LESSONI I

Combi nati onof Consonants wi th Consonants

Whenoneconsonant i mmedi atel y f ol l ows another wi thout an
i nter veni ng vowel , the second consonant i s wr i tten bel owthe
f i r st, and takes asecondar y f or m, as shewni nthe tabl e bel ow. '
I nmost cases the secondar y f or mi s the same as the pr i mar y,
wi th the omi ssi on of vowel si gns. I n such a combi nati on as
thi s, thevowel i s j oi ned i n wr i ti ng wi th the upper consonant,
but i s sounded af ter thel ower one.
Pr i mar y
I
Secondar y
For m For m
Vel ar
Pal atal
I l l ustr ati on
toadoskar a, ( postp. c. dat. ) f or thesakeof
e) ~skhal ana, * bl under
: zdczkddoi l d bf f al o
-n

u~egna, w
1 I nsome Sanskr i t wor ds combi nati ons of mor ethantwoconsonants
occur , i nwhi chcasethe thi r d and subsequent consonants ar e wr i tten bel ow
the pr ecedi ng consonants; thus 9zPj

i dstr a, tr eati se.
I n the pr onunci ati on of the combi nati on wz j n" " d the hel p of a
munshi wi l l benecessar y. Uneducated peopl esometi mes pr onouncethewor d
j r l dpaka as i f spel t gndpaka. Thi s suggests the change i n sound whi ch
under goeswhencombi nedwi th 7. Thel atter suf f er s nochange.
* Theuseof thesewor ds i s r ar e.
Pr i mar y Secondar y
For m
I
For m
Retr of l ex
Dental
Bi l abi al
COMBI NATI ONOFCONSONANTSWI THCONSONANTS
0
p
.
4
. ea
M
I l l ustr ati on
Sgt kashta, tr oubl e
o
sr eshtha, excel l ent
&Abaddi , i nter est
U; 3~cn
4
Vashaddhdl a, * usel ess
Patna, town
NUJ , &samasta, whol e
Vsthal a, pl ace
i ddu, havi ng been
e1 d
o
dr abdha, * begun
~+a ' patni , wi f e
4' -a
Z
pushpa, f l ower
k1 d sphati ka, cr ystal
2a~obba, one( m. and f. )
uc3J ~9adbhuta, wonder f ul
o3J Ayugma, * a pai r
0' 3-, -) 0
4S
pal ya, asettl ement
i ~J

pr dna, br eath
4e6 kl esa, angui sh
2~e) , bi l va, ( nameof atr ee)
cZ~~dar sana, vi si on
e9~d akshar a, l etter of al phabet
; ; ~vatsa, * chi l d
Y&c~ chi nha, t si gn
: d1 4~kal l a, thi ef
1 9
*
Theuseof thesewor ds i s r ar e.
t Thi s method of wr i ti ng has beenadopted her ei nor der toi l l ustr ate the
pr onunci ati on.

Or di nar i l y the 36 i s wr i tten above and the F6 bel ow-thus
?Aa~
k
chi nha; but i npr onunci ati onthe
V
f ol l ows
.
the
Zu6.

Sodxp a~ noon,
i s pr onounced madhydnha, and 2~~, Br amha.
ewi ~; / udghdta, * abl ow
a bow
tr
Z7Z71 sar nga, *
Uncl assi f i ed
O~J
N
Wad ni schaya, deter mi nati on
d zs
Maz4 i chchhe, desi r e
.
~J ~kubj a, * humpbacked
z;
40dj har j har a, * a sor t of dr um
w7
ex
w1 s j ndpaka2, memor y
20

KANARESEGRAMMAR
The consonant d r has anot her secondary f ormF, cal l ed
repha, whi chi s wri t t en af t er anot her consonant but sounded
bef ore i t ; t hus ; t ri 7 varga, ' a cl ass' , whi chmay al so be wri t t en
; ~O. So dd~Ndarsana ( i n t he above t abl e) may al so be wri t t en
z56FN; 40dj harj hara maybewri t t en 44F0, anda~d ~sdrri ga
01*
may be wri t t en 3ZZ
F.
Accordi ng t o some Kanaresegrammari ans, a short vowel has
t hel engt hof asparrow' s chi rp anda l ong vowel t wi cet hi s l engt h.
Asi ngl e consonant t akes hal f t he t i me of a short vowel and
a doubl ed consonant t wi ce t he t i me of a si ngl e. ' Aconsonant
bei ngby nat urean arrest of t hevoi ce, t hearrest i n t he case of a
doubl ed consonant i s t wi ce t he durat i on of t hat of a si ngl e
consonant . I t i s i mport ant t hat a doubl ed consonant be gi ven i t s
f ul l val ue i n Kanarese. Di f f erences of meani ngwi l l of t en depend
on i t . For exampl e, ZJ 19 bal i , means ` vi ci ni t y' , whi l e ZJ 19 bal l i ,
means ' a creeper' , ' aQi l l i , ` here' , and ' aS i l i , ` rat ' .
Pronounce caref ul l y, and
EXERCI SE
commi t t o memory t he f ol l owi ng
i But i n poet ry a consonant wi t h a short vowel i s reckoned t he same
l engt has a short vowel .
I n most of t he f ol l owi ng sent ences t heverb t o be ( copul a-
t i ve) i s omi t t ed as of t en i n f ami l i ar speech and wi t h i t t he
predi cat i veadverbi al endi ng ei n ( See t he I nt roduct i on) . Wri t t en
out i n f ul l t he f i rst sent ence woul dread uG.
dad
J
o - ~i l d
adu dodda prasne [ y] dgi de' and t he second vJ 2~F dad=@nd
kurchi doddaddgi de. ' Ot her sent ences may be f ormed wi t h t he
hel p of t he munshi usi ng t he vocabul ari es of Exerci ses I andI I ,
i n whi ch al l t he words of t he f ol l owi ng sent ences appear .
edJ d. ~
a j ~d
4J 2~Fs ds~ALj J
' ~, C$J ~~O: ~J F
zs
N~J ~N~N~edJ
edJ ~N~a
?
~' ~Lj J ezSJ
re3~i i z>~eTj Z~evJ b
$i : 3$s ~~d
Ti t FB

e~J r, ~J
~eCJ s ~' aJ
e~~Agoa). , , se)
9 o3NJ so ' 8, M
The' Dependent ' Let t ers ( o&ser4- na~ yogavdha)
, Q; ~
k
sonne and : ) MF vi sarga have somet i mes been cal l ed semi - vowel s
or semi - consonant s andt hi s becauset hey areref erred t o i n Kanaresegrammars
as ' vowel - at t ached' and ' consonant - at t ached' . Theword yogavdha whi ch i s
used t o descri be sort ne and vi sarga means ' dependent ' ( i . e. on ot her l et t ers) .
They seemt o beof t he nat ure of consonant s .
Sonne, bi ndu or anusvdra o st ands f or an i ndef i ni t e nasal
sound. I t comes al ways at t he cl ose of a syl l abl e. When i t
1 When ef 1 and " ad combi net he f i nal ^d of UP1 i s el i ded.
' When d. md d~and ul t are combi ned eu i s el i ded.
a
Crude f ormf or t he nom.

` odi 6 i s i nsert ed t o j oi n ; 0 and

.
s
Seep. 15.

1 Crudef ormf or t he acc .
words : -
e; t ~necessi t y z8dJ )a, excessi ve, more et NJ he
: /
. ~~Ld hei ght zpdnat ure et Nof hi m( hi s)
-' UJ 2$F chai r e
'
Acommand e; #~At o hi m
A; ; ~F pri de , : 9 t hankf ul ness dad l arge
z~: d, wheel o'. , OF usel ess daQt NJ l arge( or
N ON us
e2, ~~Npract i ce seni or) person
t , J
p
i nt el l ect
4e
; : i ~ heal t h ( m. )
pat i ence sat i sf act i on d, r; Q~J l arge ( or
U~t own
f ~03J F courage seni or) person ( f . )
~e woman NVst rai ght dapdJ a bi g t hi ng
c36 03J F surpri se road t . 0
V
o3J dJ a good
n~J i dJ vi l l age t 3=f ar t hi ng
J 9
quest i on e~J she 4g6J bad t hi ng
COMBI NATI ON
2&: e4; ; ~OJ smal l ( or
j uni or) person ( f . )
OF CONSONANTSWI TH
t - i nt err . af f i x
ad i t i s
CONSONANTS 21
$1: 3$ wi ndow
M- V3' J put ( i mpv.
t rut h zz-e) I Arent 2s. )
3, t ~e1~J see( i mpv. 2s . ) Ne~J wat er ' at ) i s ( am, are) not
~eri ght ( adj . ) XTOC$J yes
22

KANARESEGRAMMAR
pr ecedes t he uncl assi f i ed consonant s Q: ~j d e) d 6; d ' j a6' and t he
cl assi f i ed consonant s ' ; ~ z ~
~
~, as al so when i t i s t he f i nal
l et t er of a wor d, i t has t he pr onunci at i on of t he Engl i sh l et t er m.
Exampl es : t =t o kur hyi yel l , ; ~0606, ~ sai hi aya doubt , koa6 si t hha
l i on, : 6o4kedi pu r edness, e) nao l agdr h br i dl e.
When sonne pr ecedes t he cl assi f i ed consonant s v ' ) j n
z ~ ei ws C4) e d d
4
: ~ 0
i d C~
a
i t has t he sound of t he nasal
l et t er of t he cl ass t o whi ch t he l et t er f ol l owi ng i t bel ongs . ee6ou-' ) d
egot i sm, i s pr onounced e5em- r @40 ahar i kdr a ; ! ~0?8 Conj eever am,
t r X
~,
kah' chi ; 2000 camel , 2. ~1 . ont e ;

t oday, l aNQi ndu.
Vi sar ga 8 occur s onl y i n pur e Sanskr i t wor ds.

