286 DYNASTIIS oF THE MIDDLE PERIOD

0 l0 50 100
F-
0 5 t0 r5 2A 25
I/l -

r3.r4. Plan ofCaves r-3. Badeni, Karn,teka, India. Early Western

Calukya period. Ca. a.o- 575-8J.
 HINDU ROCK-CUT ARCHITECTUREOF THT DECCAN 287

13.rJ. View acrossveranda, Cave 3. Badami, Kar-

'Western
!re!aka, India. Early Calukya period. Dedi-
cated in Sakaera joo (A.D. JZ8).

13.16. Mithuna bracket figures, veranda, Cave 3.

'Western
Badami, Kar.reFka, India. Early Calukya
period. Dedicated in Saka era 5oo (A.D. j78)

r3.r4). The arrangement of pillars in the zra4-

fapa hassuggestedto some that the plan is based
on half of a nar{opq o{ the rype seenat Ajante,
but it is actually a sedesof rows of pillars, four
of which have been eliminated to createa more
open feeling in fiont of the shrine.EThe greater
breadth than depth ofthe cave is a feature found
in some of the Hindu cavesat Ellora and also in
some of the Hindu excavations of the Pallavas
in the south.
A view down the length of the veranda (Fig.
r3.r5) shows the square pillars of the facade
(left) and the rounded pillars with cushion capi-
tals and heavy vertical ridges separating the
veranda from tltc natllapa. These are sirnilar to
the ones at Elephanta, suggestingrnore clearly
than in the case of the Rava4a Phadi cave thc
Early Western Calrrkya ties to other Deccan
traditions. Even greater elaboration of the
 286 DYNAS:TIES oF THE MIDDIE
13.r7. Viglu seated on Sesa at left end ofveranda, Cave
J. Baden)r. K.rrn;r.rka, lndr.r. Errly We*ern Calukya
period. DedicJred in Sakaera soo (A.D. j78).
architectural decoration than that scen in the
Vaketaka and other carlicr cavesof tlle Deccanis
present.A distinctivc featureis the usc ofbrackct
ligrrrc5 itop rhc 'qtrrre pill;rs con'i'ring pri-
n rily of nith lus tn anorous poses(Fig. rJ.16).
These serve as transitions bctween thc vcrticai
pillars and the often claborately carvcd cciiing
pancls of Early Western Calukya monumcnts
(Figs. r3.r5, r3.ro). Ultimately, bracketfigures
become a main decorativemotif in later Deccan
styles, such as that of the Kakatiyas. Thc Early
$Testcrn Calukya exanrplcs show stylistic tics
to some Vaketaka caryings.
The rnain sculpturalprograr.nofthe cavc con-
sists of a nuntbcr of gigantic paneis set into
nichcs showing various forns of Visnu. Onc of
the most imprcssive of these is thc cnorlrlous
rcpresentationof thc god seatcclon Sesaat the
left cnd of thc veranda (Figs. r3.r5, r3.r7).
f o i r r - . r r n r c dr n d s c , , r c di n . r p o : t L r r eo f r o y . r i
ease, the figlrrc rellects the full, fcshy forn.rs
popular in wcsterll Dcccall styles, but wcars an
?ERIOD
r3.r8.Nl-Varaha, on vcrardaof Cave3.Bad:D , Kar_
nataka,Indie. EarJyWestcmCalukyaperiod. Dedi_
catedin Sakaera Joo(A.D.J78).
tnusual headdress,which may be an Early
Wcstern Calukya charactcristic, possibly with
soile southcrn associations.Visnu is surrounded
by smalJeraccompanying figures. On thc ad-
jacent rvall, thc representationof Varaha (near
w l r i c h .t l r c i n r p o r r . r n r , l c d i c a r o ri ny . c r i p t i o ni "
l o c a r ( d )J. c r ) r o n \ l . r t cl sr r _ , ul a r r h e E r r l y W e s t _
ern Calukya stylehascvoived from Gupta-periocl
forms.(Fig. r3.r8). In contrastto iupt"-
period dcpictions of this subjcct, the "^riy
figure of
Varaha shows little of thc husky, muscularbody
typc in which the Gupta dcpendenceon earlier
Kusena nodcs was so clearly revcaled. Further,
the jcrvelry and other dctailed carving is r.mrch
more crisply defined than that of carlicr Gupta-
pcriod examplcs. As with many othcr Eirly
W c . r u r n C . ' l r r k y rw o r k . . h o r t . v c r . r r r o r g r i c .
exist to other Dcccan art styles.For example, the
earth goddcssbeing r-rpheldby Varaha is closely
rclated in hcr rounded body forms to femalcs
sccn at Ajanta, Aurangabad, and other lvcstcrn
Dcccan sites.
 HINDU ROCK_CU'I ARCH]TECTURT OT THE DTCCAN 2dq

i."

'. :
r3.r9.Exteriorof Caver. Bad:iDri,
Karnataka,
India.
:::r.rd. Dedi- EarlyWesternCalukyapcriod.Cir.J75-85.

:: "rl Exrly Cave r at Btdarlri, which rlay slightly predate

:i:rlv witlr Cave j,e is a Seivitc monuurent. It is considerably
: : ::iotnldcd snrallerthan Cave 3 but is sin-rilarin a lumbcr of
-- . d.Lead- rcspccts.In plan, the caveconsistedof I forccor.lrt
. ::re lncar (norv nostly lost), a uandapa rvith pillars ar-
:,::iotion is rangecl in :r seriesof latcral rot's, and a smlll
:: .. West- slrritc (Fig. r3.r4). lts pillared lacade with
..:::.:-pcriOcl centrrl stepsand drvarf friczc (Fig. r3.r9) bears
. Gupta- closc rcscrnblanceto thcse leaturcs of tl-rcmorc
:: :rgLrrcof monunlcntal Cave 3. At thc tr,vo ends of the
: :::.:r body facadc, thc rock facc pro.jccting at ght irglcs
- - :r clrlier from the front of the cave is carvcd v'idr sculP-
.- FLrrthcr, tures, a fcaturc that also occurs at Cxvc a. Thc
: i tr Dlucll r c r r l p t r r rter r h . r r g , l ttt. . r t tc x t r c r ' c l 1 f i t r et r t r . , g c
: : C;r.rpta- o f \ i \ r N . r rr r a j . r . , c \ o r r p . r n b i (1, 1N , n r ' i ( l r i sb r . l
::.: Elrly rchana), Carela, ancl a druurnrcr (Fig. r3.uo).
Thc grecefirl posc and harmonious array of
: :: ..llc,the hucls inclicates that thc rcfincmcnt and pro-
: :. closely portion of Gupta art had not becn lost, although
: :r-lnxles thc multiplicity of cletail is r gcncral indicatiol t3.ro. 5iu" Nalaraj:r, right rva1l,lacade of Cavc r.
,r':!'stelll of rts llter clete,arounclthc third qlrartcr of Badami, K:trnataka,Lxlir. Errlv Westen) Calukyr
the sixth ccntury. pcriod.Ca. i7J-85.
2go DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLE PERIOD

CoNcrustoN

In addition to the cavesat Aihole and Badami,
which are undisputably Early .Westcnr Calukya
in origin, a Gw cxcavationsat other siteslocared
on the fringes of the Early Western Calukya
empire rnight also belong to this pcriod. How-
ever, inscriptional evidcncc tying thcm to the
Calukya family has not bcen found. Thc final
achievement of Hindu rock-cut architecturc of
thc Deccan will take place undcr thc Restrakhlas
(Chap.r6).
I them to the
md. The final
rrchitecture of
he Rastrakutas
CHAPTER IOURTEEN
SouthernDevelopments
Under the Pallavasand the Pdfdyas
At the same time that petty chieftains and
former feudatories of the Guptas struggled to
gain power in northern India following the
collapseof the Gupta dynasty, powerful families
were arisiug in parts of India that had never
been under the Gupta hegen.rony.In the Deccan,
for example, the Early Western Calukyas began
to gain control of vast territories. In the south,
the major force was the Pallava fan.rily, which
by the late sixth and early seventh centuries
had createdan empire whose renown extended
beyond the Indic realm to China and Southeast
Asia. The Pallavasand Early Western Calukyas
were in constant contact with each other,
T n r P ar r a v , r s
As in the caseof many other ruling farr-tiliesin
South Asia, the Pallavaswere known in history
long before they rose to prominence; they may
291
primarily through warfare, but this association
is also reflected in certain borrowed elements
in their art. Yet eachevolved a higliy distinctive
art style, the Early Westem Calukyasincorporat-
ing elementsof northern, southern, and Dcccan
modes, while rhe Pallavasfirmly establisheda
southem style that visibly persistcd in the art
of subsequentperiods. Other dynasties in the
south, such as the Pendyas,also evolved signifi-
cant artistic traditions during this period but
thc full import of theseis not yet known, smce
they have been largely overshadowed by the
Pallava creations.
be traced as far back as the secondcentury A.D.,
but it is not until the latter half of the sixth
century that the family and its history becorne
 292 DYNASTTES
OF THX MrDDlr PERIOD
lcss cnigmatic, with both inscriptions and art
nronurncnts in stone appearing ro initiarc a
steady tradition that lasted approximately two
hundred ycars. The Pallavas were heirs to the
A n d l r r r r c g i o n . b u t e x p a n d e dt h e i r r e r r i r o r j e s of another. Various stylistic designations of
to inchide much of the Tamil area to the south.
At tincs, their empire also rcached into the
Deccan and to the frontier of Orissa.The figure
style visible in their art shows clear ties to t]re
earlier Buddhist traditions developed under the
Satavahanasand lksvakus, although the Pallavas
were Hindus, primarily Saivite. The origins of
their architectural forms, I-rowevcr, are more
difficult to assess, since precedentsin ephemeral
materials are unlnown and earlier sro[c nonu-
ments in the Pallava regions are scarce.It has
been suggestedthat a strong, traditional use of
stone as a mcdium for funerary n-ronumentsin
the south, as seen in the long megalithic tradi-
tion, led to a reticence to employ it in templc
architcctureprior to the Pallavaperiod.l Perhaps
a study of some of the cavesin the Vijayavada
region may some day shed light on thc origins
of Pallava stone monumcnts.2
The burst ofartistic energy under the Pallavas,
however, cannot be undcrstood sirnply in tcrms
of precedcnrs.lor rlre P:rlhr crrrpire was
"
blesscdrvith a nunber of strong rulers, several
of whon.r in.rposcd their pcrsonalities on the
production of art. Rcligious developments,
particularly lfiakti cllts, nust have also played
a n r r j o r r o l c i n p r o v i d i n g i n r p e r u st o , r r r j s r i c salnt Appar, and this fact is visible in thc
dcvclopments.In particular, the Alv5rs, a group
of Tamil Vaisr.ravitepoet-saints,and thc Saivite
Neyannars stimulated rcligious thought, which
may have affccted the production of art and
temple architecture. Four of thc Alvdrs camc
from the Pallava country and their devotional
(6la&rl) hymns, which were concemed wirh thc
personal expericnce of the deity rarhr thaIr
metaplrysics.mrr5r hilve lrad grc.,r impJct on
thc sociery.3
It is usually assuncd that the early phase of
Pallava architecture consistcd primarily of
lock-cut nonurncnts, while the later phasc is
dominated by structural buildings. As a general
rulc, this is true, at leastin tcrms ofthe surviving
cxamples.However, tircre is evidencero suggesr a structural building, made of some of the
that structural nlonuncnts wcrc produced
virtually from the inception of the pallava
tradition and perhaps the two phascsshould be
considered shifts in enphasis rather than total
abandonmcnt of onc form and the supplanting
Pallava art and architecture are traditionally
associatedwith spccific rulers, who nay have
bceir responsible for the inception of certain
stylistic changes.In gcneral, the developments
of rhe Pallava period incltrde r progrcsrion
from rathcr simple forns to ones of greater
complexity. This progressionhas been attributed
to the growing accumulated skill on the part
of the artisans ovcr the centurics in working
thc hard granitic stone native to the region.
Howcvcr, it is likely that thc increascd com-
plexity in style and growing elaboration of
detail and iconographic forms were also part of
the pan-Indic developmentsof post-Gupta peri-
ods, which in gcneril may bc said to t" ih"r-
acterized by such a transformation. Compared
to northern devclopments, )rowcver, the south-
ern style rnaintains a much greatcr sirnplicity
and thc changesare n-roresubtle.
Thc carliest body of surviving architectural
monuncnts of the Pallava period bclongs to
the reign of Mahendravarman I, whosc rnle in
thc first three dccadesof the seventh ccntury
coiucidcd with rhat of Pulake(in II of thc Early
Westcrn Calukyas.a Originally a Jain, Mahcn-
dravarnun was convcrted to Saivisrn by the
p r i r n a r i l y S . r i v i t c C e d i c . r t i o nosf n r o n L r m e n t s
associatcdwidr him.
One rronumcnt of Mahendra I's reign is a
cavc temple at Mandagappattu,which is called
Laksitayatana(tcmplc ofLaksita) in its dcdicatory
inscription (Fig. r4.r).5 The name Laksita is a
well-knorvn eprthet (hhuda) for Mahendra I,
and thus, the royal patron, who is also called
Viciritrachitta (Curious Minded) in the epigraph,
may be idcntified. The inscription furthcr
revealsthat thc cave was dcdicated to the Hindu
trinity (Brahma, Visnu, and Siva) and calls it
a bricklcss, timberless,r.nctalless, and mortarless
mansion. This latter statencnt is gencrally takcn
to mean thar thc usual tenplc would have been
materials cnumerated in the inscription, and
 THE PALLAVAS AND THX PANDYAS 29'
f --'-.' Pallava
*i: 'hould be
t<: :han total
r s:pplanting
=:::lations of
r ::aditionally
L- *-,, L-,,-

ol of certain
j:relopments
a Progrcssron
res of greater
een attributed
I on the part
s in working
r rhc region.
Lcreasedcom-
laboration of
:e also part of
;t-Gupta peri-
i to be char-
n. Compared
er. the south-
rer simplicity

