Actinides

[1]
by decay chain Half-life
range (a)
Fission products by yield
[2]
4n 4n+1 4n+2 4n+3 4.57% 0.041.25% <0.001%
228
Ra

46

155
Eu

244
Cm
241
Pu
250
Cf
227
Ac

1029
90
Sr
85
Kr
113m
Cd

232
U
238
Pu
243
Cm

2997
137
Cs
151
Sm
121m
Sn
248
Bk
[3] 249
Cf
242m
Am

141351
No fission products
have a half-life
in the range of
100210k years
241
Am
251
Cf
[4]
430900
226
Ra
247
Bk 1.3k1.6k
240
Pu
229
Th
246
Cm
243
Am 4.7k7.4k
245
Cm
250
Cm 8.3k8.5k
239
Pu

24.1k
230
Th
231
Pa

32k76k
236
Np
233
U
234
U

150k250k

99
Tc
126
Sn
248
Cm
242
Pu 327k375k
79
Se

1.53M
93
Zr
237
Np 2.1M6.5M
135
Cs
107
Pd
236
U
247
Cm

15M24M
129
I

244
Pu

80M
...nor beyond 15.7M
[5]
232
Th
238
U
235
U

0.7G14.1G
Legend for superscript symbols
has thermal neutron capture cross section in the range of 850 barns
fissile
m metastable isomer
naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM)
neutron poison (thermal neutron capture cross section greater than 3k barns)
range 4a97a: Medium-lived fission product
over 200ka: Long-lived fission product
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Although thorium (Th) has 6 naturally occurring isotopes, none of these
isotopes are stable; however, one isotope,
232
Th, is relatively stable, with a
half-life of 14.05 billion years, considerably longer than the age of the earth,
and even slightly longer than the generally-accepted age of the universe. This
isotope makes up nearly all natural thorium. As such, thorium is considered to
be mononuclidic. It has a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition and
thus an atomic mass can be given.
Standard atomic mass: 232.03806(2) u
Thirty radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable (after
232
Th) being
230
Th with a half-life of 75,380 years,
229
Th with a half-life of
7,340 years, and
228
Th with a half-life of 1.92 years. All of the remaining
radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than thirty days and the
majority of these have half-lives that are less than ten minutes. One isotope,
229
Th, has a nuclear isomer (or metastable state) with a remarkably low
excitation energy,
[6]
recently measured to be 7.6 0.5 eV.
[7]
The known isotopes of thorium range in mass number from 209
[8]
to 238.
Contents
1 Some notable isotopes
1.1 Thorium-228
1.2 Thorium-229
1.2.1 Thorium-229m
1.3 Thorium-230
1.4 Thorium-231
1.5 Thorium-232
1.6 Thorium-233
1.7 Thorium-234
2 Table
2.1 Notes
3 Uses
4 References
Some notable isotopes
Thorium-228
228
Th is an isotope of thorium which has 138 neutrons. It was once named Radiothorium, due to its occurrence in the disintegration chain of
thorium-232. It has a half-life of 1.9116 years. It undergoes alpha decay to
224
Ra. Occasionally it decays by the unusual route of cluster decay, emitting
a nucleus of
20
O and producing stable
208
Pb. It is a daughter isotope of
232
U
Th-228 has an atomic weight of 228.0287411 grams/mole. Uranium-232 decays to this nuclide by alpha emission.
Thorium-229
229
Th is a radioactive isotope of thorium that decays by alpha emission with a half-life of 7340 years.
229
Th is produced by the decay of uranium-233,
and its principal use is for the production of the medical isotopes actinium-225 and bismuth-213.
[9]
Thorium-229m
Gamma ray spectroscopy has indicated that
229
Th has a nuclear isomer
229m
Th with a remarkably low excitation energy. This would make it the lowest-
energy nuclear isomer known, and it might be possible to excite this nuclear state using lasers with wavelengths in the vacuum ultraviolet. The isomer
might have application for high density energy storage,
[10]
an accurate clock,
[11]
as a qubit for quantum computing, or to test the effect of the chemical
environment on nuclear decay rates.
[12]
The lifetime of the isomer has been measured to be 61 hours. The measurement was done by collecting recoiled
229m
Th atoms in a MgF
s
crystal and
Actinides and fission products by half-life
Isotopes of thorium - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopes_of_thorium
1 of 5 1.3.2014 20:57
measuring the light emission variation over time.
[13]
If this isomer were to decay it would produce a gamma ray (defined by its origin not its wavelength)
in the ultraviolet range.
The isomer transition energy of
229
Th is currently derived from indirect measurements of the gamma-ray spectrum resulting from the decay of
