1-14 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK

The system
of
orbits or energy levels in which the electrons are pictured
rotating about the nucleus is characteristic of each element and remains
stable until disturbed by external excitation.
Chemical reactions between the elements involve only the valence elec-
trons in the outer orbits.
Light 'production. It is by the proper excitation of the valence electrons
that visible radiation is produced in luminescence phenomena.
The Carbon Arc
Low-intensity arcs. Of the three principal types of carbon arc in com-
mercial use, the low-intensity arc is the simplest. In this arc, the light
source is the white-hot tip of the positive carbon. This tip is heated to a
temperature near its sublimation point
(3,700 degrees Centigrade) by the
concentration of a large part of the electrical energy of the discharge in a
narrow region close to the anode surface. (See Fig. 1-10.)
The gas in the main part of the arc stream is extremely hot (in the neigh-
borhood of 6,000 degrees Centigrade) and so has a relatively high ion dens-
ity, and good electrical conductivity. The current is carried through this
region largely by the electrons, since they move much more readily than
the positive ions because of their small mass. However, equal numbers
of positive ions and negative electrons are interspersed throughout the arc
stream, so no net space charge exists, and the only resistance to the motion
of the electrons is that supplied by frequent collisions with inert atoms and
molecules.
Near the anode surface, the conditions are not as favorable for the con-
duction of current. The electrode tip is about 2,000 degrees cooler than
the arc stream, and the gas immediately adjacent consists largely of carbon
vapor in temperature equilibrium with the surface. At 3,700 degrees
Centigrade, this carbon vapor is a very poor conductor of electricity. It
therefore requires a high voltage to force the current-carrying electrons
through this vapor layer and into the anode. In a pure carbon arc, this
anode drop is about 35 volts. Most of the heat so developed is transferred
to the surface of the positive carbon, part by the impact of the highly ac-
celerated electrons and part by thermal conduction. Finally, as the elec-
trons reach the anode surface, they release their heat of condensation,
contributing further to the high temperature of the electrode tip.
The positive electrode of the low-intensity arc may contain a core con-
sisting of a mixture of soft carbon and a potassium salt. The potassium
does not contribute to the light, but does increase the steadiness of the arc
by lowering the effective ionization potential of the arc gas.
Flame arcs. A flame arc is obtained by enlarging the core in the elec-
trodes of a low-intensity arc and replacing part of the carbon with chemical
compounds known as flame materials, capable of radiating efficiently in a
highly heated gaseous form. These compounds are vaporized along with
the carbon and diffuse throughout the arc stream, producing a flame of a