I t i s most
commonl y at t ached t o t he l ast syl l abl e, wher e i t has t he sound
of ha, as i n 4~8, ` agai n' . Thi s wor d i s somet i mes, i n er r or ,
wr i t t en 44eo punaha. Wher e vi sar ga appear s i n t he body
of a wor d ( usual l y a compound wor d) i t has one of t wo ot her
Sanskr i t sounds . One of t hese sounds r esembl es t he ` uvul ar '
l et t er x ( cf . ch i n ` l och' ) and t he ot her t he ` bi l abi al ' 0
( cf . ph i n ` sophi st ' ) . I n ol d gr ammar s t her e i s a symbol f or
each of t hese but t hey ar e not used i n wr i t i ng ; vi sar ga does t he
wor k of t hose symbol s i n addi t i on t o i t s own.

The r esul t i s t hat
( a) wher e vi sar ga appear s i n t he body of a wor d pr ecedi ng
u or ' ) j i t has t he pr onunci at i on of x ( cf . uz t : nee pr dt ahkf i l a,
mor ni ng t i me) and
( b) wher e i t pr ecedes a or ; , ~ i t has t he sound of 0, e. g.
punahpdka, r ecooki ng. I n t he f ami l i ar expr essi on
- 484c' ~8 punahpunah, ` agai n and agai n' , vi sar ga

has t he
pr onunci at i on i n t he mi ddl e of t he wor d and t heha pr onunci at i on
at t he end.
Somet i mes vi sar ga wi l l be f ound wr i t t en bef or e one of t he si bi l ant s,
I n such ci r cumst ances i t has t he sound of t he si bi l ant whi ch
f ol l ows i t ; e. g. , As3- oi ; d expi r at i on' - A7y4; ~ .
1 I t does not occur wi t h V.
' But when V. i s combi ned wi t h 7, t hus, s , a pr ecedi ng sonne has t he
sound of m; ef , t o2l

' si gn' , of whi ch t he pr onunci at i on shoul d be el i ci t ed
f r oma munshi .

' I t does not occur wi t h t he nasal s r L , s' , a, ~.
COMBI NATI ONOFCONSONANTSWI THCONSONANTS

23
Begi nner s usi ng Dr . Ki t t el ' s Kannada- Engl i sh Di ct i onar y f r equent l y f i nd
di f f i cul t y i n under st andi ng t he met hod t her e adopt ed wi t h wor ds cont ai ni ng
sonne. I n t he al phabet i t comes af t er Eau, i t s t r ue pl ace ( cf . p. 328) .
When used bef or e an uncl assi f i ed consonant , i t i s pl aced next af t er t he vowel
e a ( cf . p. 329) . When sonne i s used as a subst i t ut e f or a cl assi f i ed nasal ,
Dr . Ki t t el uses t he consonant al f or m: t hus 4o* ke*pu must be l ooked f or
under 4; i ) J .

An except i on i s, however , made i n t he case of t he vel ar and
pal at al consonant s r n, Vf i , owi ng t o t ypogr aphi cal di f f i cul t i es . Wher e sonne i s
a subst i t ut e f or one of t hese consonant s, i t i s pr i nt ed as a sonne but i t i s t o
be l ooked f or i n t he pl ace whi ch woul d be occupi ed by t he consonant i f i t wer e
conveni ent t o pr i nt i t .

I l l ust r at i ons wi l l be f ound on p. 1 33 of t he Di ct i onar y,
wher e t he

posi t i ons

of

eadoo3J J

ahar kyu, ~ eado- U--. ) d ahankar a, ea6dn~
( eado4t7z d) ahambhdva, shoul d be st udi ed.

The met hod i s expl ai ned i n t he
Di ct i onar y, pp. xi i i , xi v, and p. 328, under t he l et t er o 1 .
I n t he al phabet , sonne and vi sar ga ar e pl aced af t er t he
vowel s, and bef or e t he consonant s .
The af f i xes Vz d kar a,

t va denot e a sound of t he al phabet whet her of
a vowel , a consonant , or a combi nat i on of consonant and vowel ; as
end akdr a, t he l et t er e a ; +nd kekdr a t he syl l abl e he ; 8: 9 gat va, t he
l et t er r i g; ; Asut va t he syl l abl e su.

I n t hi s usage t he consonant s ar e
al ways r epr esent ed as combi ned wi t h a vowel , t he vowel e a i f no ot her .
Of t he t wo usages : Uz d i s t he mor e common.

The sound of a l et t er or of
a combi nat i on of consonant and vowel i s i t sel f al so used as i t s name.

The
consonant s i n t hei r secondar y f or mar e i ndi cat ed by t he wor ds e400
i
kavot t u, ap p

khavot t u, d4pa~) davot t u, et c .
The wor d f or a l et t er i s el d akshar aa or ; ~MF var nae; ~, d svar a i s
a vowel ; ; ~or j t vyaf j ana, a consonant ; Z~j hr asva, , shor t : beor di r gha,
l ong; ee~

so al papr dna unaspi r at ed ; ; : ~aZBZMJ ea . mahdpr ana aspi r at ed ;
e4, ; 44 anundsi ka, nasal .

The al phabet ' i s cal l ed 4MFdsae3 var nar ndl e or
et d; ~nd akshar amal e.

WI F var ga si gni f i es one of t he , f i ve cl asses of
consonant s ; t hese cl asses ar e di st i ngui shed f r omone anot her by pr ef i xi ng
t o t he wor d ; J ~~F var ga t he unvoi ced unaspi r at ed consonant of each gr oup
combi ned wi t h t he shor t vowel e a : t hus, l edr i F kavar ga, t he k or vel ar
cl ass ; e. o~Tj F chavar ga, t he ch or pal at al cl ass ; UMF f avar ga, t he t or
r et r of l ex cl ass ; ; 9ZT1 F t avar ga, t he t or dent al cl ass ; Ze; : eF pavar ga, t he p
or bi l abi al cl ass .

Acl assi f i ed consonant i s ; j t l t FOi Ta#d var gydkshar a ; an
uncl assi f i ed consonant eZneFO, nt d avar gi yakshar a.

When t wo consonant s
' I n pr act i ce t hese f or ms ar e of t en pr onounced e; i ' - d, ) kavat t u, et c.
' Bot h wor ds al so mean a syl l abl e.

( I n Kanar ese wr i t i ng t he uni t i s not ,
as i n Engl i sh, t he l et t er but t he syl l abl e) .
24

KANARESEGRAMMAR
j oi n wi thout an i nterveni ng vowel the combi nati on i s cal l ed Ao03J J e- 0 9~
\
d
samyuktakshara. When a consonant i s doubl ed i t i s Q,gzd dvi tvakshara. ,3
we #d ottakshara i ndi cates ei ther ; i . e. a compound consonant or a doubl ed
consonant .
NB. - The above and al l such grammati cal terms are noted not that they
may bememori zed but to hel p any student who may be readi ng wi th a pandi t
whoknows no Engl i sh.
Pronounce
words :-
2aot3J one ( n. )
4o; ~ red
toot anxi ety
aRos peace
; nJ ooz~begi nni ng
esoo such ( that
ki nd)
goo what ki nd?
tJ ot~bee
EXERCI SE 1 1 1
caref ul l y and commi t to memory
aorWJ month
; ~oa3v number
J eOori Sri rangam
tvo4 camel
ee6oV7) r5 pri de
noes . i t exi sts ( i s)
; ~ouozi connecti on
; ~od~r
A
.; L

protect
( i mpv. 2s . )
Read and transl ate the f ol l owi ng
5) et$ori
l . a~J t 4oqZ~J otzl l .
UOOtoo zl ezt t .
nor ?~,ok3 t3e1 J
t
?
z. odJ W; Mo3J
t
?~wJ t .
t&og zl ed.
et3J t ~o0 I OU?
The f ol l owi ng usef ul words,
occurred, may be noted:
,,c~J thi s ( pro. )

edJ that
these ( pro. ) e4) those
' Wasp. '

*See Exerci se I I .
a November .

