Integrated approach to address salinity

problems in irrigated agriculture

Julian Martinez Beltrn
1
1
Centro de Estudios Hidrogrficos del CEDEX, Madrid, Espaa
Manej o da sali nidade na agricultura: Estudos bsicos e apli cados
ISBN 978-85-7563-489-9
Fortaleza - CE
2010
Introduction
Soil and water salinity in irrigated agriculture
Integrated approach for salinity management
Conclusions
References
INTRODUCTION
Irrigated agriculture is essential for crop production.
Although the area under irrigation (277 million hectares)
is only about 20 percent of the total cropped area, it
contributes approximately 40 percent of the total food
production. Therefore, the productivity of the irrigated
lands is approximately three times the productivity of rain-
fed areas (FAO, 2006).
It is expected that in 2030 the contribution of irrigated
agriculture to food production could be close to 50
percent. To achieve this target there are two needs: to
increase the area under irrigation and to increase the
productivity of the currently irrigated lands. The irrigation
expansion has important constraints: the scarcity of good
quality water and of lands with irrigation suitability; the
resources needed to finance the investments; and the
need of legal and institutional development and capacity
building, especially in those countries with less irrigation
tradition. Therefore, consolidation and modernization of
current irrigation schemes, in order to increase water
productivity, is being a priority action in many countries,
as usually less financial resources are required and no
new natural resources need to be mobilised.
Improvement of existing irrigation schemes has two
major components: increasing water productivity and
conservation of the quality of land and water resources,
which frequently are affected by salinity in the arid and
semi-arid regions.
This paper is focused on the latter mentioned issue.
The overall objective of this paper is to describe an
integrated approach to manage soil and water salinity in
irrigated lands. An overview of global salinity problems
was described by Martnez Beltrn and Licona Manzur
(2005). Details on the control of soil and water salinity
Integrated approach to address salinity
problems in irrigated agriculture
and on reclamation of saline soils can be consulted in the
Annex of the TRAGSA-publication La ingeniera en
los procesos de desertificacin (Martnez Beltrn,
2003).
SOIL AND WATER SALINITY IN IRRIGATED
AGRICULTURE
Approximately 40 percent of the world s irrigated
land is located in arid and semi-arid regions (FAO, 2006),
as it can be observed in the FAO global map of irrigation
areas (Figure 1).
In those regions, secondary salinity is common in
irrigated agriculture because of the salts added with the
irrigation water and the build up of saline groundwater in
lands lacking of natural drainage (Figure 2).
Figure 2B shows that adjacent to a well cropped field
there is a plot where salt accumulates in the soil surface
due to capillary rise of saline groundwater (Figure 2A).
This illustrates the man made character of secondary
salinity.
Consequences of soil salinity are the progressive
decrease of crop yields and the loss of land productivity.
If the salt accumulation process continues, the retirement
of land fromcultivation is the following phase that drives
to land desertification (Figure 2B).
In 2002, FAO (2002a) estimated that about 20-30
million hectares of irrigated land were seriously damaged
by soil salinity and 0.25-0.50 million hectares were
estimated to be lost from production every year as a
result of salt build-up.
Figure 3 shows the world map of saline soils. By
comparing with the global map of irrigation (Figure 1),
some coincidence between the areas affected by salinity
and the areas under irrigation can be observed.
4 Julian Martinez Beltrn
Figure 1. The FAO digital global map of irrigation areas (February, 2007)
A.
Figure 2. A) Capillary rise of shallow saline groundwater. B)
Land degradation due to salt accumulation. Mendoza,
Argentina
B.
Figure 3. The world map of saline soils (FAO/UNESCO 2003)
in < 1% of area
in < 1-10% of area
in < 11-20% of area
in < 21-30% of area
in < 31-40% of area
in < 41-50% of area
in < 51-60% of area
in > 60% of area
The economic impact of soil salinity on irrigated
agriculture has been estimated in some cases, in the
context of plans to reclaim salt affected soils for
productive agriculture and to prevent the further salinity
hazard. For example, this type of assessment was made
in the Ro Fuerte Irrigation District, Sinaloa, Mexico,
where soil salinity has limited the agricultural production
of some irrigated lands mapped in Figure 4 according to
its salinity level.