; architectural r4.r. Exterior of Laksita'scavc- Mandagappattu, Tamil Nadu,

J belongs to India. Pallava period, reigD of Mahendravarnan I. Ca. 600 630.
s iosc rule in
ii-nlh century
I of dre Early
_hin, Mahen- thus, that Mahendra I was the initiator of a
irism by the new stone tradition. Whether or not this is the
i iblc in the case,the use of stone was truly unusual at this
nlonuments time. judging from t]re lack oF extant remains.
The facade of the cave has a low, wide,
rectangular appearancewith two central pillars
hicli is called and a pilaster at each side llanked by large
irs dedicatory sculpted representationsof door guardians.The
: Laksita is a niches in which the guardian figures appear
-\lahendra I, repeat the shape of the space between the
is also called columns ofthe facadewith their squarebottoms
.'-, -^i--^-L
and tops, octagonal central portions, and
::ion further bracketlike capitals. A second row of pillars
:.. the Hindu and pilasterswithin the cave divides the interior
' and calls it
of the main hall into two lateral sections,while \
:i mortar]ess thrce identical shrines for housing the images
::lr'rxlly takcn of the trinity (no longer present) to whom the
:,i have been cave is dedicatedare placed along the rear wall I4-2- Pian of Lak;ital cave. Ma4dagappattu, Tamil
*.me of the (Fig. ta.z). The shallownessof the excavation, Nadu, India. Pallava pcriod, reign of Mahendravar-
cnPtion, and though not so pronounced as in other Pallava man L Ca. 600-610.
 DYNASTIES OF THT MIDDIE ?F-RIOD
294
rnoving fiqurcs ro be seenin Prllavaarr' Also
.l'"rrcr"".is"ri.of the Pallava dvatapalarype is
the fierce appcaranceof the figures, most easily
vilible in G bulging eycs of the exanple to
the left of the facade.6
Also safelyattributable to thc reign of Mahen-
the
dra I on the basisof inscriptional evidenceis
uoper cave temple at the hill fort in the heart of
tiJ citv of TiiuchirappalJi called Lalitairkura's
.",r" ^\oi\et birudd of Malrendra's (Fig'
"f,.t
r4.4).?Its facade,which facessouth, is esscntially
rchnemcnt of the Mandagappatttl tyPe, with
"
an extra pair of pillars, a broader intercolumnia-
r i o n ( w l r i c h n t a l e s r l t e p i l l a r s a p p e a rv c r l
,len,]"i), ,nd crrved mcdalliorr'decorrting the
facets of the pillars. Althotgh the dcvotce
entcrs the i",-."tt the two central pillars'
""u. of tl.re tenple extcnds laterally'
the r.nain axis
This was aPParently done so that thc shrine
lact
cotrld be placedo,t ih" ..,,. irr spiteof the
tl,rr rlre f"c.rdew.r5on the sorrdr'Strchproblcm'
in orientation, rvhich werc often extrencly
ovc cor-nplcx itr rock-cut lrchitecturc, nay have
tL,7. Draralala at left sidc of facade, Lak;ita's
tr.'i"t d"g^pp"qt", Tanil Nedu, Irrdia Pallava
pcriod' b""n one of th" rersons for the cventual aban-
in
reign of Mahcndravanrlan I Ca.600-630' donmcnt of cavc excavationsby the Hindus
favor of structural tcrnples,although not bcfore
tl-Lcywent on to producc somc of thc nost
,.markable achievementsof South Asian art'
examples,and rlre Iaterclscctioningis rcrninis-
T l i c p " n t F i * r q i ) ' l t o u ' r l tr t t l c c r v c
ccnt ;f Early Western Calukya cxamplcs rnd-
c o n i i ' t 5o f , * o I l , , , n b " ' ' r l r r g e r p i l l a r e dh a l l
,uggest, ties to earlier cave traditions of
"lro I t t t l t l d d t )rnn\ d . r c r r b i c r ,l l t r i r l c A P r t r o f / r ' a r a -
the casi coast of India, such as the Undavalli
poirt n,"i, rite cntrTt cc to tlrc 'hrine c.,chfrg-
caves or, further north, lnuch earlier examples ',rr"
npp."ri,tg in tl.reanimated, slightly twistcd
from Khandagiri/Udayagiri in Orissa' The
p o . t . t r . , 1 p i I , l o f P , l l . ' v c x ' r r ) 1 P l cA"r t h c
simplicity'io of t1.," ca.,reand lack of dccorative
gencral characterizcs tl-is early o D p o . i t rc ; C o f L l r ch . l l . r o t l r ( $ c ' L ' l o c x t e d
."r.rine
.,ii"r.,1t" entrancc wolrld probably have bcen
Pall,vi plrarJ. for rltc d atapalnscornprisc relief
(Fig' if this werc a structural examplc' is a
r l m o . t t l i e . o l e s c t r l p t r r r tcl n l r ' r n c e t t : e n t (Bearer of
siror.ving Siva as Gat'Lgedhara ,d.Lc
r a . t ) . t l r e s c . l e n d . r . n n i n r " ' t c df i g r r r c ' ' h o w A ' G r n g a ' r l ' L r S' ri 'v a
r l r c G . r n q c R
. i r c r : F i 3 . r q o )
scviirti. t o r l t c c . , r l i c rt r ' L d i t i o nosI
"fli,'iri".
and Ik;vakrrs, dcnonstrating that i , , h " o *r r , " . . , u i i g r n 1 r i ' h ' i r L h c h c a v c n l y
Sitavahanas of
C . r t t s ( .R i \ ( r . ' ' i t c . r n r ct o e r r r l " t ' t r e ' u l t
the Pallavas werc indeecl the hcirs to the 'err'rtlu' who
clrcierrarrccpcrf''rrrcd b1 one Bh
Andhra-reqion traditions. Charactcristic of Pal-
*irli"d to ise the holy rvatcr to purify the
lavt dvaralala dcpictiotrs,the diflcrencc betrveen in-
ashesof his deceascdunclcs Thc lengt\
the left and riglit guardians is pronounced' for the
scription in the crvc locatcd on Pilxstcrs
thev arc piaced in diffcrent posturcs Thc near suggests.tl.rrough
adliir.ring thc Gangadharapancl
profil" p,,.i,i,ntng of rl c boJy of tlrc left gir'rd-
Ar'" ur" of doublJ entcndre that thc choicc of
i a n ( f i q . r l . l ) . p o = , . i b ldyt r i v i n g l r o r r rr l r c l t i g l t - 8 In
this subject rvas dclibcratc and significant
l1 mJil" portur., of ll,rrktr reprcsenr'rtions' rvhich
ihe still more aninatcd and freely- particul;r, a play on thc *-ord Kavirt'
".rticipat.,
 TI{E PAIIAVAS AND THT }AryPYAS 24J
L.:va art. Also r4.4. Exterior of Lalitenkura'scave.
,;pala tyPe $ Tiruchir.ppalli, Tauil Nadu, India.
e-<.most easily Pallava period, reign of Mahen-
dravarnan I. Ca. 600-630.
r example to

isn of Mahen-
ridence is the
in the heart of
Llalitairkura's
hendra's (Fig.
r- is essentially
f-u rype, with
ntercolumlia-
aPPear very
lecorating the
lhe devotee
central pillars,
rnds laterally.
Lat the shrine
ite of the fact
iuch problems
en extremely

r,enrual aban-
ll(: HlndUS 1n

eh not before
of the most
r Asian art.
hrt the cave
r piJlaredhall
pti of dvira-
ine. each fig-
ehtly twisted
glcs. At the r4.5. Plan of Lalitaikurat cavc.
s'est, located Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu,
India. Pallava period, reign of
riv have been
Mahendravarnan I. Ca. 600-630.
e. is a rclief
iearer of the
eadhrra, Siva refers both to the Keviri River in full view of King Nlsirhhavarman I, who is known most
the heavenly the cave and to a courtesan,suggestsa parallel popularly by his epithet Mamalla I. This son
as a result of between Siva and Mahendra I, for Kaviri is of Mahendravarman I succeeded his father
rgiratha, who described as the beloved of the pallava kinE around the fourth decade of the seventh cen-
o purify the just as canga was the beloved of Siva. fhi tury.l0 A memorable ruler, Mdmalla I sent
: lcngthy in- implied equation between Siva and Mahendra naval expeditions to Sri Larka, deGated the
.hc pilasten I and their respectiveriver goddessesis signifi- .Western
Early Calukyas under Pulakeiin II, and
lsesisthrough cant in light of other Pallava inscriptional captured Bademi in 642 from the Calukyas
ne choice of and artistic evidence.e (in retaliation for his father's carlier deGat by
snificant.s In The most famous phase of pallava art was Pulake(in II), in addition to defeating other
(:r'iri, which that apparently inaugurated during the reign of south Indian ruling families. During his reign,
 DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDIE PERIOD
296

ra.6. Siva as Grieadhrlr' Lalitairkura'scavc'

Tiruclirrpprlli, Tamil Nadu, India Palhva
pcrio<J,reign of MahendravarmanI Ca 600-
630.

Keici- South Asian art, it has never been thorougbly

the Chinese pilgrim Hsiian-tsengvisitcd
P'llrt L crry ^n'l ' rpitrl' studied. analyzcd, and cxamined element by
o' ur.n,. ,lt"n .,lt,.'ior I clen-rentin orclcr to detcrmine the seqr'rcnce of
A l t h , . L r grl h r e . c . ' p o t r . i r yo f M r r n ' l r r p t r r ' ' m
t t ' monLrlrents and thcir place in the development
\ v r i n x r l c d . f r c r M r r l r ' r lrl T ' l t c r r " s t t o t
arca of Pallava art and architecture
founder, for Roman coins found in thc
by carly clasical rvriters sttch Thc vibrancy and anirnation of Pallava art
,l"r.riptiottt
",t.1 been is perhaps nowhcre bettcr scen than in the
a, Ptol"rti inclicate that the tor'vn had
at lcast since thc bcgiming Y^r"h^ ,i,nndopnat Memallapuran.r'Thotrght to
famous es a scxPort
it belons to the period of Marralla I' this cave
of tlie Clrristian cra. In rclclition, althouqh
rhat thc majority of .xhibi"ts both the claboration of sculptural and
h", of,",t becn assurucd
icorroqraphic cler-rrentsand thc rcfincnent of
r-nor-r,,rtt",t,, at thc sitc belong to his rcign' tl-iis
^..hit-c.t.t."l fcatures itssociatedwith l-risreign'
ide:r has been incrcasingly clullengecl' Horvevcr'
A fcature of Palleva erchitccturc secn here'
1.r" ,1roo1.:1 b" .rc,litJ lvith stimul:rting tire
Marual- and one lvhich comcs to lrttition in carly Cola
i"-r.lopn.r.n, of lvtaruallapuran (Citv of
i n t r ' d i ' c r t' t t ' r i n n rlonuncnts, is the prescnceof a tank preccding-
, , , ) . r -r q r , . , L . c . ' P o r it t. ' l
r o r t t h c ' . t
A 'ir rrrJ r o r l . r , r . , . , , r r . - , , , n d i nttl1r t r l r o n t r m c n ti t t e l f
, , f . o , , , l i t ' , , , i . ,c, r, l l r r c t ^
thc Jndian Occan i r i g . r a . - r . l l ' c ' , ' e . , 1 t . , r t * o r ' . ' l r e r" r t t f i c i . , l
cornn.rcrcially in.rportant in
ruonulrcnts xt i"r!r'',,oi., of watcr and of rvatcr syubolisr.n
trade netrvork. Most of the
c:rrvecl olrt of in gcnerelsccm to hlvc playcd an imPortent
Mart-r"ll"o,taartt arc rocL-cr'tt,
rolc- ir.LP:Lllav,riconographics One aspect of
the bouldcrs ancl clifs that abound in thc are:r'
such svnbolisnr rl-rayluvc becn a refcrence tr.>
Thesc inclr.rcle caves' monoliths' lnd large
orr. oi th" practical ilsPectsof kingsi.Lip'that of
s c . r l p t cr .. l, i c ' ' .- l t l ' o t r S ' t ' o er r\ t l r ' r L l - r lb r ' i l J -
Irtcl providine public irrigation- rcservoirs Herc'
i 1 1 1 t"t , r c " l ' , ' i r ' c r c J [ ' l c ' c ' r c { c r r 'r ' ' l l \
Thc site' ih" ,"nk'".t"rt.led ^.ios the entire fronr of
in drte thrn thc rock-cut eranples)
is virtually the cavc, so that rvhcn it rv:Lsfull of wltcr' tl-re
otlti.1t.o.r"., scveraisqrtarcniles'
ficcs devotcc rvoulcl havc had to cross the lvxtcr to
a sto11ccitY in .vl,iclt bouldt-rs ancl rock
aniurais' rerch the cave Thc facaclcis besed or-re:rrlier
heve becn cervcd into builtiiugs'
spite of examples, such ls thosc frour the rcign of
,.o1pt.,1 ,.li"ft, and other lbrms ln
resolt' :ll1d MahertdraI, btt hcre the pill'rrs:rnd pilasters
the oooullrity ofthe sitc :rsi tourist
booL on ere slcn.lcrer,providing I nore oPen:rPPcarance'
it, ti.otioo ii.Lvirtu.rlly evcry general
 THE PAILAVAS AND THE PANDYAS 297

. : .: :
,;i
,:X" : *

. -::.:ir. Pallava
:::::: L Ca. 6oo-

::-::roroug}ly

,fj.
. ::r..:.,:.:;,1
r4.7. Exterior of Varaha cave. MilDallapuram, Tamil Nadu, tndia.
--: Pallavaart
Pallava period, probably reign of Mamalla L Ca. secondthird
:-:an in the quarter sevenlhccDtury.

.r i. llis cave
,-_-:.:ruraland
:a:::1r'lncn[ OI
.::.--his reign.
::i !aen helc,
: : - : . 1 r i yL o r . l

i:lent itself
--:.--:rartificial
.:.r'tnbolism

. r:irence to

-::rs. Here,
::::: lront of
:: ,r'ater,the
l-: \1'aterto
0l
i:: il1 earlier i
r4.8. Plan of Varaha cavc. Marnallapuranr.Tanril Nedu, India.
.:--: pilasters Pallava period, probably reig11of Memalla L Ca. second third
::.:Pcarancc, quertcr seventhce11tury.
296 DYNASTIES o llHll lvllDDLF' PxluoD

of
ancl bear cushion-type cepit:rls reilinisccrlt
llous
Earlv Westcru Crlukya types The seated
^t tlie baseserc :r typicrl I'elhve cluractcristic'
r-trayb" ,""u p'"t"t1"t1t fi)r thc lltcr
"oli "J " The clve
alimal pillarsof south lnclianternplcs
that
cousisnof thc rcctlngtrlerlLelllncl a slrrinc
projectsfbrrvrrd iuto thc spaccoh drc hell (Fig
' ntt
l-r.ir L, 'ri,'' r'p e '"ti tior u' dr-'n1al
rr
, l ' , , r o , ' , , , 1 . , , ' , , , I o t * 1 " ' l ' i c o t r rr i r r ' I
stvlc
;r nichc .s is rvpicll of the -southlncliln
of thc: archircctrLr.el fcaturcs'
The siluPlicity
,.,.i, plain trichcs rvith large ftgures'
",'t1t. ir-L
cheracterizcs tlie Palhve sty1c, rvhich'
ustlel llorthelll rnd l)ccc:rn
contrast to tllc
clcvoiclof sLrbsidier)' clcmcllts
stvlcs.is virtti:r1l-v
liLc vine sc.'o11s. gclu luotifs, atrcl simil:Lr dcsigns
pencls doruinatc thc
Fnur ttt"l,r. riulptu''t1
Fullo.'uitt" a petter-rr visibic
irr,.in. nf i1t. .,,.'".
i"'g,"a" rs carlY es the GuPtrLpcliod' thc
"" rctcrring
,.li"f, ,""ttt to luve dortblc meurings'
rs rvcll :rs to
both to the dcitics rcprcsentcd
Mattulll
achietcmentsof thc kinc, plcsr'rurlL-rlv
i"r'ri rt
L l't l.'t ''ll 't rl ( \rb.'rr' rr'1"'
qoddcss on hts
of Vulhr restiug thc certh
g) Visnu es Trivikrerne
upraiscllknce (Fig ra
ro) Vrreh:r
ir'd"p,.,"a on tilc;ight wall (I'ig r4
.. ,"'r..,". of tltc c,r.ih lltislhclcly bcc' cliscussccl
rs e rcligiottssvrubol rvidl poliricll ov"rtc'nes'
T.i.'ikr"ut"'", conqucrorof dit' tlrrcclvorlcls
",t.1
n-r:r,rbe scctrto hrr'c sitnillr lcvcls of ncltrinq
:rssunctl
In thc lrivikrerue incemetion' Vignrr
thc fonn ol the cls'erf Vlitnrtle' lho cxtrectecl
th:rt hc
orontit" frorn lJali,kilg oi tirc dslrrl-r'
" ti:ltitoriel control olrcr tilc rnloLrnt
.,r'ul,l l-L"o'c
of sorcchc cortlcl covcr in drrcc peccr'lnmlrn:r
then :L qiqlntic forur lncl covcrcrl thc
"sst,tn",l l'orltl
calth-l'orlcl ."ltli 1,i, fitst stri'lc' the urirl
ltrrl certh l'ith his seccrnrl' etlcl
bcrl cc'nhclvcn
sttl'pcc1 rtpou fic hcr,.l oi Reli'
,r,,tl, hi,t tltit,l,
of tllc
thcrcbv sencliuq1ti"i ro r1i" lcthcr \\'or1!l
astrras.'As urcte-phors, the Vlr'rlix 1-rivikrluru
"rrd
ert' tniqht
subiccs,rvhile uor uniclueto Pllllvl
ir".,l"b".,t riclibcratclv.1,,,r"t., tn rcicr t':rspcciftc
kinq, p"'s''ttn"blv his clcfc:rt
:rchicvcrlcuts ol: tlic
drc .lcfcrts r<r
i
,ri pul.k"iit. tl,c aut-"qit'g oi
"n.l iith''r'1: Thc rc'u t'llls
thc l'ellavrs nuclcr his
on thc
oirh" .".r" bcrr iureqcsof G'rj:rl'rknrli
Dttrq.r on drc, rigbr (Fig
lcft (Fiq. r4.rL) :LucL
r.1.rz). slreecstinethe l1()trolls ot PIosPeIil)'
 fHI IAI,I-AVAS AND THE PANDYAS 2-09