233
U. In
19891993 first measurements were performed using high-quality germanium detectors, resulting in an estimate of E = 3.51.0 eV for the
229
Th isomer
transition energy.
[14][15]
This unnaturally low value triggered a multitude of investigations, both theoretical and experimental, trying to determine the
transition energy precisely and to specify other properties of the isomer state of
229
Th (such as the lifetime and the magnetic moment). However,
searches for direct photon emission from the low-lying excited state have failed to report an unambiguous signal. New indirect measurements with an
advanced high-resolution x-ray microcalorimeter were carried out in 2007
[7]
yielding a new value for the transition energy of E = 7.60.5 eV, corrected
to E = 7.80.5 eV in 2009.
[16]
This value is currently the most accepted one in the community but cannot be considered definite until a direct
measurement is made successfully. The shift into the VUV domain probably explains why previous attempts to directly observe the transition were
unsuccessful.
Thorium-230
230
Th is a radioactive isotope of thorium which can be used to date corals and determine ocean current flux. Ionium was a name given early in the study
of radioactive elements to the
230
Th isotope produced in the decay chain of
238
U before it was realized that ionium and thorium are chemically identical.
The symbol Io was used for this supposed element. (The name is still used in ionium-thorium dating.)
Thorium-231
231
Th has 141 neutrons. It is the decay product of uranium-235. It is found in very small amounts on the earth and has a half-life of 25.5 hours. When it
decays it emits a beta ray and forms protactinium-231. It has a decay energy of 0.39 MeV. It has a mass of 231.0363043 grams/mole.
Thorium-232
As Thorium is mononuclidic, the main article on thorium effectively discusses this isotope.
232
Th is the only primordial isotope of thorium and makes up effectively all of natural thorium, with other isotopes of thorium appearing only in trace
amounts as relatively short-lived decay products of uranium and thorium.
[17]
232
Th decays by alpha decay with a half-life of 1.405 10
10
years, over three times the age of the earth and more than the age of the universe. Its decay
chain is the thorium series eventually ending in lead-208. The remainder of the chain is quick; the longest half-lives in it are 5.75 years for radium-228
and 1.91 years for thorium-228, with all other half-lives totaling less than 5 days.
[18]
232
Th is a fertile material able to absorb a neutron and undergo transmutation into the fissile nuclide uranium-233, which is the basis of the thorium fuel
cycle.
[19]
In the form of Thorotrast, a thorium dioxide suspension, it was used as contrast medium in early X-ray diagnostics. Thorium-232 is now classified as
carcinogenic.
[20]
Thorium-233
233
Th is an isotope of thorium that decays into protactinium-233 through beta decay. It has a half-life of 21.83 minutes.
[21]
Thorium-234
234
Th is an isotope of thorium whose nuclei contain 144 neutrons. Th-234 has a half-life of 24.1 days, and when it decays, it emits a beta particle, and in
so doing, it transmutes into protactinium-234. Th-234 has a mass of 234.0436 atomic mass units (amu), and it has a decay energy of about 270 keV
(kiloelectron-volts). Uranium-238 usually decays into this isotope of thorium. (It can undergo spontaneous fission.)
Table
Isotopes of thorium - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopes_of_thorium
2 of 5 1.3.2014 20:57
nuclide
symbol
historic
name
Z(p) N(n)

isotopic mass (u)

half-life
[n 1]
decay
mode(s)
[22][n 2]
daughter
isotopes(s)
[n 3]
nuclear
spin
representative
isotopic
composition
(mole fraction)
range of natural
variation
(mole fraction)
excitation energy
209
Th 90 119 209.01772(11)
7(5) ms
[3.8(+69-15)]
5/2-#
210
Th 90 120 210.015075(27)
17(11) ms
[9(+17-4) ms]

206
Ra
0+

+
(rare)
210
Ac
211
Th 90 121 211.01493(8)
48(20) ms
[0.04(+3-1) s]

207
Ra
5/2-#

+
(rare)
211
Ac
212
Th 90 122 212.01298(2)
36(15) ms
[30(+20-10) ms]
(99.7%)
208
Ra
0+

+
(.3%)
212
Ac
213
Th 90 123 213.01301(8) 140(25) ms

209
Ra
5/2-#

+
(rare)
213
Ac
214
Th 90 124 214.011500(18) 100(25) ms
210
Ra 0+
215
Th 90 125 215.011730(29) 1.2(2) s
211
Ra (1/2-)
216
Th 90 126 216.011062(14) 26.8(3) ms
(99.99%)
212
Ra
0+

