Classification of Feedstuffs

A feedstuff may be defined as any component of a

ration that serves some useful function. Most
feedstuffs provide a source of one or more nutrients,
but ingredients may also be included to provide bulk,
reduce oxidation of readily oxidized nutrients, to
emulsify fats, provide flavor, color, or other factors
related to acceptability, rather than serving strictly
as a source of nutrients. Generally speaking, medicinal
compounds are usually excluded. The usual
classification of feedstuffs, essentially as given by
N! "#$% but &ith a number of added items, is as
follo&s'
oughages
(asture, range plants, and plants fed green
Grazing plants
Gro&ing
)ormant
*oilage or green crop
!annery and food crop residues
)ry forages and roughages
+ay
,egume
Nonlegume
*tra&
-odder
.ther products &ith / 012 crude fiber
!orn cobs
+ulls
*hells
*ugar3cane bagasse
(aper and &ood
*ilages
!orn
*orghum
Grass
,egume
Miscellaneous
!oncentrates
4nergy feeds
!ereal grains
Milling by3products "primarily from cereal grains%
Molasses
*eed and mill screenings
Animal and vegetable fats
Miscellaneous
5re&ery by3products
6aste from food processing plants
Garbage, manures, and se&age
oots and tubers
-ruits and nuts
(rotein concentrates
Animal
Marine
Avian
*eeds from plants
)ehydrated legumes
*ingle3cell sources "bacteria, yeast, algae%
Nonprotein nitrogen "urea, etc.%
Mineral supplements
7itamin supplements
Nonnutritive additives
Antibiotics
Antioxidants
5uffers
!olors 8 flavors
4mulsifying agents
4nzymes
+ormones
Medicines
Roughages
oughages are the natural feeds for all
herbivorous animals existing under natural conditions
and such food provides the ma9or portion of their diet
for most if not all of the year. +arvested and stored
roughages "hays, silages and other forms% are utilized
by man to increase animal productivity under conditions
that &ould not allo& it other&ise in nature. Thus,
roughages are of primary interest for domestic
ruminants, horses, and other herbivores. Although other
species such as s&ine can survive on roughage,
productivity &ith no other source of feed &ould be too
lo& to be economical in our current economy.
Nature of Roughages
To most livestock feeders, a roughage is a bulky
feed that has a lo& &eight:unit of volume. This is
probably the best means of classifying a feedstuff as a
roughage, but any means of classifying roughages has
its limitations since, due to the nature of the
products &e are dealing &ith, there is a great
variability in physical and chemical composition. Most
feedstuffs classed as roughages have a high crude fiber
"!-% content and a lo& digestibility of nutrients such
as crude protein and energy. ;f &e attempt, as does N!
"#$%, to classify all feedstuffs as roughages that have
/012 !- and:or &ith lo& digestibility, &e immediately
find exceptions. !orn silage is a good example< it
nearly al&ays has /012 !-, but the T)N content of &ell3
eared corn silage is about =$2 on a dry basis. ,ush
young grass is another example. Although its
&eight:unit volume may be relatively lo& and fiber
content relatively high, its digestibility is >uite
high. *oybean hulls are another exception for
ruminants.
Most roughages have a high content of cell3&all
material "see !h.?%. The cell3&all fraction may have a
highly variable composition, but contains appreciable
amounts of lignin, cellulose, and other components. ;n
contrast, roughages are generally lo& in readily
available carbohydrates as compared to cereal grains.
The amount of lignin is a critical factor &ith
respect to digestibility. ,ignin is an amorphous
material &hich is closely associated &ith the fibrous
carbohydrates of the cell &all of plant tissue. ;t
greatly limits fiber digestibility, probably because of
the physical barrier bet&een digestive enzymes and the
carbohydrate in >uestion. emoval of lignin &ith
chemical methods greatly increases digestibility by
rumen microorganisms and, probably, by cecal organisms.
,ignin content of plant tissue gradually increases &ith
maturity of the plant and a high negative correlation
exists bet&een lignin content and digestibility,
particularly for grasses, although some&hat less for
legumes "see !h.? of !hurch et al, 1%. There is also
evidence that the silica content of plant tissue is
negatively related to fiber digestibility.
