EVAPOTRANSPIRATION AND ENERGY BALANCE ON AN ALFALFA CROP

Eduardo Moguel-Ordez, Leonardo Tijerina-Chvez, Abel Quevedo-Nolasco,

Guillermo Crespo-Pichardo2 y Gabriel Haro-Aguilar2
Divisin Acadmica de Ciencias Biolgicas. Universidad Jurez Autnoma de Tabasco. Km. 0.5
Carretera Villahermosa-Crdenas. Villahermosa, Tabasco. (emoguel@cicea.ujat.mx). 2Especialidad
de Postgrado en Agrometeorologa. IRENAT. Colegio de Postgraduados. 56230, Montecillo,
Estado de Mxico. (tijerina@colpos.colpos.mx).

ABSTRACT

Bowens micrometeorological method of energy balance was used to learn about the accuracy
of evapotranspiration estimation during short periods of time and to study energy balance on
a crop of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) established at the Colegio de Postgraduados in
Montecillo, State of Mexico. Lysimeter readings and Bowens estimates of latent heat fluxes
(LE) were compared at hourly intervals for four days. Soil heat fluxes (G) and sensible heat
(H) were also calculated. Due to the presence of obstacles around the study area, atmospheric
stability conditions required to assume equal turbulent exchange rates for sensible heat (Kh)
and vapor water (Kw) were not met; therefore, it was necessary to calculate these rates to
correct Bowens values (). When values (assuming Kh=Kw) were compared with corrected
values it was found that fluctuated in the winter from 129.3 to 63.4 when Kh=Kw and
from0.879 to 2.48 when was corrected for calculated Kh and Kw. During the summer,
fluctuated from 1.37 to 1.40 when Kh=Kw, and from -0.59 to 0.10 when was corrected for
calculated Kh and Kw. In general, diurnal flux of LE estimated from Bowens method
underestimated lysimeter flux readings due to the advection of sensible heat; which reached
values of 92.8 Kw in the summer. Diurnal balance of energy indicated that advection of
sensible heat represented slightly more than 40% of the net radiation.

Key words: Medicago sativa L., agrometeorology, flux heat, Bowen ratio method, microclimate.