+
(.006%)
216
Ac
216m1
Th 2042(13) keV 137(4) s (8+)
216m2
Th 2637(20) keV 615(55) ns (11-)
217
Th 90 127 217.013114(22) 240(5) s
213
Ra (9/2+)
218
Th 90 128 218.013284(14) 109(13) ns
214
Ra 0+
219
Th 90 129 219.01554(5) 1.05(3) s

215
Ra
9/2+#

+
(10
7
%)
219
Ac
220
Th 90 130 220.015748(24) 9.7(6) s

216
Ra
0+
EC (210
7
%)
220
Ac
221
Th 90 131 221.018184(10) 1.73(3) ms
217
Ra (7/2+)
222
Th 90 132 222.018468(13) 2.237(13) ms

218
Ra
0+
EC (1.310
8
%)
222
Ac
223
Th 90 133 223.020811(10) 0.60(2) s
219
Ra (5/2)+
224
Th 90 134 224.021467(12) 1.05(2) s

220
Ra
0+

+
(rare)
224
Ra
225
Th 90 135 225.023951(5) 8.72(4) min
(90%)
221
Ra
(3/2)+
EC (10%)
225
Ac
226
Th 90 136 226.024903(5) 30.57(10) min
222
Ra 0+
227
Th Radioactinium 90 137 227.0277041(27) 18.68(9) d
223
Ra 1/2+ Trace
[n 4]
228
Th Radiothorium 90 138 228.0287411(24) 1.9116(16) a

224
Ra
0+ Trace
[n 5]
CD (1.310
11
%)
208
Pb
20
O
229
Th 90 139 229.031762(3) 7.34(16)10
3
a
225
Ra 5/2+
229m
Th 0.0076(5) keV 70(50) h IT
229
Th 3/2+
230
Th
[n 6]
Ionium 90 140 230.0331338(19) 7.538(30)10
4
a

226
Ra
0+ Trace
[n 7]
CD (5.610
11
%)
206
Hg
24
Ne
SF (510
11
%) (Various)
231
Th Uranium Y 90 141 231.0363043(19) 25.52(1) h

- 231
Pa
5/2+ Trace
[n 4]
(10
8
%)
227
Ra
232
Th
[n 8]
Thorium 90 142 232.0380553(21) 1.405(6)10
10
a
228
Ra 0+ 1.0000
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3 of 5 1.3.2014 20:57

-
(rare)
232
U
SF (1.110
9
%) (various)
CD (2.7810
10
%)
182
Yb
26
Ne
24
Ne
233
Th 90 143 233.0415818(21) 21.83(4) min
- 233
Pa 1/2+
234
Th Uranium X1 90 144 234.043601(4) 24.10(3) d
- 234m
Pa 0+ Trace
[n 7]
235
Th 90 145 235.04751(5) 7.2(1) min
- 235
Pa (1/2+)#
236
Th 90 146 236.04987(21)# 37.5(2) min
- 236
Pa 0+
237
Th 90 147 237.05389(39)# 4.8(5) min
- 237
Pa 5/2+#
238
Th 90 148 238.0565(3)# 9.4(20) min
- 238
Pa 0+
^ Bold for nuclides with half-lives longer than the age of the universe (nearly stable) 1.
^ Abbreviations:
CD: Cluster decay
EC: Electron capture
IT: Isomeric transition
SF: Spontaneous fission
2.
^ Bold for stable isotopes 3.
^
a

b
Intermediate decay product of
235
U 4.
^ Intermediate decay product of
232
Th 5.
^ Used in Uranium-thorium dating 6.
^
a