The protein, mineral and vitamin contents of
roughages are highly variable. ,egumes may have ?$2 or
more crude protein content, although a third or more
may be in the form of nonprotein N. .ther roughages,
such as stra&, may have only #3@2 crude protein. Most
others fall bet&een these t&o extremes.
Mineral content may be exceedingly variable< most
roughages are relatively good sources of !a and Mg,
particularly legumes. ( content is apt to be moderate
to lo&, and A content high< the trace minerals vary
greatly depending on plant species, soil, and
fertilization practices.
;n overall nutritional terms roughages may range
from very good nutrient sources "lush young grass,
legumes, high3>uality silage% to very poor feeds
"stra&s, hulls, some bro&se%. The nutritional value of
the very poor can often be improved considerably by
proper supplementation or by some feed preparatory
methods. The feeder must, ho&ever, use some, &isdom in
selecting the appropriate roughage for a given class
and species of animal.
Factors Affecting Roughage Composition
A number of factors may affect roughage
composition and nutritive value, if &e ignore the
generally poor3>uality roughages. Maturity at harvest
"or grazing% has one of the more pronounced effects.
.ne relatively detailed example of stage of maturity on
composition and digestibility of orchard grass
BDactylis glomerataC is sho&n in Table 0130. Many other
examples are available in the literature. ;n Table 0130
and -ig. 0130, note the rapid decline in crude protein,
particularly. A gradual decline occurs also in ash and
soluble carbohydrates and an increase in lignin,
cellulose and !-, all during a D &k period.
)igestibility declines, also, as these changes occur in
plant composition. The changes that occur &ill depend
on the plant species and on the environment in &hich
the plant is gro&n. -or example, if the gro&ing season
progresses rather rapidly from cool spring &eather to
hot summer &eather, changes in plant composition &ill
be more rapid than &here the &eather remains cool
during plant maturation, especially in a cool season
grass. ;n plants such as alfalfa BMedicago sativa],
&hich has >uite different gro&ing habits than grass,
rapid changes take place as the plant matures and
blooms. !rude portein contents given by N!
publications indicate the follo&ing values "2 on dry
basis% for second cuttings' immature, ?0.E< prebloom,
0F.@< early bloom, 01.@< mid3bloom, 0=.0< full bloom,
0E.F< and mature, 0#.D. !orresponding changes in T)N
range from D# to EE2. (art of these differences are due
to the
Table 0130. 4ffect of maturity on composition and digestibility of
orchard grass. GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG
;tem *tage of Maturity
GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG
D3=H high 130$Ihigh 0$30?Hhigh 0?30@Hhigh
!omposition,2 cut E:0F cut E:#0 cut D:0@ cut D:?=
pasture late pasture early hay mature hay
GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG
!omposition, 2
!rude protein ?@.1 0E.1 0#.$ 0?.@
Ash F.# D.1 =.0 =.?
4ther extract @.$ #.E #.F @.?
.rganic acids D.# D.$ E.@ E.$
Total carbohydratesJ @F.F D#.$ D@.@ D#.0
*ugars ?.0 F.E E.@ ?.@
*tarch 0.? F.E $.1 $.F
Alpha cellulose 0F.E 0F.1 0F.0 ?=.=
5eta 8 gamma cellulose #.@ E.@ #.1 ?.E
(entosans 0E.0 0E.1 0D.1 01.0
Nitrogen3free3extract #E.$ @E.= @@.? @0.?
,ignin E.= E.$ D.? 1.0
!rude fiber ?D.F ?1.? #0.1 #E.$
)igestibility, 2
)ry matter =# =@ DF DD
!rude protein D= D# EF EF
!rude fiber 10 == =0 D1
GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG
-rom 4ly et al "0?%
* Total carbohydrates K "crude fiber L organic acids%
fact that the plant loses leaves as it matures, and
leaves have higher nutrient value than the remainder of
the plant. As plants mature, there is also a decline in
concentration of !a, A, and ( and for most of the
various trace minerals "##%.