3 ' OGod. '
sentences
uaj J aMJ - ow.
,,a~J o=; ~t 1 0A,~J ?
N~otJ Z362 3ori ~J .
xj ouo~no' i J .
z e~3es t~oj J
bu
NJ
~L
*
mod
VA
~J .
some of whi ch have al ready
tSee Exerci se I .
the f ol l owi ng
aMJ stone
l ots pi l l ar
; ~o6 f ami l y
z:rottJ di stri bute
( i mpv. 2. s . )
; 36ot~ to di stri bute
( i nf . )
?:J et 4Li J

( O~S) e o~. LSJ )
whi ch?
o~~q; ~) ( o3J ~ ) )
whi ch ( pl u. ) ?
" COMBI NATI ON
he ( here)

e~~J he ( there)
she
they

> >
here
so much
( many) as thi s
sozi thi s sort ( adj . )
bye Al i ke thi s ( thus)
. 6s thi s ( adj . )
,' r~~he ( honf c. )
i s4o3J J she( honf c. )
Sri now
I aOC~J present ti me

eoci J then
( to day)
OF CONSONANTSWI THCONSONANTS

25
ws ; d~~, whi chperson
( m. ) ?
whi chperson
e~~J she ~,
( f . ) ?
e; dJ they

,>

o

dJ l who
e0 there

Awhere
everywhere)
e; JL so much - ) 3~ how much
( many) as that

( many) ?
eoz~that sort

~) oOwhat sort?
m- ,) A l i ke that ( so)

zee Ahow?
u that

o=dwhi ch?
u:g~ ~he ( there)

whi ch per-
son ( m. ) ?
u4o3J J she ( there)

o3J ~~~ o3J J whi ch
person ( f . )
u7j then

aSszmri when ?
al ways]
07~J 2 when?
( ~J OZ

al ways, ever)
1 Pl ural , but used al so wi ththe si ngul ar Meani ng.
2
Thi s word i s to be di sti ngui shed f romthe past parti ci pl e of the
verb 44a say, aod) , whi ch i s i denti cal i n f orm( see p. 4) .
LESSONI I I
Mutati onal Combi nati on of Letters ( ; d4sandhi )
I nKanarese, adj acent words are of tenj oi nedandpronounced
as one wordandal so so wri tten. Frequentl y when thi s i s done
thej uncti on of the f i nal l etter of the f ormer wordwi th the i ni ti al
l etter of the l atter resul ts i n certai n changes f or the sake of
euphony. Si mi l ar changes take pl ace when grammati cal endi ngs
are addedto the crude f orms of words. Grammari ans gi ve
rul es f or the occurrence of these changes, f or they take pl ace
onl y wi th certai n l etters andi n certai n ci rcumstances ; but
there are anomal i es andusage i s the determi ni ng, f actor .

Such
j uncti ons of l etters attendedwi th change are cal l edSOP.
There are three types of occasi on on whi ch these changes
take pl ace:
(1) When a j uncti on bri ngs together a f i nal vowel andan
i ni ti al vowel ;
(2) a f i nal vowel andan i ni ti al consonant ;
(3) a f i nal consonant andan i ni ti al consonant'
The changes whi ch take pl ace on these types of occasi on
are accompl i shedi n three ways. The f i rst two appl y to the
di vi si on (1) above, the comi ng together of a f i nal andan i ni ti al
vowel . When thi s occurs
(i ) the f i nal vowel of the f ormer wordmay be el i dedand
the consonant to whi ch i t was attachedtake the i ni ti al vowel
of the l atter word(or of the grammati cal endi ng) .

Thi s i s cal l ed
e3~~~~oF l opasandhi (e3. ~e

=el i si on) . Thus i n combi ni ng z ! ~d'
1 There i s, of course, a f ourth possi bi l i ty. There are occasi ons when
a f i nal consonant combi nes wi th an i ni ti al vowel as i n Maa; l (M06 +U; 1)
andrrz uz ~) (V- ae76 +
UO, )) ; but as on thi s type of occasi on no change i n
the l etters i nvol vedtakes pl ace i t does not bel ong to ; dotQ.
' Avocabul ary of thewords usedi n the Lessonwi l l be f oundat the end.
SANDHI

27
wi th tg2~ the f i nal ) of z 30 di sappears andthe i ni ti al vowel
t. of t- U, attaches i tsel f i n i ts pl ace andthe compoundtakes
the f ormt3e

z. .

Si mi l arl y i n combi ni ng * 1, ~, wi th e9dN4, ),
remove the f i nal e of N

, l et the i ni ti al e of end; ~take i ts
pl ace andthe compoundf orm

i s obtai ned.

Compare
al so

+e9~a.

andNAed, )
- { - tN3- 2. , ,
Some exampl es of l opa sandhi have come to our noti ce on
previ ous pages ; see f ootnotes to pp. 3, 15, 21.
Or (i i ) the j uncti on may be ef f ected by i ntroduci ng an
addi ti onal consonant andcombi ni ng i t wi th the i ni ti al vowel
of the secondpart of the compound. Thi s i s cal l ede1ri ; L
j obdgai nasandhi (eJ ri da =approach) .

The consonants chi ef l y
empl oyedare o6 , ; " y andZ' v. Thus, i n addi ng the grammati cal
af f i x e~~a to the stem; od, the consonant o~~ ~i s i ntroducedand
combi nes wi th the i ni ti al e9 of the af f i x; thus, ;u0L30* 10i ~~. I n
addi ng the same af f i x to the stem

the consonant ; : : ` v
i s i ntroduced; thus, ; LA~di ~
. L
. Compare al so %- +-
4~cz ~g, andc3s~
+n, 6

6 . For another exampl e
see p. 21, f ootnote 4.
(i i i ) The thi rdmethod, e36 e 6 ; 4on adesasandhi ` substi tuti on'
(of a consonant, and, i n al most al l cases, f or a consonant) appl i es
to (2) and(3) above; i . e. (a) to the i nstances where a f i nal vowel
andan i ni ti al consonant meet and(b) where a f i nal andan
i ni ti al consonant come together . ' I n the cases whi ch come
under (a) another consonant i s substi tutedf or the i ni ti al consonant
of the secondwordof a compound.

Thus ; ~A
- i -
VZUbecomes
; : : ~Orw; Z5~~s +9ATi e,

The most common
substi tuti ons are those i l l ustratedi n the exampl es, i . e. 75
6
f or 96 `
andA` f or Z' ` .

I n the i nstances comi ng under (b) al so, another
, consonant i s usual l y substi tutedf or the i ni ti al consonant of the
1
(a) and(b) do not qui te exhaust the occasi ons on whi ch adesasandhi
takes pl ace. The i l l ustrati ons groupedwi th - E+d=(* - I - td. )M) i n Lesson
XLI I are exampl es where adesasandhi i nvol ves two vowel s, a consonant (wi th
a vowel attached) bei ng substi tutedf or the i ni ti al vowel of the secondel ement
i n the compound.
28

KANARESEGRAMMAR
second member of t he compound. ' Wi t h ref erencet o t he i nst ances
under t hi s head i t i s t o be not ed t hat t he consonant al endi ng of
words has not survi ved i n modern Kanarese and t he number of
compounds i nvol vi ng such words whi ch have survi ved i n general
use i s not l arge; but t here are a number of l et t ers i nvol ved. A
f ul l er di scussi on wi l l be f ound i n Lesson XLI I . Fami l i ar exampl es
of t he t ype are

