H (I-4) Oil Displacement Concepts

Copyright 2008, NExT, All rights reserved
Basics of Reservoir Engineering Module I

I.4 Oil Displacement Concepts
Primary Recovery
Hydrocarbon production resulting from natural reservoir
energy
Natural reservoir energy sources
Rock and fluid expansion
Solution gas drive
Gravity drainage
Water influx
Conventional Improved Recovery (IOR)
Injection of immiscible fluid
Water injection
Nitrogen injection
Casinghead gas reinjection
Often used in secondary recovery
Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)
Using chemical, biological, or thermal action to improve oil
recovery
Steam, CO
2
, or hydrocarbon gas injection
Polymer and/or micellar injection
Microbe solution injection
Usually used in tertiary recovery
Waterflooding
Injection of water into a reservoir
Increases reservoir energy
Sweeps oil towards producing wells
Most widely applied secondary recovery method
Accounts for about 50% of U.S. oil production
History of Waterflooding
1865
~~
1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
Waterflood projects in Oklahoma and Texas
Widescale waterflood
implementation
Infill drilling
Tertiary
recovery
* First recorded waterflood
Goal of Waterflooding
Increase the amount of oil recovered from the reservoir by
Maintaining reservoir pressure
Displacing (sweeping) oil with water
Pressure Maintenance
Water treatment
plant
Water
injection
OWC
Sealing
fault
Gas
Oil
Production
well
Gas Phase Effects
Reduction in reservoir pressure can cause
Gas-cap expansion
Secondary gas cap creation
Gas saturation creation in pore spaces
Water injection can prevent or reverse these effects
Reservoir Performance
G
a
s
/
o
i
l

r
a
t
i
o
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Cumulative oil production
GOR
Too depleted for
WF success
p
i
p
b
R
si
Pressure
Gas
saturation
G
a
s

s
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
Primary Drive Mechanisms
Most applicable:
Solution-gas drive
Gas-cap drive
Weak water drive
Gravity drainage
Not applicable
Strong water drive
Example 1
Rate as good or fair or poor reservoirs as to the
applicability of waterflooding
Example 1 Solution
1. Fair
2. Fair
3. Poor
4. Good
5. Poor
6. Good
7. Fair
Water Injection To Sweep Oil
Five - spot
Production well
Injection well
Future inj. well
Peripheral Flooding
Injectors
Producers
Line Drive Patterns
Direct Drive Staggered Drive
Injection
Well
Production
Well
No-flow
Boundary
5-Spot Pattern
Injection well
Production
well
No-flow
boundary
7-Spot Pattern
Inverted Normal
Injection
Well
Production
Well
No-flow
Boundary
9-Spot Pattern
Normal
Nine - Spot
Inverted
Nine - Spot
Injection
Well
Production
Well
No-flow
Boundary
Typical Initial Oil Field Development
1 Mile
1 Mile
Producing well
Dry hole
Typical Peripheral Waterflood Development
Producing well
Injection well
Dry hole
Typical Center-Line Injection Waterflood
Development
Producing well
Injection well
Dry hole
Typical 160-Acre Inverted 9-Spot Waterflood
Development
Producing well
Injection well
Dry hole
Typical 80-Acre 5-Spot Development
Existing injection
well
New conversion
to injection
Producing well
Dry hole
Typical Infill Drilled
40-Acre 5-Spot Development
Existing
injection well
New conversion
to injection
New infill
producing well
Dry hole
Typical Infill Drilled 40-Acre Direct
Line Drive Development
Existing
injection well
New conversion
to injection
New infill
producing well
Dry hole
Existing
producing well
Factors in Pattern Selection
Current well locations
Fracture azimuths
Permeability anisotropy
Field geometry
Injectivity
Infill drilling plans
Casing integrity of conversion injection candidates
Adjacent lease considerations
Pattern Orientation
Unfavorable
orientation
Favorable
orientation
Permeability
or
fracture
orientation
Pattern Selection/Orientation Problem
N
NE NW
W E
SE SW
S
Existing
producer
Existing
injector
New
producer
New
injector
Convert to
injector
Solution - Pattern Selection/Orientation Problem
N
NE NW
W E
SE SW
S
Existing
producer
Existing
injector
New
producer
New
injector
Convert to
injector
Frontal Advance Theory
Water
Oil
S
wi
S
or
Piston - like displacement
Connate water
Water
S
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
Distance
Connate water
Initial oil
saturation
Injected
water
bank
Oil
Leaky piston
S
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
Distance
Water
bank
Oil
bank
Unaffected
reservoir
Water
Oil
Trapped gas
Initial
free gas
Connate water
Fractional Flow Equation
w
o
o
w
c
o
o
t
w
k
k
L
P k
q
A x
f
+
=
1
sin 433 . 0
10 127 . 1
1
3
( )
w
o
o
w
c
o
o
w o
w
k
k
L
P k
q q
A x
f
+
+
=
1
sin 433 . 0
10 127 . 1
1
3
( ) L
P k
q q
A x
c
o
o
w o