..j r4.9. Nr-Virr,hl, Vrrthx cr\'.. M.Dr:'ll:rpLtr:lnr.TtLrnil
Nadu, India. Pelllr period, probablr'rcign of l\4a-
rn.rlh I. C:r. sccond third quartcr scvcldr ccnnrn.
) is in thc act of sc'ltlimnoletionby dccapitation.
r4.ro. Trivikrama, V,rrilre cevc. Mam;rllapurau,
I Teuril Nldu, Lrdia.Prllavr pcriod, prob.rblvrcicrr of
Maltulh L Ca. sccolld-third qlrrrtcr scvcndl ccntllr\'.
j
r4.rr. Cajrhksrr, Vrr.hr crvc. Nl:rurrlhpurarl,
Talril Nedu, Indir. Prllav:rpcr"iod.problbly rcign oi
l Maurall:rI. Ca. secolrclthird .llrartcr rcvcrlth centur)'.
: n:lturJlisticscllilrg. i]l coDtrrstto r'lut is oftcu
!
l
: tics to thc Iksv:rkutreclition:Lresuggcxrccl.
r4.r2. Durs., Vartha cavc- Mrurrllapur.rnr,Trnril
N.rdu,Indii. Pa11na pcriod,probabl,v rcign of Mamrlla
L Ca. second rhircl quartcr scvcnthccntlu).
:4.:
(Gajalakurt) ancl oncc asrilr vi.tory (Dursa).
' f n - r r . r . L ,r r r :
figurc at thc lront lcft of thc conifosition rrho
Suchfigurcs.rc founcl(lulinll the Pallevapcriocl
ancl latcr in south Indixi art, gcncrallyirr rcla-
tionsJripto Durge imagcs end mey bc rclatcd
to rituels dctailcdin at lcest oDc Hirldrl re\t.1il
Erch rclict is clrrrectclized by csscntiallv
secn in Indic sculpturcs,ancl by consirlerable
spatirl corlplcxitv. lD this lxtter scnsc,stron!l
This
carlicr Indian cLylasryfrorn thc Andhra rcgion
inhcritcd bl thc Palhves use.1 sophisticerccl
dcviccs to implv illusioriisticsp:rcctht $,crc
perhxps origiDrlly or prftiallv inspirerl by
Ronun.rrt. ln thc Vuah:i rclicf. tiris conrple\ity
is sccn in the nvo figurcs rt thc l.ft lvho tlrrn
itrlverrl artl rle sho\vn rtr a rclr,/profi1e vicrv.
In the relief of l)r-rrqa,onc fiqnrc is sborvnfronr
the rcar r,hilc :rnothcr is dc'pictedrn pro0lc.
Althoueh lrbitrlry ;rdjustnrcrrsof sca]cto slrir
rhc hicrarchicncc.lsprcvaii in South Asiat ert,
''. .. ...,d lere r.,
i , J ) r . \ ' ' r r . ll ' . . i . . l r r r l r , t , . . , p .r . l . r o r
"\-rr.r
cxarnple,the ccntral fisLrrc is enrphasizcdby
bcirrg placerlabove thc othcrs or1 a thronc bllt
is clcpictcclin the slmc s.rlc x\ othcr 11gurcs.
In a]l tlLe Ieliefs the elemeilts arc celvccl r]r :1
f ' r l l r r l ' c . d r r . r r o r , . , nl r . r r nr': \ 1 . r , , , \ ' . 1 \
. .,.t l, a... .. 1 6 :.
n!\t.rj

'i,.:
if thc rlciticslncL rlrc'iriltcrclrllts l-erc inrlcctl
in thc plcscnccof tlrc lvoi:sLipcr.The slcncler'
fig11rcs.\.vit]r thcir nrr-rorvcrl.teperecllinrbs.
bctra,v rirc Anclhr:ahcriteqc ol l'ell.rva rrt rnrl
;rnticipxtcdrc t,vpicrl stvlc of thc south lncliu
'Iamil
area to Lrc contitlucrliuto thc reign of
thc Colxs end cvcl of thc still letcr Vijlvln:rglr
i :,,: .,
t, kinqs.
'1 t ' i l ' ^ f r i . . r \ , \ r t M i r ' l l . ' r , r rl r r , r n r . l r , .
,tiJ"*;,;
''l','
' t .:
1
Thc vericty oli iconoqliiplic tvpes rcprcsentcd
in thcm inclicarcs rn alrcxdv cstablisirc,:l
of inrrger\'. This suggcsrsthxt thcsc excxvx-
tiolls welc mo.lclcc] lftcr strnctrucs thxt ro
jongcr cxist but rvhich might luve rcvcelccl
rvcalrh

rhc fornativc stagcsof architccturalclcvclop-

.r_'e, m e r l t .T h c l r i n r i | t i c a v e( F i g . 1 4 . r 3 ) ,f o r c x -
anrplc, consisrsof rhrcc sirriil:rrslrrincscntcrccl
JO' DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDIT ?ERIOD
14.13.Exterior of Trimurti cavc. Memallapuram, Tamil N,du,
India. Paliavaperiod. Ca. mid-to-late seventhcenrury.
dircctly from thc exterior with no porches or
tnaxdapas,but unified by the carving of the
extcdor of thc rock into templc facadeswith
architectural niches containing figurative sculp-
ture. The namc Trimdrti rncansliterally "triple
forn," but hcre it refers to thc Hindu trinity
of Siva, Visnu, and Brahna. Siva is the most
prominent ofthc rhreein tJrisconceprion.since
his is the central shrinc, llanked by those of
Ilrahn.rl (viewer'sleft) and Visnu (viewcr's right).
The slightly larger sizeof the central shrine, and
irs projccringfornr. ernphrsizcits prcerrinence.
A fourth rvorship arca is designatedat thc dght
of the facadc where a ser of steps leads to an
image oIDurga, although an cxcavaredshrine is
not prcscllt(Fig. r4.r4). Durga is shown in an
eiglrt-armed form, standing frontally and atop
the bullalo head of the defeated Mahisa in a
format typical of Pallava represcntationsof the
subject.Each door to thc three shrinesis ilanked
by a pair of n.ule figures wJro seweasduarupalas.
The back wall of each of the small rcctanguiar
shrinesis decoratedwith a large relief represent-
ing the deity to whom the shrinc is dedicatcd.
In the case of the Siva shrine, a stone //iga is
also placed or the floor in front of the image
(Fig. ra.r5). This practice of carving thc rear
wail of the shdne is rypical of Pallava monu-
ments and contrastswith the often bare-walled
shrines found throughout northern lndian
Hindu architecture. In Pallava shrines (as here)
the lihga rs usually carved of a different stone
than that of the shrinc itself, and in the case
of cave monun-lents, the lihga is added rather
than rock-cur.l4I he lacadc of riris exc.Lvrrion
contrastswith that of the Vartha cave in that
it is not pillared. Instead, it replicatesan actual
vimatn, that is, a slrrine with its superstructures,
and is bctter col.rpared to the free-standing
monoliths found nearby at Mamallapuram. The
 THE PALTAVASAND THI PANPYAS
J"

r4.r4.Durgaon fxcade,Trirniifti cavc.Man1allapuranl, r4.rJ. Interior,

ccntralshrine,Trinturti cave.Mamal_
Tamil Nadu, India. Pallavaperiod. Ca. nid-to_latc lapuraur,Tanil Nadu,
India.pallavapcriod.Ca. nrid_
sevcnthccntury. ro-latescventhccntury,

date of this cave is unklown but its form a monument of the late scventh or early eighth
suggesrsrhat it was excavatcd in the nliddle ccntury.
i_Ji, to late sevcnth ccntury. In addition to thc variety of architectural
A highly unusual cave was excavatcd not far types sccn in the caves of Memallapuran,
'
--:1t- from thc heart of Mamallapuran.r about five numerous religious subjects were interpretcd
:::d, kilometers away at Slluvankuppam, a village
-.1is anew by thc Pallavas in sculpturc and othcrs
which certainly lieswithin thc ancientbound"ri"s were introduced for thc first time. A represen_
r of Memallapuran. This excavation,the so-called tation of Durge battling the clemon Mahisa
t- :!'aI Yali (Vyak)cavc (Fig. r4.16)is distinguished by i n r h e s o - c a l i c JM r h i . a , L , r d n r . r r d ci r.r\ e ( F r g .
I :rltl- the eleven uyala (iorned lion) hcads that form r4 .t , - ) .l o r e x r rn p l c .i . u n l i k e . , n yo r l L edr e p i c r i o n
,lled a kind ofring around thc centralexcavatcdcham- o l r h r , , c e n ck n o r v ni n c . r r l irt H i n d r ra r i . D t r r g d
E- ::ian ber ancl its two llanking nichcs. To the view- sitsastridehcr lion rZlrcra whilc Mahisa,depictJ.l
er's left of this area but also on thc face of thc as a-human figure with a bufillo head, appears
a: .:onc rock are carved elephants,forward facing, and at_the right, as if recoiling fiom her itiack.
a: aase bearing small shrinesatop their backs.Altlough Fallen tvarriors of Mahisa's army appear at the
:-,ihcr thc main chamber and its two adjacent nicires
'-..:tlon
right and iean in the direction of ritrcat, while
show no trace of any original images rvithin, Durga's forccs advance from the left. Thc
. :-- rlrat these small shrines each bcar a much worn
_:,ctual naturalistic rathcr thxn l.ricrarchicscaling of the
dcpiction of a four-armed deity. Thc original figures, including Durga herself, who" i, not
purpose and meaning of the cave, howevcr, even as-large as hcr opponent, heightens the
-::lcling remains unlnown.l5 Further, the date of the senseof en-rotion and drama of the scene. In
: :::. The e\cavation is uncertain, although it is probably addition, the figures arc in animatcd and logical
.rO2 )'\':. \Sll,i\ (ll llll' \iilrl)Li ril ilrill

r - L . L 1 i .! d i i . . \ , . i i r l L r r ' r r . r t ' r . , l l , f , ,rr r . . , , r r l

. u r i i . r .! : L i h , . r 1 , r r , L l . i i r ,t,

J 1

' \ L . r i i l i : r ' u , , r n r . LL: !r rr i . 1 . \l.i

r.r. r; l)trr!l.1 .\IIiIr!I'r:!. rII.ii!iIIII

n . r 1 1 l p L . r . r ,1r . t 1 i r , \ r . 1 l 11 r J . : l r . l . : , , ; . , : r , I l , L i r ' r , r t | i r J , i , : i

I scale.A major aspectof the composition is the
I I4.r9. Detail, Descentof Ganga or Arjuna's Pcnance.
Memallapuran, Tamil Nadu, India. Paliavaperiod, Ca.
early-to-nrid seventh century.
THE PATTAVASAND THE PEryPYAS ,,'
11:'.3
r4.r8.ReliefshowingeirherDescentofcairga Riveror
Arjuna'sPenance.Matrallapuram,Tamil Nadu,India.
PalJavapcriod.Cr. e:rly-ro-mid
sevcnL|
ccntury.
posesthat further increasethe senseof actuality.
In corapositionssuch asthis, the Pallavasculptors
achieved a striking balance between dre world
of nature and the realm of the divrnc.
The mosr imprcssivescrrlpturalcomposirion
at Mernallapuram is the famous relief that has
been alternately identified as the Descent of
the Gaiga Rivcr or Aqjuna'sPenance(Figs.r4.r8,
14.19).16This striking work is believed to have
beencarvedduring the reign ofeither Mahendra-
varman I or that of his son Mamalla. Measuring
nearly thirty metersin length and approximately
fifteen meters in height, it contains a myriad
of figures, animals and other subjects, all of
which are carved on an approxirnately life-size
central cleft of the rock, presumed to be a
natural feature, which has been skillfully incor-
porated into the design and subject matter of
the carving.
Argumcnts for the interpretation of this
impressive scene as either the Descent of the
 ''IIE
DYNASTIES OII MIDDLI
JO4
Ganga River or Arjuna's Pcnancearc convincing
in cach case.l?Both stories arc for-urdin Indian
iiteraturc, although clifcrent vcrsions appear in
vadous texts. A strotrg casc for the Dcscent
intcrpretation is presentcd by thc central cleft
of the conrposition, rvidr its laga inhabitants,
as a reprcscntationof tlic holy river, thc Gang-
itsell ln the rainy season, a tro*'lost rccept:rcle
is bclie're.l to havc filleci with s'ater, *'bich
corrld thcn fall clorvn thc cleft
kind of living rccnactnctrt of
Some scholars bclieve that
base of
bathirg pool
thc rclief,
for
rvould
thc king
have
hinxcll
Tbe ergunents for the Arjuna story arc less
compelling, though stili substrntial. In this talc,
Arjuna, onc of thc {ive Pdndava brothers of the
M a h a l t l r c r n t np ,c r f . r r l l c ' l ( \ c r r r L r \ l c r i t i c i n
ordcr to enlist-Siva's :ricl(litcrally,his rveapons)
in achievinevictory in thc pending rvar bctween
thc P-ldaves aucl t]re Kurus Since Arjuna's
pcnancclvas pcrforme.l o1r the banks of a rivcr,
tbe argntncnt can bc Dradcthat this silbjcct is
representcdin thc Manallaputanr relicf
Both thc Dcsccnt ancl Arjunl's Penancetn-
terpretAtionswould bc scrvedwcll by thc figurcs
at thc top of the reiicl just to the lcft of the clcft
(Fig. r,1.r9). The pcnancc-perforniugindividnrl,
rvith lr u-tsrlised anclbllance.lon onc lcg, cotllcl
rcprcsent eithcr Bhagiratha, rvhose penances
brouglrt the Gxliga to earth. or Ar.juna, rvhosc
pcnanccscarnedhirn the lid of Siva'srvcapons
Si.,., -u1roappcarslrcxt to thc ascelicin a fottl-
ermctl forur. :rttcnciedby' his clrv:rrvcs(.,;a4a-'),
pcrfonrs thc tantlo nulra' or gift-bcstowll
gcsrLrrc, rvith bis lront lcft hud. I gcstr'rrc
u'oulclbc appropriatcto cidrcr storv.
ln cachcesc,too, sccoudarylllcxningsrclxtmg
to thc Palllvasthcuisclvcs,of thc tvpc inlcrrccl
in othcr contcxts for' l'rllava art, Dright bc
. . r ; r c . r " l . A l . ' t . r l ' . r l.lv . , t r . , r . o t i . rttttt . r ' t i ^ n '
that thc P:rll:rvaslcscurlr]e.l thc l)csccnt o{ thc
Canga as it (too) pLrrifiedthc rvholc rvor'lil.r8
Considcrinq the promincncc alreacll'eccordcrl
the (lani:adhrrenrfuri icotr itr P.rllavr art (Fig.
r4.6), consiclcrrblccrcdibility is givcn to this
interprelation.Alternrtcl)', Aljuna. thc hcro of
t\e Mahallfirata aucl leadcr of drc Pandaves,
nrigl.rtscrvc as r sltlbol of the Pallavastherl-
PEITIOD
sclvcs, for just .s Aiun. sought Siva's aid in
the war against the Kurus, the Pallavassought
victory itr thcir continuing colllPctition $'ith
thc EarJyWestern CalukYas.le
In light of such strong but conilicting cvi-
dence, it might bc argucd that lrotft ncanings
simlritancouslyrvere inteodcd by thc creatorsof
tl.risren.rarkablcrelief. Horvcvet',this suggcstion,
t o o , r t . , r l c t r < .t l f L r r t l t c'rt r b ' r a n i'it i o n
into a tank as a I r . p o n . ' r r t [ , . r t U r t .o l t ] c r e l i . r i t r c l t r . l ct l t e
thc sacrecldesccnt. l . r r g cc l . p l ' , r r r ' r l r h c l u r ^ c r r r g l r t . r l r e t r r r a l l
the tank, at the , h , i , , , * , r l ' . r r c P r ( . r n t r t i o no f . ' o c i r 1 . r l r c i
as a royal asccticswo$hipilrg .t thc sluinc to the lcft of .i
scrved
thc cleft, and thc numerous ,/clas I1ying through
)j
l
thc air fron both sidesas if to convergc at the
cleft. Considerrble naturalislrl in pose and
individuality in facial features is seen in the
figures, rcfiecting somc of the concern with
,r, t,r."lisrn secn elscwherein ?aiiava xrt. As is
gcnerally true in lndic art, tl.re figures are thc I
principal eJer.ncnts of the composition; it is the
Iigulcs that crextc the voluurcs and clynamisrn,
."th", tlt"tt lrbitrely cleviccs,such as systcnrsof
-
pcrspcctivcor iandscepcclemcnts,rvhich could
be uscd to rcnder a co[tcxt.
Othcr notrnnents at Mamallapurarn includc
tbe ninc free-stancling monolithic buildings
scattercd throughor-lt thc site. A series of fivc
conccntrrtec'lin onc erottp nexr thc seagives thc
visitor the rcmarkablesenseof rvalking through
a pctrificd citv (Fig. t4zo). The oriein of thc
idea of pro.luci,rgcomplcrercplicasof structural
brrildings is uot klro\1'r1;the Mdmallapuran
Drollunlcnlsarc the carliests,.rrviviDg cxanples
of rock-cut buildings,couritlctc both insiclc aird
thet outside.lJut, xPParelrtly, thisrlode ncvcr becaure
:,s pop,.r1aras the cavc format, r,vhich clicl not
rcqr,rircthe corupletiouof crteriol dctlil othcr
th,r,rthlr of thc i"c".lc Us.rlllv, thcscmonoliths
h . . v c b c , . ' . . ' 1 , . 1r ' r , / r 4 , .| . . t l l ) P l ( l L I l l l \ l ) o l l r c l
sinccthev arc cleariy trot inrcnclecl to rcprcsent
tenlpie c:Lrts (rarlra-s),btrt arc rnorc pr-opcrly
ternrcrl lirrri?rro-r, for eacliis a clistinctivcshrttrc.
Thc mrjor group of fivc nonoliths (Fig. r4-zo)
h"s bccritraclirion:,lly namcdfor tlic fivc Pandava
brothcrs (ts,o of whorrl havc bccn rssigncclto
one shrinc). atrcltl-rcircomtl-ront'ife. Draupacli'
. l t . . r r p l , t l ' i ' i c o ' r o g r ' L p r i r, r t , r p r . r ' ' tr l i t
crroncous.
c1cerl1.
 THX ?AILAVAS AND THN ?ANDYAS 'OJ
'1i F
n:'.
I tJ ,1:
f,.'-'n