b
Intermediate decay product of
238
U 7.
^ Primordial radionuclide 8.
Notes
Geologically exceptional samples are known in which the isotopic composition lies outside the reported range. The uncertainty in the atomic mass
may exceed the stated value for such specimens.
Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from systematic trends. Spins with weak assignment arguments
are enclosed in parentheses.
Uncertainties are given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits. Uncertainty values denote one standard deviation, except
isotopic composition and standard atomic mass from IUPAC which use expanded uncertainties.
Uses
Thorium has been suggested for use as a source of nuclear energy. Presumably, it would need to be exposed to neutrons in a nuclear reactor, to convert
the common isotope to some species that is fissionable.
It is currently used in cathodes of vacuum tubes, for a combination of physical stability at high temperature and a low work energy required to remove an
electron from its surface. It has, for about a century, been used in mantles of gas and vapor lamps such as gas lights and camping lanterns. Its
radioactivity is a consideration for its non-nuclear uses but is too small to rule it out.
References
^ Plus radium (element 88). While actually a sub-actinide, it immediately precedes actinium (89) and follows a three element gap of instability after polonium
(84) where no isotopes have half-lives of at least four years (the longest-lived isotope in the gap is radon-222 with a half life of less than four days). Radium's
longest lived isotope, at a notable 1600 years, thus merits the element's inclusion here.
1.
^ Specifically from thermal neutron fission of U-235, e.g. in a typical nuclear reactor. 2.
^ Milsted, J.; Friedman, A. M.; Stevens, C. M. (1965). "The alpha half-life of berkelium-247; a new long-lived isomer of berkelium-248". Nuclear Physics 71
(2): 299. doi:10.1016/0029-5582(65)90719-4 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0029-5582%2865%2990719-4).
"The isotopic analyses disclosed a species of mass 248 in constant abundance in three samples analysed over a period of about 10 months. This was ascribed
to an isomer of Bk
248
with a half-life greater than 9 y. No growth of Cf
248
was detected, and a lower limit for the

half-life can be set at about 10

4
y. No alpha
activity attributable to the new isomer has been detected; the alpha half-life is probably greater than 300 y."
3.
^ This is the heaviest isotope with a half-life of at least four years before the "Sea of Instability". 4.
^ Excluding those "classically stable" isotopes with half-lives significantly in excess of
232
Th, e.g. while
113m
Cd has a half-life of only fourteen years, that of
113
Cd is nearly eight quadrillion.
5.
^ E. Ruchowska et al. (2006). "Nuclear structure of
229
Th". Phys. Rev. C 73 (4): 044326. Bibcode:2006PhRvC..73d4326R (http://adsabs.harvard.edu
/abs/2006PhRvC..73d4326R). doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.73.044326 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevC.73.044326).
6.
^
a