INTRODUCTION
Knowledge about crop energy balance helps to
understand and manage mass and energy fluxes
and their effects on plant yield. Measurements
of energy balance components (including
evapotranspiration as latent heat flux) are used
in agriculture and meteorology to study
different processes for water management
which, among others, include: calibration and
validation of water balance models in cultivated
areas, evaluation of remote sensors on crops,
protection of crops against freezing, planning
and design of irrigation systems, irrigation
schedules, yield prediction, and modeling of
physiological processes.
The study of evapotranspiration processes helps
to model, predict, and increase crop yields. As a
consequence, there has been an increase in the
use of methodologies that involve exchange of
energy and mass and how this exchange is
influenced by environmental and plant
physiological variables. Micrometeorological
methods, supported by phisiological
information, are one of the best means to
examinate the interaction between a crop and
the environment (Baldocchi et al., 1983).
Among micrometeorological methods of energy
and mass balance, Bowens Energy Balance
Ratio has been used successfully to estimate
crop evapotraspiration in real time; moreover,
the equipment required to use this method is
more accessible than that required by other
methods (Ashktorab et al, 1989).
Waggoner (1975) and Heilman et al. (1989)
claimed that in order to use Bowens method, as
for other methods, it is necessary to have stable
atmospheric conditions or wide open areas
where one can assume that vertical transfer
factors for water vapor (Kw) and sensible heat
(Kh) are the same. Otherwise, if these
conditions are not met due to the effect of
obstacles (such as wind break barriers) on the
layer of air in which measurements are to be
taken; then one should calculate turbulent flux
coefficients Kh and Kw (Brown and Rosenberg,
1971).
In this study we evaluated the accuracy of
Bowens micrometeorological method for
evapotranspiration estimation in short periods
of time; in addition, we studied energy
partitioning in alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) for
two days in the winter and two days in the
summer.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted in an area cultivated
with the variety of alfalfa Castilla, within the
lysimeter and agrometeorological station area
of the Colegio de Postgraduados in Montecillo,
State of Mexico (19o 29 N and 98o 54 W), at
an altitude of 2250 m. The soil was classified
within the Montecillo series as a deep sand
loam with low texture variability and without
salinity problems. Wind break barriers were
present around the area cultivated with alfalfa;
barriers consisted of 20+ m trees at the East and
greenhouses, not higher than 5 m, at the West.
Based on information available from the
agrometeorological station, data from two
winter (13 and 15 January 1990) and two
summer (8 and 9 August 1991) days were used;
where readings were taken every hour from
7:00 to 18:00. Evapotranspiration was measured
using a lysimeter, outfitted with a combined
mechanical-electronic recorder system, with an
undisturbed structure soil monolith measuring
1.80 m in length and width, with a depth of 1.5
m. The system allows the detection of weight
changes corresponding to a water depth of 0.06
mm.
An automatic meteorological station model CR-
10 (Campbell Scientific, Logan, U.S.A.) was
set alongside the lysimeter, and it was
programmed to register averages for the
analyzed variables every 30 min. The reference
heights for both temperature and relative
humidity sensors (Young trademark), and wind
speed sensor (two cup anemometers: Models
03001, Young trademark and H2996, Met One
trademark) were 50 and 194 cm in summer and
75 and 225 cm in winter. Net radiometer
(Model Q7, Radiation and Energy Balance
Systems, Inc.) height was 195 cm in the
summer and 100 cm in the winter. Soil
thermometers (Model 107 B, Campbell
Scientific) were set at depths of 2 and 12 cm in
the summer and at 0, 10, and 20 cm in the
winter.
Bowens microclimatic method of energy
balance
As stated by Rosenberg et at, (1983) and
Ashktorab et al, (1989):
= H / LE = (Cp P / L) (T / e) (Kh / Kw) (1)
Where H is the sensible heat flux (Wm-2):
H = (Rn + G + LE) (1.1)
G is the soil heat flux (Wm-2), LE is the latent
heat flux (Wm2). L is the evaporation latent
heat (cal g-1) obtained by:
L = 595.9 0.55T, con T en
o
C (1.2)
Where Cp is the airs specific heat at constant
pressure (0.24 cal g-1 oC); is the ratio of
waters molecular weight to that of airs
(18.016/ 28.960=0.622); P is the atmospheric
pressure (mb), T is the air temperature (oC)
difference (T2T1) at two different heights
from the soil surface (oC), e is the water vapor
pressure (mb) difference (e2e1) at two
different heights from the soil surface (mb), Kh
is the turbulent exchange coefficient for
sensible heat (cm2s-1), and Kw is the turbulent
exchange coefficient for water vapor (cm2s-1).
From equation (1):
H = LE (2)
And, when substituting this equation on the
energy balance equation
Rn + G + LE + H = 0 (3)
LE = (Rn + G)/(1 + ) (4)
Which is known as Bowens Energy Balance
Ratio.
This method assumes that, when fetch
conditions are adequate, meteorological
instruments within the sublayer are in complete
equilibrium () under stable atmospheric
conditions, or Kh=Kw. Nevertheless, in this
study Kh and Kw values were calculated, using
lysimeter data, in order to verify adequate fetch
conditions. With this purpose, the following
procedures were used (Motha et al., 1979):
Kh= (H Z) /{
a
C
p
(T
2
T
1
)} (5)
And
Kw = (ET
lis
Z)/(Ha
2
Ha
1
) (6)
where Z = height difference between two
reference points (cm); a = air density (0.00125
g cm
-3
); T
2
and T
1
= air temperatures (oC) at
reference heights 2 and 1; ET
lis
= lysimeter
evapotranspiration (g cm
-1
s
-1
); and Ha
2
and Ha
1

= air absolute moisture (g cm
-3
) at reference
heights 2 and 1.
The condition of atmospheric stability was
verified using Richardsons Number
adimensional parameter (Ri). This parameter
describes the relative importance of floating and
mechanical forces, that is, the relative
importance of free against forced convection
(Rosenberg et al., 1983). Ri is obtained by:
Ri = [(g / T) (d / dz)] / (dU / dz)
2
(7)
Where g is the acceleration due to gravity
(9.8 m s
-2
); (d/dz) and (dU/ dz) are vertical
gradients for average potential temperature
(), and average horizontal wind speed,
respectively; and T is the average absolute
temperature (oK). The sign for Ri is
determined by the potential temperature
gradients; Ris sign is negative in unstable
conditions and positive in stable or thermal
inversion conditions. When Ri approaches
zero, it means that conditions are close to
neutrality. The T gradient was used instead
of the potential temperature () because it is
possible to do so within the first two
meters, in height, from the soil surface.
Null alignment method
Soil heat flux (G) was obtained using the
null alignment method proposed and
described by Kimball and Jackson (1975).
In order to prevent soil moisture from
limiting alfalfas evapotranspiration,
sprinkler irrigation was applied for the
duration of the study to maintain water
potentials between 0.3 and 0.5 atmospheres.
Inner limiting layer and fetch conditions
According to Munro and Oke, cited by
Rosenberg et al. (1983), the density
(thickness) of the inner limiting layer (CLI)
may be calculated by:
CLI = X
4/5
z
0