3
10 127 . 1
Capillary pressure term
(usually ignored)
Gravity term
( )
( )
sin 433 . 0
10 127 . 1
3
+

o
o
rw ro
k
q q
A x
Horizontal reservoir
rw
ro
o
w
w
k
k
f
+
=
1
1
Fractional Flow of Water is Affected by:
Increased Value
of Term
Effect on Fractional
Flow of Water
injection rate increase
capillary pressure gradient increase
permeability to oil decrease
k
o
/k
w
decrease
cross sectional area decrease
w
/
o
decrease
fluid density difference decrease
dip angle decrease
Fractional Flow Curves
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
S
W
f
W
Information From the Fractional Flow Curve
1-S
or
f
WF
Fraction of water
flowing at the
flood front
S
w
S
w
at the
flood front
Average reservoir
water saturation
at breakthrough
T
a
n
g
e
n
t

L
i
n
e
Tangent point
1
0
wBT
S
f
w
=1
f
W
0
S
wi
Example 2: Fractional Flow Curve
FRACTIONAL FLOW CURVES
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.55
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
WATER SATURATION (%)
F
R
A
C
T
I
O
N

O
F

W
A
T
E
R

F
L
O
W
I
N
G
Example 2
Solution
Fractional Flow Curve
1. S
w
= 55%
2. f
w
= 82.5%
3. = 63%
4.
5375 . 0
2 . 0 1
2 . 0 63 . 0
E
D
=

=
wBT
S
Waterflood
Performance Efficiencies
Recovery efficiency
E
R
= E
p
E
I
E
D
= E
v
E
D
= E
A
E
I
E
D
Performance Efficiencies
Displacement efficiency (E
D
)
wi
wi wBT
D
S
S S
E