:he
::tall
:he
::: of

- -L-

:ld
:i1c
'.: rlr
--r
tS
. :he
!
' : ,-ne

t
!:

.. -tde r4.20. Monolitlic lenlplesfrolD southwest.MelDallapu.anr,Tamil

Nadu, India. Pa)levaperiod, probably reign of Manalla L Ca.
I ::r-e sccond third quartcr sevcnlhccntury.
,i.-

r, ,,h
: :hc Each rnonolitl.ris uniquc, yet rhe five scenl ro
-.-^t
as thcy went and using thc uncrit rock bcneath
r form a cohcrcnt group and ruust havc been a r r p l - r l ' o r r rur p o r rr v h r c ht o u o r L .
!.. .:;111 carved at abocrtthc sarlc tin-rc,probably during The buildings arc imporrant nor only il1
:::les the rcign of Mamalla I.20 Four of dre buildings thcir olvn right but as docuncnts of wlut must
rnd 1ve!c apparently carvcd out of what lvas once have bccn the contemporary frec-standilg
a singlc outcropping of stonc, nor scparere tenplc architecturcof the Pallavas.As such,
'
I110t boulders, as has often bccn starcd. Thc fifth, thcy providc vital infonnrtion rcgrrding thc
.- :]et which is not on a linc with thc othcrs, rvas gcnesisof sorth Indian architccturalfonns lnd
I flts carvcclout of a smallcr adjoinine bor,rlder(Fig. indicatc that rvithin a short tirrc eftcr thc Gupta
:lter r4.zr). Three largc animal sculpturcs,ofa lion, pcriod, clcar clistinctions berween northern
:: iallt an clcpi.rant,and a rcclining bull, arc also as- and southern nrodcs were alreacly prcsent,
. ..:rlv sociated with tl:,c inta as. The highcst part of although all of thc stagcsin thcse devclopments
:il1c, thc n.rajorbouider was rr the sorth, whcre thc havc not becn traccd.It should not bc infcrred
so-calicdDharrnartja utha ts locatccl,and thcn, that thc MamaliaprlraIu cxanples rcprescnt rhc
: : : l1:a the form tapersto the smailcr,so-cailed Draupadi b c g i n n i n oo f r l r e r l d i r i o n : r . ' r l r c r r. h c y , r "
- .-: to shrinc at tirc othcr end. Fronr unjinishccl ex-
'.,li
maniGstationsof r','hat must havc bccr ahcady
amplcs of rock-cut shrincs at Mamlllapuranr, it widcsprcaclforms.
':tr5
rnay be infcrred thrt thc lvorkncn procccdcd Thc smailestancl simplcst of thc group is thc
from top to boftom, con.Lplctingcach scctio[ "Draupadi" monolith, whici.r is in lrct a
 J06 D Y N A \ T I F su l fllf l\llDDIL PLRIOD

B.]L

'tri:
'DFILIPA
\iN
1''
r FTATHI

:w-ffi
lfjtjPaA sHr r.r-l IFJLIN/i F,^l l

41 ril
l- rl
't''
| iii
l,l
'.,,r
;.-' O

LF]

rir \ I I F FPI1ANT N;'

S K E T { J I ]P L A N
5A /.DEt".,
S C A L EA N D
L O C A TO N S
A P P R O X[ / ] A T E

r4.zr. Plan of monolithic ternplcs.Mamall:purrn, Tamil Nadu,

lnclia. Pellsva period, probably rcign of Mamalla L Ca. secolld
third quarter seventhcentury.

shrine dcdicated to Durgt, distinguished by i n r . r g c r y .l n t l c l r i r n u r t i c a v c . D r r r g a : i r r -

its curved roof, which is believcd to havc bccn
modeled after that of a thatch PrototyPc (Fig.
t4.zz, lcft). Square in plan, this singlc-celled,
onc-story shrine sharcsa low plinth with the
adjacent "Arjuna rathd" (Fig. r4.zz, righQ. The
exteior wall decoration consistsof piiasters at
e r c h o f t h e f o t t r c o r n . r t " n d n i , h c ' c o r l lL i n i n g
imagcs. The two nichcs flar*ing drc door to thc
intcrior contain lifc-size felnale door guardians
(luarapalikas). Thc singlc nicl.rcson the three
rcrnaining sideseach contain a rcprcsentationof
Druga. Thc rcar wall of thc int,:rior of thc
shrine bcars a panel showing l)urga, standing,
bcing adored by worshipcrs, one of rvhorn is
pcrforming a self-decapitationlikc that sccn in
the Durg- relief in the Vardhr cave.
Thc free-standing \ioln uhata of Durga is
locatcd outsi<lcthe shrine (Figs. r4zr, 4.zz)-
The distinctly fcn.rininenaturc of the sculpturel
progran of this sn-ralltcrnple contrastswith thc
othcr monoliths, whicir are male-oricnted, and
suggests the growing enpl.nsis on fclnale
portance is appxrcnt from the fact that a sepa-
rate niche l.nd bccn provided for her (Fig.
r4.r4). Here, an cntire shrine is allotted to hcr
worship. Ultimatcly, south Indian architccts
wjll crcatc a separatetemplc clcdicated to the
felnalc principle widrin the compound of thc
n.rain temple, the so-called Anman shrinc,
already visible in nascentforr.u in Pallava nonu-
ments. As in Buddhisn of post-Gupta ag"s,
Hinduisr.n of the later periods is characterized
by incrcasing cmphrsis on thc female principlc
or fcmale energy (iafrrl).
"Arjuna's ratlo" (Fig.r4.zz, right) is not much
largcr than the Durga shrine sharing its plinth
but it is significandy diffcrcnt in appearancc.
T h c p i l l " r e d r r o r r ro f r h i ' . o L t r t cs - t r ti c i . r c r t i -
niscent of thc format seenin l'allava cavc archi-
tecture. Ho'"vcvcr, the snpcrstructure clclrly
rcflccts thc form of a structurel building. The
two-tiered roof is pyrar.nidal in shapc aud is
capped by a don.tclikc element called a llftlara,
which is, in this casc, octagonal. In southern
 THT PATLAVASAND THE PANDYAS
,OZ

,s".. *- -r!
- e..L--:+
14.22. "Drauprdi" (1cfr)and "Arjuna" (right) shrilcs fionr wesr.
Mernallapurarn,Tarnil Nadu, Indir. pallavapcriod, probably rcign
of Mamalla I. Ca. second-thirdquarter scveD.ncentury.

lndian architectnre, rhe tcrn likhara refcts only

to tlis crowning Irrelnber and not, asin northcrn
India, to dre entire tower comprising the super-
structurc of the uindta. Eacir of the lcveli of
the roof is decoratcd with a dcsign of niniaturc
barrel-vaulted rooft (ja1a) i[tcrspersed witir
candrcialas(csscntially a rouncled arch of thc
type forr.ned by drc end of a !ala), as r.vell as
pilastered niches, some of which contain half-
Jenathfigurcs. Thcse figures (Fig. 14.23)give thc
imprcssion that they arc partially hidJen due
to thc viewer's perspectivc {iom bclow, and
like the freely moving figures in thc other
niches, again show thc rcalisn-rcharacteristicof
Pallavaart.
Tlie trvo sidcs and rear of tirc lorver story
are carved into a sericsof niches containing fig_

r4.23. East facc, "Arjun:" shrine. Manrallapurarrr,

Tamil Nadu, lndia. Pallav:rperiod, probablyrcign of
M:nrallaL Ca. sccond-rhirdquartc.,cventhcc,rti,ry.
 DYNASTISS OF 1I-lE MIDDLE PTRIOD
Jd8
urcs, erch separatedby pilasterswith bracketed
capitals.This format, of figures contained rvith-
in nichcs separated by Pilasters and, in fact,
thc pilastered wall in gcneral, is rypical of
sourli lndian tenplc architecturc from this
period forward, contrasting strongly with thc
wall trcatment that chatacterizesnorth lndian
nonunents of later pcriocls.The two sidc walls
havc six niches cach, although in both cascs,
the panel nearcst the front has bccn left un-
sculptecl, whiic the rear has only five nichcs
(Fig. ra.z3).
Male attcndantssPPearat the comcrs ofeach
sidc wl.rilc the ccnJral niches contain in:rges of
principal deities of thr: iconographic progran.L:
Visnu on the noftll, Siva leaning on Nandi on
the sorth, and a malc figure ridiug an elcphant
on thc east (Fig. ra.z3). This figure has been
traditionally idcntifiecl as Indra on his elepl.rant
moont, or, sonetimcs, Snbrahrnanya (known
also as Murukal), son of Siva, who is associatcd
rvith the clcphant il south lnclia.While both of
these intcrpretations bcar some credibility,
rnothcr suggestioi is that thc figurc rcprcseirts
. i. a--.
-,:'.:-.
Aiyalar-Sesta, a hunter god who is known only
in south 1ndia.21Not only does Sastaconmonly
ride an clephant, but the depictions of Siva and
Visnu on ih" ,hrine reinfoice the Sastainter-
pretxtioll since the god is bclicved to be tl.re
son of Siva and Visnu, a birth which occurred
when Vislu took the Gminine forn.r known as
Mohini. The suggcstion of the union bctrvccn
Siva and Vislu, rvhich led to the birth of Saste,
is strengthenccl by the presencc of nithrntd
couples in the niches flanking thc principal
n i c ' r t ' . r z\ & l r i l et t r i t h r u ut sc c o r n n t o ni n m , n y
othcr regional schoolsof South Asian art, thcir
neer abscncc in P;rllava dcpictions suggests
tl.rat thcir inclusion here wes lor the specific
purposc of alnplifying the iconographicprogram
of thc slrrine.
"Bhin.ra'srar/ra"is a trvo-storicd, oblong build-
ing rvitlr r barrel-vaulted roof (lala; Fig. 14.24).
The mair ilnagc within, although ncver finished,
lvas intcnded to bc a representation of thc
rcclining Visnu Anantaiayana for which such
an elongatcd structruc is appropriate. Entered
on the iong sidc rathcr than thc short sidc,this
 THE PAILAVAS AND THE PANDYAS J'9

< r4.24. "Bhnna" shrinc, fror11 wcst.

Mnmallapurarn, Trnril Nadu, Indra.
Pallava pcriod, probabJy reign of
Mamalla I. Ca. sccond third quarrer
sevcnthccnturv.

, r ). ' .L.,,.^ a,^,,.

"nL..,-,."..
west. Mtnrallapurrnt, Tamil Nldu,
India. Palhvr period, probably reigrr
of Mamalla I or l:rtcr. Ce. mid-to-latc

l: .:illown Only building proviclcs a conpletely clifi^crentcilect ou the slidne was abandonccl, for tnc rarler
than the barrel-rooftd Bucldl.List pillarcd h:r11s; . r n r l ' c r' lt y l c o I r l r . r . r ^ r r L r r r r c.n1r1 ^ g p , tr l,r . r t i ,
::. rt Siv:rand thc somervhatsimilar roof form may imply lvas the prochlct of a frirly conceltratccl effort,
i,!.a intcr-
only a courttronarchitcctrlralprototypc r^thcr ancl thus a nlomtrnent of Nrsidrhavarnran I's
.be the
than direct influence of onc rcligion upon reign.
: -ccurred ;uother. As in thc clse of thc "Arjrura rotlo,"
- .::to|n as Sinrilar in corlccpt to "Arjunr's rctha," al-
qnfuaialasancl minirture barrcl-vaultedshrincs thouth larger ancl morc cleboratc,this shrinc
: Jat\veeD clccorate the uppcr levels of thc nronumcnt.
_ -, t i
also clepictsin rock-cut lorm rvhat lnust have
: )as!a, Thc pillarcd facade, r.,'ith scated lion bascs, been a popular stylc of ftcc-stanclilg rrrolllrlncnr
typifics onc P:illavl architcctural format. Evcn ancl clcn-ronstratcs what lvas:r fully devcloped
:rincipal rbor.rghit is unfinishcdancl contaursvirtually southernstylc of rrchitccturcclurinsrhis pcriod.
- iD nlany no sculpturc,this uronun-rcntprovidesvaluable Eachofthc four sides.if complcted,lvoulcl havc
- Lrr.tlleir inforuration about a rare lorru in HindLr archi- had a pillarcd facaclcllankeclby r.Lichcs conrarrrlng
' :. \Llqgcsts
tectute.2S sculptures. Thc southerr-r-stylc supcrstructure has
: :: spccific Tlrc "Dharmaraja ratha" lPrgs. rq.zr, rq.z5) thrce storicsthat cliruinishin sizc as thcy ascencl,
: '-_f rogl-a|l i r r r r , r . , l l , , l o r r l r ' g r ' . r 1 . .o r r r i r - n o r c n , . i n . forming a pyrrmidal profi1c. Iach roof is
unlinishcd. The inscriptions on thc shrinc dccoratccl rvirh barrcl-vaultecl shrincs (!a1a)
.rrq build- p r . . c t t cr o t r { i . t i r rcev , . l c r c cr c ; ' r . l i r , Er r c I . r r , a:od catdraialas:urd thc r,vlloic is cappcclby an
-:3. r4.24). of its cxcavation,lor r,vhilethe narlc Nrsirhha octason:rl iikhara. Llkc tlic "Arjurre raln", tltis
. .,r finished, anrl r rnnrbcr of lirrrla-.suggestthnt the rlonu- brriitlinq is a clear rcplica o{ the uiruanaof a
::.n of thc ilent w]s bcguD cluring the reigD of Nrsirirha- soLlthenl-stylcstrLicrur:rltcDrplc, r,vhich rvould,
iriclr such ' . ' r r r . r r I, 1 M : r r ' . . l lI .)r. 2 I ,. l , i g r r p l r r r i - in gcneral, be prcccdc.l by r, tnnndapaenclrvhiclr
. :.-. EDtercd "111
to latcr krngs. Horvcvcr, it is possiblcthet thc nriglrt ,ypically be cncloscdin a rcctangular
.r siclc,this additionai r1;ullcs 1\icrc inscribcd eftcr rvork coupouucl. This lbmr js thc basisfor u,hat will
 J'd DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDIE PERIOD