and-~O~~d, ~ ( : dW+sec+
Whi l e dP

and wi : ~~ ~ t ake pl ace bot h i n compound words
and i n t he j unct i on of t he crude f orms of words and suf f i xes,
ej i 3e~~o~ occurs onl y i n compound words.
When t he words whi ch j oi n i n a compound word are bot h Sanskri t ,
changes i n f i nal and i ni t i al l et t ers of t he charact er of ddei asandhi l ake pl ace ;
but t hese are more vari ous t han t he changes whi ch t ake pl ace when t here i s a
Kanarese el ement i n t he combi nat i on and each ki nd of such change has i t s
own name. The whol e group of t hese changes i s cal l ed Sarhskri t asandhi as
di st i ngui shed f romKannadasandhi . Fami l i ar exampl es are: t 1e ; J +UUO: ~) =
t aemuc, 3; z3ez +et ~r~4=de azV; J D4; "O~) F+emt ~~=; ~QO&rmeF
=F +*YS=*3eFe; ZJJ A~+oy#4v~=t j J e~$'
a
;
a+EJ O~ d
=
~~J d
j G
Sanskri t sandhi i s di scussed i n Lesson XLI I I .
EXERCI SE I V
Combi ne t he f ol l owi ng-
?~edj ( verbal root ) see
~NX~ ~ pres . pt c. endi ng
got ; 3 f at her
chi l d
hand
mot , rai se ( 2s. i mpv. )
~e ache ( verbal root )
et v9, z3 3 s. n. pres . endi ng
29'
?~, t ~ Brahma
a) v, ~ oneness
J 3
i n ret urn ( pref . )
em~d answer
TTZMoi l mi l l
wn suf f i x of personal deri vat i ve
nouns
~ ~ what ( pro. ) ?
SANDHI
Vocabul ary
Nt a
6
( or cue ) wat er 1Wcemeye
el Nel ephant AQ~~ wat er
hi ppopot amus Wt ears
~- , DU^ ( or mow) l eg or f oot sae ; ~ God
ej O, ~ servant or sol di er abode
z3ed anot her dt
g ( own) count ry
2~zJ ~ one ( rn. and f . ) est eem
our sun
udN*~ ki ng ( nom. ) t rut h dawn
i nf ant , ~, ~F al l ( adj . )
ace. endi ng l ord
( a) by l opasandhi : 1 . n- , Dez ' ari . 2. . 0 s t hi s ; : : ~A~ i n addi t i on, and ( conj . )
4. N
d
5. ' o, Md ^~, od. 6 . ~J ro3a 7. 2, e3J ~ debt , 3ad, ) t wo ( n. )
8. MZAej o9AJ . 9 . Z, , OL: ~J e~F. 10 . ~sl de~ ej i d. 11 . - 6 4oJ Fs t hi s debt my
12. 4, r@dAl ad. 13. ~~~a ea~0 3J e~~ l , M. 14. e~a US.
; J. J i b rai n opposi t e ( presence) .
( b) by agamasandhi , i nt roduci ng t he consonant 0 3~ : 1. 7~N
gnu t i me ra) , t ; 3 wi t hout bei ng
e9PM. 2. 95~D n3- e) _ , . 3. Nod ej 0 9. ~ . 4. Le l a . 5. ~ esNa .
t i ger i f i t ( he, she, t hey) be
M
( c) by agamasandhi , i nt roduci ng t he consonant Z' : 1 . AS; ~~
ski n ; ~, 90 L of a house
ej t l . 3. Ut ~ 4. Z~J ~~ ero. 5. rt oJ ac~ N~.
subst i t ut e f ormi n com- ZQVAi nsi de
pounds f or t wo nU: ), havi ng l ef t ( past pt c. )
: de3) , bond ' ~, c3 I was
ravdk3t di l emma nU~oi ~j I had l ef t ( past pf . )
1 But as wi l l be seen i n Lesson XLI I , when t he f ormer member of a
; ~~~o f ore, f i rst t i e Aso
compound i s a si ngl e syl l abl ed numeral endi ng i n 10 , , t he consonant af f ect ed
rai n ej o5A, ) i t became ( happened)
by t he subst i t ut i on i s t he f i nal consonant of t he f ormer member ; e. g.
; ~~~0 7zWt he f i rst rai ns 2voLj 3 one ( n. )
, ao6 +#W=a~o .
30
eF hal f
z i e~J begi nni ng, f i r s t
et c whi ch became( r el . pt c. )
~eo ~J C~J Rama ( no m. )
. ) 0 wher e?
eo j ~dA o ut s i de
o , e i t i s
i ua7NJ I
Q9803J UJ t o kno w( i nf . )
r av no t
e1z 3J OeM di d no t kno w( pas t
neg. )
8~qJ s ay
eO ( 1 and 3) s . i mpv . endi ng
ho us e
1 Pl u. ho nf c. f o r s .
KANARESEGRAMMAR
eO, l o c. endi ng
t r a pr o t ect ( ver bal r o o t )
mo d eveni ng
; 5J ( gr az e ( ver bal r o o t )
' 13, .; ~aJ caus at i ve endi ng
AJ ~~ co w
uu s t r engt h
el l advbl . s uf f i x
z 6 : 9, t i near
, , wbe ( 2 s . i mpv . )
qr . 9, br o t her
er v no m. endi ng
Ti J AJ r el i gi o us t eacher
- o , QNJ ( he) was
Fo r Tr ans l at i o n
( Vo cabul ar i es o f Exer ci s es I I I andI V)
~, ~z j J l o ~s ~s ~J ?

"a, ~t s J l N
a
~o r 3.
~o 3J ~ o 3J t ~ ~~ ?
ey

s
o ~s ~~r i z 3e J $ ?

Sr i 23~~J .
0~37c ~ ~J Ti J ?

e ~J l i J .
CI D

M
a- @t , ~ ' age) .
o ~~~J ~J ~' o 37c 05J 23QaJ ; 2a0Lj J ~e) 2' ~J . s
a
A

' yo ur ' ( pl u. )

s
Exer ci s e I ( pp. 14, 15) .
CHAPTERI I
TheChapt er , co ns i s t i ng o f Les s o ns I Vt o XI Vi ncl us i ve, co nt ai ns no t es
o n t he cl as s i f i cat i o n o f Kanar es e wo r ds , and mo del no uns and ver bs t o
i l l us t r at e t he r egul ar decl ens i o ns and co nj ugat i o ns , t o get her wi t h a f ew
s ynt act i cal r ul es t o enabl e t hes t udent t o wo r k t heexer ci s es .
LESSON I V
Cl as s i f i cat i o n o f Wo r ds
( a) Cl as s i f i cat i o n acco r di ng t o Or i gi n
TheKanar es e l anguage co ns i s t s o f t he f o l l o wi ng cl as s es o f
wo r ds : -
1. Pur e Kanar es e wo r ds
( de~S
des ya) as , M- vJ mi l k ; yaw
l eg ; : dWcal f ;

` dJ e s heep ;

i Zj ackal ;

dJ r ho us e;

t o d f at her ;
3- e) o SJ mo t her ;

r k) gr o und; z t r e) t ) f i el d;

z j O~MJ t S) go o d t hi ng ;
eeo J s ay ; - St OJ hear ; 234 gr o w; ~dwal k ; ~Cb ut t er . .
2. Sans kr i t wo r ds whi ch have been i nt r o duced wi t ho ut
change i nt o Kanar es e ( NdJ ; t ` ~~ s amas ar hs kr i t a) ; as no j J
Rama ;

s o n; o ~J J 2J f ace; e5Nd ( co o ked) r i ce; t i , ) a6 ho us e;
Lo t
.
J F dut y; ; ZZ+s i n ; ~J Z, 3 aus pi ci o us ;

t r ut h ; ; ~J 3 t ho ught ;
t i 3 f at e;

d4o t s pr i ng :

2~o 1 ) mo o n;

: 6; 9 F' l o r d,

~p wo man;
l o t us ; kn f ul f i l ment ; Ob wr i t i ng.
3. Wo r ds o r i gi nal l y Kanar es e whi ch ar e f o und i n t he s ame
f o r mi n Sans kr i t al s o ( ~ t at s ama) 1 Thes e ar e s ai d t o
number t went y- o ne: amo ngs t t hemar e eo v number ; : do t m
br acel et ; ue) s t r engt h ;

j ewel ; AJ ; ) ~~4 s ack; UeOMf es t o o n; .
; ~Z' ~De3

gar l and; eA
( u3-
D)
cr eeper .
4. Wo r ds der i ved f r o mSans kr i t , whi ch have beco me mo r e
o r l es s co r r upt ed f r o mt hei r Sans kr i t f o r m. Thenamef o r t hes e
i s *ZZ~d t adbhava. Gr ammar i ans di s t i ngui s h Sans kr i t wo r ds
1 But i n co mmo n us age z gz dZa i ndi cat es any Sans kr i t wo r d whi ch i s
f o undwi t ho ut changei n Kanar es e, t hus i ncl udi ng gr o ups 2 and3.
32

KANARESEGRAMMAR
whi chhave undergone change i n t he l as t l et t er onl y f romt hos e
whi chhave undergone change i n t he body of t he word. The
l at t er are t he t rue t adbhavas . The f ormer are t reat ed as pure
Sans kri t words i n t hat t hey cannot be combi ned i n s amds a
4compound word) wi t h pure Kanares e words . The exampl es
bel oware di vi ded i nt o ( a) words whi ch undergo change onl y i n
t he l as t l et t er and ( b) words whi chundergo change i n t he body
of t he word.
( a) Sk. : ~t wDt db. LeAl ut e; Sk . =f t db. 4t a ri ver ; Si t . t c~z t db.
oi l . ) bri de; Sk . VV~36 t db. M: 39 s urmi s e; Sk . t , s; i ~t db. w~f i s h ; Sk .
- 4: 90 Ft db. 4' F' l ord ; Sk, ; ~3z3z t db, oi s zzl mot her ; Sk. uzc%Nc36 t db. azz;
ki ng ;

Sk. et J9 - t db. uz~

s oul ;

Sk . ; 13i ; ~76 t db.