-or many years, soil fertility and fertilization
practices have been kno&n to have a pronounced effect
on >uality of forage and crops produced. ;n addition,
some alterations in plant composition may occur as a
result of these factors, although the differences are
much less dramatic than those changes associated &ith
increased maturity, and results given in the literature
sho& many discrepancies in responses to fertilizer. ;n
pastures &ith mixed plant species, one obvious change
that may occur as a result of fertilization is an
alternation in the@ vegetative composition as some
plants respond more to fertilizer than others. ;f a
grass3legume mixture is fertilized &ith high levels of
N, for instance, this practice is apt to kill out the
legume or to stimulate the grass much more than the
legume. -ertilization of grasses &ith N tends to
increase total, nonprotein, and nitrate N of the
plants. Nitrate levels usually drop off rapidly after
fertilization, ho&ever. A content and, perhaps, some
other minerals may increase in response to N< ho&ever,
the marked increase in plant gro&th that may be
obtained by high levels of N may be expected to result
in some dilution of most mineral elements, particularly
during the first fe& days or &eeks or rapid gro&th
after fertilization "##%.
)igestible protein is apt to be increased and, in
some instances, palatability and dry matter intake may
increase in response to fertilization &ith N, although
not all data agree on some of these points.
-ertilization studies have sho&n, in general, that
plant concentration of most of the mineral elements may
be increased by fertilization &ith the element in
>uestion. ( use may increase palatability &hen used
alone or in combination &ith N. Thus, results to date
indicate that soil fertility and:or fertilization
practices may alter nutrient concentration and
consumption of forage plants.
+arvesting and storage methods may have some
effect on nutritive value of roughages, particularly
&hen forage cut for hay is unduly bleached by the sun
or damaged by de& and:or rain. *un bleaching results in
a rapid loss of synthetic vitamin A. ,eaching by rain
&ill result in losses in soluble carbohydrates and N,
and added handling re>uired may result in loss of
leaves. Any harvesting method used for legumes that
tends to reduce leaf loss &ill affect nutritive value.
6ith respect to storage, hays may lose a considerable
amount of original nutritive value if stored too &et
&ith resultant heating and mold formation. .ther&ise,
there is relatively little nutritive loss if the hay is
stored in dry conditions over a period of several
years. The same comment applies to silages, as &ell3
preserved silages &ill keep for a number of years
&ithout much effect on nutritive value.
,atitude, along &ith accompanying effects of
temperature and light intensity, may have an
appreciable effect on plant composition and nutritive
value. Not a great deal of information is available on
this sub9ect, but data do indicate that nutritive value
of forage cut on a given date is apt to be higher as &e
go a&ay from the e>uator to&ard the poles "northern or
southern%.
Pasture and Grazed Forages
A &ide variety of vegetation is utilized by
herbivorous animals. 6ith respect to agricultural
production, herbage is usually divided into native and
cultivated species, the latter being utilized to
improve productivity or versatility of crop production.
+erbage may also be divided into the follo&ing classes'
Grasses M members of the family
Gramineae "E$$$ L species%
!ool season grasses grasses that make their best
gro&th
6arm season grasses grasses that gro& slo&ly in the
early spring and gro& most actively in early summer or
fall
,egumes N members of the family
,eguminosae"00$$$Lspecies%
-orbs N primarily broadleaf non&oody, plants
5ro&se3 &oody plants consumed in some degree by
ruminants, particulary selective eaters such as deer
and antelope
Grasses
Grasses are by far the most important plant that
man is concerned &ith agriculturally, because the grass
family not only includes all of the &ild and cultivated
species used for grazing but also the cultivated cereal
grains and sorghum species. ;n this, ho&ever, &ill be
concerned only &ith grass as a forage, and &ill not
consider it from an agronomic point of vie&. The
discussion &ill also be very general because of the
tremendous numbers of grasses of importance.