by their wives, occur in the art of Memal-

lapuram. But those at the Adi-Varaha cave,
for example. depict rhe rolal personagesin
more relaxedposrrtrcsand as accompaniments
to the divine subjectscarved in the other conr-
positions of the cavc. Here, Nlsirirhavarman
is almost indistinguishablc in his general de-
neanor frorrr the deities carved as part of the
sameiconographic program. His depiction, then,
must have served a role tlrat was an integral part
of the meaningof the monument asa whole. The
placenent of his image on the south face of
the building may be revealing in this respect,
for in Hinduism, soutl.ris the quadrant of Yama,
the god and judge of the dead. Later south
Indian inscriptions of the Colas rcveal that
specific funerary nonLl[rents called pallippadai
were erected for royal personages.Although
I conclusive evidence is lacking, this Pallava
building may be an early example ofjust such
a building.
Another important image of the "Dharmaraja
rotha" is a sculpted panel in the shrine of the
third story, which shows Siva witl.r his wife,
Uma (a form of Parvati), and their son, Skanda,
in a group known as SomeskandalFrg. t4.27).
Here, the figures are also llanked by images of
Brahme and Visnu. The Somaskanda snbject
14.26. Porrait of Nrsirhhavarman (Mairalla I), ou
becomes r popular Pallava icon that in latcr
south face of "Dharmaraja" shrine. Manallapuram,
Tarnil Nadu, India. Pallava period, reign of Ma- contcxts served as a metaphor for the Pallava
malia I or later. Ca. mid-to-late seventhcentury. royal fan.fly.25 Since this is the earliest Soma-
skandaimage known,26 it is possiblethat it was
I introduccd as part of the royal symbolism
associated with dris lronlunent in general.
be seen in Cola-, Vijayanagar-, and Nayak- The rougbly carved stufaccs of this sculpture
Penoo nonulnents. .
may indicate that thc work would have been
While decidedly Saivite in iconograpl.ry and completed by plastcring and painting.
dedication, drc overall schene of the monunent The last of thc group, the "Nakula-Sahadeva
has yet to be establishcd. A variety of Hindu rariu" (Figs. t4.zr, 4.28), is not in line with thc
deiriespcoplethe exteriorof the variotrs srories- othcr four, and, unlike then.r, it faccs south,
Onc irnage depicts Nysirirhavarman (l) hin- not wesr. Bec.lnse it i.rcls figurc carting. tt is
self, identified by an inscription (Fig. ta.z6). not possible to dctermine anytling abotlt its
It is possible that his prcsencc is significant in iconography and how it rclatcs to the other
determining the purpose of the building, for four shrines. Howcvcr, its form is extremely
although thc king appearsin a two-armed form inportant to thc undcrstanding of drc develop-
be{itting his hurnan naturc, l.restandsin thc stilT ment of south Indian architecture. Its apsidal
frontal mamer appropriate for deitics, with no shapedocuments a rarc type al-rong the surviv-
flexion to his body (sanabhanga). Othcr portraits ing examples of Hindu tenples, brrt one that
of Pallava kings, sometimes evcn acconpanied is clcrrly relatcd to Iksvekrr prototypes iike thc
 THE PALLAVAS
A N D T H J :P A N D Y A S J "

: : -1111-
::t1an
de-
: !]rc
:.:en,
:ar!
l lte
' -_: of
r4.27. Son,skal1da,in third-story
shritc, "Dh.rmaraja" shrinc.Mt-
nmllapuraDl,Tanil N.du, Irdia.
Pallavapcriod, rcign of Manalla
! -.Lrth
I or latcr. Ca. mid-to-latc seventh
:hat
'-.1dA1

. : ,fVa

,ir.rch

':: :rali
: rhe
. -.;t^
':::.i1da,

::s of
:3jcct
: -.ltcr

),rn1t-
: \1 11S

: rlism
::lt-rAl.
'-raLirc

t)ccn

- :iicva

::h rhc
iouth,
- : - _ .l t l s
- -_-.Lrr its
r- olller
. : :i n c l y
.:.'.tlop- r4.28. "Nakula-Sahadeva"shrine,
rpsidal from southu.est.MaDlallapuram,
Tamil Nadu, India- Pallava pe-
- riod, probably rcign of M,nralla L
ra t]rif Ca. second third quarrcr seventh
: . .ikc thc
,' 12 DYNASTIES OF I'HE MIDDLI PTRIOD

r4.29."ShorcTcrrlfic," frorn soudr.A,{anrrltapuranr,

T:rnrilNadu,
India.Pallavxpcrrod, probabli. rcien of Nisidlhav:rrn,anII t{._
jrsirhha. Ca. firs! rhird eighrh celltur.y.

r4.3o.Pianof"Shorc Tcrlplc." Nlnnraltrpuraru,

Talrit N.rd , Inciia.
I%llavr period, probrbh rciqr of Nrsirhhrrarrnrnti R.jasirhha.
Ca. firstthird cishdl cenlurr.

temple at Chezarla(Fig. 9.28). That this building
is decidedly southern in style is seen in the
pilastered walls (here, with empty niches) and
in the tiered roof with candraialasand barrel-
vaulted jalas. The whole is capped by a iala
roof. It may be noted that although the exterior
rear of the shrine is rounded, the interior cell
is squared.
The rock-<ut monuments of Mamallapuram,
whichhave only beensampledhere, demonstrate
conclusively a well-developed architectural and
iconographic vocabulary by the seventh century
a.o. This implies a tradition of some long
standing that must Predate such remains. The
variety ofarchitectural types, seenin the diferent
!' roofs, wall treatments(including pilasteredwalls
T
E
with and without sculptures),and other Gatures
all suggestthat theseforrns had been developing
F in the early Pallava period and earlier, although
the complete evolution is not known. Yet, as
preserved, like petrified replicas of vanished
monuments) they provide an important basis
r4.3r. "Shore T€mple," geteway on west. Mamallapuram, Tamil
Nadu, India. Pallava period, probably reign of Nrsirhhavarman
II Rajasirhha.Ca. fi$t third eighth century.
THE PAIIAVAS AND THI PANDYAS Jl'
for the understandingof south Indian develop-
ments to follow.
Free-standingstructural temples of the Pallava
period provide further information about reli-
gious and artistic developments. The so-called
Shore Temple at Mamallapuram (Fig. 14.29)
is thought to be a product of the reign of
Ngsirhhavarman II Rajasirhha,who ruled from
about 7oo to 728 and who is credited with
giving a major impetus to the production of
structural temples. However, the aberrant plan
of the temple, consisting as it does of three
distinct worship areas.suggeststhat ir was not
the product of a unified scheme, but that it
was modified or added to after its initial con-
struction, although possibly still within the
reign of the one king.e? A plan of.the temple
(Fig. ra.3o) shows a small square Siva shrine,
containing a lihga and representadon of Soma-
skanda,on the western side of the temple com-
plex and slightly to the norrh. The main temple,
also dedjcaredto Siva and containing a lihga and
 DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDIE PERIOD
,14
able to Nlsifihavarman II Rejasirhha'sreign'
relicf of Sonfskanda in the central shrinc, faces
sor,re Forty kilorneters cwry at KxnclPtlram
east and consists of a rcctangular wallcd en-
is,le's enigrnrtic lnscriprionrl
closure, tltc ntain shrine and its antechamber' 1Con1".u"r^,,-r1.
o,. rlti' 5iu. t"'npl" cle'rly indicrrcs
and a circurnarnbulatory Passagebetween the "uidin." the
tl.r"t Ntririth"'rr"rman II Rajesirbha was
rvall and tlte ccntral building' A third shriue' hc named the
builcler of the structure and that
dedicatcd to Visnu as Anantafuyana, is aligned fte
d e r t v c n , l r r i n c di n i t ( a n d b y i n r p l i c a t i o n
with the ccntral shrine and is located at the
, " r , , o 1 .n) T r " ,l r i r r r ' e l lc a l l i r r g ' cR a j r s i r h h ' r l l a -
P r
westcrn end of thc main tcnPlc, connectmg the
veiu.'r..,. in keepingwith d practicerhat wr' to
two Siva slrrincsinto a single unit The sculpture
b c c o r n ev e r y p o p u l r , i l t s o u t h I n ' l i a 2 8C o n r -
of Ananta(ayana wxs carved i!1.situ ftont '\rr
, n o n l y c a l l e d r l i e R a j ' ' s i r h l r c i v a riat . t ' ' L I s o
cxisting rock and this may explain part of thc
pe.nliiity of thc plan Access to tire Visnu i""."i" * r"ifa*"ttha ircGrringto SivaasLord
'slrrine arisen
is possible ottly f.oltt the southcrn side of Mount Kailasa),a name that may have
fiom a verse in one of its inscriptions' which
of the ci-rcunambulatory passagc around the 'rortclres c l o t r dw i r h
,,.,a. , l t r , t h c t e n r p l c
l"rg. Si-,,oslrline. The templc (if dris term may -thc '2e
al1 thr€c units as a whole) i t ' t o p . . . l a n d l r o b ' K n i l S s ro [ i t s b e a u t y
b""use,l to describe
Thc tenrplc 'chcnlc irrcludesa lrrge rcct..n-
is tl.rr-rsoricntcd both to thc east and tl.re west
gul"r containing rrrorethan fifty chaP-
i, dedicated to both Siva and "n.loiur. the n.rainstructure (Fig' 14 3z)'
"oJ- "pp-.",ty the cast-facing Siv" thritt" !1, s,,.ronn,1ing
vit".t 61"i"*ly,
as indicated by its size A second roJ of ,m"11 shrines at the east end
i, ti.r. t.trort inPortant,
o [ t h c t c r n p l ec o t t t p o u n d\ u g g e 5 rt\h d t : r t s o l n e
and the fact that it hastl.rehighest superstructure'
tilre. pcrhrp, .r[rcrRajrsirhh:r':initial period of
A much sn-rallertower aPPearsatop the lvcstcrn
.,rnrt.itaaiorr, o,."onJ torrrpotLr-tdwas to have
Si-,,a rh.inc while none is Prescnt ovcr the
beeir built, but this was ncver cor.npleted(Figs'
Visnu shrine. An cntrAncc through the tcmple wit)r
r 4 . 1 2 .L 4 . l l ) A t t l r e c a : r c r ne n ' l ' J i g n e d
*"li on t1t" east and another leading into the c o r n p o t t n w
d a l l a 'maller
, 1 " - f r o n io i ' , h " i n n c r
rectangular tcmple compound on thc west by
the monu- shrine, also dedicatecl to Siva, was built
(Fig. ia.3i) nay be prototypes for III (Fig'
Reiasirirha's son, Mahendravarman
-Jrt"l g"te.""ys (gopara)that will cl.nracterizc
Tl.re ra.3z). Likc his fathcr' Mahendravarnun namcd
,ootlt I"rldi"n t",ttplc, itt later pcriods for
,h" .l"itv of the structure ire had built
conlooLlnd itself is nruch mined due to the Mahendreivara (or
himself, and it is calicd
o.""it ,p."y and blowing sanclsthat Posca con- inscription ro Unlik-1
Mahcnrlravarmcivara)in an
tintral ihreat to the uronun-rent br-rt enough
thc separateelements of the. "Shorc Temple'"
remains on the \\''estto sllggcst that I'ater had
tl.ti, si.ttali"r shrine was probably part of the
been channelcd it.rto t"ii"' of passagesand herctr
" at the o r i s i t t . r lc o n c e p r i o no f t l l e t c n ' p l c ' f o r
oools. A related usc of l'aterwas scen
'latalla it in thc wall'
.1.,r'rbre.rk h"i been rllotrcd for
nnndapa, ancl bodr of these anticipate had the shrinc
is and it is probable that the son
Cola-period <lesigns Thc "Shore Tcniple"
seen built lvhil; his tafier was engagedin thc original
d".ia"dty southe;n in style' as nry be
oroiect.3l Mahendlavarman'sstructure is topped
in tl.rc pyramidal shapc of thc suPcrstrlrcture Raja-
tn Lv"^ lala roof, but the main sanctuary'
and pilastered r'vall trcatnent The to"vcrs south-
sitha's dedication,bearsa typically tierecl
thi, iase are far taller an.l sieoderer than the main
e.n fonr.r tower (Figs. 14 33, 14 34) The
superstructlrrc of ti-re "DhanT arajl .ratha"'.
tltit ruay not indicate-a gcneral trend building consists of a ptincipal central shrine
"li.to,tglt hons' rvith lti l ign and enclosed circuman.rbulatory
of the'period Sct ptures o{ dtarapalas,
p"rr"g., ,.tiro.ttd"d by nine smaller drrincs'
otlte. ftgures s'rre f:rirly abundant at the
"n.1 i"i,tritt. ,*. at thc easterncnd now accessiblc
"Shore Tcnr-ple,"but thc seaair has rcndered added at
only through a pillared hall that rvas
all of them into virtual shadorvs of thcir
n llt". d"ti. (Figs. ra.3z, r4'34) A detachcd
o r i g i n . ' lf o r r r r s
nandaparo the east of the shrine area was part
.[r.oth". trtorr,,tt-t.ttt,morc securcly attribut-
 THE PAILAVAS AND THE ?ANDYAS

E
r 0 25 100
E F-
0 510 15 2A 25 30

r 4 . j 2 . P l a n o f R d j r s i r h h c ( v a r . (1" K r i l a s r t t h a " ) t c n r p l c .K . n c i p u r a r l ,
Tanril Ntdu, hrctia. Pallav:r pcriod, rcign of N;sirirhavatman II
Rajesifiha. Ca. first rhird eighth ccntury.
 PI]RIOD
JT6 DYNASTIES OI THE MIDDLE

t the ccntral shrine in the wallcd enclosure on
I4.33. Rajasilhheivara ("Kaiiesanttha") remplc, com-
pound cxterior from northeasr. Kancipuram, Tamil
Nadu. India. Pallava pcriod, rcign of Nfsjiilhavarman
II Rajrsilhha. Ca. first third eighth century.
r,+.t4. Rajasirhhc(vrra("Kailasanatha") temple' view
frour northeast,inside compound- Kaflcipur3m' Tamil
Nadu, IDdia. Pallavapcriod, reign of Nlsirhhavarman
tl Rejasirhha.Ca. first third cighth century.
AND THE PANPYAS Ji17
THX PALTAVAS
of the original corception but is now attached
to thc main building owing to the addition of
thc ittcr mediaty rna1(apa.
An important fcature of this ternplc complex
is thc presenceof gopuras(gateways)and proto-
gopurastn the enclosurewalls (Fig. 14.32). On
thc west, the central pavilion is in fact a gateway
(although sealcd o11-at present) and is distin-
guishcd from the other pavilions in thc row by
its dccoration and iala form. Directly opposite
the south and north are chapels that are also
visibly different frorn the others in the row in
thcir shapc, size, and the presenceof the iala
roof. These are clearly shdnes, not gateways,
but servc as prcccdentsfor what will ultimately
be thc placement of gopwas in line with the
nrain slrrine and for the evolution of the gopura
form out of shrines with izla roofs.32 The
largest of all the chapclsaligned with the main
shrine, Mahendravarman's temple on the east,
also hasa barrel roofand servesas the equivalent
of the other thrce pavilions although much
grander, In contrastto latergoprrr,T-t,
this structure
cannot be traversed; instead, the devotee is
divertcd to one side or the other in order to
enter the main courtyard. A small gopara on
the east provides accessto the forecourt of
this shrine. The alignment of thesefour chapels-
curr.-gopurqs is clearly with the main shrine of
the temple lather than with the center,of the
respective walls of the rectangular compound;
this practice explains the often asymmetrical
appearanceof the placement of goparasin later
monun-rents.
In contrastto early Pallavamonuments,which
arc generally rather simple in their architectural
and sculptural embellishment, this temple com-
plex is rather lavishly decorated. one major
sculptural motif particularly associated with
Rajasirhha'sreign is the ranpant lion, which
appears almost ubiquitously as part of the
facadedecorationofthe shrinesin the compound
wall (Fig. r4.35). Plaster and paint on the
chapel walls in particular from post-Pallava
redecorationsofthe temple have obscuredmuch
of the othcr sculptural work. However, a panel
showing ganas and other creatureson the base
of thc tempJeand only rhirty cenrimetersin
 THE PATLAVASAND THE ?ANPYAS '19

lava synthesis of the divine and kingly realms. Historically, another aspectof this temple
The Raiasirhhe6vara temple at KaiciPuram deservesmention. Lrscriptions on the pillars
displays rnany of the essentialcharacteristicsof of the detachedmaltlapa record that the Early
the evolvine'southern architectural style. Some Westem Calukya king. VikramadityaII (r.
of these contrast sharply with those of the de- %3-44), visitedthe ternple,and was apparently
veloping idioms of the north and Deccan. The so impressedby it that he did not carry off its
stori-edovramidal form oF the rower above the treasuiesas spoilsof war but insteadallowed
sbrine, ihe use of a rectangular enclosure wall them to remain at the temple.saIt is likely that
wirh goputas,and the distinctive wall treatment his noticeofthe templeresultedin his carrying
and pilasters back certainideasconcerningthe structure that
usingnicheswith or without Frgures .westem
are ill imoortant features. These characteristics were eventually manifestedin Early
eilara ("Kailasa-
and others, form the basis of later southem Calukyabuildingsin the Deccan.A very spccific
rie\v along [orth instanie of a possibletransmission of style is
sryles, although their treatment will be elabo-
mmpound, look-
cipuram, Tamil rared upon and modiJied. thus recorded,
larz period, reign
lan II Rtjasifihe.
ighth century. Trrr Eanrv PaNpvas