; 3J~ (

~~
N)
mi nd;

Sk.
S36 t db, s o
y
di rect i on.
( b) Sk . et d t db. C9 t r~d a l et t er of t he al phabet ;

Sk. udoo t db. el doW
begi nni ng;

Sk . UTad t db. es ri ; d s ky ;

Sk . ALSJ t db. A
p
s l eep; Sk . t vFuz
t db, dt ds ugar,

Sk . t omz t db. dog market ; Sk . 3~o3Fg- t db. z6Wf es t i val ;
Sk. 4zp t db. 49 s t ory ; Sk. ; ~o p' ~t dh. ; ~oxs eveni ng; Sk. 9 ~l t db.
s i de ; Sk . ei s a t db. e9 Ades i re ; Sk . =3z, t db. WZ4 Sk. o' ' f o87a
t db. ri od bel l ; Sk. - aza t db. 42z' needl e; Sk. A3 t db, dd s hore; Sk.
os at be t db. ZZ- aL wel l ; Sk . oi ) aoi ~t db. 2_ ' - @; J ni ght - wat ch; Sk. ; 32ri t db. t 9 eri
s peed;

Sk . bf t db. AOweal t h; Sk. vJeFt db. Ida kni f e.
5. Words i nt roduced f rom f orei gn l anguages
anyades ya)
0) FromHi ndus t ani : '
W

,

W
dnWpropert y ; dnCe~owner .
, dt S0 of f i ce ; zd~d3ready ;

works hop; 6333- aWt he pos t ; eLn~O
l and; 4UZFd government ; d4~ f armer ; dZ!F t ai l or ; ~e3~o3~J s al ut at i on ;
~cdacd3regul at i on; vri d paper ; ZJoda#ri f l e; z oc" 3' ~oi t ~ s el ect i on; ~oV, Ad0
s anct i oned; dzz' a FdOroyal court ; e7epri nci pal ( s um) ; ~#Wcopy ; dAway;
#JzaFchai r ; WdUJ exchange ; ri ae7~oi J s l ave ; d380 mos que ; V' @Za pri es t ,
j udge ; da~o9 3 rupee; ri f oi nd cl ock ; Mad hors eman; U6J#0o command;
ed. ) PJz d head of f i cer of a t ank " e2: F pet i t i on ; V. e7 qui ckl y ; WZAexces s ;
( b) FromEngl i s h
dozad. ) number ; ; 3ooWda member ; ; d, ' t FWci rcui t ; agae 13wres t aurant ;
k3- &f k3J t i cket ; d
4
Wrai l way t rai n;
MJ
degree ; t aaq d3 doct or ; el 7d
hos pi t al ; , ) ed acre ; nOt Wgi l t ; ; 3. ) 3t v mi l e ; OJaa~do l awyer ; zzz6oq, ) bank ;
1 Anumber of t hes e words may have come i nt o Kanares e by way of
Tel ugu or Mahrat t i .
CLASSIFICATIONOFWORDS

33
, a3 t t b pl ague; 4Zb3JF card; =, , 04 s t amp;
pct & f ees ; l ndt t a col l ege;
dZWj ai l ; 4Af 1w76F court .
( c) FromPort ugues e :
and0 pri es t ; Xe UA4as oap ; X11" i roni ng ; Zat t s a t abl e; 4) t Af oreman.
( d) FromFrench:
l daAP ki t chen.
6. , Many Kanares e words have al s o a col l oqui al f ormi n
common us e s i de by s i de wi t h t he l i t erary f orm. Thi s i s cal l ed
M
J ~8
grdmya ( vi l l age t al k) .

Exampl es : ; &) ~Af or

ee3 upon;
f or t 3e

~god; 4A~,- - Q ~,- - Qf or -Ny%l ord ; eJAf or t he l oc.
endi ng UO(

No

r f or

c 3o

, 1 i n t he hous e) .

t wa~~( or
eroa~Z, f or t mgBAs emge6 ( 1
s . and p. pres . ) et c.
( b) Cl as s i f i cat i on accordi ng t o Grammat i cal Us e
Kanares e grammari ans di vi de t he words of t he l anguage i nt o
t hree cl as s es , as f ol l ows :
l . Decl i nabl e words ( o7z ; ~, ) t 6 ndmapada) . Thes e are
i nf l ect ed t o mark di f f erences of gender, number and cas e. Thi s
cl as s i ncl udes what i n Engl i s h are ' cal l ed nouns
ndmavdchaka) , pronouns

s arvandma) , adj ect i ves ( f i n
mz~' v gunavdchaka) et c. ( s ee Les s on XV) .
The uni nf l ect ed port i on ( s t em) of s uch words i s cal l ed

J 3; 3nq prat i -
padi ka, nomi nal bas e and t he word wi t h i t s af f i xes ( J4j ai ) prat yaya) i s
cal l ed gz ; ~d name- word.

Thus t he prat i padi ka, At ; *( s ee Les s on V) ,
by t he addi t i on of t he prat yaya i d, ) , s becomes t he ndmapada Aed44~s ervant .
Obs erve t hat i uzoi J~d has a wi der meani ng t han t he Engl i s h noun.
2. Verbs , or conj ugabl e words

kri ydpada) .
Thes e are i nf l ect ed t o mark di f f erences of pers on, number,
gender, t i me, mood.
The uni nf l ect ed port i on i s cal l ed CR40 dhdt u, verbal bas e, and t he
word wi t h i t s af f i xes i s cal l ed t oi n; dd, act i on- word. Thus t he dhat u,
; ZuA) , do, by t he addi t i on of t he prat yayad 44, ) , becomes t he kri yapada
1 Seep. 54.

' See p. 43.

s
Anom. cas e endi ng; cas e af f i xes are
di s t i ngui s hed as At i $ ; d ; 9doi s vi bhakt i prat yaya. -

Verbal af f i xes are cal l ed
e3zu~, t ~J; i 3~al ) dkhyat aprat yaya.
34

RANARESEGRAMMAR
Zadi ) , I do not .

Theword 3Joi n; dd corresponds to the Engl i sh verb, ,
wi ththeexcepti ons that decl i nabl ef orms deri ved f romverbs arecl assed as
ZZaz~) ; dd ( see Lesson XV) , and somei nvari abl e verbal f orms are cl assed
as e9 , 0i ) avyaya( see Lesson XXI V) .
3. Uni nf l ectedwords ( e; ; ~~oi - ~ avyaya`unchangeabl e' ) . Thi s
cl ass i ncl udes adverbs, postposi ti ons, conj uncti ons, i nterj ecti ons
and, as notedabove, somei nvari abl everbal f orms.
Somewords i ncl udedi n thi s cl ass arewhol l y or i n part decl i nabl e, as wi l l
benoti cedl ater ( see Lesson XXI I ) .
I n the pages whi ch f ol l ow, these three cl asses of words
are treated concurrentl y, though i n the earl i er Lessons f ew
exampl es of thethi rdcl ass areto bef ound.

Thei nf l ecti ons of
decl i nabl e words are i l l ustrated by thedecl ensi on i n f ul l of a
number of typi cal nouns, andthef ormati onof thevari ous tenses
of theregul ar verb i s shewn. Theuni nf l ectedf orms of decl i n-
abl ewords andof verbs, whi chhavebeen ref erred to above as
; 3zJa' "av andzp~ respecti vel y, are represented al so by the
commonterm
J e~3
prakri ti , whi chi s transl ated throughout by
theexpressi on `crude f orm' .

To di sti ngui shtheonef romthe
other, McJ. 3wZ: 6 i s someti mes cal l ed c~

- a' a, ' crude f orm
of a noun' .
PRELI MI NARYNOTESONTHEDECLENSI ONS
ANDCONJUGATI ONS
I . TheThreeDecl ensi ons
Decl i nabl ewords may be di vi dedi nto three decl ensi ons, as
f ol l ows:
TheFi rst Decl ensi on, consi sti ng of words whosecrude f orm
ends i n thevowel U.
TheSecondDecl ensi on,

a ; E, ~, ; 3.
TheThi rdDecl ensi on,

eo.
2 . Gender ( Ooi i l i nga)
Decl i nabl ewords areof threegenders: mascul i ne ( 40071
pul l i ng' ) , f emi ni ne
( %WOOD
strf l i nga) , neuter ( N; *o; tdf oi i
NOTESONDECLENSI ONSANDCONJUGATI ONS

35
napumsakal i hga) .

As a general rul e, words denoti ng men and
gods are mascul i ne, those denoti ng women andgoddesses are
f emi ni ne, andthosedenoti ng ani mal s andi nani mateobj eots are
neuter .
Notabl eexcepti ons are7dda01JF sun, t$od moon, and the pl anets, WO0
Mercury, ZASaturn, etc. , whi chareusual l y mascul i ne. Thenames of af ew
bi rds and ani mal s l i ke AWdchi ef of the bi rds, W; d; ~ bul l , 4, Atwmal e
buf f al o, etc. , aremascul i nei n thesi ngul ar, but neuter i n the pl ural .