As a food for grazing animals, grass has many
advantages. Most grass species are >uite palatable &hen
immature and only a fe& are highly toxic for any
appreciable part of the grazing season. Grasses of one
type or another have the ability to gro& in most
environments in &hich ruminants can survive, arctic
regions being one notable exception. -urthermore,
nutrients supplied in grasses roughly provide needed
amounts that more or less parallel animal needs during
a yearly life cycle of reproduction and production,
except during mid&inter in cold climates.
*ome more or less typical values for chemical
composition are illustrated in Table 0130. 4arly in the
gro&ing season, grasses3 especially cool season
species3 have a very high &ater content and an excess
of protein for ruminants animals. The result is that
animals may have diarrhea and, because of the lo& dry
matter content may have difficulty in obtaining a
maximum intake of energy. Grass proteins are usually
high in the amino acid, agrinine, and also contain
appreciable amounts of Glutamic acid and lysine. ;f N
application is liberal, and particularly if * is
deficient there is apt to be a high level of N(N in the
form of amino acids and amides and a relative
deficiency of the *3containg amino acids. +igh nitrate
may also result from fertilization. Toxic symptoms may
occur at levels of about $.$=2 nitrate N in dry matter
and amounts on the order of $.??2 may be fatal to
ruminants< ho&3ever if ruminants are adapted and fed on
high nitrate grasses continuously, toxicity is less
likely as rumen microorganisms are capable of reducing
nitrate to ammonia &hich is &ell utilized.
;n comparison &ith legumes such as alfalfa, the
protein content of grasses is nearly al&ays lo&er,
particularly in mature plants. )igestible energy is
very good in young grass, but declines rapidly &ith
maturity. Mature plants, especially those that are
&eather leached, &ill be lo& in digestible energy and
protein, as &ell as in other solubles such as
carbohydrates and some of the mineral and in carotenes<
thus, this type of plant material may not meet the
animalIs needs, even &hen productive re>uirements are
>uite lo&.
Mineral content of grasses may vary considerably
depending on species and soil fertility, particularly.
.f those elements of concern to ruminants, grasses are
usually ade>uate in !a, Mg, and A, but are apt to be
borderline or deficient in (. Trace minerals also vary
considerably< recent evidence from !anada "?D%
indicates that 1$2 or more of forage species measured
contained less than levels generally considered
ade>uate for ruminants. anges and typical values to be
expected are sho&n in Table 013?.
The desirability of different grasses depends on
the local environment and their gro&ing habits and on
animal needs. !onsiderable differences may exist in the
composition of grasses that fall into the cool3or &arm3
season classes. Generally cool3season grasses mature at
slo&er rates and their >uality deteriorates less
rapidly than do &arm3season grasses. ,ush, young grass
is usually >uite palatable, but palatability usually
declines as the plants mature, and most animals ob9ect
to the seed heads of many grass species. Ouality
differences bet&een species of grasses become more
evident &ith maturity. -urthermore, regro&th of grass
in the fall is usually not as nutritious as spring
grass, partly due to the
Table 013?. ange and typical mineral concentrations for pasture
grasses and alfalfa plants.
Mineral
4lement
Grasses Alfalfa
,o& Typical +igh ,o& Typical +igh
Ma9or elements, 2 dry matter
!a P$.# $.@3$.1 /0.$ P$.D$ 0.?3?.# /?.E
Mg P$.0 $.0?3$.?D /$.# P$.0 $.#3$.@ /$.D
A P0.$ 0.?3?.1 /#.$ P$.@ 0.E3?.? /#.$
( P$.? $.?3$.# /$.@ P$.0E $.?3$.# /$.=
* P$.0 $.0E3$.?E /$.# P$.? $.#3$.@ /$.=
Trace elements, ppm of dry matter
-e P@E E$30$$ /?$$ P#$ E$3?$$ /#$$
!o P$.$1 $.$13$.?E /$.#$ P$.$1 $.$13$.?E /$.#
!u P# @31 /0$ P@ D30? /0E
Mn P#$ @$3?$$ /?E$ P?$ ?E3@E /0$$
Mo P$.@ $.E3#.$ /E P$.? $.E3#.$ /E
*e P$.$@ $.$13$.$0 /E P$.$@ $.$13$.0 /E
Qn P0E ?$31$ /0$$ P0$ 0?3#E /E$
lo&er concentration of soluble carbohydrates. !ultivated
grasses held in high esteem include perennial ryegrass
B ,otium perenne C, ;talian ryegrass B lotium multiforum C,
orchard grass B)actylis glomerataC, blue grass B(oa sppC,
and smooth brome grass B5romus inermusC. .thers considered
less desirable include 5ermuda grass B!ynodon dactylonC,
foxtail BAlopecurus pratensisC, bent BAgrostis sppC and tall
fescue B-escuta arundinaceaC.;n addition to varying in
gro&th habits, these species may vary in nutrient
composition,palatability, and digestibility.