Althoueh no one could doubt the imPortance Like the Pallavas,the Early Pendyas employed
"Par1dya the rock-cut mddium in addition to what must
of th" dyrasty in the history of south
India, considerablecontroversy exists over have been a flourishing brick and wooden
whether or not there is a "Paqdya phase"in temple traditjon. However. this excavationis
art, According to some scholars,the Pandyas ,rdil" of the knowl Pallava monuments,
"oy
added nothin! really "new" to art, merely for it is neither a cave nor a monolith' Essen-
reflectine the Pallava works when south lndia tially, it is a free-standing building that was
was unJer the sway of the Pallavas,and Cola liberated from the surrounding matrix of rock
trends during the Cola period of suprernacl. so that it would have stood in a kind of pit
This view seemsto be an overstatement:the when completed. In this respect and in details
fact h, little is known of the Par.rdyas and their of its form, it bears a striking resemblanceto
art, their productions having been largely the celebrated Kailasanatha temple at Ellora,
overshadowid by the study of Pallava and Cola with which it may be roughly contemPoraneous
remains. Monuments found in the Peldya (Fig. 16.3). Although it is not known which
territoriesmust be thoroughly surveyed and was created{irst, both monuments date from the
their inscriptionsstudiedbefolethe true placeof eighth century. Thi. east-facingSiva rernple
Paqdyaari in thc history of Indic traditionsis consistt of a na4/apa and sanctLrn, the latter
known.35 surmounted by a storied southem-style suPer-
Par.rdya history is generallydivided into two structure elaborately decoratedwith {igures and
phases. the first being roughly contcmporary decorative notifs and capped by an octagonal
inscription at *i,h,h. Prtl"u"p.riod,the.Early Pandyaperiod iikhara\Figs.14.37.r4.38).t hc figures.po'ed in
cuha [Skanda] of concemhere,and the Later Pandya period, highly naruraliscic relaxedpostures.almost give
Kunura) took coinciding with the late Cola and post-Cola thi impresion of bcing live personsinhabiting
Siva)...thus periods.The Pandyanameis known asearlyas the roof of the tcmple. Stylistically, they are
rda...there ihe Asokanedictsof the third century1.c.,but it closelyrelatedto Pallavafigurativeconventions,
(*bruhnatlyah was not until the sixth centurythat the family, esoeci"llv io the treatment of the torsos and
oma, the chief with their territoriesconcentrated in the Madurai d.i"ils oi orn"-.ntation, although a hint of the
rva king Para- area,becamea majorforcein southlndia. Deccan stylesof the Early Westem Calukyas.or
zch reGrred to Perhapsthe most imPressiveEarly Pa4dya Rastrakuqasmay be discernedin the somewhat
fuller facesand in some ofthc headdresses. Many
likened to Siva monument is the unfinishedlock-cut Vattu-
figures are depictcd only down to the
r another Pal- vankovil temPle at Kalugumalai(Fig. ra.37). of the

i4.j9. Sivr Visapmhxrrnaururti
on lou'cr ricr ofsupcr-
strucnr|c,Dorth sidc, VattuvarrkOril
cavc tcurple.Ka-
lueunralai,Tanil NadLr,India- Early P,ndy:r penod.
Ca. eighthccDmrv-
CoNcLUsroN
The southern aft fornN crcatcd unclcr the
Pallavas and Pandyas suggest continuity with
earlier southern traditions, such as the art of thc
Andhra region, and prcsuppose',vhatmust have
been a lengthy, well-devclopcd prior architcc-
tural and sculptural dcveloprncnt. TIlrs, though
the early Hindu architectural forms of South
India seem to appexr "full blorvn" and rvithout
precedent,it rnust bc asscrtedthat this is bccausc
thcir forerunncrs, presumably madc in fragilc
n-ratcrials,do not survive. Bccauseof this, it is
diflcult to be certait how mrlch "innovation"
THE PALLAVAS AND THE PANDYAS '2'
waist or hips, which sccmsto suggestthat they
are peeking out over thc forms ofthc arcl.ritccturc
in a mamcr rcminisccnt of thc trcatmcnt on thc
upper storics of thc "Arjuna ratha" at M3ntal-
L p r r r r n r ( l - i g . r 4 . 2 j ) . T h c r n r j o r i m a g e so n
r l t eu p ; , e n r r . r .t ti c r o f t h e t e r n p l c. t r p e r s t r r r c t L t r c
include Siv.r :rn,l Prrv.rtr rogcrlrerin a lorrrr
knoun .r. (Jn ra-M.rheiv.rr.r oll fhc cJ5f; Sivas
"Sonthern Forru" (Daksinanurti) is appro-
priately placed on the soutl.r (Fig. ra.38);
Nrsirhha, on thc west; and Brahnre, on thc
north. Otlrer deities,including additional forms of
Siva, appearon thc lower ticr of tire sLrperstruc-
turc. Onc image (Fig. 14.39)shows Siva in his
Visaprahara4am[rti aspect, a gracious forn-r of
thc god in rvhich he swallowed a dreadful poison
that thrcatcnedthe world with dcstruction.Each
sculpture shorvsthe deity in a graccful posturc,
carvecl virtually in the round- At thc corncrs of
thc lcvel upon which the deities arc placcd arc
rcprcsentationsof reclining bulls, fully carvcd in
a threc-dimensionalforn-rat.
The posible associ:rtionswith Deccan art
stylcs visib)e in thc figurc stylc as well as the
architectural rclationship to the Kaiiesanathr
temple at Ellora strongly hint et the likclihood
that Pa+dyx alt must not be vielvecl as a ncrc
reflection of the nrore well-known Pallavatradi-
tion. Thc Pandyas and the Pallavasurust each
bc rccognizcd for their efcct on thc xrt ofthcir
ow11tirncs, as well aslater south lndian styles-
Pallavaand Pdndyl art reprcsentsand hor,vmuch
continuity with alrcady rvell establishedartistic
developn.rcnts.In spite of this, thc vigorous
natu.eofthc at ofthis pcriod is casilyrccognizcd
fron.r thc rcn.rains.The fact that it is likely that
the Pallava Pa+dya traditions rvcrc bascd on
dcvclopmcntsccntrrricso1demphasizesthe frailty
of thc oft-reperted statcment that regional
arristic fonDs were firmiy establishcdonly after
thc Gupta period, {br it is clear that carlicr
traditions rvere r,vcll cstablishcd, though thcy
arc not visiblc to us utrtil well aftcr Gupta times.
 Deta of 1j.24.
CHA PTER FIITEEN
The Early'WesternCalukya and RelatedSchools
of the Deccan
S T R U c T U R ATLt u p r n s o r r n E E a n r y W r s t r n n C , t l u x y a s
'Within
the Deccan heartland of the Early West-
em Calukya empire, over one hundred struc-
tural temples have been recognized as dating
from the tine of this dynasty. These constrtute
the earliest large corpus of extant structural
temples in Lrdia that are tied together by their
patronage, period, and style. While some of
them were built for the Jain religion, by far the
majority are Hindu buildings, refecting the
Early Westem Calukya dynastic religious pre-
Grence. Both southern- and northem-style
structureswere actively built during this period,
sometimesside by side at a singlesite. The ori-
gins of and sourcesfor this very active phaseof
temple building remain somewhat a mystery
since,like many other Indic stone-templetradi-
tions, it almost seems to have emereed full
blown. Undoubtedly. this is partially due to
the fact that the maioriw of earlier Deccan
122
structures no longer survive, although monu-
ments constructed by the Kadambas, predeces-
sors to the Early lVestern Calukyas, have
been noted. In addition, the chronoloeical
and styJistic relationships between rhe eailier
rock-cut monuments of the Early Western
Calukyas (Figs. r3.9-zo), and this structural
phase are still poorly understood, making the
artisricdebr ro the earlier rradirion uncerrain.
Some continuity, however, is indicated by an
inscription on thc eastside ofthe Meguti temple,
a J a i n s r r u c t u r abl u i l d i n ga t A i h o l e ( n i g . r 5 . r ; . r
This epigraph rcvcals.that rhe tcmple was
dedicatedin rhc year S.rka556. equivalenrto
around 634, which falls within the reien of
PulakeiinII (6ro-42),rhe .on oIthe Kirtivarman
mentioncdin rhc 578 dedicatoryinscriptionin
Cave 3 at Badami. Thus, it is clear that the
excavatedand structuralphasesofEarly Westem
 EARLYWESTERNCALURYA AND RELATTDSCHOOLS ?2?

-|-L-1-
t l -t - t a rlL r jL_

III-

JL

rj.2. l,lan oaMcgLrri tcrrplc. Aiholc, Kirnrtak:r, Lldi:r. Earlv !fcs_

t e m C a l u k , v : rp c r l o d , r c i s n o f l \ h k c i i n IL Dcdicatcd in 5rk., crr ;So
(A.D.6t4).

calukya architcct.re lvere scparated by no non.mclts of thc Early western calukyas is

more than a gcncration's ti'rc and it is possible visible in the panels of clwarves and ani,nais
that they overlappcdfor scvcraldecadcs. locatccl along the basc of thc Megrti ternplc's
An artistic debt to the earlicr Badarni cave cxtcrior, and perhaps, to somc cxtent, in^ the

F
 J24 OF THI MIDDIE IERIOD
DYNASTIES
lather austerc cxtedor of the structure. Ho\ '-
cvcr, othcr fcaturcsof thc Mcguti ten.rplc'sstyle
could not have been derived solely from earlicr
rock-cut prototypes. Its wall treatment is similar
to that found typically in southernIndian tcmple
styles. This indicates that at least some of thc
so-calledsouthern-stylecharacteristicswere part
of the Early Western Calukya architectural
rcpcrtoire prior to thc Pallava invasion of 642.
Thesecharactcristicsmight have becn introduccd
by architects familiar with early southern-stylc
templcs that are no longer cxtant, but it is also
conceivable that some of the forms originated
iu the Dcccan, specifically the Early Western
Calukya empire, and not the deep south. It is
likely drat drc Mcguti tcr.nplehadasouthern-style
supcrstmctule as well (the second-story shrine
above the main sanctuarymay not be original).
Thc wall trcatncnt of the Meguti templc,
pilasteredbut without figurative sculpture, may
be contrastedwith the more amply sculptedEarly
Western Calukya temple exteriors.Although the
Meguti tenplc and othcr tcn.rplcswith minimal
cxtcrior ornamentation appear more closely
allicd with eariicr monurnents, such as those of
the Gupta period, they were produced contem-
porancorlsly with some of thc more dccorated
Early Western Calukya structures, and do not
representan earlier stageof development per se.
As a stylistic nodc, this simple, pilasteredwall
typc persistedinto thc latcr Dcccan stylcs, such
as that of the Yadavas. Wl.rilc such austeretem-
plcs continued to be produced aftcr thc Gupta
period, they representxn exceptionto the general
lndic tcndcncy toward increasing elaboration.
f h e n r e r h o do f t h c M c g r r t ri e m p l es c o n : t r L r c t i o n ,
using large blocks of stone assembledwithout
rhc rrscof nrorr:rr.frrrthcr suggc.tsric. ro pre-
Early Western Calukya architectural styles, but
the greater articulation of architectural clements
such as pilastcrs,niches, corniccs, and details of
thc bascmcnt indicatcs a clcar dcparturc frorn
carlicr cxamples. A similar construction tech-
niquc is common to nost of thc Early Western
Calukya structurcs.In plan, the tcmplc is of the
satdlnra typc, for it hasan cnc]oscdcircunambu-
latory passage(Fig. i5.z). (The division of the
passagcwayinto cell-likc units was probably
not part of the original design of the temple.)
The most fully dcveloped southcrn-srylcEarly
Wcstem C ukya ten.rplc, and perhaps the
climax of all Early Wcstcm Calukya temple
constnrction.is rlrc Virupak,:r tcrrrple:rr Prr-
ta{akal, a site about sixteen kiloncters from
Bddami (Fig. r5.3). Built during thc reign of
Vikranraditya Il (zzz-++) by his chicf queen
Loka-mahadcvi,2and dedicatcd to Siva LokeS-
vara, thc Virltp5ksa tcmplc is not only ricl y
decorated with sculpture and much larger than
the Meguti templc, but consistsof a complex of
structurcs in typical southcrn Indian fashion. It
is often clairncd that the ternple was modeled
after the RajasirhhcSvara temple at Keicipuram
(Figs. 14.32-36). However, its features should
rather bc scenasa logical outgrowth ofarchitcc-
tural forms that had beeu developing within
thc Early Western Calukya alea at lcast since
the time of the construction of the Meguti
temple. Therefore, whilc it is true that Vikrama-
ditya II was so impresscd by dre sight of the
Rajasiriheivara templc at Kincipuram during
his conquest of that city that he declined to
carry off in treasuresc\ .poils of wrr. an ex-
amination of the form and decoration of the
two structuresmakes it clear that the Virupaksa
ten.rpleis not a nlcrc copy of the Pallava monu-
mcnt. Furthermorc, VikraDraditya II's queen,
who patronized thc building of the Viropaksa,
never saw the Rajasirhhc(varatemple, and thus
any associationhas perhapsbeen overstressed.
The Vinipeksa complcx is set within a rec-
tangular walled cnclosureinto which a seriesof
slrrincswere built (Fig. r5.4). A substantialgopura
on the east(Fig. r5.5) is balanccdby a smallcr
one on the west. Betwecn the easterngopuraand
templc proper is a square building, a shrine
dedicatedto and containing a sculptureof Nandi,
the udhanqof Siva (seeplan, Fig. r5.4, and front
building in Fig. r5.3). Detached shrincs of this
type becarneincreasinglypopulrr in post-Gupta
periods, especiallyin the Deccan and the south,
and are rclatcd to growing elaboration within
the rituals and useof the tcmple complex. In this
casc,the Nandi shrine is decorated in a faslion
. i r r r i l r rr o r h a t o f t h e m . r i n ( i v , t e r n p l e a, r r i c -
ulated with deeply carved mouldings and
niches, and decoratedwith sculpturc. The main
tcmplc building consistsof a large pillared zor-
 IARLY \VEST.ERNCAT-UKYAAND RTIATED sc}Iools ?25
.:rly
rhe
::rple

:: lroDl
:.:gn of
riucen
Lokc(-
l
'richly
::-'r than
::rplexof
: . , . r i o n .I t
::rodeled
- i:iulam
,'hould
: ::chitec-
:: l-ithin
:,r sincc
-\{cguti :,.:.-:
, i-ila111a- rJ.3. VirarptklxrcurpJc,
frorr s,,.,thcasr(i,rsidccor)rln)urr.l).pa!ta-
:::: of the daka1,Karnalaka, Lrdir. Ilrrl), Wcstcrrr C:rlukva p..r;,la, ..tgn ,,f
Vikrrrnadityrll. Cr. 73r 4,1.