28Mn
f emal e, de; ; Jzg goddess, dei ty, aref emi ni neor neuter ; UI Jo i ndi vi dual , l eaxo
i nf ant, Z- Vi Ochi l d, etc. , are general l y neuter, but occasi onal l y mascul i ne or
f emi ni ne. When i t i s desi red to i ndi cate thegender of l i vi ng thi ngs whose
namei s ordi nari l y neuter thewords ~odJ mal eanda6M) f emal earepref i xed;
e. g. i i oto f i - 0 cock parrot, ao' p~ NOhen parrot, and so of an i nf ant, l i odJ
e#da4J or eoai a #aA0.
M
3. Number

vachana)
Decl i nabl eandconj ugabl e words have two numbers: si n-
gul ar ( ~i r~2 Nekavachana) andpl ural ( U: 6- ~tz~N bahuvachana) .
Theuseof thehonori f i c pl ural i s ref erredto i n theI ntroducti on
andi n Lessons XVI I and XVI I I . Doubl epl ural f orms are
ref erred to i n thesameLessons.
4. Case ( Wti - & vi bhakti )
Decl i nabl e words haveseven cases as f ol l ows :
Engl i shName
Nomi nati ve
KanareseName
' U~~F- Zz~- kartri vi bhakti
( case of agent)
Jzi ~s~~z, 3 prathamdvi bhak-
ti ( f i rst case) '
Characteri sti c
Af f i xes
el v,

NJ ( =eNJ) ,
e~ ( si ng. ) ; e3zi ) ,
ri d' ) , uoncO
( pl u. )
' Somegranunari ans regard emas thesi gn of thenomi nati veeverywhere
and N, ee; 6, eu6, v6, i i V andeotD6 as i nserti ons, l i ke
a6
andoi J6.
' I n eachcase, wi ththeexcepti on of thevocati ve, thel atter namei s the
morecommon.
36

KANARESE GRAMMAR
Engl i shName I

KanareseName
Accusat i ve
( Obj ect i ve)
I nst rument al
Dat i ve
Geni t i ve
( Possessi ve)
Locat i ve
Vocat i ve
e i ~~ ~ ( col l oqui al karmavi bhakt i
( case of obj ect )

e9 or
0~~)
a~st Waa) z~$, dvi t i ydvi bhakt i
( second case)
karanavi bhakt i
( caseof i nst rument )
t ri t i ydvi bhakt i
( t hi rd case)
xj o J m~Zz,~$, sarhpraddna-
vi bhakt i ( case of gi vi ng)
chat urt hi vi bhak-
t i ( f ourt h case)
xj ouoz~Zz,~- ,~sambandhavi bhak- e9
t i ( caseof rel at i onshi p)
oe

shasht hf vi bhakt i
( si xt h case)
n' ad nZz3$- ,

adhi karana-
vi bhakt i ( caseof l ocat i on)
9-. j ' ZmZz~$&sapt ami vi bhakt i
( sevent h case)
sat hbodhand-
vi bhakt i ( caseof cal l i ng)
U; : ~~o : d
J
nZd $, dmant rana-
vi bhakt i ( caseo cal l i ng)
' aocS
A, ' AA, U4$,
4,
e9~
M
Charact eri st i c
Af f i xes
The subj ect of a sent ence i s cal l ed #9 FZd kart ri pada, t he obj ect
#6J Fdd karmapada.
Some Kanarese grammars, on t he anal ogy' of Sanskri t , i nt roduce, i n
addi t i on t o t he above, an abl at i ve case emmz4W~$ apadanavi bhakt i
( case of removal ) , or Zot $=W0$ paRchami vi bhakt i , t he f i f t h case.

There
i s no Kanarese t ermi nat i on t o i ndi cat e t he case, and i t s pl ace i s t aken by
a ci rcuml ocut i on, namel y, t headdi t i on of t heword s14o: uod ( i nst rument al
NOTESONDECLENSI ONSANDCONJ UGATI ONS

37
caseof rN, `di rect i on,' , consequence' ) t o t hegeni t i veof t he word whi ch i s
bei ng decl i ned; e
; j ~~l
Cl gaood 2ho. 122
wt ,~) ,4
e; t s' I f eel anxi et y on hi s account ' .
Thei nst rument al case usual l y expresses t he meani ng of t he abl at i ve ( source,
cause et c. ) , whi ch, as bei ng wi t hout ei t her speci f i c t ermi nat i on or di st i nct i ve
meani ng, has beenomi t t ed f romt hedecl ensi ons whi ch f ol l ow.
I n at t achi ng t heaboveaf f i xes t o t he crudef ormof t henoun,
t he ordi nary met hods of l ops and agamasandhi are f requent l y
empl oyed ;

t hus,

+e9

_

~~ d ( see Lesson XI I ) ,
6~~ ~
- f -
' o,A =rt =A ( Lesson XI ) , o3a,B +sorb =GU3o=6
( Lesson VI I I ) . Besi des t hel et t ers 0~~ ~ and ; : : ~ however, ot her
euphoni c consonant s and combi nat i ons arei nt roduced i n cert ai n
i nst ances, as f ol l ows : Fi rst decl ensi on neut ers have C34 i n
t he i nst r . , gen. , and l oc. si ngul ar, as i ~dmod et c. ( Lesson
VI I ) ; neut er pronouns havea6 i n t he. samecases ( Lessons XVI I I ,
XX) ; and t hi rd decl ensi on words of al l genders have ' t aWi n
t he same cases of t he si ngul ar, as n- ~=~OCS et c. ( Lessons XI
and XI I ) .
5. Person ( 1d~~purusha)
There are t hree persons i n Kanarese: t he f i rst person
erv

ut t amapurusha, t he second person
madhyamapurusha, t he t hi rd person

prat hama-
purusha ( i . e. , l i t eral l y, f i rst person, t he Engl i sh order of t he
persons bei ng reversed i n Kanarese) .
6. TheTwo Conj ugat i ons
Verbs may becl assed i n t wo conj ugat i ons, t hef i rst conj uga-
t i on consi st i ng of t he great maj ori t y of t hoseverbs whosecrude
f ormends i n Vu, t hesecond consi st i ng of t he great maj ori t y of
t hose whosecrude f ormends i n ' a or ~. Oneexampl ewi l l be
gi ven of each t ype. Thereare, however, aconsi derabl e number
of verbs whi ch do not conf ormt o t hese t ypes, and whi ch may,
f or conveni ence, be cl assed as i rregul ar . But on t hi s see
Appendi x I I I , and Lessons XXXVI I , XXXI X.
11 SeeExerci seI I , p. 20.

2 SeeExerci se I I I , p. 24.

3 ' I f eel ' .
38

KANARESEGRAMMAR
7. Moodand Tense
Kanar ese gr ammar s descr i be t he ver b as i nf l ect ed i n si x
ways. Thr eeof t hesear ecal l ed9nukal a t i me, andcor r espond
t o t he pr esent , past and f ut ur e t enses of Engl i sh. The ot her
t hr eear esomet i mes cal l eddam' r upaanddescr i be t he i mper at i ve,
andt henegat i ve moods andwhat some Eur opean wr i t er s have
cal l edt he`Cont i ngent Fut ur eTense' ( ont hi s seep. 57) . Ther e
i s no name f or what Engl i sh cal l s t he i ndi cat i ve mood. The
i nf i ni t i ve i s not i ncl udedi n t heaboveenumer at i onbut i s gr ouped
wi t h ot her i nvar i abl e ver bal f or ms as an i ndecl i nabl e, l i ke
adver bs andpost posi t i ons.

I t wi l l t hus beseent hat t hough :
6ze)
cor r esponds t o `t ense' does not cor r espond ver y cl osel y
t o`mood' . Thef act i s t hat t he wor dt om' f or m, has not t he
def i ni t e andl i mi t edsense of ' mood' . Anot her t er mcommonl y
usedi s e30F" ar t ha meani ng ( ` i mper at i ve meani ng' , `negat i ve
meani ng' , ` possi bi l i t y meani ng' ) ; but nei t her t he t er m t

~
nor t he t er mUq~F i s conf i nedexcl usi vel y t o t hese t hr ee f or ms.
The Kanar ese ver b, wemay say, i s i nf l ect edt o expr ess t he
i deas of pr esent t i me, f ut ur e t i me, past t i me, possi bi l i t y ( or
l i kel i hood) , negat i on, t he act i on of t he ver b, command, et c.
Thepar t s of t he ver b whi ch i n Engl i sh woul dbe cal l ed f i ni t e
ar e made up of t he r oot or cr ude f or m, t o whi ch i s added
at i me i ndi cat i on ( or `medi al ' ) andt he af f i x i ndi cat i ng number
andper son.

Thus ~~

eNI make, i s madeup of ; i Te~Z6~- I -
ev: ~, - } - ; Z) N( wi t h el i si on at each j oi ni ng) .

I n t henegat i ve f or m
of t he ver b, as i n t he i mper at i ve andt he i nf i ni t i ve, t he t i me
el ement i s l acki ng andt he endi ngs ar e added di r ect l y t o t he
cr udef or mof t hever b.

Thef or mof cont i ngency ( or possi bi l i t y)
i s al so wi t hout any char act er i st i c i ndi cat i on. Par t i ci pi al f or ms
have t he t i me i ndi cat i on but no af f i xel . For t he met hod of
f or mi ng t he var i ous t enses et c. , see Lessons XI I I , XI V.
NOTESONDECLENSI ONSANDCONJUGATI ONS

39
8. Voi ce
As i n Engl i sh, so i n Kanar ese, t her e ar e t he act i ve voi ce
Jo! a~r l kar t ar i pr ayoga) andt he passi ve voi ce
Jo3at r i kar mani pr ayoga) ; but Kanar ese, i nst eadof combi ni ng
t he past par t i ci pl e of t he ver b concer ned wi t h t he t enses
of t he ver b t o be, i n t he manner of Engl i sh, ( `I ampushed' ,
`I was pushed' , et c. ) , combi nes t hei nf i ni t i ve i n ev, ) l of t hever b
i n quest i on wi t h t he t enses of t he ver b f eel , exper i ence.
Whent he t wo par t s of t he f or mcombi ne t he f i nal nof t he
i nf i ni t i ve i s el i ded, t hus: N, ; ~de) d, )
1 Seep. 42.