;n many regions some of the cereals are used for
pasture particularly &inter &heat, &ith lesser use of
barley, oats, and rye. These plants can be pastured during
the &inter and early spring &ith little or no effect on
grain yield, provided soil conditions permit. The forage of
these plants is >uite high in readily available
carbohydrates "E$2L% and crude protein is high. 4xtensive
use of such pasture is made in the south&estern states of
the R*A, particularly for gro&ing calves and lambs.
*everal sorghum species are also used for pasture or
harvested forage. *udan grass B*orghum vulgare sudanenseC is
one of the more common ones used in the R*A, but others,
such as Sohnson grass B*orghum halapenseC find some use.
*udan3sorghum hybrids have also been developed. These
species are often utilized because they can be so&n during
early summer in temperate areas and &ill produce late summer
and fall pastures. They are prone to have high levels of
glycosides &hich can be converted to prussic acid
"hydrocyanic acid%, particularly follo&ing drought or frost
damage, so care must be used if these conditions occur &hile
pasture is in use.
Legumes
A &ide variety of legumes are utilized by grazing
animals, although the cultivated legumes comprise a much
smaller group than do cultivated grasses. ;n overall usage,
alfalfa BMedicago sativaC is by far the most common legume
used for pasture, hay3crop silage, and hay in most temperate
climates. As a point of reference, alfalfa is kno&n a s
,ucerne in most 4nglish3speaking areas other than in North
America.
.ther legumes that find extensive usage for pasture or
hay include clovers such as ladino or red BTrifolium
pretenseC, &hite BT.repensC and subterranean
BT.subterraneumC, as &ell as common lespedeza B,espedeza
striataC, lupines B,upinus sppC and vetches B7icia sppC.
,egumes have higher protein contents than grasses,
particularly in more mature plants. -iber in the stems tends
to be particularly high and soluble carbohydrates relatively
lo&. The leaves are rich sources of nutrients but stems are
of much less value, especially in mature plants. !hanges in
plant composition &ith maturity are largely from
lignification and increased fiber in the stems and to
reduced leaf'stem ratio. !ompared to grasses, legumes have
characteristically high concentrations of !a, Mg, and *
"Table 013?% and, fre>uently, !u. They tend to be lo&er in
Mn and Qn than grasses. .n the &hole, legumes are palatable,
although most are bitter and may re>uire some adaptation
before they are readily consumed by cattle.
*ome legumes, particularly alfalfa and &hite, ladino, and
red clover are prone to cause bloat in grazing ruminants,
especially cattle. 5loat is caused primarily by foam3
producing compounds from plant, of &hich cytoplasmic
proteins and, perhaps, pectins are the most important. -oam
in the rumen causes entrapment of normal rumen gases &hich
cannot be gotten rid of, resulting in a gradual increase in
rumen pressure and, if not relieved, eventual suffocation of
the animal. ecent evidence indicates that alfalfa plants
probably can be selected to have a lo&er content of the
proteins that are involved in bloat production.
Native Pastures and Range
(astures and rangeland comprised of uncultivated native
forage plants account for many millions of acres of land in
areas of the &orld &here the environment, soil, or
topography rule out intensive agricultural methods. These
areas are apt to contain a &ide range of grasses, sedges,
forbs, and bro&se. The nutrient properties of these various
plants vary &idely and, in addition, there apt to be
distinct seasonal patterns of use different grazing animals.