:. -.:ned to
:. an ex-
'. of the
' . rr u p a K s i
. : monu-
.: qucen,
. :fLlPxKsa,
. .',rd thus
' :r:tessed.
.: _:n :l rec-
. seriesof
' : .--:.i
oopura
: . :r smallcr rrrrrf,-..r,
::;:puraar'd
::. a shrine
: , . ofNandi,
. .. and front
'.:::rcsof this
.:.:l]st-Gupta
- --.:hc south,
:::. on lvithin
:-c'r. ln this
:r r feshion 'rn ri ri
'L ll - ' irl , l.
:::::plc, artlc- i llr rr l lr -.1., :r
::-.iings and
::- 1ne ltlaln
rJ,4. Phn of Virap.ks:rtcrrplc.t,:rttr<1.rkrl,
Kilrn:rrrk.,Lrdir. E)rl,v
::.,ttrcd, natl- WcsternCrlukr':rpcriod,rcign ofVikrrnrrdi(vr lI. Cir.
irl_.t,r.
 DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDIE PBRIOD
J26

..:

r 5 . j . E a s i c n l . g o f r u r l ,l r o r l t h c s o u $ q ' c s t . V i r t L f a k \ : r t c t D ! l c . l ) a ! f . r -
Jak3l, Keirlalxkr. lndi.r. Errlv Wcstcrn Crlrrkl'a pcriod, r'eivn oi
Vikrrnr.di!t:L IL Cx. 7-lr ,r4.

dapaand a snrallcrvinana.'fltc ndtta consistsoll

and shrinc with an encloscdcir-
"r, "rrt"ch"tttb".
cunrarnbulatoryptssase(Fig. r5 4), thc ivhole
toppcd by a southern-stylc suPerstructurc(Fig.
rJ.j). Three porchcsProjcct fto:ot thc nanddpa,
onc cach on thc sides and one at thc front'
a fcature Frequcntly found in iatcr tcrnples, es-
pccially in northcrn lndia. Possibly,theservcre
crcatedto adnrit nlorc liglrt into the interior'
Both outsidc and in, drc templc is lavishly
. c i . p l ( d . J n l r c i P . r t l llrrgr Ur i c l r r , ( "" l - t r l ( r l l l L r c n l \
of latcr ccnturies.On thc extcrior, dccp nrchcs
sct off by pilastcrscontaiu clynanicallv poscd
f g . | l ' \ . I r u \ t o l t l t c t r ,rl , p i i t t t t q\ ' . r i o u 5 . r ' P c c t '
oi Si.r". 1lt.t.' are ftnely cervccl,tlccplv cut
rclicls that scctnto cnlivcn thc sttictly controlled
divisions of the architccturc. hr thcir vitality,
thc figure sculpturcsrclate to othct eighrh
ccnturi' artisticidioms in India, such:!sthoseof
Orissa, I{aiasdran, -Sivr anci thc l'allava solrth A
hgure of d^rtcins on thc beck of a cl*'arf
(Fiq. r l.o) crhibirstlic ilendcrncss sssociatcd \4ith
,o.ith".u ,.,tlpt.t."l schools'sttch 3s thet oF the
Ij.6. l)rncins Sivr orr crrcrior. Virtpxk\:' !cllPlc'
l'lllavas. a suggcstlollalso corroboretcdby thc
l']rrtr.likrl. Krntitrk.L, l di.r' Lrrli Wcrtcr C:rlukrr
pcrnrd,rcign of Vikrrrlrdin.r II Ci.t i33 -11' trcatt.t1ent of thc costtttne Sonlc of thc qichcs
 TARIY WESTERN CAIUKYA AND REIATTD SCHOOLS 327

are richly framed by fojiate rnotifs carved so
that the sunlight shining on the tcmple creates
a sharply definedpattcrn.
The interior of thc tcmple is richly carved,
especially the pillars, ccilings, and lintcls (Figs.
r5.7, r1.g). Two lala-type shrines,one on cither
side of the antcchanbcr to the shrine, are
in.rportanticonographic fcatures.The one to the
left (Fig. r5.a) is dedicatcd to Gane6a,the ovcr-
comer ofobstaclcs,who is invokcd at rhc begirl-
ning ofworship and thus is appropriately located
at thc cntrance to the circumambulatory path.
The other (visible in Figure r5.7), dedicated to
Durga as slayer of thc buffalo demon (Mahi-
s-suranardini)(Fig. r5.8), is fittingiy located at
thc exit fron thc pradak;i4apatha,for in this
form, thc suprernegoddessis victorious ovcr thc
asura Mahisa, shown here as a Iruman with
buffaio horns, symboiizing thc final achievcrncnt
o( noksa, thc ultin.nte Hindu goal. The re-
markable iuragc inside the shrinc is carvcd
virtually in thc rourd and is surpasscdby nonc
in South Asian art for its dynanism and realism,
the lattcr Gature graphically indicated in thc
way the sword seenls to cnter the body of
Mahisa and in the treatmcnt of his face. Durga's
arms and weapons are arrangcd in a striking
rhythmic pattern crcated through the use of
parallel clements. Such tlrree-dinensional, "in
the round" figures are rarely cncounteredin thc
stonc carvings of ancient India, especiallythose
that are meant to bc viewed fiom one vantage
point only.
A clear differencc bctwcen the style of this
tcmple and the sinpler forms of thc Gupta
period is secn in the treatment of the doorway
to the main Siva lllga shrine (Fig. rJ.9). Features
of this highly elaboratcdoorway, with pilastcrs,
a tora o, ^rchjtectural nichcs, multiple side
figtrres, and sizable southcm-style rluarcpalas
outside the fran.rework of thc doorway itsell
suggest the growing complication and movc-

': ; consistsof
.rcloscdcir-
. :irc whole

::.: nandapa,
:: iirc front,

. :hcsc-lvcrc
::-' inrcrior.
:. lavishly
::_-!jIlUlllcntS

a: .rj asPccts
-::cp1y cut
..Lrntrolled

' . , rohrh
-. -.i thosc of
- \ollth. A
': r: a du.arf
- i-rt.'d q'ith
rj.7. Durga shrinc ill Virnptksa teurplc.Pattadrkal, r5.8. Durga Mahilasuramardinj (in Durga shrine)i1l
::-rt of the
Karnataka, Indii Earlv Wcstern Crlukra pcriod, Virrrpaksrtcnrplc.Patrrdakal,Karnaraks,indir. Early
:.; by the reign ot VikramadirlaII. Ca. 733 ,14. Westcrn Calukva pcriod, reigt ofVikrrnradirva II. C:.
: ::a nlches 733-44.
 EARLY WESTERNCATUKYA AND REIATTD SCHOOTS 3?O
L .:rrflc. ment toward elaborate forms that idcnti{ies
:.ukva most artistic developments in South Asia after
the sixth century.
Northern-srylc temples produced under the
Xarly Westcm Calukyas may be seenat several
sites. Out of approximately twenty Early
Wcstcrn Calukya temples that are within the
perimeters of thc enclosed temple compound
with the sacredtank at Mahakuqa, a site about
ftve kilonrctcrsfrom Bademi,all but t\^o are in
the northern style. The Sangame6varatemple
(Fig. r5.io), like many other northern-sryle
examples of approximately the mid-eighth
century, such as seen in Orissa, or Rajasthan,
consistsof a porch and a shrine area. It is small
in size and far simpler in decoration than the
Virnpaksa temple. Topped by a northern-sryle
cuwil;near libhara, the shrine is visually the most
important portion of the exterior of the monu-
ment. Sculptural elements, while kept to a
r5.rr. Lakr.rliia or sorth sidc of Sangamcivara tcmplc.
Mahak[ta, Kar]:faka, India. Early Wcstcm Calukya
period. Ca. mid-cighth century.
minimurn, are as cxpressivc as any found
throughout thc Early Westem Calukya realms.
A Paiupata sect dedication is suggestedby the
representationoflakulih, naked and with erect
li,iga, contained in thc central niche on the
south side ofthe sanctuary(Fig. r5.rr). Standing
atop a dwarf, the figure cxhibits the gracc and
quietude that is often rnistakcnly said to havc
dicd out aftcr thc Gupta period. Probably, the
style of the figure rellects northcrn traditions,
as does the form of thc templc itself. The other
niche imagesare Hari-Hara, the combined fonn
of Siva and Viggu, on the north and Ardham-
riSvara,the combined form of Siva and Parvati,
on the west, also frnely sculptcd cxamples.
At Alarhpor, a site in Andhra Pradcsh that
had come under the controlofthe Early Western
Calukyas during their expansion, at least nine
tenples rvere built during this period. Although
these are less wcll known than othcr Early
Western Calukya tcmples, they are anong the
finest monun.rentsof this period and contain
somc oI thc best examplesof Calukya sculpture.
Callecl the Nava Brahma (Nine Brahrna)
temples in a sixteenth-centuryinscription frour
the sitc, the original names of the temples are
unknown; however, other inscriptionsaswcll as
stylistic evidence verify the Xarly Wcstcrn
Calukya date of the monumcnts. All cxccpt onc
ofthe Nava Brahma tcmples arc in the northern
style. Of thcsc,pcrhapsthe nost bcautiful is thc
Svarga Brahme tcmple. An inscription above
one of thc duanpalason the tenple statcs that
the monumcnt lvas constructed in honor of a
queen of Vinayaditya, thc Early Western
Calukya king who mled during the latc seventh
century (682-96), by one of hcr sons. Thcrc-
forc, the rnonuncnt may bc assignedto that
period, or perhaps thc carly cighth centtty, if
onc assumesthat the quccn outlived her hus-
band.3 From thc cast, the entrancc side, thc
structurc has a somewhat unusual appearance
(Fig. r5.rz) due to the projccting porch in front
of the rectangular hall tl-ratconstitutesthc main
body of the templc. This rectanglecontains the
shrinc arca, its surrounding circumambulatory
passage,and the pillarcd mallapa, but rn contrast
to the usualnorthern and southcrn stylc convcn-
tions, thcsc arc not distinguishedarchitccturally
 TAIiLY WESTIRN CALUKYA AND REI-ATED SCHOOLS ??1

:-:-. \

#.
f
r5.t4. Sectiorl ., *",n .*U shownrg rlllttld Alini and ,,itr'rrdr.
Svarga BrahDr. tcl]lplc. Alerhp.lr, Andhra Pradcsh,India. Earlv
\VesternCaluk-r'apcriod. Ce. late scvelth-early cighth centur,v.

into scparateunits on the extcrior, or, with the

cxccption of the shrine itself, on the interior
(Fig. r5.r3). A northcrn-styleii&iara risesabove
the sanctuary.
The exterior walls of the main body of thc
temple are articulated by niches, interspcrscd
with latticed windows flanked by strongly
modeled figure groups. Thcse include repre-
t- sentationsof dcitics, such as the rcgeirts of thc
I directions (dikpala), ard nithuxas (Fig. t5.ia).
The decorative supcrstructurescarvcd above the
T nichcs are modcled after northcm-stylc iiftrala.t,
and thesc arc interspersedwith ddyadharas.All
II
the carvings reflect great skill on the part of the
artists, the tnithrna couples bcing espccially
beautifully posed and softly modeled in a style
derived from Gupta and post-Gupta schools.
The same graceful style is scenin a representa-
tion of Siva on the east facaclcof the ten.rple
that showshirn asan ascetic(Fig. rJ.rJ).
The interior of thc ternple is highly ornate.
Pillars and ceilings are richly carved with foliate
and othcr motifs, and the doorway to the shrinc r5.r5. Sivap,rrrclon castrvall of Svarg.rBrahnl. tem-
plc. Alarhpfir, Andhrr l\rctcsh, India. Early Westcr-n
is a very complex form with multiple divisions
C r l L r \ 1 , p- ,u d . r . ' . J . r . . v c . r r ,l , ) c ; h L h , . r r r r 1 .
in both jambs and lintel. A fairJy open leeling
 Ji,'2 DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDIE PTRIOD
0 10 30
01 5 10
rJ-16. Plan of "Durgrl" tcmplc. Aihoie, Karnataka,Indje. Early
Wcstcrn Calukya period. Ca. late sevcndr-earlyeighrh cenrury.
exists in the temple due to the lack of articula-
tion betweeuthe arazlapaand circumambulatory
passage,which almost seens to be an cxtcnsron
of the nandapaarea.
Most Early Western Calukya period temples
may be considered "regular" in that they are
easilycategorizedas being northern or southern,
have conventional plans, and display a number
of featuresthat relate them to muy other tem-
ples in various regional styles of South Asia.
However, a few seem to be vitually unique
architectural examples.Becauseof their aberra-
tions, these temples have been the subject of
much scholarly debate, but analysis demon-
stratesthat these strLrcturesare well within the
stylistic limits of Early Wcstcrn Calukya archi-
tecture.
The so-called "Durga" temple at Aihole
(whicli is not dedicatedto Durga, in spite of its
name, for the name refers to the nearby fort
ftlutgal\, rs one of the nost well published of
the Early Western Calukya temples. It is also
one of the nost enignatic. Its apsidal shape
(Fig. 15.16),while not unique (Fig. 14.28),has
an unusrlal variation in thc addition of an am-
40 50 60 70
15 20
bulatory passagecompletely surrounding the
temple. The inncr form, consistingofan entrance
arca, a pillarcd hall, and a shrine with a narrow
arnbulatory passagewayis sirnilar ro the plan
of the Svarga Brahma temple at Alarhpdr (Fig.
rJ.r3). In particular, the lack of articulation
between thc nandapaand circumambulatory area
in both monunents is significant. The temple's
east side presents a rathcr stunted appearance
becausethe small scaleiikhua is not visible from
that side (Fig. rJ.17). Some have contended
that the present northern-style likhara was not
original. But its iocation over thc shrine is
similar to that of the SvargaBrahma tcmple and
its form is well within the stylistic limits of Early
Wcstern Calulya .rrt. Prob.rbly.rhc suggcsrion
that it was added later arosewhen scholarsmis-
takenly ascribedthe tenplc ro the fifrh ccntury,
a date that would have been incompatible with
the iikhara form. The entranceporch is accessible
fior:r two staircases at the sidesin the way seen
earlierat Seflci Temple r7 (Figs. ro.16, ro.r7).
The porch areais siightly narrower than the body
of the temple itself (Fig. 15.16), although this
is not particuiarly noticeable from the front.
 IARLY WESTXRNCAIUKYA AND RXIATTD SCHOOLS JJJ

rj.r?. "Durgd" telnple fron east.Aiholc, Karqalaka,India. Early

'Western
Calukya period. Ca. late seventh-carlycighth century.
rci:.DCing the
lc L1 entrance
ri: a narrow
r:o the plan
A;npur (Fig.
{ :rdculation
rb'.:latory area
. T:e temple's
od appearance
r risible from
rr contended
H.zra was not
de shrine is
na temple and
limits of Early
&e suggestion
, scholars mis-
f,ith century,
opadble with
d is accessible
the way seen
ro.r6, To.r7).
tban the body
I
although this rj.r8. "Durga" temple from northeast.Aihole, Karneraka,India. Early
'm rhe front, 'Western
Calukya period. Ca. late seventh€arly cighth ccntury.
I
JJ4 D Y N A \ l r L 5U r - f l l t M r | ' r ) | | I i R I O D

r 5 . 1 9 . A r r r b u l e t o r lp : r s s r g rcI n q ! o u t h ,
''1)Llrgx"
rc,,iplc. Ajholc, K;tr+.t)lx,
Indix. Lrrl,v Wcstcrl Crtuk,i,t pcriod.
C l : r .l e L c s u c n t i r c e r l , vc i g i r r h c c n n r r v .

