to attain. While several organizations (Chab Dai,
Sala Bai) do engage in individual social enterprises to improve their self-sustainability,
NGOs primary source of funds, skills and other resources are still external donors
and funders. A recurring observation during our interactions with several
representatives in Cambodia was that efforts pursued by NGOs are being impaired by
a perpetual lack of funding. By extension, shortages of funds have necessitated the

53
"Education." UNICEF.
54
Reimer et al., 2007
27
scaling back of reintegration pursuits, which connotes afflictive consequences to the
reassimilation of child victims of human trafficking. A lack of monetary resources
further suggests a hindrance in hiring sufficiently skilled labour to manage the
activities of the organization. Damnok Toeks representative claimed that due to a
lack of appropriately adept workers, his organization is unable to accommodate
children with special needs, including children with severe psychological trauma and
criminal history, into their care. Children with special requirements would be referred
to governmental organizations, which are presumably equipped with sufficient
resources and labour. Moreover, insufficient funds could impair the sustainability of
reintegration procedures since crucial long-term follow-up visits with the children and
their families would have to be foregone. The curtailment of proper post-rescue
surveillance would leave the children vulnerable to re-trafficking. This severe
shortage of skills and knowledge could explicate the foreign origins of most
established non-governmental organizations. The International Justice Mission and
Friends International are just some of the myriad of NGOs in Cambodia that are
descendents of foreign organizations or founders. Typically, parent countries, like the
United States of America or Australia, are skill-abundant and can thus effectually
transfer relevant knowledge and resources to their progenies operating in Cambodia.
This skill transfer is utterly crucial because without careful rehabilitation, child
victims would be mentally and emotionally unprepared to return to their societies
healthily.

The lack of appropriate skills and knowledge also infiltrates local authorities whose
officials are unaware of the proper procedures to undertake whilst dealing with
victims of human trafficking. This poses more complications for NGOs embarking on
28
reintegration operations because they are further obliged to shoulder the
responsibilities of governmental institutions with scant expertise to promote the
reintegration of child trafficking victims amidst a politically unenthusiastic climate.
For example, through our interview with Mr. Ung Pola, the director of the Cambodian
Organization of Children and Development (COCD), an alarming proclamation that
arose was that at times, the COCD was compelled to fund training programs for
governmental staff to equip them with the necessary skills to administer rescue and
protection endeavours. It was distressing to discover that a young non-governmental
organization was, in reality, providing funding and other resources to the supposedly
supreme authority that is the government. Excessive dependency is a potential issue
that may subsequently arise from an overly indulgent partnership with the government.
As proclaimed by political economist, Sophal Ear, in his book Aid Dependence in
Cambodia: How Foreign Assistance Undermines Democracy, years of being an aid-
dependent country has not improved the domestic socio-economic situation in
Cambodia.

The country has a detrimental reliance on foreign aid, which currently takes the form
of thousands of non-governmental organizations supplying basic societal necessities
and administrative structures to safeguard the human rights of the Cambodian people.
This over-dependency has resulted in a weakened democracy that, in the authors
opinion, is necessary for the advancement of human rights. A political system that is
increasingly de-emphasizing human rights could impinge on the sustainability of
reintegration efforts in Cambodia. In conclusion, non-governmental and governmental
organizations alike, without the proper resources and staff to facilitate effectual
29
rehabilitation for the child trafficking victims, will face subsequent direct or indirect
complications during the reintegration process.

Post- integration and follow-up/monitoring efforts are often limited to 1 to 2 years
after reintegrating the child back into the community. However, there are mixed
analysis from the NGOs interviewed. On the on hand, NGOs such as Damnok Tok
have expressed approval for the time duration in successful reintegration. On the other
hand, NGOs such as COCD have expressed concern in the follow up period and
actions related to reintegration efforts. There needs to be a more critical analysis of
not just cost and operational feasibility of follow up and monitoring programs, but
also monitoring and fostering the growth of the social and economic environments
that the child has been reintegrated into.