Miscellaneous Forage Plants
;n some areas and for some specific seasonal usage,
plants such as the cabbage family B5rassica sppC are used
extensively. Aale, cabbage, and rape are included in this
group. ape for example is often planted for use as fall
pasture by sheep. The tops of root crops such as beets and
turnips, are also fre>uently used as forage. As a part of
the total resource, ho&ever, these crops account for a very
small percentage of the total.
Harvested Dr Roughages
oughages stored in the dried form are the most common
type used for feeding during the time of the year &hen
grazing is not available or for feeding of confined animals.
oughages harvested in the form of long hay or bales re>uire
a relatively high labor input and present difficulties in
mechanical handling, both during harvest and feeding, &ith
the result that the cost of nutrients is increased as
compared to cereal grains in intensive livestock operations.
-ortunately, machinery currently available allo&s rather
complete mechanization in operations &here it is financially
feasible, and continual improvement is being made in this
respect.
Ha
+ay N from grasses or legumes N is one crop that is
gro&n and harvested almost exclusively for animal usage.
+aymaking has been practiced for many centuries and much
information has been accumulated on the nutritive value of
hays as affected by many different factors too numerous to
discuss in detail here. Although haymaking is the most
common method of conserving green crops, its relative
importance has declined some in recent years &ith the
development of ne&er methods of forage preservation.
The intent in haymaking is to harvest the crop at a
more or less optimum stage of maturity &hich &ill provide a
maximal yield of nutrients: unit of land &ithout damage to
the next crop. To make good hay, the &ater content of the
plant material must be reduced to a point lo& enough to
allo& storage &ithout marked nutritional changes. Moisture
content of green herbage may range from DE to 1E2 or more,
depending on maturity and the plant species. -or hay to keep
satisfactorily in storage, the &ater content must be reduced
to about 0E2 or less.
Losses in Hama!ing
;t is impossible to cut, dry and move hay into storage
&ithout losses occurring in the process, although it may be
possible to harvest more units of nutrients:unit of land
than could be obtained by grazing due to trampling and feed
refusal resulting from contamination by dung and urine and
to selective grazing of some species of plants. 5oth the
>uality and >uantity of field3cured hay that can be
harvested depends on such factors as maturity &hen cut,
method of handling, moisture content, and &eather conditions
during harvest< for example, rain on freshly cut hay &ill
cause little damage< ho&ever, &hen hay is partially dried,
rain is very damaging. 4arly cut hay in many areas is often
of lo& >uality because of rain and resultant spoilage,
leaching, and leaf loss. .ne report indicates dry matter
losses ranging from about D2 for artificially dehydrated hay
up to about ##2 for rain3damaged field3cured hay. Another
report indicated the follo&ing losses' plant respiration
losses "before plant is dry%, #.E2 in ?@ hr< leaching by
rain, E30@2< and leaf shattering in legume hays, #3#E2.
Thus, very substantial amounts of dry matter may be lost in
haymaking under adverse conditions< an average loss of 0E3
?$2 is not abnormal for legume hays.
Changes During dring
Ample evidence sho&s that rapid drying, provided it is
not accompanied by excessively hot temperatures, results in
the least changes in chemical components of forage. Machines
such as crimpers have been developed to crush the stems of
plants like alfalfa and speed up the drying process. ;f
drying is slo& in the field, stack, or bale, appreciable
changes may occur as a result of plant enzymes,
microorganisms, or oxidation. After the plant is cut, the
cells continue to function for a time &ith the result that
soluble carbohydrates may be oxidized. .xidative reactions
may continue for some time, depending on the temperature and
ho& the hay is stored. The most obvious change is a loss in
pigmentation as plants lose carotenes by oxidation. (roteins
may also be modified as some hydrolysis occurs, resulting in
relatively greater amounts of N(N, primarily amino acids.
Table 013#. !omposition and digestibility of green ryegrass and material
from same field &hich &as dried artificially or made into &ilted or
un&ilted silage.
a


*lo& drying is almost al&ays accompanied by excessive mold
gro&th &hich reduces the palatability and nutritive value of
hay.