:,\-.
-i..-

r j.:.o. l)urgi Mrhl\l1surulitrcLlrj, i11

ror th scction ,Jf.ulbulrtory, "Drrrga"
tcnrplc. Aiholc, Kllrn.tak.r, lrrdia. Ixrl)
Wcscrn Crtukya pcriod. C.r. latc
scr'cnfi crrl-r' ciqhth centLrrv.

Surrounclingthercntirc tcrrrplc,thc :rinbulatory

passallcw:L,v has piilars arourrclthc cxtcrior (Fig.
rJ.rS) end fronr rvithin givcs thc iuprcssion of
bcine a liqln and airy verarcla(Fig. r5.19). hr
nicheson tirc soli.l inn.-r rv:rllof thc alnbuletorv
p . . . \ . r ' l c . rprJ. " . , - .l , I r L r r r L- , ,. f I r g . , t r l p t r r r c . .
inclurlirreboth Saivitc encLVaisnavitcsu\ccts.
One irnlqc, of Durga, il hcr Mahisasurenrerdtni
.rspcct(liis. rj.20), sholvs the gocldess ectivcly
poscclrvirlr ltcr lio:i. ualtora besideher lncl hcr
eclvcrsary,thc cleiuon Mahisa iu thc firur of a
buflrlo. Thc iqurc of Durga hascight arms etrcl
is clccplycarvccL. Her full, round brc:rsts sr,rggcsr
styiistictiesrvitlrearlicrschoolsofrvcstcnlDcccan
ert. As rn n1xtlyother sculptur-c\ aclorlilg Early
Wcsrern Cialrrkyamonoulcnts.x qrcat scrlsL- ot
rratLlr.lli\n1 encl logic pcrvlclesthc \\,ork; exch
of thc lrms, lor cxarnplc,is posccljust es etr
.ctual :url might bc-ir natrrc. Thc rlateoi this
 EARLY WESTERN CALUKYA AND RELATED SCHOOLS 'JU
7
Ei=-- ;rong souflr, temple and its sculptures can onJy be surmised,
'ihole, KarQ,Fka, but the figure style suggests afflnities to late
r Calukya period.
seventh and early eighth century carvings at
i ::Shrh cenlury.
Alarhpnr, as does ttre treatment of the likhara,
and a comparable date may be suggested.a
A second very famous but controversial
structure is the I-ad Khan temple, alio at Aihofe,
which is unusual in both plan and form. A
pillared porch precedesthe large, square,pillared
hall (Fig. r5.zr). The two concentric squaresof
pillars repeat the shape of the hall itself, but the
small shrine at the rear almost seems to have
been added as an afterthought. Such a plan is
indeed exceptional. It has been suggestedthat
it derives from a type of village meeting hall
rather than from earlier religious structures.5
From the front, the exterior of the temple is
broader and lessvertical than the Durga temple,
(Fig. 15. zz). (If a iikhara was planned by the
makers, it would have changed the ap-
pearance.)But the exterior walls of the temple
are striking in their plainness,for asidefrom the
carved pillars clustered around the entrance
porch and panels above the base, the walls of
- ,=linr, in rhe temple are relieved onJy by the impressive
lattice windows and the thick pilasterlike forms
: Ca. latc
0 l0 20
05
that are flush with the surface of the wall (Fig.
rj.23). This latter Gature is not unique to this
temole but is seen also in a number of other
monuments of the Early Westem Calukya school
and seemsto have been one of the variants of
tte oilasteredwall. The windows crcate a strik-
ingly beautiful efect in the interior of the
temple, but as a feature of Early Western
Calukya art. they are also not unique since
similar windows occur at Alarhpur. A small
second-story shrine is placed above the center of
the matllopa.
Another striking Gature of this temple is the
useoflarge stone slabson the roofthat resemble
wood planks and half timbers, indicating that
the ultimate model for the roof was a structural
wooden building (Fig. r5.zz). In this respect,
as well as in the use of the central bay in thc
plan of thc na4dapa, the tcmplc anticipatcs
somewhat related structuresto be found later in
Kerala. It is not known to whom the temple
was originally dedicated(the name Lad Khan is
a much later appellation), nor has the date been
agreed upon. In light of recent scholarshipon
Early Western Calukya architecturc, howcvet,
the view that it is a monument of the fifth
r 5.zr. Plan ofLad Khen tcnrplc. Aiholc,
Karnataka,India.EarlyWestcrnCalukya
period. Ca. latc scvcnth carJy eighth
jji6 Dy\A\Trr,s or TH;, \li!)r)lI Pfillllll

d
{
il
r i
I

' .: l!

1,

1
iij '}.'
.:
,::l
. .:,_-
:.
r r . r . - ' . I r , L K h I r : f , i r L - . l fi t . , : I s i u r L c . r ' : . : \ r l , r , l c . l { i r I ' r ' r k , r . 1 , ) d r . r
I - r r h \ i | s r , i . ( l , 1 l , r l i \ ,fr. f r r r : . i . r . r t . : . r r r t i r c . r r L rc i g l r t l rc r r -

r r . : - : . l - r . : l i h r r r r c r r r r l . r : . , 1 ' , , r r rr . \ l r , , l r l i . r r . L I r k . r .i r , i r . r L r r . r
\ \ , s r L r : r t l r l L r i r . rL . i L r . , . ri - l r l r t ' r . r r , r l r r . r r l i c i q | r l r t r r r : L r \ ' .
 EARLY WESTERN CALUKYA AND RXIATED SCHOOTS JJ7

century cannot be supported;probably, like the
"Durga"temple, it wascreatedin the lateseventh
or ear\ eighth century.
A number of features,regardlessof whether
they arenorthem, southem,or aberrantin forn,
seernto pervade all structural temples of the
Early Westem Calukyaperiod. Most are created
ofrather largeblocksofstone,articulated simply
sothat thejoints areclearlyvisibleand assembled
without mortar. In proportion, most of the
templesemphasizelength, that is front to rear
(although some are of considerablebreadth as
well). None createsa Geling of greatheight and
verticaliw comparableto what will be seenin
later stylesboth in northem and southemIndia.
Use of fat roofi over multipillaredhallsis also
nearly universal in the larger temples; the
interiors of suchhalls are frequently carvedwith
ceiling panelsof considerable ricbness.Sculp-
tural decorationplays a much greaterrole in
carryhrg out the program of the temple than
it did in the Gupta and immediately post-Gupta
monuments.But comparedto later temples,
especially thoseofnorthem India,the sculptural
decorationof thesestructuresis quite reserved,
emphasizing distinctlyseparateimportantimages
rather than clustersof smalleronesthat seemto
merge togetherin later styles.

T n r E as r r r r , rC A L U K Y A s

Pulakeiin II of the Early Western Calukyas as viceroy of this new region, and thus, Viqru-
conquered nearly the whole of the eastern vardhana, who ruled frorn 624 to 64r, founded
Deccan. To help him adrninister this large another line, the Eastem Calukyas of Vengi,
empire,he appointedhis brotherViS4uvardhana which oudived the main branch of the familv

15.24.Palr of dfirapalas.Frort Vljayavada,Andhra Pradesh,India.

Easren Calukya pcriod. Ca. seventh century. Granitc. H: each
Ea.2oo crl. Madras GovernrnencMuseurn,Madras.
JJE DYNASTIES OI:I'HT MIDDI! PERIOD

L ; - c o n ' r d e r a b llcc n g t l ro f t i n r , c n d . i i r I r . r . A pair of nronolitlrlc duarapalas fowd at Ylja-

hclcl the thronc longcr than nany other nlorc yavada in Andhra Pradesh may be dated to thc
famor-rsIndian dynasties.Pr.rlake(inII rccognized scventh century, probably not long after the
tl.reright ofhis brother to bcqueathl.is kingdom EasternCelukya branch was founded by Visnu-
to his desccndants,and shortly after Visnuvar- vardhana (Fig. rJ.24). An inscription on the
dltanahad txkcr control of thc region, his cmpire back of one of them (Fig. 15.24, left) n.ren-
bccalnc indcpendent. Aithough thc dynasty and tions thc sculptor Gundaya of the court of
its history are rvcll knorvn through copperplate the lord of Vengi,6 suggestingEastern Calukya
and Iirhic inscriptions, its art has been aln.rost manufacture. In stylc, thc figures show strong
totally ignorcd. Yet tl.rccarly phase,of concern tics to strictly southern traditions, such as that
hcrc, shorvs an important blcnd of stylistic o f t h e P r l l r v " . . e s p c c i " l l yi n t l r c e n i n r . t r i o n .
treditions of thc Early Western Calukyas on the torsion, and dillercntiation of thc poscs.Yet the
one haud and thc indigenous heritagc of Andhra fullness of thc boclics, cspecially seen in the
on thc othcr. Such a link setsthc stage for cer- right guardian, and the great degrcc of orna-
t r i n p . r t t e r t ttrl t " r e n r e l g ci n s u b s c c l r r ec tctnt t u r i e s mentation are unusual anong thc southcrn
spanningnot only the castcrnand westernhalves modes of this and carlicr timcs and suggest
of the Dcccan, but unifying features of both instcad thc hcritagc of the western Deccan and
s o L r f l ) c r .nr n d n o l h c r n x r t t r r d i r i o n . i n l o r some of its northern stylistic soruccs.?
ncrv synthesis.

THE N OLAMBAS

A simiiar blencling of stylcs is seenin thc art of intennediary direction, and thrrs Yama, for
anodrer littlc-Lnown ruling family, the Nolam- exan.rplc,is guardian of the south. Presunrably,
bas, wbosc capital rvas at Hcmdvati in Andhra thc cciling slabswould have been arranged so
Pradesh.Inscriptional evidcnccindicatesthat the that cachfigure was in his appropriatelocation, as
family flourishctl frolrL thc cighdr to the cieventh rvas done when tl.redikpalaswere placed on the
centnrics.sAlthough the Nolambas considercd exterior of temples.According to Vedic thought,
thernsclvcsto be a branch of the Pallavas(they Yama was the first man who died, reachedthe
cellccl thenrselvesthc Nolamba-Pallavas), thcir other world, and thcn bccamethc guidc ofother
art shows rclationships not only to that of the pcrsons to that worlcl. The southern quartcr,
Pallavasbrrt also to the traditions of thc Early which he oversecs,is considcredto be the region
Western Calukyas. Horvever, the Pallava and of thc dcccased,and he is charged with evaluat-
Caltrkya strands are generally not visible to- ing thc sins committed by individuals rvho
gether in any given piccc; rather, scparate con.rc to his realm and dispensing appropriatc
exan.rplcsrcllccr one style or the othcr. punishmcnts or rcrvards. Although thc lnghly
Onc panel of a ceiling slab fion Hcnavati polished, closc-grained stone difers from that
shorvsYama and his wifb scatcdatop his buflalo used by the Early Wcstcrn Calukyas, thc trcat-
tahano n:.ovir'g an.ridstclouds and accompanied m c n t o f t l r c f i g u r c . a n d t l t e i r o r n a n r e n t a t i oi l'
b1 c n r , . r r r . r goet . r t r . t r , l , r n r( .l - r g .r s . ; 5 ) .T l L e rcn.rinisccnt of the Early Wcstcrn Calukya
"n (
highly polished, c>rquisitclyfinished, blackish sciroolT . lrc cloud n otif is r1'o srenin F"rly
s t o r er \ c l r . r J c l c r i 5 t.i,.1 N u l r n t b . r . r r tT. h e p r n c J Westerrr Calukya art, and thc subjcct of the
is part of a slab containing two other regentsof dikpalas r.lso occurs on a nun.rbcr of Early
tho dircctions (dikpalas) that rvorrld h"vc bc- V0cstcrnCalukya ccilings.This carving probably
longcclto a sctcontainingcight suchfigurcsin all dates from the ninth century, as does a repre-
l a s r a dpi la [ a , \ -p r o b r b l y s r r r r o r n d i n ga c e l t r ' r 1 sentation of Siva and his consort ljrna seatcd
pancl dcpicting a foru of Siva. Each of the sidc by side (Urna-Maheivara), which is also
dikpalasis associatedwith a spccific direction or fron.r Hcmevati (Fig. 15.26). In this case,Siva's
 EARTY WESTTRN CATUKYA AND RETATED SC]JOOLS 339

r iirong
:r - that

:.::gesr
*::= and
rj.2j. Ceiling pal1ei with Yana. From Henlavau,
Andhra Pradesh, India. Nolarnba period. Ca. ninth
century. Black stone.H: Z1.J cln. Madms Govcrnnent
Museun, Madras.

: ::late
=Dry
: I :hat

: t:1 15

--L:r.ya

:: rhe

-- - LI.,

IJ.26. Urna-Mrhe(vara. From Hcrnavati, Andhra rJ.27. Hero stone of Erega. Frorn Honavatr, Andhra
Pradesh,India. Nolarnba period. Ca. ninlh ccnrury. Pradesh, India. Nolamba period. Dcdicated in Saka
Black stone. H: ca. 60 cm. Madras Governn:ent Mu- cra 888 (A.D.966).Black stonc.H: r8o.J cm. Madras
seulrl,Madras. GovcrnrnentMuseun, Madras,
Ji4O DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLEPERIOD
taut torso and high headdress bespeak the
southern tradition, while the full-bodied Uma
is tied to western Deccan styles of the preceding
centuries. In addition, this sculpture and a
second nearly identical one from the same site
are intriguing in their asociation with thc
format of numerous lJme-Maheivara rmages
From Bihar of approximatelythe same period
( F i q .r 8 . 2 6 1a, n d i i i , J i k " l y r h a r t h e N o l a m b a s
wei" infu"nced by the Pala-periodart of thrt
resion. In particular, the rounded top of the
,t"i" ,# or" of a sirnple bead or pearl motif
"nd
around the rirn are typical featuresof eighth and
ninth century Bihar imagcs.
An interesiins aspectof Nolarnba art is the use
ofhero stones(riiraiah) asmemorialsfor warriors
killed in battle. these cawings are of great
interest not only because of their intrinsic
meaning and forir.r, but also becausernany of
them bia, datesthat document thc event being
recorded and therefore serve as guideposts for
the study of the development of related art
works that do not bear dates. Hero stonesale
CorvcrustoN
Calukya art, in all its manifestations,comprrses
oo" oi th. most significant corpora of South
Asian art. Notable not only because of the
abundance of architectural and sculptural re-
mains, but also bccauseof its varicty of types
and forms, Calukya art is also the fountainhcad
of a stylistic lineage traceable throughout thc
Deccan region from west to eastand etrconPass-
ins thc ari traditions of nunlerous later families'
CJrtain characteristicspopularized by thc Calu-
kyrs, such as the use of "bracket figures" in
known from an early tirnc (Fig. 9.3r), and seem
to have been especiallypopular in the Deccan
and the south, piobably having grown up from
early funerary Practices. One, examPle from
Hemtvatt is dated in the year Saka 888, equrv-
alent to 966, and shows the hero Erega, who
met his death while fighting at the command
of the Nolarnba prince Ayyapa (Fig' r5'27)'e
The lowcr p"nel ,Lo*s thc death of Erega, the
middle pancl depicts thc hero proceeding to
the hcro l-reavenaccompanicdby two women,
and the upper panel shows him trantformed into
a deva. i- eriat deal of variety exists in thc
depicrionso-,.,h.ro ,,on"r. aldrough very lirtlc
scholarlvwork has been done to make tlris art
form understood in the broader Indic context'
While on a more modest scalethan the impor-
tant Buddlrist stipas or toyal funerary monu-
ments of south India, they expressa similar basic
norion regarding rhc causeand cffect relrtion-
ship betw"ecnhow rlre individual live'' and dies
J hir f"t" after dcath.
"t
association with pillars and ceilings, remln
prominentf(rturc\ of Deccanarr throughou(rhc
centuric,(Fiqs.z.r.r 8. zz.:8) As in thc caseof the
Pellavaait iraditions,ir i' diffrctrltto trace the
orisins and prccedcntsofthe art ofthe Calukyas,
th.."for., to cstablish how much of the
"rri
Calukya rnanifestationsarc their own lnnova-
tions, and how nuch indicates I link to earlier
art forrns that have vanishcd almost without a
trace.