In this case, the annual production losses due to soil
salinity were estimated as difference between the value
of the potential production in the irrigation district and the
actual production. The potential production was
determined from: the land use distribution, the average
crop yields in salt free soils and crop prices. The actual
production of the salt affected soils was estimated by
applying to each mapping salinity class, whose area is
known, the crop yield losses due to soil salinity (Table 1).
5 Integrated approach to address salinity problems in irrigated agriculture
INTEGRATED APPROACH FOR
SALINITY MANAGEMENT
A first step for salinity management is the estimation
of the magnitude of the socio-economic problem. For this
purpose, mapping the salt affected areas and the
characterization of the salinity problemis needed. Maps
similar to that of Figure 4 can be obtained by remote
sensing and field work. Methods for soil salinity
assessment can be consulted in the FAO Irrigation and
Drainage Paper No 57 (1999). In addition to this, the
impact of salinity on the economy of the farmers involved
should be done. For this purpose a method similar to that
described in the previous section could be applied.
Reclamation of salt affected soils and the continuous
control of soil salinity in irrigated lands need an integrated
approach. Such approach includes technical (hydraulic,
mechanical, chemical and agronomic), economic and
environmental measures, as it can be observed in Figure 5.
A first distinction should be made between rain-fed
agriculture, where soils generally have natural salinity
(primary salinity), and irrigated agriculture where
secondary salinity is due to inadequate water
management.
In dry lands of the arid and semi-arid regions, in the
absence of rainfall and irrigation water to leach salts from
the root zone, the economic use of slightly and moderately
saline soils is limited to growing salt tolerant crop varieties
and to the application of agronomic practices adapted to
the salinity conditions (saline agriculture). Generally, soils
affected by severe primary salinity are not cultivated and
natural vegetation, adapted to salinity conditions,
develops.
The availability of effective precipitation or/and good
quality irrigation water permits the leaching of salts, if the
lands have natural drainage or are provided with drainage
systems to control surface water and a shallow
groundwater table.
Figure 6 highlights the above mentioned concepts:
sustainable irrigated agriculture is possible in salt affected
soils if the root zone is free of salts by leaching with
irrigation water and the water table is controlled by a
Figure 6. Irrigation and drainage of a soil affected by primary
salinity (Lower Guadalquivir River, Spain)
Figure 5. Integrated management of saline soils (Adapted
from FAO, 2005)
Hydraulic aspects:
Irri gati on
Drainage
Leachi ng
Chemical aspects:
Soi l amendments
Mineral fertil i zation
Socio-economic,
enviromental and
legal aspects
Mechanical aspects:
Land levelling and smoothing
Deep plowing
Subsoiling
Sanding
Agronic aspects:
Sowing techniques
Mul chi ng
Green manure
Sali ne agricul ture
Integrated
management of
salt affected soils
Table 1. Estimation of production losses due to soil salinity in the Ro Fuerte Irrigation District, Sinaloa, Mexico (adapted
from Pulido et al., 2000)
Figure 4. Salt affected l ands in the Ro Fuerte Irrigation
District, Sinaloa, Mexico (Pulido et al., 1998)
Color Classe
dSm
-1
Area
(ha)
0-4
4-8
8-12
12-16
> 16
Total
181,631
69,316
27,428
14,909
26,692
319,976
Area
(%)
56.8
21.7
8.6
4.6
8.3
100.0
6 Julian Martinez Beltrn
subsurface drainage system. In this case, the subsoil is
still saline as the natural vegetation of the ditch bank
indicates.
Subsurface drainage systems have been installed in
many irrigated areas of the world in large scale projects
to reclaimlands affected by salinity and to control soil
salinity, for example, in most of the lands of the Nile
Delta in Egypt.
The relevance of irrigation and drainage for salinity
management is also highlighted in Figure 7, which shows
the contact between an irrigation scheme and the dry
lands in an area with an arid climate (Mendoza,
Argentina).
Figure 7. Irrigated lands and dry lands in an area affected by
salinity (Mendoza, Argentina)
In this arid zone, agriculture is only possible under
irrigation. Dry lands are severely affected by salinity, as
it can be observed in the right part of the above picture.
