Introduction

A transducer is a device that converts a signal in one form of energy to another form of energy.
Energy types include (but are not limited
to) electrical, mechanical, electromagnetic (including light), chemical,acoustic and thermal energ
y. While the term transducer commonly implies the use of a sensor/detector, any device which
converts energy can be considered a transducer. Transducers are widely used in measuring
instruments

The word Transducer is the collective term used for both Sensors which can be used to sense a
wide range of different energy forms such as movement, electrical signals, radiant energy,
thermal or magnetic energy etc, and Actuators which can be used to switch voltages or currents.


Type of transducer
There are many different types of Sensors and Transducers, both analogue and digital and input
and output available to choose from. The type of input or output transducer being used, really
depends upon the type of signal or process being Sensed or Controlled but we can define a
sensor and transducers as devices that converts one physical quantity into another.
Devices which perform an Input function are commonly called Sensors because they sense a
physical change in some characteristic that changes in response to some excitation, for example
heat or force and covert that into an electrical signal.





Quantity being
Measured
Input Device
(Sensor)
Output Device
(Actuator)
Light Level
Light Dependant Resistor (LDR)
Photodiode
Photo-transistor
Solar Cell
Lights & Lamps
LEDs & Displays
Fibre Optics
Temperature
Thermocouple
Thermistor
Thermostat
Resistive Temperature Detectors
Heater
Fan
Force/Pressure
Strain Gauge
Pressure Switch
Load Cells
Lifts & Jacks
Electromagnet
Vibration
Position
Potentiometer
Encoders
Reflective/Slotted Opto-switch
LVDT
Motor
Solenoid
Panel Meters
Speed
Tacho-generator
Reflective/Slotted Opto-coupler
Doppler Effect Sensors
AC and DC Motors
Stepper Motor
Brake
Sound
Carbon Microphone
Piezo-electric Crystal
Bell
Buzzer
Loudspeaker






Thermocouple
A thermocouple is a device made by two different wires joined at one end, called junction
endor measuring end. The two wires are called thermoelements or legs of the thermocouple:
the two thermoelements are distnguished as positive and negative ones. The other end of the
thermocouple is called tail end or reference end (Figure1). The junction end is immersed in the
enviroment whose temperature T
2
has to be measured, which can be for instance the temperature
of a furnace at about 500C, while the tail end is held at a different temperature T
1
, e.g.
at ambient temperature.

Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry; applications include temperature
measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial processes.
Thermocouples are also used in homes, offices and businesses as the temperature sensors
in thermostats, and also as flame sensors in safety devices for gas-powered major appliances.

Resistance Temperature Detector
An RTD (resistance temperature detector) is a temperature sensor that operates on the
measurement principle that a materials electrical resistance changes with temperature. The
relationship between an RTDs resistance and the surrounding temperature is highly predictable,
allowing for accurate and consistent temperature measurement. By supplying an RTD with a
constant current and measuring the resulting voltage drop across the resistor,
the RTDs resistance can be calculated, and the temperature can be determined.
Different materials used in the construction of RTDs offer a different relationship between
resistance and temperature. Temperature sensitive materials used in the construction
of RTDs include platinum, nickel, and copper; platinum being the most commonly used.
Important characteristics of an RTD include the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR), the
nominal resistance at 0 degrees Celsius, and the tolerance classes. The TCR determines the
relationship between the resistance and the temperature. There are no limits to the
TCR that is achievable, but the most common industry standard is the platinum 3850
ppm/K. This means that the resistance of the sensor will increase 0.385 ohms per
one degree Celsius increase in temperature.
An RTD takes a measurement when a small DC current is supplied to the sensor. The current
experiences the impedance of the resistor, and a voltage drop is experienced over the resistor.
Depending on the nominal resistance of the RTD, different supply currents can be used. To
reduce self-heating on the sensor the supply current should be kept low. In general, around 1mA
or less of current is used.
An RTD can be connected in a two, three, or four-wire configuration. The two-wire
configuration is the simplest and also the most error prone. In this setup, the RTD is connected
by two wires to a Wheatstone bridge circuit and the output voltage is measured. The
disadvantage of this circuit is that the two connecting lead wire resistances add directly two
the RTDs resistance and an error is incurred.
2 Wire configuration

3 wire configuration


PT100

The current international standard which specifies tolerance, and the temperature-to-electrical
resistance relationship for platinum resistance thermometers (PRTs) is IEC 60751:2008; ASTM
E1137 is also used in the United States. By far the most common devices used in industry have a
nominal resistance of 100 ohms at 0 C, and are called Pt100 sensors ('Pt' is the symbol for
platinum, 100 for the resistance in ohm at 0 C). The sensitivity of a standard 100 ohm sensor is
a nominal 0.385 ohm/C. RTDs with a sensitivity of 0.375 and 0.392 ohm/C as well as a variety
of others are also available.
Pt100 with metal sheath or lead cable is widely used in aviation, nuclear, petroleum, chemical,
metallurgical, mechanical, electrical and other industrial sectors and scientific fields; Pt100 is
usually used with indicator, recorder, controller, and computer and other devices. Pt100 can
direct measure a variety of liquid, steam& gas and solid surface temperature from -
200 to 600. Especially suitable to be installed in special miniaturized temperature place with
narrow pipeline, bending and rapid response required.