+ay stored in the stack or bale &hile too &et to dry
rapidly may undergo enough fermentation to result in marked
temperature increases, &hich may cause bro&ning and,
sometimes, spontaneous combustion. Ne&ly baled alfalfa hay
should have no more than #E2 moisture to avoid these
;tem -resh )ried &ilted Rn&ilted
Grass grass silage silage
!omposition
of dry matter
.rganic matter2 F$.1 F?.$ F?.? F0.=
Total &ater3soluble F.? 1.@ trace trace
!arbohydrate, 2
!ellulose, 2 ?@.? ?@.# ?E.$ ?D.1
+emicellulose, 2 0@.$ 0#.# 0?.F 0#.0
Total N, 2 ?.1E ?.FF #.$F #.$1
Gross energy, Acal:g @.EF @.EE @.@D @.1F
)igestibility, 2
4nergy D=.@ D1.0 D=.E =?.$
!ellulose =E.? =E.E =D.E 1$.D
+emicellulose EF.@ E=.= EF.F D#.?
N =E.? =0.$ =D.E =D.@
problems. 4xcess heating "?E% or molding results in a marked
reduction in digestibility of protein and energy.
;f drying is not complicated by &eather factors,
relatively little change in the composition takes place
bet&een green plant and hay "E.0@% nor is there any
pronounced effect on nutrient utilization "see Table 013#%.
Animals generally ingest dry matter from fresh herbage at a
slo&er rate than for hay, and some slight differences may
occur in rumen fermentation, digestibility, and site of
digestion in ruminants, but the differences appear to be
inconse>uential.
Thus, &e see that drying may not have any great effect
on forage utilization. ;n practice, ho&ever, &e must expect
some loss of leaves in legumes and reduced soluble
carbohydrates. +ay, if made from moderately mature plants,
&ill have lo&er protein and digestible energy than young
herbage, but is apt to be better than very mature herbage.
Nutritive properties of hays, are, then, similar to those of
forages, but &ith slightly to greatly reduced values
depending on freedom from &eather damage and method of
harvesting.
Artificiall Dried forage
apid drying is re>uired for good haymaking. At one
time in the R*A, particularly in areas &here &eather &as a
problem, considerable interest &as sho&n in barn drying.
This is accomplished by circulating air through the hay
after storage. Although a very good product can be produced,
interest has declined &ith greater usage of silage and
recent developments in bale3handling machinery.
)ehydration of herbage &ith appropriate machinery is a
viable industry both in the R*A and some areas of northern
4urope. ;n the R*A, alfalfa is the primary crop that is
dehydrated, but in 4urope, grasses or grass clover mixtures
are more commonly used. ;n making dehydrated alfalfa, the
herbage is cut at a prebloom stage, dried >uickly at hot
temperatures ground, and sometimes pelleted. 5ecause
carotene pigments are important, the product is often stored
using inert gases such as N
?
to reduce oxidation. +erbage so
processed is high in crude protein and >uite digestible,
moderately lo& in fiber, and has high carotene content. The
relatively lo& fiber content makes such feedstuffs more
suitable for monogastric species such as poultry and s&ine
and, in the R*A, a high proportion of dehydrated alfalfa
goes into commercial rations for these species. -or poultry,
the carotenes and xanthophylls serve to increase
pigmentation of the skin of broilers or the volk of eggs as
&ell as provide protein and other nutrients. -or s&ine,
particularly so&s, nutrients of interest are the vitamins,
!a and trace minerals. These feeds serve very &ell for
horses or ruminants, but generally are more expensive:unit
of nutrients provided as compared to other roughage sources.