7.5 Familial Ties
Several socio-cultural problems that persist in Cambodia could also potentially hinder
non-governmental organizations efforts to rehabilitate and reintegrate children who
are victims to human trafficking into their communities. Existing familial conditions
and relations, which are believed to be primary causes of child trafficking
55
, can also
serve as barriers to successful child reassimilation into their families. Damnok Toek
and Komar Rikreay are just several of the many NGOs that consider family
assessment to be an integral procedure during the reintegration process. However,
Damnok Toeks representative affirmed that, in his experience, many families refuse
to participate in the process of reintegration. This could be attributed to their low
economic sustainability that would weaken their ability to properly care for the child

55
"End Trafficking in Persons (ETIP)." World Vision International.
http://www.wvi.org/asiapacific/etip (accessed July 24, 2014).
30
or because trafficked children are potentially susceptible to social stigma and
ostracization. Consequently, children are unable to fully re-assimilate into their
communities due to the prevailing unstable conditions prevailing within their families.
This complication could potentially lead to calamitous consequences for the
Cambodian society in the future, which might suffer from a shortage of healthy and
economically strong human resources. To resolve this predicament, NGOs like
Komar Rikreay place rigorous emphasis on engaging the families during the
rehabilitation process as well. They provide additional counselling services and
vocational training to other members of the family to improve their standards of living
and by extension, abate their vulnerability.

In Cambodia and many other developing countries, numerous families typically
engage their children as labour. Moreover, over 90 percent of economically active
children in Cambodia work for their families as unpaid labour, which are usually time
and energy intensive
56
. As long as children are exposed to the conditions and
complications of work, which prevent them from attaining the education they require,
they will continue to be vulnerable to re-trafficking, problematizing reintegration
efforts. In fact, a childs inability to sufficiently contribute economically to the family
may inadvertently result in schism in family relations.
57
The cultural normalization of
employing children compromises the safekeeping of their rights, which is integral for
the reintegration process to be truly effectual.


56
"Childrens Work in Cambodia: A Challenge for Growth and Poverty Reduction." World
Bank.
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEAPREGTOPLABSOCPRO/Resources/UCW-
Cambodia.pdf (accessed July 24, 2014).
57
Derks, Annuska. "Reintegration of Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia." CAS Cambodia.
http://www.cascambodia.org/reintegration.htm (accessed July 24, 2014).
31
8. Political Obstacles
Economic and political stability and sustainability is a factor that is usually
considered to be the most influential within the reintegration process. Firstly, a poor
economic situation has often contributed to trafficking in the first place, and
reintegration becomes more difficult when these economic risk factors are still in
place. Relatedly, the political situation affects the effectiveness of social institutions.
58

One important factor that has hindered the development and effectiveness of social
institutions is the existence of rampant corruption in Cambodia. In 2007,
Transparency International published a report stating that 72% of Cambodians have
resorted to bribes in order to receive services.
59
This ties in with the culture of
political patronage that sets the tone for political and social transactions, hampering
the idea of rule of law in Cambodia, as well as a crippled judiciary in the face of
such cultural linkages.

In the National Practitioners Forum, Prak Chanthoeurn highlighted that some NGOs
follow their own procedures and others are not always aware of the existence of the
national standards for the reintegration Programme that were published by MoSVY in
2009.
60
Furthermore, an IJM representative had also pointed out the fact that
Cambodias 70 years of French colonial rule created a legal system that does not
correspond to global legal norms, making it difficult to apply international laws and
regulations to the Cambodian context. This highlights the lack of effective
communication and legal channels among government bodies and NGOs.


58
Muco, Ervin. 2013.
59
An Evaluation of the Anti Trafficking and Reintegration Programme of the Ministry of
Social Affairs, Veterans and Youth Rehabilitation, Cambodia. Phnom Penh: UNICEF, 2009.
60
Cody, Claire. 2012.
32
Governmental capacity is often a weakness in the fight for child protection and rights.
This weakness appears not only in terms of budgetary resources but also in terms of
administrative support, governmental structures, as well as the availability of trained
and willing professionals.
61
In addition, there remains the perception that child
exploitation and abuse are largely peripheral to national development.
62
However,
World Report on Health and Violence shed light on the impact such abuses have on
sectors that traditionally provide an indicator of national development, such as public
health.
63
The Government also needs to understand that resource allocation for basic
social services has the greatest impact on the realization of child rights,
64
such as
basic sanitization services including water and shelter, as well as schools that prevent
them from voluntarily falling back into the trafficking web.

Beside ratification and dialogue, NGOs and IOs should move to persuade the
government to promote national budgets, policies and administrative practices and
structures for better protection
65
, such as establishing a government level monitoring
mechanism that runs alongside or independent of NGOs assistance.