2 Seep. 37.
s
That i s, i zaeWt opush, pushi ng( wi t h el i si on
I exper i ence: I exper i ence pushi ng.
4 4, 94W- } -

&3

I exper i enced ( Lesson
pushi ng.
of f i nal t M) - } - ; SCW~e; S
I X, end) : I exper i enced
40

KANARESEGRAMMAR
NOUNSOFTHEFI RSTDECLENSI ON
Crude formendi ng i n
0; Masc. Fem. and Neut .
Nom.

e9 Mi z ~j
Acc.
I nstr.

-
to
d
Dat.

-Al t
Gen. -
Loc.

-i do
Voc.

-9tM
or UM
cs
e9 mondo
-oadc~J ~
-onood
-oaart
-ond
. _ onde)
-ondtM
or oauz
e9? 9tr oaw
as masc.
Note. -The termi nati ons 4J ,
U00 and Bond) are pecul i ar to thi s
decl . M( wi ththe ; 3s or ci i 6 i nserti on) and TW, ) are found i n the other
decl ensi ons al so.

edoi s foundal so i n the second decl . ; but here, as i s the
case wi theV, ) al so, the fi nal vowel of thecrudeformof the nouni s el i ded.
( c) The names of a fewi nani mate obj ects l i ke ; ~J dO: J F

sun, dodJ
moon, andnamesof pl anets endi ng i n e l i ke doJ Venus, fol l owthe regul ar
mascul i ne decl ensi on.

Thenamesof afewani mal s andbi rds l i ke tXddd bul l ,
femmal ebuffal o and dd, ) d eagl e, fol l owthe regul ar mascul i ne decl ensi on
i n the si ng. -WWi da, W*d4~l al etc. , and the regul ar neuter i n the pl ural ,
tl rd~ri do, wXdri d41; etc.
Voc.

N4dv-rl e or 4Qd9n Omanservant
PLURAL
Nom. menservants
Acc.

Ne~ d
d,
menservants
I nst .

4e; ; ~' Ueod by or frommenservants
Dat.

4Q; ; ~~U1Dr3 to menservants
Gen.

N~~esd of menservants
Loc.

i n menservants
Voc.

Aed
: dde or 44d: ef=( ~ Omenservants
Al l mascul i ne names endi ng i n Ul i ke UZ; J J , dori , Pi d

etc. , bel ong
to thi s decl ensi on, as al so the mascul i ne gender of the descri pti ve nouns
endi ng i n U; e. g. z Ufi sherman ; l eool , 3 l ame man, etc. ( See Lessons XV
and XXX) .

The word ~odori boy ( the femi ni ne of whi ch, adodor, , bel ongs
to the 2nd decl . )

bel ongs tothi s decl ensi on.

The word Sri chi l d, has
masc. , fem. and neut. forms . Z, ri 4o son, dorW, ) daughter ( whi ch bel ong
to thi s decl ensi on) and dJ ri , ) chi l d ( 3rd decl . ) . Thepl ural of ; : Wi i s i rregul ar
( Lesson XVI I ) . The demonstrati ve and i nterrogati ve pronouns of the
( a) TheRegul ar Decl ensi on.
( i ) Masc. and Fem. ) de ; ; $tf servant . ( i i ) Newt . ; : ~) d tree.
SI NGULAR PLURAL I SI NGULAR PLURAL SI NGULAR PLURAL
LESSONV
The Noun
Nom. z Se~' ~~ *; ; S#W as masc. dodri 0o
THEFI RSTDECLENSI ON
Acc. -di 3o{
-rl si ~d
I nstr . - pod -Ood -god -nod -ri doLl
Mascul i ne
Dat. -Art
-art -aft
-4a.
Crudeform-4e; ~-7 servant
Gen. -d -d -ri 0
Loc. -~e7 -d0 de7 -deb _ rWo
SI NGULAR
Voc. _ dem -see
_
dt M -ri ot Nom. ~eai c ' 3. ) amanservant
or ode ova or O0Z or ri dCz Acc. 4e; d~No
d
amanservant
I nst. Atai : d~~OCS by or fromamanservant
( b) Nounsof Rel ati onshi p.
Masc. emel der-brother. Fem. e
4
el der si ster .
Dat. ? e; ~' U~Ato a manservant
Gen. r' ~aQ v~ of a manservant
SI NGULAR I PLURAL SI NGULAR I PLURAL Loc. i n amanservant
42

KANARESEGRAMMAR
t hi rd person si ngul ar, mascul i ne and f emi ni ne, most l y f ol l ow t he regul ar
decl ensi ons above: e. g. l a; ~~~, edcdJ ; - 644J , U
; 90
; ~a4do, t 9dVJ ; o3rarJ 4J ,
o ~si J ( p. 25) . The pl ural s 1a ; J dJ , e9; dJ , o3sad) f ol l ow t he regul ar pl ural
of t hi s decl ensi on. The Kanarese adj ect i val nouns of Lesson XXXf ol l ow
t he regul ar decl ensi on above i n t he mascul i ne and f emi ni ne.
Whi l e t he above f ormi s charact eri st i c of mascul i ne nouns of t he
decl ensi on, t hef emi ni ne noun t 9t conf orms t o i t i n t he si ngul ar . As wi l l
be seen f romt he t abl e on page 40, t hi s noun, l i ke some ot her nouns of
rel at i onshi p, has a speci al f ormi n t he pl ural .

The word e; : ; . ) )

mot her,
al so conf orms

i n t he si ngul ar but t he pl ural f ormi n Uond3 i s not i n
ordi nary use. The honori f i c pl ural e~~~~~dJ or e9; : O i S; d. ) f or t he si ngul ar
i s common.

e9~f at her, shows t he same charact eri st i cs .
Verbs whose crude f ormends i n em, ot her t han t hose consi st i ng of t wo
short syl l abl es, as 4, t az, ) gi ve, and some ot her i rregul ars.
The Verb
THEFI RST CONJ UGATI ON
Crude f orm- ; ~~~rt , ~ make, do.
I mperat i ve Mood ( z) Qda; d, vi dhi rupa) 1
SI NGULAR
1 .

l et me make
2.

make t hou
3. ; ~~~dSl et hi m( her, i t ) make
PLURAL
l et us make
2. Vi m=makeyou ( col l oqui al , ; ~~~
s)
3. ; ~t Sl et t hemmake
I nf i ni t i ve Mood

bhavarupa or Vz ; nZO bhavdrt ha) 3
- ~~ ~dor ; ~~~dex) t o make
1
Vi dhi means `command' .

Anot her name f or t hi s part of t he verb i s
ZC~ZSF ( =4+
ezf F) `i mperat i ve meani ng' .

For a f ul l er conj ugat i on of t hi s
mood see Lesson I X,

z
I n al most every verb t he crude f ormi s al so t he
f ormof t he 2 s. i mperat i ve.

3
See Lesson XI . t pZ means `i dea' .
Va; ~da33 means `t he f ormwhi ch i ndi cat es t he i dea or act i on' ( of t he verb) .
THEFI RST CONJ UGATI ON
Present Tense

vart amanaka1a)
Si gn of t he present :
t M~, ( const ant f or al l verbs)
SI NGULAR
1 .

; 1sKi J ~
c31
I make
2.

C~J ~( 03J ( or

t hou makest
3 . m. ~s~t ~J

Nhe . makes
f.

she makes
n. dj DdJ 9, dt i i t makes
PLURAL
1 .

~~

~; ; t we make
2.

you make
3. m. f .

t hey make
n. ~~

t hey make
SYNTAX
43
The Present Tense
The present t ense i n Kanarese has al so t he meani ng of t he
near f ut ure; as, 29d~ z'

' ~UZ4
~dJ g
P~we shal l see t he ki ng
t o- morrow.

As i n t he case of t he Engl i sh hi st ori c present t he
Kanarese present t ense i s, on occasi on, used i n narrat i ve i nst ead
of t he past t ense:

Rama says ( i . e. sai d)
t o Bharat a.
Demonst rat i ve Adj ect i ves
As wehave seen, t he demonst rat i ve adj ect i ves ( art i cl es) a, t he,
have no exact equi val ent s i n Kanarese. The words 202. ) ( m.
and f . ) and 2, ~oci ~ ( n. ) , one, are f requent l y used where Engl i sh
has a; and t he words t i t hat , t hose, and - 63 t hi s, t hese, where
Engl i sh has t he. I n t he absence of ei t her of t hese words i n
1 Thi s f orm=; i ndo+eN9+z4, wi t h t he el i si on of t he f i nal vowel
of each of t he f i rst t wo members. The af f i xes Z3, 4t 0. 9J ( *) , es ; l , Ud,
Od; 40, ' dSO, U$, e9; 3 are const ant i n t he present t ense f or al l verbs.
z
The f orm; i 1zdJ 9may be heard i n col l oqui al speech.
3
See vocabul ary p. 45.
44

KANARESEGRAMMAR
a Kanar ese sent ence t he cont ext must det er mi ne whet her a or
t he i s t o be suppl i ed i n t r ansl at i ng t o Engl i sh.
The Sent ence
The nomi nat i ve case denot es t he subj ect of t he sent ence.
When t he subj ect i s a per sonal pr onoun, i t i s of t en omi t t ed,
i t s meani ng bei ng cont ai ned i n t he per sonal endi ng of t he ver b;
as, ~s~r eJ 3, Qo3J t hou makest ;

t hey make.
The ver b agr ees wi t h i t s subj ect i n number and per son. I n
t he t hi r d per son i t al so agr ees i n gender .
The accusat i ve case denot es t he obj ect of t he sent ence.
The f i ni t e ver b i s t he l ast wor d i n a compl et e sent ence.
Awor d i n t he geni t i ve case pr ecedes t he wor d on whi ch i t
depends : as, 2 3~, ~ ~~J 7i ~J t he f i sher man' s son.
EXERCI SEV
( a) Tr ansl at e i nt o Engl i sh :
1.

z ~J acJ dJ _, d. 3. 2 ~Zt
e9dr ~+~c~J 2 ~J Z

d~J a
.