1/5
(8)
Where X is the distance between the edge of the
crop field (where the wind is coming from) and
the reference point, and z0 is the rugosity
parameter of the underlying surface. The
thickness of the sublayer at complete
equilibrium () is considered a 10th of CLI
thickness, measured above the zero plane of
displacement (d).
Values for z0 and d are obtained from ratios
proposed by Stanhill, cited by Hatfield (1989):
z
0
= 0.13 hc (9)
where hc is crop height in meters, and
log d = 0.979 log hc0.154 (10)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Micrometeorological conditions recorded in this
studywere different between winter and
summer.
1) Oscillation of air and soil temperature and
relative humidity were higher in the winter
(24.7, 12.9 oC, and 79.3%, respectively) than in
the summer (11.3, 6.1 oC, and 36.2%,
respectively).
2) 9 hours of positive Rn were recorded in the
winter with an average flux density of 226.83
Wm-2, and an
average maximum value of 425.74 Wm-2.
During these nine hours an average total flux of
122.5 Kw was received.
3) 11 hours of positive Rn were recorded in the
summer with an average flux density of 224.97
Wm-2, and an average total flux of 161.2 KW.
4) Wind speed in the summer fluctuated
between 0.20-0.96 and 0.0-0.4 m s-1 at heights
of 194 and 50 cm, respectively. The lower wind
speeds were recorded in the first hours of the
day. Direction of predominant winds was NW
and S. Calm conditions prevailed during the
first part of the day in the winter; but, even
though wind speed increased from 12:00, wind
speed remained low at less than 0.4 m s-1. This
was observed at both 225 and 75 cm heights.
During these days, predominant winds came
from the NW.
Inner limiting layer and fetch conditions
Measurements for the inner limiting layer
thickness obtained for the winter were wide
enough to cover the meteorological instruments
set in the field. Nevertheless, the sub-layer
width at absolute balance () had values
fluctuating between 0.75 and 1.51 m in the
winter and 0.82 to 1.65 m in the summer. With
these values, it was not possible to completely
cover all of the equipment set in the field. This
could have favored a transportation momentum
higher than 10%; which is, as stated by
Heilman et al. (1989) and Rosenberg et al.
(1983), the maximum transportation momentum
for the completely fitted sub-layer for ideal
placement of meteorological instruments.
Fetch:height ratios obtained in this study (at
lysimeteredge distances of 48 m N, 63 m W, 40
m S, and 26 m E) for the summer, were 80:1,
105:1, 67:1, and 43:1 to N, W, S, and E
respectively. In the winter, this ratio was higher
at 100:1 to the N, W, and S, and 74:1 to the E.
When associating the completely fitted layer ()
thickness to fetch, it indicated that the study
area would require a 106 m windward fetch in
the winter and a 92.7 mfetch in the summer in
order to obtain a minimum thickness of 2.25 m
for which would totally cover meteorological
instruments, and therefore, would allow to
assume that Kh=Kw.
Ri showed that, for both winter and summer,
conditions of atmospheric stability were present
during the first hours in the morning (until
9:30). Unstable conditions started at 10:00, and
prevailed until 18:00 in the winter; however,
stable atmospheric conditions showed again at
about 16:00 in the summer.
Kh and Kw values
Because the area where the study was carried
out did not present the conditions of
atmospheric stability, required by Bowens
method, neither had enough fetch; calculation
of Kh and Kw was done at hourly intervals for
the days included in this study. Kh and Kw
changed during the day, and this was reflected
by the Kh/Kw ratio (Table 1). In general, the
Kh values were lower than Kw ones. Perhaps
this happened because of the effect of obstacles
(wind break barriers and greenhouses) existing
around the study area. These obstacles reduce
Kh more than Kw (Brown and Rosenberg,
1971).
Correction of value
The correction of values using the calculated
ratio Kh/Kw allowed, for both study periods, to
reduce the oscillation of , and consecuently,
these values fell within the intervals obtained
by Duning et al. (1991) in wheat (Triticum
aestivum L.), Hanks et al. (1971) in sorghum
(Sorghum bicolor L.), and Fritschen and Van
Bavel (1964) in Sudangrass (Sorghum
halapense).


Table 1. Bowens b values uncorrected (1:
Kh=Kw) and corrected (2 when Kh and Kw
are calculated) for a day in winter and a day
in summer.