Irrigation makes agriculture possible as the left part of
the picture shows. However, lands with insufficient
natural drainage are affected by secondary salinity.
Therefore, land productivity is clearly below the potential
productivity obtained in the lands where subsurface
drainage systems have been installed (central part of the
picture).
Surface drainage and subsurface drainage are key
factors for successful salinity management. FAO (2007)
has provided guidelines and computer programs for the
planning and design of land drainage systems. Details on
salinity control can also be consulted in this FAO
Irrigation and Drainage Paper.
Land leveling and smoothing are needed in irrigated
fields to prevent surface water accumulation and in order
to achieve sound surface drainage. In addition to this,
other mechanical measures, such as deep plowing and
subsoiling, are needed to increase the hydraulic
conductivity of the top soil in order to improve the
infiltration and percolation of the irrigation water.
If the sodium content of the soil is high, gypsum
amendments are recommended to maintain soil structure
stability and the infiltration rate of the soil.
Crop selection is a key factor in the integrated
management of salinity in irrigated agriculture.
Differences in crop tolerance to soil salinity permit the
selection of the appropriate crops and the most resistant
crop varieties according to the salinity levels of the soil.
Good agronomic practices adapted to soil salinity
should also be considered if the topsoil is still saline.
Sound mineral fertilization is needed to prevent the
increase of salinity due to nitrates application. Sowing
techniques should also be adapted to the saline
environment to prevent the location of seeds in ground
patches where salts accumulate, as the top of the
irrigation furrows.
Finally, a third aspect in salinity management under
irrigated agriculture is sound agricultural drainage water
management. Irrigation and drainage are essential for
salinity management in irrigated lands. However,
deterioration of the quality of drainage water due to
salinity cause major problems for the safe disposal of
drainage flows, especially if water resources situated
downstreamof the outlets of the drainage systems are
affected. Therefore, an overall view of drainage water
management is needed by considering the three levels
involved: the irrigated field, the irrigation scheme and the
river basin. FAO has also provided guidelines for
agricultural drainage water management in arid and
semi-arid areas (FAO, 2002b). In this publication
measures for water conservation at the field level, reuse
of drainage water at the scheme level, safe disposal and
in some cases water treatment have been described.
CONCLUSIONS
Irrigated agriculture is essential for food production
and it will be in the future to reduce food insecurity in
developing countries. To cover the medium term food
needs, the irrigated acreage in the developing countries
should be increased, especially in those with current low
irrigation development. In addition, land and water
productivity of existing irrigation schemes needs to be
increased.
In many irrigated areas of the arid and semi-arid
zones land and water productivity is seriously affected by
soil and water salinity. Therefore, reclamation of the
affected lands should be an essential component of
projects for the rehabilitation and modernization of
irrigation schemes. Besides, in order to ensure the
sustainability of the new projects, which are needed to
expand the present irrigation acreage, control of
7 Integrated approach to address salinity problems in irrigated agriculture
secondary salinity of the irrigated soils has also to be
taken into account. In addition, agricultural drainage
water management is needed to reduce the
environmental impacts of irrigated agriculture.
Soil and water salinity management needs an
integrated approach by considering different technical,
socio-economic and environmental aspects which are
very specific of each agricultural development project.
Also several geographic levels should be considered in
the approach fromthe irrigated field to the river basin.
There is enough knowledge and expertise on soil and
water salinity to address this challenge. Frequently, this
knowledge and expertise have been applied successfully
in pilot projects. However, commonly in developing
countries farmers affected by salinity problems have not
enough economic resources to finance the investments
needed to reclaimtheir salt-affected lands, although costs
generally are recovered in a short term. For this reason,
governments have the responsibility to provide the initial
resources and technical advice for up-scaling the good
results obtained at the pilot level. In order to formulate
an appropriate reclamation policy, it is useful to start with
a sound evaluation of the socio-economic and
environmental impact of salinity on the project area.
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FAO. Crops and drops: making the best use of water for
agriculture. Rome. 2002a. 22 pp.
FAO. Agricultural drainage water management in arid and semi-
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and Drainage Paper No. 61. Rome. 2002b. 188 pp.
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