=
1
Areal Sweep Efficiency (E
A
)
A
)
E
A
Water invaded
area
Producer
Injector
A
)
Fraction of the horizontal plane of the reservoir that is
behind the flood front at a point in time
Factors affecting E
A
Mobility ratio
Well spacing
Pattern geometry
Areal heterogeneities
Mobility Concept
Mobility
viscosity fluid
fluid to rock of ty permeabili
mobility =
Mobility Ratio
w ro
o rw
o
ro
w
rw
k
k
k k
k k
Oil of Mobility
Water of Mobility
M
*
*
= =
=
Mobility Ratio Effects
M = 1 Neutral Water and oil move
equally well
M < 1 Favorable Oil will move easier
than water
M > 1 Unfavorable Water will move
easier than oil
Areal Sweep Efficiency
Pattern geometry influences areal sweep efficiency
Correlations exist for common pattern geometries as a
function of mobility ratio.
Vertical Sweep Efficiency
INJECTION PRODUCTION
E
I
=
Factors Affecting Waterflooding
Gravity
Barriers to vertical flow
Lateral pay discontinuities
Completion interval inconsistencies
Effects of Gravity
Water
Injector
Producer
Oil
Barriers To Vertical Flow
Depositional
Shale streaks
Lithology changes
Evaporite streaks
Diagenesis
Cementation
Dolomitization
Lateral Pay Discontinuities
Producing
well
Injection
well
Trapped oil
Lateral Pay Discontinuities
Effect of infill drilling
Producing
well
Injection
well
Infill
well
Completion Interval Inconsistencies
Producing
well
Injection
well
Trapped
Oil - Completions
Trapped oil -
lateral pay
discontinuities
Prediction Methods
Analytical methods
Typically single-layer, single-pattern, iso-properties
Requires scale-up of answers to get full field results
(Buckley-Leverett, Stiles, Craig-Geffen-Morse, Dykstra-
Parsons)
Largely replaced by numerical methods such as 3-
dimensional, 3-phase computer reservoir simulation
Development Philosophy
Understand the reservoir
Start waterflooding early
Infill drill to reduce effects of lateral pay discontinuities
Develop field on pattern waterflood
Open all of the pay in all wells
Operating Philosophy
Keep producing wells pumped off
Inject below formation parting pressure
Inject clean water
Manage waterflood by injection well tests
Conduct a surveillance program
Producing Well Operations
P
WF
= 1000 psi
Well not
pumped off
Well
pumped off
P
R
= 1500 psi
P
R
= 500 psi
P
WF
= 100 psi
Minimal production/crossflow Maximum production
Injection Well Operations
Inject at 50 psi below formation parting pressure
Inject clean water
Keep wellbore cleaned out
Scale
Fill
Maintain good injection conformance
Injection Water Quality
Undesirable contaminants
Dissolved, scale-forming solids
Oil and suspended solids
Dissolved oxygen
Bacteria
Injection Well Testing
Waterfloods are water injection projects
Therefore: manage the project by managing the water
injection wells
Injection Well Testing
Conduct periodic injection well tests to determine:
Skin damage
Formation parting pressure
Injection conformance
Waterflood Surveillance
Accurate data collection
Monthly 3-phase production well tests
Measure oil, water, & gas production during test
Daily injection volumes & pressures
Maintain & properly use instruments
Reservoir pressure history
References
1. Craig, F.F. Jr.: The Reservoir Engineering Aspects of Waterflooding, SPE AIME, New York (1971).
2. Dake, L.P.: Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, Oxford, NY (1978).
3. Petroleum Engineering Handbook, H. B. Bradley (ed.), Society of Petroleum Engineers, Richardson, TX (1987).
4. Willhite, G. P.: Waterflooding, SPE Textbook Series, 3, SPE Richardson, TX (1986).
5. Driscoll, V. J.: Recovery Optimization Through Infill Drilling Concepts, Analysis, and Field Results, paper SPE 4977 presented
at the 1974 SPE AIME Annual Fall Meeting, Houston, 6-9 October.
6. Barbe, J.A. and Schnoebelen, D.J.: Quantitative Analysis of Infill Performance: Robertson Clearfork Unit, JPT (December 1987)
1502-1601.
7. Lemen, M.A., Burlas, T.C., and Roe, L.M.: Waterflood Pattern Realignment at the McElroy Field: Section 205 Case History,
paper SPE 20120 presented at the 1990 SPE Permian Basin Oil and Gas Recovery Conference, Midland, TX, 8-9 March.
8. Wu, C.H., Laughlin, B.A., and Jardon, M.: Infill Drilling Enhances Waterflood Recovery, JPT (October 1989) 1088-1095.
9. Suttles, D.J. and Kwan, G.W.L.: Pattern Size Reduction: A Reservoir Management Tool for Prudhoe Bay Waterfloods, paper
SPE 26117 presented at the 1993 SPE Western Regional Meeting, Anchorage, 26-28 May.
10. Kern, C.A. and Schepel, K.J.: Formation Evaluation Aids Application of Sequence Stratigraphy to Optimize Production of the
Means San Andres Unit, Andrews Co., TX, 1991 SPWLA Annual Logging Symposium, 16-19 June.
11. George, C.J. and Stiles, L.H.: Improved Techniques for Evaluating Carbonate Waterfloods in West Texas, JPT (November
1978) 1547-1554.
12. Patton, C.C.: Applied Water Technology, Campbell Petroleum Series, Norman, OK (1986).
13. Patton, C.C.: Water Quality Control and Its Importance in Waterflooding Operations, JPT (September 1988) 1123-1126.
14. Robertson, D.C. and Kelm, C.H.: Injection-Well Testing to Optimize Waterflood Performance, JPT (November 1975) 1337-
1342.
15. Kelldorf, W.F.N.: Radioactive Tracer Surveying A Comprehensive Report, JPT (June 1970) 661-669.

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Copyright 2008, NExT, All rights reserved

Basics of Reservoir Engineering Module I

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