The occurrence of very high values during the
first hours in the morning, or at the end of the
afternoon (Table 1), is a common situation;
because at those times of the day LE is low
(Williams and Stout, 1981).
Calculus of latent heat flux (LE) using Bowens
method Lysimeter (LElis) and Bowens method
(LEBow) latent heat fluxes showed a tendency
of LEBow to underestimate LElis mainly in the
last hours in the afternoon (15:00-18:00 hours)
with values higher than 69.79 Wm-2. Bowens
method tendency to underestimate LE at the
end of the afternoon was due to the fact that
LEBows calculation was related to net
radiation flux (Ashktorab et al., 1989). In
contrast to the summer, LEBow overestimated
LElis in the winter. LElisLEBow differences
reached hourly values of up to 335 Wm-2
(12:00 on 9 August 1990) and 265.21 Wm-2
(11:00 on 13 January 1991). In the first case
LElis was underestimated by LEBow, and in
the second one LElis was overestimated. These
results coincided with those by Dunin et al.
(1991) who found out, under advection
conditions, that Bowens method has a
tendency to underestimate lysimeter
measurements of LE. LE overestimation on
January 13 could have been due to the presence
of calm conditions during the first half of the
day (wind speed under 0.2 m s-1) that reduced
Kw for that period, and also to predominating
low temperatures that induced stomata closure
in alfalfa.
When analyzing the relationship between
LEBows estimation of LElis measurements,
both in Wm-2 units, we fitted the following
models:
a) 13 January: LElis = 0.0956 + 0.5453
LEBow, r2 = 0.7318
b) 15 January: LElis = 0.1265 + 0.7631
LEBow, r2 = 0.7631
c) 8 August: LElis = 0.1675 + 1.5044 LEBow,
r2 = 0.9063
d) 9 August: LElis = 0.0169 + 1.3558 LEBow,
r2 = 0.7583
Balance of energy in alfalfa
Balance of energy analysis (Figure 1) showed a
sensitive heat (H) advection process which was present
in both winter and summer. This phenomena had direct
repercussions on energy partitioning in terms of ground
(G) and latent (LE) heat flow. Advection favored a
higher diurnal LE flow in the summer with values of up
to 203.1 KW; while G heat flow was 31.3 KW. In the
winter, advection contributed more to G flow (up to 93
KW) than LE flow (with a maximum value of 166.8
KW on 15 January).
Total diurnal Rn received in each study period was
considered as a basis for result comparison. In the
summer (with an average Rn of 161.4 KW), an average










Figure 1. Energy balance for winter and
summer days in alfalfa. Rn=net radiation;
G= heat to soil flow; LE=latent heat flow;
H=sensitive heat flow.
of 25.2 KW (15.6% of Rn) was used as G, and
202.6 KW (125.5% of Rn) as LE. In the winter
(with an average Rn of 149.6 KW), 61.3 KW
(41.0% of Rn) was used as G, and 150.8 KW
(100.8% of Rn) as LE. Energy deficits were
covered by H advection, with averages of 66.3
KW in the summer (41.1% of Rn) and 64.9 KW
(43.4% of Rn) in the winter.
The advection of sensitive heat cannot always
be detected by Bowens method. This was
evident by underestimation of lysimeter
measured LE flow. Based on advection types
shown by Hanks et al.(1971) and on
micrometeorological information obtained in
this work; it can be infered that large scale
(thermal inversion) and border (temperature and
vapor pressure horizontal gradients) advection
types allowed for heat entrance into the
cultivated area.
As indicated, when employing Bowens method
in evapotranspiration studies, it is
recommended to work in areas free of obstacles
within at least a 110 m radius, avoiding wind
breakers and buildings. Even so, results from
the present study indicate that in such cases it is
feasible to use lysimeter information that allows
calculation of Kw for the analyzed area, crop,
and season of the year. It is recommended to
deepen the understanding of advections role in
the partition of energy and, specially, in the
flow of LE.
CONCLUSIONS
In order to use the Bowens method of energy
balance it is necessary to calculate Kh and Kw
(interchangeable turbulence of heat and water
vapor coefficients, respectively) if the area to be
studied has obstacles that impede free
circulation of air. In this study correction of
Bowens value () using Kh/Kw was more
significant in the winter (January) than in the
summer (August). In Montecillo, State of
Mexico, comparison of Bowens energy
balance estimated evapotranspiration to
lysimeter measurements resulted in Bowens
method underestimating (summer) and
overestimating (winter) evapotranspiration
calculated as LE. This allowed to detect that
advection of sensitive heat is an important
source of energy that increases
evapotranspiration in alfalfa. Rn and H had
similar behavior in energy balance for both
winter and summer; even so, LE flow was
greater in the summer, in good measure because
the ground in the summer has less heat flow (G)
than in the winter.
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Fritschen, L. J., and C. H. M. van Bavel. 1964.
Energy balance as affected by height and
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Hanks, R. J., L. H. Ailen, and H. R. Gardner.
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