, . 4. 3' J dJ 2 J ~J i x' J Z~J Ti ~c~J ~ ~J ~( Li ; J
v~c~~. 5. ej ~J ~J dJ

C J FNNa NJ c1( L~J v~e~~. 6. ej 2 37e03J F~7~
7. - ~eei 7S~ddJ

d o 0a~v~, 6. 8. eoJ dJ
Br i e, 2 OLj J r " j NJd 3s; ea. 9 . Ej 2 37c03J FNJ

J Z~J 7i d~a oJ J ( v' ~r ' ' J J ~c_, ~.
10.

ut ~*~~~~Jd aon%o. 11. UeUm~~J ~J 7i d~Ja' t aNJ
1N
. 12 . adJ i J 7i dJ o~J J L3J vb7~ i ~~J ~a_, t 3. 13. aJ 7i 3e,

ee3r sz t s
c~` Jd2 2 J dZp( Sj J . '

14. o~J J ~J I I dJ o~. S~~u~c L~P>J e5o~. ~(

~J v7c' , Z3.

15. ej
Z~OJ t ~J 7i ~~J ~ t s; r j J .

16, 0~. . $ 7e Ta~J o). ( 7~oz. - @f 1 t dz z , cl . 17. ~J ~J 7i dJ
18. z z ' dJ r oz 7A

19 . ~47i a~u~~z ~J e~;
2 0. ej Y. ~~03J FNNJd ~' . s~ J FN.
( b) Tr ansl at e i nt o Kanar ese:
1 . The Br ahmans speak.

2 . Ashepher d sal ut es t he ki ng.
3. The di sci pl es sal ut e t he r el i gi ous t eacher. 4. Mada sees t he
1 f ad) and z j d) ar e not ver bs of t he f i r st conj ugat i on but i r r egul ar s ;
al l ver bs, however , endi ng i n vu have t hei r pr esent t ense l i ke ; ~nw.
a
Not e t he accusat i ve case i n t hi s i di om.

$ t ad i nf .
EKERCI SE V

45
moon.

5. We see t he ser vant s of t he ki ng.

6. The boy sal ut es
a di sci pl e of t he r el i gi ous t eacher . 7. Omer chant , l ook at ' t he
sun. 8. 1 l ove t he f r i end of t hat man. 9. The ser vant s of t he
gi l dr as speak. 10. OBr ahmans, see t hat mer chant . 11 . Mada
t el l s Ranga' t o come.

12 . The sun shi nes .

13. Run, boy. "
14. Of r i end, ' t el l t he peopl e' so.

15. The Br ahmans speak ; t he
peopl e l i st en. ' 16. 1 come now.
Vocabul ar y
( Al l t he nouns except c- 4ar e
except l , di and 2 J dJ , 1st conj . )
eae&; J ( t r . ) desi r e
e5d, ki ng
ej t hat ( adj . )
ej mwJ Fr el i gi ous t eacher
, , dJ be
- dvi now
2 ~z J ~ one ( m. and f . )
' , a; J make r un ( t r. )
r un ( i nt r . )
~s' J dJ ZJ shepher d
shout , cal l ( i nt r .
*0J hear , ask ( t r . )
?~o t J moon
V- F~~ ~peopl e ( al ways pl u. )
9AeU7r ~d gar dener
i uz Ot omor r ow
see ( t r. )
J v' ~~NJ shi ne ( i nt r . )
oJ J e3~J l ove ( t r . )
udJ come ( i nt r . )
' See.

s
Acc .
and t r . )
s
Voc.
1st decl . m. and
z u' J ~, Ez a Br ahman
z , d~Bhar at a
J NJ ~a man
speak ( i nt r . )
az -, Dci Mada
~J J r ~J

ol d man
do 7i Ranga
o- , ~d, ) Rama
aoa, ' J sal ut e ( t r . )
a~Fv mer chant
ae7~; Ti ) f ~ qui ckl y
b; t
8
di sci pl e
a Sudr a
; &J ; O' J F sun
ser vant
ae3o; 9 f r i end
adz Aso
c3' J dJ ~boy
*%' J say, t el l ( t r. )
4 Dat . 5 *o) .
t he ver bs,
LESSONVI
TheNoun
As wehaveal r eady not i ced, a number of f emi ni nepr onouns
and adj ect i val nouns f ol l owt heabovemodel . Sodoes t hewor d
; : ; , ) i W- ~. But f emi ni nenomi nat i ves i n
e14
, ~ f r oma cr udef or m
endi ng i n ear ef ew.

Mascul i nenouns of t hi s endi ng usual l y
maket hef emi ni nei n' a, or - ~ ( 2nd decl . ) , as 35- ~71. 7~ boy, ~dZ
0' , devot ee, z ~

. Thef or m

used as anexampl eabove
has anal t er nat i ve,

( 2nd decl . ) whi chi s t hemor ecor r ect
of t het wof or ms; cf . v~j ct ~n, LessonI X.
Thet abl eonp. 40 and t henot eonp. 42 showt hat a f ew
f emi ni nenouns of r el at i onshi p bel ongi ng t ot hi s decl ensi onf ol l ow
t hemascul i net ypei nt hesi ngul ar .
THEFI RSTCONJ UGATI ON

47
Per sonal Pr onouns of t heThi r d Per son
( Demonst r at i vePr onouns)
03

he, t hi s man
he, t hat man
she, t hi s woman
decl i ned l i ke
she, t hat womanf
decl i ned l i ke
i s r epr esent ed by t he pr esent t ense i n Engl i sh:
t eacher s i nst r uct t hei gnor ant .
Ot her exampl es of t heuseof t hef ut ur ef or t hepr esent ar e:
d' r ' mj UVMeZ~W

o~d dnowCSJ o" ~ . J J J o' ~Z~J s ( =Z~J a' ~J J J yL3)
1 Thi s f or m=; Zda +er o; ~ . . { . .

wi t hel i si on of t he f i nal vowel
of eachof t hef i r st t womember s, as i nt hepr esent .

Theendi ngs of t he
f ut ur et ense:

4 ( or S) ,
e4, ) , ev) , t mdi ( ed) ) ;
4; * , ego, edo, t N; *
( e; * ) ar e t hesamef or al l ver bs.

z
Thi s f or mof t heneut er t hi r d per son
i s super i or f r oma l i t er ar y poi nt of vi ew, but t hef or mgi veni n br acket s
i s of t en empl oyed i nor di nar y wr i t i ng and speech.

s
f t r i W) ng t he
j og wat er f al l , 1 n. l oc . ( cf . ; : ~) ddOp. 40) .

d
Pt d3 wat er , 3 Bn. cf . d+wda,
LessonXI I .

5
A9 d hei ght , 1 n. i nst r .

6 dOZZOt ka descend, i i nt r .
THEFI RSTDECLENSI ON( Cont d. )
Femi ni ne
Cr udef or m- ' - ~ ; ; ~a ser vant
SI NGULAR
THEFI RSTCONJ UGATI ON( Cont d. )
Fut ur eTense( z 00; , 9 sa&e) bhavi shyat hal a)
Si gnof t hef ut ur e: en) ; ~ ( const ant f or al l ver bs)
SI NGULAR PLURAL
Nom. a mai dser vant I shal l make weshal l make
Acc. a mai dser vant t houwi l t make youwi l l make
I nst . by or f r oma mai dser vant
3 . m. hewi l l make
Dat . * ; ~t l gA t oa mai dser vant f . ~7
.
1~ ~ shewi l l make
t hey wi l l make
Gen. m; ~10 of a mai dser vant n. ~s~z i ; c~t ~t i 1 t hey wi l l
Loc. ?~ ; t 6 0~ i na mai dser vant
i t wi l l make
d- ~dt j ) make
Voc. 4N; t d4t Omai dser vant
SYNTAX
PLURAL TheFut ur eTense
Nom. - 4e; ~t ~ mai dser vant s
Thef ut ur et ense i s used t o expr ess ( i ) f ut ur i t y of act i on
et c, , as i ndecl ensi onof mascul i nenoun ~~4 ZJ dJ ~c' ~+J hewi l l comet omor r ow; ( i i ) habi t ual act i on, suchas