b
B. R. Beck et al. (2007-04-06). "Energy splitting in the ground state doublet in the nucleus
229
Th". Physical Review Letters 98 (14): 142501.
Bibcode:2007PhRvL..98n2501B (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PhRvL..98n2501B). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.98.142501 (http://dx.doi.org
/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.98.142501). PMID 17501268 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17501268).
7.
^ H. Ikezoe et al. (1996). "alpha decay of a new isotope of
209
Th". Physical Review C 54 (4): 2043. Bibcode:1996PhRvC..54.2043I (http://adsabs.harvard.edu
/abs/1996PhRvC..54.2043I). doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.54.2043 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevC.54.2043).
8.
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^ Report to Congress on the extraction of medical isotopes from U-233 (http://www.ne.doe.gov/pdfFiles/U233RptConMarch2001.pdf). U.S. Department of
Energy. March 2001
9.
^ Poppe, C. H.; Weiss, M. S.; Anderson, J. D. (1992). "Nuclear isomers as ultra-high-energy-density materials". Air Force Meeting on High Energy Density
Materials, Lancaster, CA. Bibcode:1992hedm.meet...23P (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992hedm.meet...23P).
10.
^ Peik, E.; Tamm, Chr. (2003-01-15). "Nuclear laser spectroscopy of the 3.5 eV transition in
229
Th" (http://www.ptb.de/cms/fileadmin/internet/fachabteilungen
/abteilung_4/4.4_zeit_und_frequenz/pdf/th001.pdf). Europhysics Letters 61 (2): 181186. Bibcode:2003EL.....61..181P (http://adsabs.harvard.edu
/abs/2003EL.....61..181P). doi:10.1209/epl/i2003-00210-x (http://dx.doi.org/10.1209%2Fepl%2Fi2003-00210-x). Retrieved 2013-12-14.
11.
^ Tkalya, Eugene V.; Zherikhin, Alexander N.; Zhudov, Valerii I. (2000). "Decay of the low-energy nuclear isomer
229
Th
m
(3/2
+
, 3.51.0 eV) in solids
(dielectrics and metals): A new scheme of experimental research". Physical Review C 61 (6): 064308. Bibcode:2000PhRvC..61f4308T
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PhRvC..61f4308T). doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.61.064308 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevC.61.064308).
12.
^ Zhao, Xinxin; Yenny Natali Martinez de Escobar, Robert Rundberg, Evelyn M. Bond, Allen Moody, David J. Vieira (2012). "Observation of the Deexcitation
of the ^{229m}Th Nuclear Isomer". Physical Review Letters 109 (16). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.109.160801 (http://dx.doi.org
/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.109.160801). ISSN 0031-9007 (//www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9007).
13.
^ Reich, C. W. and Helmer, R. G. (Jan 1990). "Energy separation of the doublet of intrinsic states at the ground state of
229
Th" (http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103
/PhysRevLett.64.271). Phys. Rev. Lett. (American Physical Society) 64 (3): 271273. Bibcode:1990PhRvL..64..271R (http://adsabs.harvard.edu
/abs/1990PhRvL..64..271R). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.64.271 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.64.271).
14.
^ Helmer, R. G.; Reich, C. W. (1994). "An Excited State of Th-229 at 3.5 eV". Physical Review C 49 (4): 18451858. Bibcode:1994PhRvC..49.1845H
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994PhRvC..49.1845H). doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.49.1845 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevC.49.1845).
15.
^ Beck B R, Wu C Y, Beiersdorfer P, Brown G V, Becker J A, Moody K J, Wilhelmy J B, Porter F S, Kilbourne C A and Kelley R L (2009-07-30). "Improved
value for the energy splitting of the ground-state doublet in the nucleus
229
Th" (https://e-reports-ext.llnl.gov/pdf/375773.pdf). 12th Int. Conf. on Nuclear
Reaction Mechanisms (Varenna, Italy). LLNL-PROC-415170.
16.
^ Isotopes Project Home Page, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. "Isotopes of Thorium (Z=90)" (http://ie.lbl.gov/education/parent/Th_iso.htm). Retrieved
2010-01-18.
17.
^ Rutherford Appleton Laboratory. "Th-232 Decay Chain" (http://hepwww.rl.ac.uk/ukdmc/Radioactivity/Th_chain/Th_chain.html). Retrieved 2010-01-25. 18.
^ World Nuclear Association. "Thorium" (http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf62.html). Retrieved 2010-01-25. 19.
^ Krasinskas, Alyssa M; Minda, Justina; Saul, Scott H; Shaked, Abraham; Furth, Emma E (2004). "Redistribution of thorotrast into a liver allograft several
years following transplantation: a case report". Nature 17 (1): 117120. doi:10.1038/modpathol.3800008 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fmodpathol.3800008).
PMID 14631374 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14631374).
20.
^ Georges, Audi (2003). "The NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties". Nuclear Physics A (Atomic Mass Data Center) 729: 3128.
Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003NuPhA.729....3A). doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001 (http://dx.doi.org
/10.1016%2Fj.nuclphysa.2003.11.001).
21.
^ http://www.nucleonica.net/unc.aspx 22.
Isotope masses from:
G. Audi, A. H. Wapstra, C. Thibault, J. Blachot and O. Bersillon (2003). "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties"
(http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/amdc/nubase/Nubase2003.pdf). Nuclear Physics A 729: 3128. Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003NuPhA.729....3A). doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001 (http://dx.doi.org
/10.1016%2Fj.nuclphysa.2003.11.001).
Isotopic compositions and standard atomic masses from:
J. R. de Laeter, J. K. Bhlke, P. De Bivre, H. Hidaka, H. S. Peiser, K. J. R. Rosman and P. D. P. Taylor (2003). "Atomic weights of the
elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)" (http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/75/6/0683/pdf/). Pure and Applied Chemistry
75 (6): 683800. doi:10.1351/pac200375060683 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1351%2Fpac200375060683).
M. E. Wieser (2006). "Atomic weights of the elements 2005 (IUPAC Technical Report)" (http://iupac.org/publications/pac/78/11/2051/pdf/).
Pure and Applied Chemistry 78 (11): 20512066. doi:10.1351/pac200678112051 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1351%2Fpac200678112051). Lay
summary (http://old.iupac.org/news/archives/2005/atomic-weights_revised05.html).
Half-life, spin, and isomer data selected from the following sources. See editing notes on this article's talk page.
G. Audi, A. H. Wapstra, C. Thibault, J. Blachot and O. Bersillon (2003). "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties"
(http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/amdc/nubase/Nubase2003.pdf). Nuclear Physics A 729: 3128. Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003NuPhA.729....3A). doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001 (http://dx.doi.org
/10.1016%2Fj.nuclphysa.2003.11.001).
National Nuclear Data Center. "NuDat 2.1 database" (http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/). Brookhaven National Laboratory. Retrieved
September 2005.
N. E. Holden (2004). "Table of the Isotopes". In D. R. Lide. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (85th ed.). CRC Press. Section 11.
ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9.
Isotopes of actinium Isotopes of thorium
Isotopes of
protactinium
Table of nuclides
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