"tra#s and Chaff
An appreciable amount of stra& and chaff is available for
animal feed in most farming areas, although much less than
in the days &hen stationary threshing machines &ere used for
harvesting cereal grains. *tra& consists mainly of the stems
and variable amounts of leaves of plants that remain after
the removal of the seeds. !haff consists of the small
particles removed from the seed head along &ith limited
amounts of small or broken grains. The primary supply of
stra& and chaff comes from the small cereal grains N &heat,
barley, rye, rice, oats N but, in some areas, substantial
amounts may be available from the grass or legume seed
industry and from various miscellaneous crops. As a &hole,
stra&s are very lo& in digestible protein, very high in
fiber and, usually, lignin, and are poor feed, although some
are@ of less value than others. -or example, values given
from N! "#$% for &inter &heat stra& "dry basis% are' crude
protein, #.?2< crude fiber, @$.@2< and digestible energy
"cattle%, 0.F? Mcal:kg or @=2 T)N. .f the various cereal
stra&s, that from oats is regarded as the best, partly
because the grain is often harvested before it is fully
ripe. As a feedstuff, stra&s are best used as a diluent in
high N concentrate rations or as the basal feed for
&intering cattle &hen properly supplemented &ith deficient
nutrients N protein, vitamin A, minerals. 4ven though stra&s
are lo& in metabolizable energy, the energy derived from
that &hich is digested and from the heat increment provides
energy that can be used for animals, such as pregnant co&s,
&hich have a lo& productive re>uirement.
Miscellaneous
;n the R*A nearly all of the grain from corn and
sorghum is no& field harvested and often the cobs or
threshed seed head are left in the field, along &ith a
substantial amount of grain at times. The nutritive problems
here are the same as &ith stra&s, and some supplementary
feeding is nearly al&ays re>uired to supply needed minerals,
carotene, and protein. (rotein may be less critical than
&ith stra&s.
Harvested High $ Moisture Roughages
Green Chop %"oilage&
Green chop "or soilage% is herbage that has been cut
and chopped in the field and then fed to livestock in
confinement. (lants used in this manner include the forage
grasses, legumes, sudan grass, the corn plant and, at times,
residues of food crops used for human consumption.
Although this is one of the simplest means of
harvesting herbage, it re>uires constant attention to animal
needs as opposed to other methods of harvesting herbage. A
ma9or advantage of use of green chop is that more usable
nutrients can be salvaged:unit of land than &ith other
methods such as pasturing, haymaking, or ensiling. Thus, it
is often feasible to harvest in this manner rather than
using such crops in other &ays, provided land productivity
is relatively high. 6hen herbage gro&th outruns daily need,
the excess can be made into hay or silage before it becomes
too manure for efficient usage. 6eather, of course, is less
of a factor than in haymaking.
)ata, in general, indicate that beef cattle &ill gain
as &ell as &hen pastured using intensive systems such as
short term rotations or strip grazing and that dairy co&s do
e>ually &ell &hen fed soilage as &hen fed alfalfa preserved
in other &ays. 5ecause harvestable nutrients can be
increased, the result in recent years has been a steady
increase in use of green chop, particularly for lactating
co&s. (ractical experience has indicated that optimal usage
is obtained &hen green chop is fed along &ith hay or silage
rather than by itself, partly because total intake tends to
be greater.
"ilage
*ilage has been used for feeding animals, primarily
ruminants, for many years. ;t is the material produced by
controlled fermentation of high moisture herbage. 6hen such
material is stored under anaerobic conditions "in the
absence of oxygen% and, if the supply of fermentable
carbohydrates is ade>uate, sufficient lactic acid is
produced to stabilize the mass so that no more fermentation
occurs. ;f undisturbed, silage &ill keep for an indefinite
period. Alternate methods, primarily used in 4urope, re>uire
the addition of strong acids &hich lo&er the p+, thus
preventing fermentation.
Good silage is a very palatable product &hich is &ell
utilized "see Table 013@%, and excellent results may be
obtained &ith high3producing animals such as lactating co&s.
;n addition to any advantages in harvesting or in nutritive
properties, the fermentation that occurs usually &ill
greatly reduce the nitrate content, if nitrate is present,
and other toxic materials, such as prussic acid, &ill be
reduced in amount.
Most silage in the R*A is made from the &hole corn
plant BQea maysC or from any of a number of sorghum
varieties in areas