9. Analysis and Opportunities
The existing obstacles and predicaments discussed in the previous sections not only
highlight the shortcomings of prevailing child protection policies and endeavors, but
also serve as nodes for potential intervention. We acknowledge that NGOs have
invested precious effort into resolving these pressing issues but we personally feel

61
Landgren, Karin. 2005: 230.
62
Ibid., 225.
63
Ibid., 225.
64
Ibid., 239.
65
Ibid., 228.
33
that there is a lack of response directed to the fundamental causes of trafficking. We
believe this is because NGOs are simply unable to target the systemic factors that
have led to these problems in the first place and thus, they focus on putting out the
most urgent socio-economic fires caused by the proliferation of human trafficking.
However, the best approach to these problems involves expelling the root causes that
are, more often than not, poverty and political apathy.

The nature of non-governmental organizations necessarily means that they can only
pursue short-term operations, which contends with the essentially long-term
characteristic of effective and sustainable reintegration efforts. Their non-profit and
governmentally independent constitution connotes a limited capacity, which
insinuates an inability to act individually or effectually spur government initiative
towards resolving the systemic causes of human trafficking. This further suggests that
the eradication of child trafficking is not within their means despite it being the
quintessential goal for all like-minded NGOs. Therefore, an active political initiative
on the national government level is a crucial component for a holistic approach to
solving the problem of child trafficking, which transcends simply alleviating its
symptoms and after-effects.

Facilitating sustainable and effective reintegration operations mandates a concerted
effort among non-governmental organizations and government institutions to address
the fundamental issues discussed in this paper. Cooperation and collaboration should
center around promoting efficacious social and economic growth. For instance,
governmental bodies and NGOs can collaborate to foster a business environment that
could potentially attract investment into the manufacturing or service industries
34
within the country; with an emphasis on developing an employment market for jobs
that take families and communities out of the poverty and trafficking cycles. The lack
of economic diversification in Cambodia has been addressed by foreign investment in
automobile assembly, as well as other light manufacturing industries in special
economic zones. However, FDI could increase rapidly if the government can address
the challenges of a shortage of skilled labor and low worker productivity.

The cooperative relationships cultivated by non-governmental organizations should
optimally expedite a concerted and like-minded effort. The NGO saturation in
Cambodia has resulted in numerous organizations engaging in disparate operations
angling towards a similar ideal. NGO networks, which should ideally entail
governmental participation or even perhaps leadership, should standardize an
approach to handling the problem of child trafficking and subsequent reintegration
efforts. For example, establishing an agreement of commitment to UNICEFs
Protective Environment Framework for child protection will ensure NGOs embark on
operations and activities that are cohesive and beneficial to the broader war on child
trafficking and exploitation.

10. Conclusion
In our research, we have identified and analyzed five main obstacles that NGOs face in
the mission to reintegrate trafficked children. Firstly, there have been government
officials sidelining a lack of concerted government collaboration with international and
local NGOs, with the former experiencing more responsiveness and the latter. Secondly,
the lack of a robust child protection mechanism, consisting of weak protection in legal
proceedings and unlegislated child protection mechanisms, makes it difficult for NGOs
35
and officials alike to reach out to children in need, especially in rural remote areas where
child trafficking and exploitation is rife. Thirdly, the poor quality of the national
education system and the inability of the Cambodian government to provide nine years of
education as mandated in the constitution has played a huge role in being unable to keep
children in school and away from the streets. This problem is further exacerbated by the
mindset that children are economic beings capable of earning income for poverty-stricken
families, where productive time is spent earning money, rather than getting a good
education to move up the social ladder and out of remote parts of the country.

With regards to the work of NGOs, the non-profit nature of non-governmental
organizations implies that complete self-sustainability is virtually impossible to attain. In
order for NGOs to carry out reintegration works more effectively and efficiently, the
interactions between non-governmental organizations should go beyond mere
communication and develop towards capacity building in order to complement the
government in the national fight against child trafficking. We also recognize that the
obstacles to reintegrate trafficked children are not just procedural, but consist of a social
and political aspect as well. As such, familial associations and social momentum is
important for change to be effective and accepted. For the right of the child to be
respected, traditional abusive practices must lose their traditional protection from the
community and society. Such momentous change requires a new social consensus that
is the single most important factor in recreating a safe environment for children.

These obstacles present NGOs and the Cambodian government not as hurdles that are
insurmountable, but can be flipped on its head to be points of intervention both in the
procedural, as well as socio-political process of reintegrating a trafficked victim.
Furthermore, we concur that the current focus on problems faced by NGOs in
36
reintegration efforts deals with the symptoms of child trafficking, and do not
effectively target problem areas that can result in effective and sustainable
reintegration, that is, systemic causes of trafficking. In order for reintegration to be
successful, the most important focus in the long run is fostering political will to create
a safe environment for the children that are reintegrated.

37
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